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Ammonia

January 31, 2023

"NH3" redirects here. For NH+4, see Ammonium. For other uses, see NH 3 (disambiguation) and Ammonia (disambiguation).

Ammonia is an inorganic compound of nitrogen and hydrogen with the formula NH3. A stable binary hydride, and the simplest pnictogen hydride, ammonia is a colourless gas with a distinct pungent smell. Biologically, it is a common nitrogenous waste, particularly among aquatic organisms, and it contributes significantly to the nutritional needs of terrestrial organisms by serving as a precursor to 45% of the world's food[12] and fertilizers. Around 70% of ammonia is used to make fertilisers [13] in various forms and composition, such as urea and Diammonium phosphate. Ammonia in pure form is also applied directly into the soil.

Ammonia
Names
IUPAC name
Ammonia[1]
Systematic IUPAC name
Other names
  • Hydrogen nitride
  • R-717
  • R717 (refrigerant)
Identifiers
  • 7664-41-7 Y
3D model (JSmol)
  • Interactive image
3DMet
  • B00004
3587154
ChEBI
  • CHEBI:16134 Y
ChEMBL
  • ChEMBL1160819 Y
ChemSpider
  • 217 Y
ECHA InfoCard 100.028.760
EC Number
  • 231-635-3
79
KEGG
  • D02916 Y
MeSH Ammonia
  • 222
RTECS number
  • BO0875000
UNII
  • 5138Q19F1X Y
UN number 1005
  • DTXSID0023872
  • InChI=1S/H3N/h1H3 Y
    Key: QGZKDVFQNNGYKY-UHFFFAOYSA-N Y
  • InChI=1/H3N/h1H3
    Key: QGZKDVFQNNGYKY-UHFFFAOYAF
  • N
Properties
NH3
Molar mass 17.031 g·mol−1
Appearance Colourless gas
Odor Strong pungent odour
Density
  • 0.86 kg/m3 (1.013 bar at boiling point)
  • 0.769 kg/m3 (STP)[2]
  • 0.73 kg/m3 (1.013 bar at 15 °C)
  • 0.6819 g/cm3 at −33.3 °C (liquid)[3] See also Ammonia (data page)
  • 0.817 g/cm3 at −80 °C (transparent solid)[4]
Melting point −77.73 °C (−107.91 °F; 195.42 K) (Triple point at 6.060 kPa, 195.4 K)
Boiling point −33.34 °C (−28.01 °F; 239.81 K)
Critical point (T, P) 132.4 °C (405.5 K), 111.3 atm (11,280 kPa)
  • 47% w/w (0 °C)
  • 31% w/w (25 °C)
  • 18% w/w (50 °C)[5]
[clarification needed]
Solubility soluble in chloroform, ether, ethanol, methanol
Vapor pressure 857.3 kPa
Acidity (pKa) 32.5 (−33 °C),[6] 9,24 (of ammonium)
Basicity (pKb) 4.75
Conjugate acid Ammonium
Conjugate base Amide
−18.0·10−6 cm3/mol
1.3327
Viscosity
  • 10.07 µPa·s (25 °C)[7]
  • 0.276 mPa·s (−40 °C)
Structure
C3v
Trigonal pyramid
1.42 D
Thermochemistry
193 J/(mol·K)[8]
−46 kJ/mol[8]
Hazards
GHS labelling:[10]
Danger
H280, H314, H331, H410
P260, P273, P280, P303+P361+P353, P304+P340+P311, P305+P351+P338+P310
NFPA 704 (fire diamond)
Flash point 132 °C (270 °F; 405 K)
651 °C (1,204 °F; 924 K)
Explosive limits 15,0–33,6%
Lethal dose or concentration (LD, LC):
0.015 mL/kg (human, oral)
  • 40,300 ppm (rat, 10 min)
  • 28,595 ppm (rat, 20 min)
  • 20,300 ppm (rat, 40 min)
  • 11,590 ppm (rat, 1 hr)
  • 7338 ppm (rat, 1 hr)
  • 4837 ppm (mouse, 1 hr)
  • 9859 ppm (rabbit, 1 hr)
  • 9859 ppm (cat, 1 hr)
  • 2000 ppm (rat, 4 hr)
  • 4230 ppm (mouse, 1 hr)[9]
5000 ppm (mammal, 5 min)
5000 ppm (human, 5 min)[9]
NIOSH (US health exposure limits):[11]
PEL (Permissible)
 50 ppm (25 ppm ACGIH- TLV; 35 ppm STEL)
REL (Recommended)
 TWA 25 ppm (18 mg/m3) ST 35 ppm (27 mg/m3)
IDLH (Immediate danger)
 300 ppm
Safety data sheet (SDS) ICSC 0414 (anhydrous)
Related compounds
Related nitrogen hydrides
 Hydrazine
Hydrazoic acid
Related compounds
Supplementary data page
Ammonia (data page)
Except where otherwise noted, data are given for materials in their standard state (at 25 °C [77 °F], 100 kPa).
Y verify (what is YN ?)

Ammonia, either directly or indirectly, is also a building block for the synthesis of many pharmaceutical products and is used in many commercial cleaning products. It is mainly collected by downward displacement of both air and water.

Although common in nature—both terrestrially and in the outer planets of the Solar System—and in wide use, ammonia is both caustic and hazardous in its concentrated form. In many countries it is classified as an extremely hazardous substance, and is subject to strict reporting requirements by facilities which produce, store, or use it in significant quantities.[14]

The global industrial production of ammonia in 2018 was 175 million tonnes,[15] with no significant change relative to the 2013 global industrial production of 175 million tonnes.[16] In 2021 this was 235 million tonnes, with very little being made within the United States.[17][18] Industrial ammonia is sold either as ammonia liquor (usually 28% ammonia in water) or as pressurized or refrigerated anhydrous liquid ammonia transported in tank cars or cylinders.[19]

For fundamental reasons, the production of ammonia from the elements hydrogen and nitrogen is difficult, requiring high pressures and high temperatures. The Haber process that enabled industrial production was invented at the beginning of the 20th century, revolutionizing agriculture.

NH3 boils at −33.34 °C (−28.012 °F) at a pressure of one atmosphere, so the liquid must be stored under pressure or at low temperature. Household ammonia or ammonium hydroxide is a solution of NH3 in water. The concentration of such solutions is measured in units of the Baumé scale (density), with 26 degrees Baumé (about 30% of ammonia by weight at 15.5 °C or 59.9 °F) being the typical high-concentration commercial product.[20]

Etymology

Pliny, in Book XXXI of his Natural History, refers to a salt named hammoniacum, so called because of its proximity to the nearby Temple of Jupiter Amun (Greek Ἄμμων Ammon) in the Roman province of Cyrenaica.[21] However, the description Pliny gives of the salt does not conform to the properties of ammonium chloride. According to Herbert Hoover's commentary in his English translation of Georgius Agricola's De re metallica, it is likely to have been common sea salt.[22] In any case, that salt ultimately gave ammonia and ammonium compounds their name. Roman visitors to oracle temple of Amun in Siwa oasis collected a white crystalline material from the ceiling and walls caused by various pollutants. This white crystalline salt was called "salt of Ammon" (sal ammoniac). Joseph Priestley noticed that when this salt reacted with lime, a vapor was released, which he termed as Ammonia.[23]

Natural occurrence

Ammonia is a chemical found in trace quantities on Earth, being produced from nitrogenous animal and vegetable matter. Ammonia and ammonium salts are also found in small quantities in rainwater, whereas ammonium chloride (sal ammoniac), and ammonium sulfate are found in volcanic districts. Crystals of ammonium bicarbonate have been found in Patagonia guano.[24]

Ammonia is also found throughout the Solar System on Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, and Pluto, among other places: on smaller, icy bodies such as Pluto, ammonia can act as a geologically important antifreeze, as a mixture of water and ammonia can have a melting point as low as −100 °C (−148 °F; 173 K) if the ammonia concentration is high enough and thus allow such bodies to retain internal oceans and active geology at a far lower temperature than would be possible with water alone.[25][26] Substances containing ammonia, or those that are similar to it, are called ammoniacal.

Properties

Ammonia is a colourless gas with a characteristically pungent smell. It is lighter than air, its density being 0.589 times that of air. It is easily liquefied due to the strong hydrogen bonding between molecules. Gaseous ammonia turns to the colourless liquid which boils at −33.1 °C (−27.58 °F), and freezes to colourless crystals[24] at −77.7 °C (−107.86 °F). Few data are available at very high temperatures and pressures, such as supercritical conditions.[27]

Solid

The crystal symmetry is cubic, Pearson symbol cP16, space group P213 No.198, lattice constant 0.5125 nm.[28]

Liquid

Liquid ammonia possesses strong ionising powers reflecting its high ε of 22. Liquid ammonia has a very high standard enthalpy change of vaporization (23.35 kJ/mol, for comparison water 40.65 kJ/mol, methane 8.19 kJ/mol, phosphine 14.6 kJ/mol) and can therefore be used in laboratories in uninsulated vessels without additional refrigeration. See liquid ammonia as a solvent.

Solvent properties

Ammonia readily dissolves in water. In an aqueous solution, it can be expelled by boiling. The aqueous solution of ammonia is basic. The maximum concentration of ammonia in water (a saturated solution) has a density of 0.880 g/cm3 and is often known as '.880 ammonia'.

Decomposition

At high temperature and in the presence of a suitable catalyst or in a pressurized vessel with constant volume and high temperature (e.g. 1,100 °C (2,010 °F)), ammonia is decomposed into its constituent elements.[29] Decomposition of ammonia is a slightly endothermic process requiring 23 kJ/mol (5.5 kcal/mol) of ammonia, and yields hydrogen and nitrogen gas. Ammonia can also be used as a source of hydrogen for acid fuel cells if the unreacted ammonia can be removed. Ruthenium and platinum catalysts were found to be the most active, whereas supported Ni catalysts were less active.

Table of thermal and physical properties of saturated liquid ammonia:[30][31]

Temperature (°C) Density (kg/m3) Specific heat (kJ/(kg·K)) Kinematic viscosity (m2/s) Thermal conductivity (W/(m·K)) Thermal diffusivity (m2/s) Prandtl Number Bulk modulus (K-1)
-50 703.69 4.463 4.35×10−7 0.547 1.74×10−7 2.6
-40 691.68 4.467 4.06×10−7 0.547 1.78×10−7 2.28
-30 679.34 4.476 3.87×10−7 0.549 1.80×10−7 2.15
-20 666.69 4.509 3.81×10−7 0.547 1.82×10−7 2.09
-10 653.55 4.564 3.78×10−7 0.543 1.83×10−7 2.07
0 640.1 4.635 3.73×10−7 0.54 1.82×10−7 2.05
10 626.16 4.714 3.68×10−7 0.531 1.80×10−7 2.04
20 611.75 4.798 3.59×10−7 0.521 1.78×10−7 2.02 2.45×10−3
30 596.37 4.89 3.49×10−7 0.507 1.74×10−7 2.01
40 580.99 4.999 3.40×10−7 0.493 1.70×10−7 2
50 564.33 5.116 3.30×10−7 0.476 1.65×10−7 1.99

Table of thermal and physical properties of ammonia (NH3) at atmospheric pressure:[30][31]

Temperature (K) Density (kg/m3) Specific heat (kJ/(kg·K)) Dynamic viscosity (kg/(m·s)) Kinematic viscosity (m2/s) Thermal conductivity (W/(m·K)) Thermal diffusivity (m2/s) Prandtl Number
273 0.7929 2.177 9.35×10−6 1.18×10−5 0.022 1.31×10−5 0.9
323 0.6487 2.177 1.10×10−5 1.70×10−5 0.027 1.92×10−5 0.88
373 0.559 2.236 1.29×10−5 1.30×10−5 0.0327 2.62×10−5 0.87
423 0.4934 2.315 1.47×10−5 2.97×10−5 0.0391 3.43×10−5 0.87
473 0.4405 2.395 1.65×10−5 3.74×10−5 0.0467 4.42×10−5 0.84
480 0.4273 2.43 1.67×10−5 3.90×10−5 0.0492 4.74×10−5 0.822
500 0.4101 2.467 1.73×10−5 4.22×10−5 0.0525 5.19×10−5 0.813
520 0.3942 2.504 1.80×10−5 4.57×10−5 0.0545 5.52×10−5 0.827
540 0.3795 2.54 1.87×10−5 4.91×10−5 0.0575 5.97×10−5 0.824
560 0.3708 2.577 1.93×10−5 5.20×10−6 0.0606 6.34×10−5 0.827
580 0.3533 2.613 2.00×10−5 5.65×10−5 0.0638 6.91×10−5 0.817

Structure

The ammonia molecule has a trigonal pyramidal shape as predicted by the valence shell electron pair repulsion theory (VSEPR theory) with an experimentally determined bond angle of 106.7°.[32] The central nitrogen atom has five outer electrons with an additional electron from each hydrogen atom. This gives a total of eight electrons, or four electron pairs that are arranged tetrahedrally. Three of these electron pairs are used as bond pairs, which leaves one lone pair of electrons. The lone pair repels more strongly than bond pairs, therefore the bond angle is not 109.5°, as expected for a regular tetrahedral arrangement, but 106.8°.[32] This shape gives the molecule a dipole moment and makes it polar. The molecule's polarity, and especially, its ability to form hydrogen bonds, makes ammonia highly miscible with water. The lone pair makes ammonia a base, a proton acceptor. Ammonia is moderately basic; a 1.0 M aqueous solution has a pH of 11.6, and if a strong acid is added to such a solution until the solution is neutral (pH = 7), 99.4% of the ammonia molecules are protonated. Temperature and salinity also affect the proportion of ammonium [NH4]+. The latter has the shape of a regular tetrahedron and is isoelectronic with methane.

The ammonia molecule readily undergoes nitrogen inversion at room temperature; a useful analogy is an umbrella turning itself inside out in a strong wind. The energy barrier to this inversion is 24.7 kJ/mol, and the resonance frequency is 23.79 GHz, corresponding to microwave radiation of a wavelength of 1.260 cm. The absorption at this frequency was the first microwave spectrum to be observed [33] and was used in the first maser.

Amphotericity

One of the most characteristic properties of ammonia is its basicity. Ammonia is considered to be a weak base. It combines with acids to form ammonium salts; thus with hydrochloric acid it forms ammonium chloride (sal ammoniac); with nitric acid, ammonium nitrate, etc. Perfectly dry ammonia gas will not combine with perfectly dry hydrogen chloride gas; moisture is necessary to bring about the reaction.[34][35]

As a demonstration experiment under air with ambient moisture, opened bottles of concentrated ammonia and hydrochloric acid solutions produce a cloud of ammonium chloride, which seems to appear "out of nothing" as the salt aerosol forms where the two diffusing clouds of reagents meet between the two bottles.

NH3 + HCl → [NH4]Cl

The salts produced by the action of ammonia on acids are known as the ammonium salts and all contain the ammonium ion ([NH4]+).[34]

Although ammonia is well known as a weak base, it can also act as an extremely weak acid. It is a protic substance and is capable of formation of amides (which contain the NH−2 ion). For example, lithium dissolves in liquid ammonia to give a blue solution (solvated electron) of lithium amide:

2 Li + 2 NH3 → 2 LiNH2 + H2

Self-dissociation

Like water, liquid ammonia undergoes molecular autoionisation to form its acid and base conjugates:

2 NH3 ⇌ NH+4 + NH−2

Ammonia often functions as a weak base, so it has some buffering ability. Shifts in pH will cause more or fewer ammonium cations (NH+4) and amide anions (NH−2) to be present in solution. At standard pressure and temperature,

K = [NH+4] × [NH−2] = 10−30.

Combustion

Ammonia does not burn readily or sustain combustion, except under narrow fuel-to-air mixtures of 15–25% air.[clarification needed] When mixed with oxygen, it burns with a pale yellowish-green flame. Ignition occurs when chlorine is passed into ammonia, forming nitrogen and hydrogen chloride; if chlorine is present in excess, then the highly explosive nitrogen trichloride (NCl3) is also formed.

The combustion of ammonia to form nitrogen and water is exothermic:

4 NH3 + 3 O2 → 2 N2 + 6 H2O(g), ΔH°r = −1267.20 kJ (or −316.8 kJ/mol if expressed per mol of NH3)

The standard enthalpy change of combustion, ΔH°c, expressed per mole of ammonia and with condensation of the water formed, is −382.81 kJ/mol. Dinitrogen is the thermodynamic product of combustion: all nitrogen oxides are unstable with respect to N2 and O2, which is the principle behind the catalytic converter. Nitrogen oxides can be formed as kinetic products in the presence of appropriate catalysts, a reaction of great industrial importance in the production of nitric acid:

4 NH3 + 5 O2 → 4 NO + 6 H2O

A subsequent reaction leads to NO2:

2 NO + O2 → 2 NO2

The combustion of ammonia in air is very difficult in the absence of a catalyst (such as platinum gauze or warm chromium(III) oxide), due to the relatively low heat of combustion, a lower laminar burning velocity, high auto-ignition temperature, high heat of vaporization, and a narrow flammability range. However, recent studies have shown that efficient and stable combustion of ammonia can be achieved using swirl combustors, thereby rekindling research interest in ammonia as a fuel for thermal power production.[36] The flammable range of ammonia in dry air is 15.15–27.35% and in 100% relative humidity air is 15.95–26.55%.[37][clarification needed] For studying the kinetics of ammonia combustion, knowledge of a detailed reliable reaction mechanism is required, but this has been challenging to obtain.[38]

Formation of other compounds

Ammonia is a direct or indirect precursor to most manufactured nitrogen-containing compounds.

In organic chemistry, ammonia can act as a nucleophile in substitution reactions. Amines can be formed by the reaction of ammonia with alkyl halides or with alcohols. The resulting −NH2 group is also nucleophilic so secondary and tertiary amines are often formed. When such multiple substitution is not desired, an excess of ammonia helps minimise it. For example, methylamine is prepared by the reaction of ammonia with chloromethane or with methanol. In both cases, dimethylamine and trimethylamine are co-produced. Ethanolamine is prepared by a ring-opening reaction with ethylene oxide, and when the reaction is allowed to go further it produces diethanolamine and triethanolamine. The reaction of ammonia with 2-bromopropanoic acid has been used to prepare racemic alanine in 70% yield.

Amides can be prepared by the reaction of ammonia with carboxylic acid derivatives. For example, ammonia reacts with formic acid (HCOOH) to yield formamide (HCONH2) when heated. Acyl chlorides are the most reactive, but the ammonia must be present in at least a twofold excess to neutralise the hydrogen chloride formed. Esters and anhydrides also react with ammonia to form amides. Ammonium salts of carboxylic acids can be dehydrated to amides by heating to 150–200 °C as long as no thermally sensitive groups are present.

The hydrogen in ammonia is susceptible to replacement by a myriad of substituents. When dry ammonia gas is heated with metallic sodium it converts to sodamide, NaNH2.[34] With chlorine, monochloramine is formed.

Pentavalent ammonia is known as λ5-amine or, more commonly, ammonium hydride [NH4]+H−. This crystalline solid is only stable under high pressure and decomposes back into trivalent ammonia (λ3-amine) and hydrogen gas at normal conditions. This substance was once investigated as a possible solid rocket fuel in 1966.[39]

Ammonia as a ligand

Main article: Metal ammine complex
 
Ball-and-stick model of the diamminesilver(I) cation, [Ag(NH3)2]+
 
Ball-and-stick model of the tetraamminediaquacopper(II) cation, [Cu(NH3)4(H2O)2]2+

Ammonia can act as a ligand in transition metal complexes. It is a pure σ-donor, in the middle of the spectrochemical series, and shows intermediate hard–soft behaviour (see also ECW model). Its relative donor strength toward a series of acids, versus other Lewis bases, can be illustrated by C-B plots.[40][41] For historical reasons, ammonia is named ammine in the nomenclature of coordination compounds. Some notable ammine complexes include tetraamminediaquacopper(II) ([Cu(NH3)4(H2O)2]2+), a dark blue complex formed by adding ammonia to a solution of copper(II) salts. Tetraamminediaquacopper(II) hydroxide is known as Schweizer's reagent, and has the remarkable ability to dissolve cellulose. Diamminesilver(I) ([Ag(NH3)2]+) is the active species in Tollens' reagent. Formation of this complex can also help to distinguish between precipitates of the different silver halides: silver chloride (AgCl) is soluble in dilute (2 M) ammonia solution, silver bromide (AgBr) is only soluble in concentrated ammonia solution, whereas silver iodide (AgI) is insoluble in aqueous ammonia.

Ammine complexes of chromium(III) were known in the late 19th century, and formed the basis of Alfred Werner's revolutionary theory on the structure of coordination compounds. Werner noted only two isomers (fac- and mer-) of the complex [CrCl3(NH3)3] could be formed, and concluded the ligands must be arranged around the metal ion at the vertices of an octahedron. This proposal has since been confirmed by X-ray crystallography.

An ammine ligand bound to a metal ion is markedly more acidic than a free ammonia molecule, although deprotonation in aqueous solution is still rare. One example is the reaction of mercury(II) chloride with ammonia (Calomel reaction) where the resulting mercuric amidochloride is highly insoluble.

HgCl2 + 2 NH3 → HgCl(NH2) + [NH4]Cl

Ammonia forms 1:1 adducts with a variety of Lewis acids such as I2, phenol, and Al(CH3)3. Ammonia is a hard base (HSAB theory) and its E & C parameters are EB = 2.31 and CB = 2.04. Its relative donor strength toward a series of acids, versus other Lewis bases, can be illustrated by C-B plots.

Detection and determination

This section is about detection in the laboratory. For detection in astronomy, see § In astronomy.

Ammonia in solution

Main article: Ammonia solution

Ammonia and ammonium salts can be readily detected, in very minute traces, by the addition of Nessler's solution, which gives a distinct yellow colouration in the presence of the slightest trace of ammonia or ammonium salts. The amount of ammonia in ammonium salts can be estimated quantitatively by distillation of the salts with sodium (NaOH) or potassium hydroxide (KOH), the ammonia evolved being absorbed in a known volume of standard sulfuric acid and the excess of acid then determined volumetrically; or the ammonia may be absorbed in hydrochloric acid and the ammonium chloride so formed precipitated as ammonium hexachloroplatinate, [NH4]2[PtCl6].[42]

Gaseous ammonia

Sulfur sticks are burnt to detect small leaks in industrial ammonia refrigeration systems. Larger quantities can be detected by warming the salts with a caustic alkali or with quicklime, when the characteristic smell of ammonia will be at once apparent.[42] Ammonia is an irritant and irritation increases with concentration; the permissible exposure limit is 25 ppm, and lethal above 500 ppm.[43][clarification needed] Higher concentrations are hardly detected by conventional detectors, the type of detector is chosen according to the sensitivity required (e.g. semiconductor, catalytic, electrochemical). Holographic sensors have been proposed for detecting concentrations up to 12.5% in volume.[44]

Ammoniacal nitrogen (NH3-N)

Ammoniacal nitrogen (NH3-N) is a measure commonly used for testing the quantity of ammonium ions, derived naturally from ammonia, and returned to ammonia via organic processes, in water or waste liquids. It is a measure used mainly for quantifying values in waste treatment and water purification systems, as well as a measure of the health of natural and man-made water reserves. It is measured in units of mg/L (milligram per litre).

History

 
Jabir ibn Hayyan
 
This high-pressure reactor was built in 1921 by BASF in Ludwigshafen and was re-erected on the premises of the University of Karlsruhe in Germany.

The ancient Greek historian Herodotus mentioned that there were outcrops of salt in an area of Libya that was inhabited by a people called the "Ammonians" (now: the Siwa oasis in northwestern Egypt, where salt lakes still exist).[45][46] The Greek geographer Strabo also mentioned the salt from this region. However, the ancient authors Dioscorides, Apicius, Arrian, Synesius, and Aëtius of Amida described this salt as forming clear crystals that could be used for cooking and that were essentially rock salt.[47] Hammoniacus sal appears in the writings of Pliny,[48] although it is not known whether the term is identical with the more modern sal ammoniac (ammonium chloride).[24][49][50]

The fermentation of urine by bacteria produces a solution of ammonia; hence fermented urine was used in Classical Antiquity to wash cloth and clothing, to remove hair from hides in preparation for tanning, to serve as a mordant in dying cloth, and to remove rust from iron.[51] It was also used by ancient dentists to wash teeth.[52][53][54]

In the form of sal ammoniac (نشادر, nushadir), ammonia was important to the Muslim alchemists. It was mentioned in the Book of Stones, likely written in the 9th century and attributed to Jābir ibn Hayyān.[55] It was also important to the European alchemists of the 13th century, being mentioned by Albertus Magnus.[24] It was also used by dyers in the Middle Ages in the form of fermented urine to alter the colour of vegetable dyes. In the 15th century, Basilius Valentinus showed that ammonia could be obtained by the action of alkalis on sal ammoniac.[56] At a later period, when sal ammoniac was obtained by distilling the hooves and horns of oxen and neutralizing the resulting carbonate with hydrochloric acid, the name "spirit of hartshorn" was applied to ammonia.[24][57]

Gaseous ammonia was first isolated by Joseph Black in 1756 by reacting sal ammoniac (ammonium chloride) with calcined magnesia (magnesium oxide).[58][59] It was isolated again by Peter Woulfe in 1767,[60][61] by Carl Wilhelm Scheele in 1770[62] and by Joseph Priestley in 1773 and was termed by him "alkaline air".[24][63] Eleven years later in 1785, Claude Louis Berthollet ascertained its composition.[64][24]

The Haber–Bosch process to produce ammonia from the nitrogen in the air was developed by Fritz Haber and Carl Bosch in 1909 and patented in 1910. It was first used on an industrial scale in Germany during World War I,[65] following the allied blockade that cut off the supply of nitrates from Chile. The ammonia was used to produce explosives to sustain war efforts.[66]

Before the availability of natural gas, hydrogen as a precursor to ammonia production was produced via the electrolysis of water or using the chloralkali process.

With the advent of the steel industry in the 20th century, ammonia became a byproduct of the production of coking coal.

Applications

Solvent

See also: Inorganic nonaqueous solvent

Liquid ammonia is the best-known and most widely studied nonaqueous ionising solvent. Its most conspicuous property is its ability to dissolve alkali metals to form highly coloured, electrically conductive solutions containing solvated electrons. Apart from these remarkable solutions, much of the chemistry in liquid ammonia can be classified by analogy with related reactions in aqueous solutions. Comparison of the physical properties of NH3 with those of water shows NH3 has the lower melting point, boiling point, density, viscosity, dielectric constant and electrical conductivity; this is due at least in part to the weaker hydrogen bonding in NH3 and because such bonding cannot form cross-linked networks, since each NH3 molecule has only one lone pair of electrons compared with two for each H2O molecule. The ionic self-dissociation constant of liquid NH3 at −50 °C is about 10−33.

 
A train carrying Anhydrous Ammonia.

Solubility of salts

Solubility (g of salt per 100 g liquid NH3)
Ammonium acetate 253.2
Ammonium nitrate 389.6
Lithium nitrate 243.7
Sodium nitrate 97.6
Potassium nitrate 10.4
Sodium fluoride 0.35
Sodium chloride 157.0
Sodium bromide 138.0
Sodium iodide 161.9
Sodium thiocyanate 205.5

Liquid ammonia is an ionising solvent, although less so than water, and dissolves a range of ionic compounds, including many nitrates, nitrites, cyanides, thiocyanates, metal cyclopentadienyl complexes and metal bis(trimethylsilyl)amides.[30] Most ammonium salts are soluble and act as acids in liquid ammonia solutions. The solubility of halide salts increases from fluoride to iodide. A saturated solution of ammonium nitrate (Divers' solution, named after Edward Divers) contains 0.83 mol solute per mole of ammonia and has a vapour pressure of less than 1 bar even at 25 °C (77 °F).

Solutions of metals

See also: Solvated electron

Liquid ammonia will dissolve all of the alkali metals and other electropositive metals such as Ca,[67] Sr, Ba, Eu, and Yb (also Mg using an electrolytic process[31]). At low concentrations (<0.06 mol/L), deep blue solutions are formed: these contain metal cations and solvated electrons, free electrons that are surrounded by a cage of ammonia molecules.

These solutions are very useful as strong reducing agents. At higher concentrations, the solutions are metallic in appearance and in electrical conductivity. At low temperatures, the two types of solution can coexist as immiscible phases.

Redox properties of liquid ammonia

See also: Redox
E° (V, ammonia) E° (V, water)
Li+ + e− ⇌ Li −2.24 −3.04
K+ + e− ⇌ K −1.98 −2.93
Na+ + e− ⇌ Na −1.85 −2.71
Zn2+ + 2 e− ⇌ Zn −0.53 −0.76
2 [NH4]+ + 2 e− ⇌ H2 + 2 NH3 0.00 —
Cu2+ + 2 e− ⇌ Cu +0.43 +0.34
Ag+ + e− ⇌ Ag +0.83 +0.80

The range of thermodynamic stability of liquid ammonia solutions is very narrow, as the potential for oxidation to dinitrogen, E° (N2 + 6 [NH4]+ + 6 e− ⇌ 8 NH3), is only +0.04 V. In practice, both oxidation to dinitrogen and reduction to dihydrogen are slow. This is particularly true of reducing solutions: the solutions of the alkali metals mentioned above are stable for several days, slowly decomposing to the metal amide and dihydrogen. Most studies involving liquid ammonia solutions are done in reducing conditions; although oxidation of liquid ammonia is usually slow, there is still a risk of explosion, particularly if transition metal ions are present as possible catalysts.

 
Liquid ammonia bottle

Fertilizer

In the US as of 2019, approximately 88% of ammonia was used as fertilizers either as its salts, solutions or anhydrously.[15] When applied to soil, it helps provide increased yields of crops such as maize and wheat.[68] 30% of agricultural nitrogen applied in the US is in the form of anhydrous ammonia and worldwide 110 million tonnes are applied each year.[69]

Precursor to nitrogenous compounds

Ammonia is directly or indirectly the precursor to most nitrogen-containing compounds. Virtually all synthetic nitrogen compounds are derived from ammonia. An important derivative is nitric acid. This key material is generated via the Ostwald process by oxidation of ammonia with air over a platinum catalyst at 700–850 °C (1,292–1,562 °F), ≈9 atm. Nitric oxide is an intermediate in this conversion:[70]

NH3 + 2 O2 → HNO3 + H2O

Nitric acid is used for the production of fertilizers, explosives, and many organonitrogen compounds.

Ammonia is also used to make the following compounds:

Ammonia can also be used to make compounds in reactions which are not specifically named. Examples of such compounds include: ammonium perchlorate, ammonium nitrate, formamide, dinitrogen tetroxide, alprazolam, ethanolamine, ethyl carbamate, hexamethylenetetramine, and ammonium bicarbonate.

Cleansing agent

 
Household ammonia

Household "ammonia" (more correctly called ammonium hydroxide) is a solution of NH3 in water, and is used as a general purpose cleaner for many surfaces. Because ammonia results in a relatively streak-free shine, one of its most common uses is to clean glass, porcelain and stainless steel. It is also frequently used for cleaning ovens and soaking items to loosen baked-on grime. Household ammonia ranges in concentration by weight from 5 to 10% ammonia.[71] United States manufacturers of cleaning products are required to provide the product's material safety data sheet which lists the concentration used.[72]

Solutions of ammonia (5–10% by weight) are used as household cleaners, particularly for glass. These solutions are irritating to the eyes and mucous membranes (respiratory and digestive tracts), and to a lesser extent the skin. Experts advise that caution be used to ensure the substance is not mixed into any liquid containing bleach, due to the danger of toxic gas. Mixing with chlorine-containing products or strong oxidants, such as household bleach, can generate chloramines.[73]

Experts also warn not to use ammonia-based cleaners (such as glass or window cleaners) on car touchscreens, due to the risk of damage to the screen's anti-glare and anti-fingerprint coatings.[74]

Fermentation

Solutions of ammonia ranging from 16% to 25% are used in the fermentation industry as a source of nitrogen for microorganisms and to adjust pH during fermentation.[75]

Antimicrobial agent for food products

As early as in 1895, it was known that ammonia was "strongly antiseptic ... it requires 1.4 grams per litre to preserve beef tea (broth)."[76] In one study, anhydrous ammonia destroyed 99.999% of zoonotic bacteria in 3 types of animal feed, but not silage.[77][78] Anhydrous ammonia is currently used commercially to reduce or eliminate microbial contamination of beef.[79][80] Lean finely textured beef (popularly known as "pink slime") in the beef industry is made from fatty beef trimmings (c. 50–70% fat) by removing the fat using heat and centrifugation, then treating it with ammonia to kill E. coli. The process was deemed effective and safe by the US Department of Agriculture based on a study that found that the treatment reduces E. coli to undetectable levels.[81] There have been safety concerns about the process as well as consumer complaints about the taste and smell of ammonia-treated beef.[82]

Fuel

 
Ammoniacal Gas Engine Streetcar in New Orleans drawn by Alfred Waud in 1871.
 
The X-15 aircraft used ammonia as one component fuel of its rocket engine

The raw energy density of liquid ammonia is 11.5 MJ/L,[83] which is about a third that of diesel. There is the opportunity to convert ammonia back to hydrogen, where it can be used to power hydrogen fuel cells, or it may be used directly within high-temperature solid oxide direct ammonia fuel cells to provide efficient power sources that do not emit greenhouse gases.[84][85]

The conversion of ammonia to hydrogen via the sodium amide process,[86] either for combustion or as fuel for a proton exchange membrane fuel cell,[83] is possible. Another method is the catalytic decomposition of ammonia using solid catalysts.[87] Conversion to hydrogen would allow the storage of hydrogen at nearly 18 wt% compared to ≈5% for gaseous hydrogen under pressure.

Ammonia engines or ammonia motors, using ammonia as a working fluid, have been proposed and occasionally used.[88] The principle is similar to that used in a fireless locomotive, but with ammonia as the working fluid, instead of steam or compressed air. Ammonia engines were used experimentally in the 19th century by Goldsworthy Gurney in the UK and the St. Charles Avenue Streetcar line in New Orleans in the 1870s and 1880s,[89] and during World War II ammonia was used to power buses in Belgium.[90]

Ammonia is sometimes proposed as a practical alternative to fossil fuel for internal combustion engines.[90][91][92][93]

Its high octane rating of 120[94] and low flame temperature[95] allows the use of high compression ratios without a penalty of high NOx production. Since ammonia contains no carbon, its combustion cannot produce carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons, or soot.

Ammonia production currently creates 1.8% of global CO2 emissions. "Green ammonia" is ammonia produced by using green hydrogen (hydrogen produced by electrolysis), whereas "blue ammonia" is ammonia produced using blue hydrogen (hydrogen produced by steam methane reforming where the carbon dioxide has been captured and stored).[96]

However, ammonia cannot be easily used in existing Otto cycle engines because of its very narrow flammability range. The 60 MW Rjukan dam in Telemark, Norway, produced ammonia for many years from 1913, providing fertilizer for much of Europe.[citation needed] Despite this, several tests have been run.[97][98][99]

Compared to hydrogen as a fuel, ammonia is much more energy efficient, and could be produced, stored, and delivered at a much lower cost than hydrogen, which must be kept compressed or as a cryogenic liquid.[83][100]

Rocket engines have also been fueled by ammonia. The Reaction Motors XLR99 rocket engine that powered the X-15 hypersonic research aircraft used liquid ammonia. Although not as powerful as other fuels, it left no soot in the reusable rocket engine, and its density approximately matches the density of the oxidizer, liquid oxygen, which simplified the aircraft's design.

In early August 2018, scientists from Australia's Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO) announced the success of developing a process to release hydrogen from ammonia and harvest that at ultra-high purity as a fuel for cars. This uses a special membrane. Two demonstration fuel cell vehicles have the technology, a Hyundai Nexo and Toyota Mirai.[101]

In 2020, Saudi Arabia shipped 40 metric tons of liquid "blue ammonia" to Japan for use as a fuel.[102] It was produced as a by-product by petrochemical industries, and can be burned without giving off greenhouse gases. Its energy density by volume is nearly double that of liquid hydrogen. If the process of creating it can be scaled up via purely renewable resources, producing green ammonia, it could make a major difference in avoiding climate change.[103] The company ACWA Power and the city of Neom have announced the construction of a green hydrogen and ammonia plant in 2020.[104]

Green ammonia is considered as a potential fuel for future container ships. In 2020, the companies DSME and MAN Energy Solutions announced the construction of an ammonia-based ship, DSME plans to commercialize it by 2025.[105] The use of ammonia as a potential alternative fuel for aircraft jet engines is also being explored.[106]

Japan intends to implement a plan to develop ammonia co-firing technology that can increase the use of ammonia in power generation, as part of efforts to assist domestic and other Asian utilities to accelerate their transition to carbon neutrality.[107] In October 2021, the first International Conference on Fuel Ammonia (ICFA2021) was held.[108][109]

In June 2022, IHI Corporation succeeded in reducing greenhouse gases by over 99% during combustion of liquid ammonia in a 2,000-kilowatt-class gas turbine achieving truly CO2-free power generation.[110] In July 2022, Quad nations of Japan, the U.S., Australia and India agreed to promote technological development for clean-burning hydrogen and ammonia as fuels at the security grouping's first energy meeting.[111] As of 2022, however, significant amounts of NOx are produced.[112] Nitrous oxide may also be a problem.[113]

Other

Remediation of gaseous emissions

Ammonia is used to scrub SO2 from the burning of fossil fuels, and the resulting product is converted to ammonium sulfate for use as fertilizer. Ammonia neutralises the nitrogen oxide (NOx) pollutants emitted by diesel engines. This technology, called SCR (selective catalytic reduction), relies on a vanadia-based catalyst.[114]

Ammonia may be used to mitigate gaseous spills of phosgene.[115]

As a hydrogen carrier

Due to its attributes, being liquid at ambient temperature under its own vapour pressure and having high volumetric and gravimetric energy density, ammonia is considered a suitable carrier for hydrogen,[116] and may be cheaper than direct transport of liquid hydrogen.[117]

Refrigeration – R717

Because of ammonia's vaporization properties, it is a useful refrigerant.[65] It was commonly used before the popularisation of chlorofluorocarbons (Freons). Anhydrous ammonia is widely used in industrial refrigeration applications and hockey rinks because of its high energy efficiency and low cost. It suffers from the disadvantage of toxicity, and requiring corrosion resistant components, which restricts its domestic and small-scale use. Along with its use in modern vapor-compression refrigeration it is used in a mixture along with hydrogen and water in absorption refrigerators. The Kalina cycle, which is of growing importance to geothermal power plants, depends on the wide boiling range of the ammonia–water mixture. Ammonia coolant is also used in the S1 radiator aboard the International Space Station in two loops which are used to regulate the internal temperature and enable temperature-dependent experiments.[118][119]

The potential importance of ammonia as a refrigerant has increased with the discovery that vented CFCs and HFCs are extremely potent and stable greenhouse gases.[120]

Stimulant

 
Anti-meth sign on tank of anhydrous ammonia, Otley, Iowa. Anhydrous ammonia is a common farm fertilizer that is also a critical ingredient in making methamphetamine. In 2005, Iowa used grant money to provide thousands of locks to prevent criminals from gaining access to the tanks.[121]

Ammonia, as the vapor released by smelling salts, has found significant use as a respiratory stimulant. Ammonia is commonly used in the illegal manufacture of methamphetamine through a Birch reduction.[122] The Birch method of making methamphetamine is dangerous because the alkali metal and liquid ammonia are both extremely reactive, and the temperature of liquid ammonia makes it susceptible to explosive boiling when reactants are added.[123]

Textile

Liquid ammonia is used for treatment of cotton materials, giving properties like mercerisation, using alkalis. In particular, it is used for prewashing of wool.[124]

Lifting gas

At standard temperature and pressure, ammonia is less dense than atmosphere and has approximately 45–48% of the lifting power of hydrogen or helium. Ammonia has sometimes been used to fill balloons as a lifting gas. Because of its relatively high boiling point (compared to helium and hydrogen), ammonia could potentially be refrigerated and liquefied aboard an airship to reduce lift and add ballast (and returned to a gas to add lift and reduce ballast).[125]

Fuming

See also: Ammonia fuming

Ammonia has been used to darken quartersawn white oak in Arts & Crafts and Mission-style furniture. Ammonia fumes react with the natural tannins in the wood and cause it to change colours.[126]

Safety

 
The world's longest ammonia pipeline (roughly 2400 km long),[127] running from the TogliattiAzot plant in Russia to Odessa in Ukraine

The U.S. Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) has set a 15-minute exposure limit for gaseous ammonia of 35 ppm by volume in the environmental air and an 8-hour exposure limit of 25 ppm by volume.[128] The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) recently reduced the IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life and Health, the level to which a healthy worker can be exposed for 30 minutes without suffering irreversible health effects) from 500 to 300 based on recent more conservative interpretations of original research in 1943. Other organizations have varying exposure levels. U.S. Navy Standards [U.S. Bureau of Ships 1962] maximum allowable concentrations (MACs): for continuous exposure (60 days) is 25 ppm; for exposure of 1 hour is 400 ppm.[129] Ammonia vapour has a sharp, irritating, pungent odour that acts as a warning of potentially dangerous exposure. The average odour threshold is 5 ppm, well below any danger or damage. Exposure to very high concentrations of gaseous ammonia can result in lung damage and death.[128] Ammonia is regulated in the United States as a non-flammable gas, but it meets the definition of a material that is toxic by inhalation and requires a hazardous safety permit when transported in quantities greater than 13,248 L (3,500 gallons).[130]

Liquid ammonia is dangerous because it is hygroscopic and because it can cause caustic burns. See Gas carrier § Health effects of specific cargoes carried on gas carriers for more information.

Toxicity

The toxicity of ammonia solutions does not usually cause problems for humans and other mammals, as a specific mechanism exists to prevent its build-up in the bloodstream. Ammonia is converted to carbamoyl phosphate by the enzyme carbamoyl phosphate synthetase, and then enters the urea cycle to be either incorporated into amino acids or excreted in the urine.[131] Fish and amphibians lack this mechanism, as they can usually eliminate ammonia from their bodies by direct excretion. Ammonia even at dilute concentrations is highly toxic to aquatic animals, and for this reason it is classified as dangerous for the environment. Atmospheric ammonia plays a key role in the formation of fine particulate matter.[132]

Ammonia is a constituent of tobacco smoke.[133]

Coking wastewater

Ammonia is present in coking wastewater streams, as a liquid by-product of the production of coke from coal.[134] In some cases, the ammonia is discharged to the marine environment where it acts as a pollutant. The Whyalla steelworks in South Australia is one example of a coke-producing facility which discharges ammonia into marine waters.[135]

Aquaculture

Ammonia toxicity is believed to be a cause of otherwise unexplained losses in fish hatcheries. Excess ammonia may accumulate and cause alteration of metabolism or increases in the body pH of the exposed organism. Tolerance varies among fish species.[136] At lower concentrations, around 0.05 mg/L, un-ionised ammonia is harmful to fish species and can result in poor growth and feed conversion rates, reduced fecundity and fertility and increase stress and susceptibility to bacterial infections and diseases.[137] Exposed to excess ammonia, fish may suffer loss of equilibrium, hyper-excitability, increased respiratory activity and oxygen uptake and increased heart rate.[136] At concentrations exceeding 2.0 mg/L, ammonia causes gill and tissue damage, extreme lethargy, convulsions, coma, and death.[136][138] Experiments have shown that the lethal concentration for a variety of fish species ranges from 0.2 to 2.0 mg/L.[138]

During winter, when reduced feeds are administered to aquaculture stock, ammonia levels can be higher. Lower ambient temperatures reduce the rate of algal photosynthesis so less ammonia is removed by any algae present. Within an aquaculture environment, especially at large scale, there is no fast-acting remedy to elevated ammonia levels. Prevention rather than correction is recommended to reduce harm to farmed fish[138] and in open water systems, the surrounding environment.

Storage information

Similar to propane, anhydrous ammonia boils below room temperature when at atmospheric pressure. A storage vessel capable of 250 psi (1.7 MPa) is suitable to contain the liquid.[139] Ammonia is used in numerous different industrial application requiring carbon or stainless steel storage vessels. Ammonia with at least 0.2% by weight water content is not corrosive to carbon steel. NH3 carbon steel construction storage tanks with 0.2% by weight or more of water could last more than 50 years in service.[140] Experts warn that ammonium compounds not be allowed to come in contact with bases (unless in an intended and contained reaction), as dangerous quantities of ammonia gas could be released.

Laboratory

 
Hydrochloric acid sample releasing HCl fumes, which are reacting with ammonia fumes to produce a white smoke of ammonium chloride.

The hazards of ammonia solutions depend on the concentration: "dilute" ammonia solutions are usually 5–10% by weight (<5.62 mol/L); "concentrated" solutions are usually prepared at >25% by weight. A 25% (by weight) solution has a density of 0.907 g/cm3, and a solution that has a lower density will be more concentrated. The European Union classification of ammonia solutions is given in the table.

Concentration
by weight (w/w) 		Molarity Concentration
mass/volume (w/v) 		GHS pictograms H-phrases
5–10% 2.87–5.62 mol/L 48.9–95.7 g/L   H314
10–25% 5.62–13.29 mol/L 95.7–226.3 g/L    H314, H335, H400
>25% >13.29 mol/L >226.3 g/L     H314, H335, H400, H411

The ammonia vapour from concentrated ammonia solutions is severely irritating to the eyes and the respiratory tract, and experts warn that these solutions only be handled in a fume hood. Saturated ("0.880" – see #Properties) solutions can develop a significant pressure inside a closed bottle in warm weather, and experts also warn that the bottle be opened with care. This is not usually a problem for 25% ("0.900") solutions.

Experts warn that ammonia solutions not be mixed with halogens, as toxic and/or explosive products are formed. Experts also warn that prolonged contact of ammonia solutions with silver, mercury or iodide salts can also lead to explosive products: such mixtures are often formed in qualitative inorganic analysis, and that it needs to be lightly acidified but not concentrated (<6% w/v) before disposal once the test is completed.

Laboratory use of anhydrous ammonia (gas or liquid)

Anhydrous ammonia is classified as toxic (T) and dangerous for the environment (N). The gas is flammable (autoignition temperature: 651 °C) and can form explosive mixtures with air (16–25%). The permissible exposure limit (PEL) in the United States is 50 ppm (35 mg/m3), while the IDLH concentration is estimated at 300 ppm. Repeated exposure to ammonia lowers the sensitivity to the smell of the gas: normally the odour is detectable at concentrations of less than 50 ppm, but desensitised individuals may not detect it even at concentrations of 100 ppm. Anhydrous ammonia corrodes copper- and zinc-containing alloys which makes brass fittings not appropriate for handling the gas. Liquid ammonia can also attack rubber and certain plastics.

Ammonia reacts violently with the halogens. Nitrogen triiodide, a primary high explosive, is formed when ammonia comes in contact with iodine. Ammonia causes the explosive polymerisation of ethylene oxide. It also forms explosive fulminating compounds with compounds of gold, silver, mercury, germanium or tellurium, and with stibine. Violent reactions have also been reported with acetaldehyde, hypochlorite solutions, potassium ferricyanide and peroxides.

Production

This section is about industrial synthesis. For synthesis in certain organisms, see § Biosynthesis.
See also: Ammonia production
Global ammonia production 1950 - 2020 (expresses as fixed nitrogen in U.S. tons)[141]

Ammonia has one of the highest rates of production of any inorganic chemical. Production is sometimes expressed in terms of 'fixed nitrogen'. Global production was estimated as being 160 million tonnes in 2020 (147 tons of fixed nitrogen).[142] China accounted for 26.5% of that, followed by Russia at 11.0%, the United States at 9.5%, and India at 8.3%.[142]

Before the start of World War I, most ammonia was obtained by the dry distillation[143] of nitrogenous vegetable and animal waste products, including camel dung, where it was distilled by the reduction of nitrous acid and nitrites with hydrogen; in addition, it was produced by the distillation of coal, and also by the decomposition of ammonium salts by alkaline hydroxides[144] such as quicklime:[24]

2 [NH4]Cl + 2 CaO → CaCl2 + Ca(OH)2 + 2 NH3(g)

For small scale laboratory synthesis, one can heat urea and calcium hydroxide:

(NH2)2CO + Ca(OH)2 → CaCO3 + 2 NH3

Haber–Bosch

Main article: Haber–Bosch process

Mass production uses the Haber–Bosch process, a gas phase reaction between hydrogen (H2) and nitrogen (N2) at a moderately-elevated temperature (450 °C) and high pressure (100 standard atmospheres (10 MPa)):[145]

N2 + 3 H2 → 2 NH3, ΔH° = −91.8 kJ/mol

This reaction is exothermic and results in decreased entropy, meaning that the reaction is favoured at lower temperatures[146] and higher pressures.[147] It is difficult and expensive to achieve, as lower temperatures result in slower reaction kinetics (hence a slower reaction rate)[148] and high pressure requires high-strength pressure vessels[149] that are not weakened by hydrogen embrittlement. Diatomic nitrogen is bound together by a triple bond, which makes it rather inert.[150] Yield and efficiency are low, meaning that the output must be continuously separated and extracted for the reaction to proceed at an acceptable pace.[151] Combined with the energy needed to produce hydrogen[note 1] and purified atmospheric nitrogen, ammonia production is energy-intensive, accounting for 1% to 2% of global energy consumption, 3% of global carbon emissions,[153] and 3 to 5% of natural gas consumption.[154]

The choice of catalyst is important for synthesizing ammonia. In 2012, Hideo Hosono's group found that Ru-loaded calcium-aluminum oxide C12A7:e− electride works well as a catalyst and pursued more efficient formation.[155][156] This method is implemented in a small plant for ammonia synthesis in Japan.[157][158] In 2019, Hosono's group found another catalyst, a novel perovskite oxynitride-hydride BaCeO3-xNyHz, that works at lower temperature and without costly ruthenium.[159]

Electrochemical

Ammonia can be synthesized electrochemically. The only required inputs are sources of nitrogen (potentially atmospheric) and hydrogen (water), allowing generation at the point of use. The availability of renewable energy creates the possibility of zero emission production.[160][161]

Another electrochemical synthesis mode involves the reductive formation of lithium nitride, which can be protonated to ammonia, given a proton source. Ethanol has been used as such a source, although it may degrade. The first use of this chemistry was reported in 1930, where lithium solutions in ethanol were used to produce ammonia at pressures of up to 1000 bar.[162] In 1994, Tsuneto et al. used lithium electrodeposition in tetrahydrofuran to synthesize ammonia at more moderate pressures with reasonable Faradaic efficiency.[163] Other studies have since used the ethanol-tetrahydrofuran system for electrochemical ammonia synthesis.[164][165] In 2019, Lazouski et al. proposed a mechanism to explain observed ammonia formation kinetics.[164]

In 2020, Lazouski et al. developed a solvent-agnostic gas diffusion electrode to improve nitrogen transport to the reactive lithium. The study observed NH3 production rates of up to 30 ± 5 nanomoles/s/cm2 and Faradaic efficiencies of up to 47.5 ± 4% at ambient temperature and 1 bar pressure.[166]

In 2021, Suryanto et al. replaced ethanol with a tetraalkyl phosphonium salt. This cation can stably undergo deprotonation–reprotonation cycles, while it enhances the medium's ionic conductivity.[167] The study observed NH3 production rates of 53 ± 1 nanomoles/s/cm2 at 69 ± 1% faradaic efficiency experiments under 0.5-bar hydrogen and 19.5-bar nitrogen partial pressure at ambient temperature.[167]

Role in biological systems and human disease

 
Main symptoms of hyperammonemia (ammonia reaching toxic concentrations).[168]

Ammonia is both a metabolic waste and a metabolic input throughout the biosphere. It is an important source of nitrogen for living systems. Although atmospheric nitrogen abounds (more than 75%), few living creatures are capable of using atmospheric nitrogen in its diatomic form, N2 gas. Therefore, nitrogen fixation is required for the synthesis of amino acids, which are the building blocks of protein. Some plants rely on ammonia and other nitrogenous wastes incorporated into the soil by decaying matter. Others, such as nitrogen-fixing legumes, benefit from symbiotic relationships with rhizobia bacteria that create ammonia from atmospheric nitrogen.[169]

In humans, inhaling ammonia in high concentrations can be fatal. Exposure to ammonia can cause headaches, edema, impaired memory, seizures and coma as it is neurotoxic in nature. [170]

Biosynthesis

In certain organisms, ammonia is produced from atmospheric nitrogen by enzymes called nitrogenases. The overall process is called nitrogen fixation. Intense effort has been directed toward understanding the mechanism of biological nitrogen fixation. The scientific interest in this problem is motivated by the unusual structure of the active site of the enzyme, which consists of an Fe7MoS9 ensemble.[171]

Ammonia is also a metabolic product of amino acid deamination catalyzed by enzymes such as glutamate dehydrogenase 1. Ammonia excretion is common in aquatic animals. In humans, it is quickly converted to urea, which is much less toxic, particularly less basic. This urea is a major component of the dry weight of urine. Most reptiles, birds, insects, and snails excrete uric acid solely as nitrogenous waste.

Physiology

Ammonia plays a role in both normal and abnormal animal physiology. It is biosynthesised through normal amino acid metabolism and is toxic in high concentrations. The liver converts ammonia to urea through a series of reactions known as the urea cycle. Liver dysfunction, such as that seen in cirrhosis, may lead to elevated amounts of ammonia in the blood (hyperammonemia). Likewise, defects in the enzymes responsible for the urea cycle, such as ornithine transcarbamylase, lead to hyperammonemia. Hyperammonemia contributes to the confusion and coma of hepatic encephalopathy, as well as the neurologic disease common in people with urea cycle defects and organic acidurias.[172]

Ammonia is important for normal animal acid/base balance. After formation of ammonium from glutamine, α-ketoglutarate may be degraded to produce two bicarbonate ions, which are then available as buffers for dietary acids. Ammonium is excreted in the urine, resulting in net acid loss. Ammonia may itself diffuse across the renal tubules, combine with a hydrogen ion, and thus allow for further acid excretion.[173]

Excretion

Main article: Excretion

Ammonium ions are a toxic waste product of metabolism in animals. In fish and aquatic invertebrates, it is excreted directly into the water. In mammals, sharks, and amphibians, it is converted in the urea cycle to urea, which is less toxic and can be stored more efficiently. In birds, reptiles, and terrestrial snails, metabolic ammonium is converted into uric acid, which is solid and can therefore be excreted with minimal water loss.[174]

 
Reference ranges for blood tests, comparing blood content of ammonia (shown in yellow near middle) with other constituents

Beyond Earth

 
Ammonia occurs in the atmospheres of the outer giant planets such as Jupiter (0.026% ammonia), Saturn (0.012% ammonia), and in the atmospheres and ices of Uranus and Neptune.

Ammonia has been detected in the atmospheres of the giant planets Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune, along with other gases such as methane, hydrogen, and helium. The interior of Saturn may include frozen ammonia crystals.[175] It is found on Deimos and Phobos – the two moons of Mars.

Interstellar space

Ammonia was first detected in interstellar space in 1968, based on microwave emissions from the direction of the galactic core.[176] This was the first polyatomic molecule to be so detected. The sensitivity of the molecule to a broad range of excitations and the ease with which it can be observed in a number of regions has made ammonia one of the most important molecules for studies of molecular clouds.[177] The relative intensity of the ammonia lines can be used to measure the temperature of the emitting medium.

The following isotopic species of ammonia have been detected: NH3, 15NH3, NH2D, NHD2, and ND3. The detection of triply deuterated ammonia was considered a surprise as deuterium is relatively scarce. It is thought that the low-temperature conditions allow this molecule to survive and accumulate.[178]

Since its interstellar discovery, NH3 has proved to be an invaluable spectroscopic tool in the study of the interstellar medium. With a large number of transitions sensitive to a wide range of excitation conditions, NH3 has been widely astronomically detected – its detection has been reported in hundreds of journal articles. Listed below is a sample of journal articles that highlights the range of detectors that have been used to identify ammonia.

The study of interstellar ammonia has been important to a number of areas of research in the last few decades. Some of these are delineated below and primarily involve using ammonia as an interstellar thermometer.

Interstellar formation mechanisms

The interstellar abundance for ammonia has been measured for a variety of environments. The [NH3]/[H2] ratio has been estimated to range from 10−7 in small dark clouds[179] up to 10−5 in the dense core of the Orion molecular cloud complex.[180] Although a total of 18 total production routes have been proposed,[181] the principal formation mechanism for interstellar NH3 is the reaction:

[NH4]+ + e− → NH3 + H

The rate constant, k, of this reaction depends on the temperature of the environment, with a value of 5.2×10−6 at 10 K.[182] The rate constant was calculated from the formula  . For the primary formation reaction, a = 1.05×10−6 and B = −0.47. Assuming an NH+4 abundance of 3×10−7 and an electron abundance of 10−7 typical of molecular clouds, the formation will proceed at a rate of 1.6×10−9 cm−3s−1 in a molecular cloud of total density 105 cm−3.[183]

All other proposed formation reactions have rate constants of between 2 and 13 orders of magnitude smaller, making their contribution to the abundance of ammonia relatively insignificant.[184] As an example of the minor contribution other formation reactions play, the reaction:

H2 + NH2 → NH3 + H

has a rate constant of 2.2×10−15. Assuming H2 densities of 105 and [NH2]/[H2] ratio of 10−7, this reaction proceeds at a rate of 2.2×10−12, more than 3 orders of magnitude slower than the primary reaction above.

Some of the other possible formation reactions are:

H− + [NH4]+ → NH3 + H2
[PNH3]+ + e− → P + NH3

Interstellar destruction mechanisms

There are 113 total proposed reactions leading to the destruction of NH3. Of these, 39 were tabulated in extensive tables of the chemistry among C, N, and O compounds.[185] A review of interstellar ammonia cites the following reactions as the principal dissociation mechanisms:[177]

NH3 + [H3]+ → [NH4]+ + H2

 

 

 

 

(1)

NH3 + HCO+ → [NH4]+ + CO

 

 

 

 

(2)

with rate constants of 4.39×10−9[186] and 2.2×10−9,[187] respectively. The above equations (1, 2) run at a rate of 8.8×10−9 and 4.4×10−13, respectively. These calculations assumed the given rate constants and abundances of [NH3]/[H2] = 10−5, [[H3]+]/[H2] = 2×10−5, [HCO+]/[H2] = 2×10−9, and total densities of n = 105, typical of cold, dense, molecular clouds.[188] Clearly, between these two primary reactions, equation (1) is the dominant destruction reaction, with a rate ≈10,000 times faster than equation (2). This is due to the relatively high abundance of [H3]+.

Single antenna detections

Radio observations of NH3 from the Effelsberg 100-m Radio Telescope reveal that the ammonia line is separated into two components – a background ridge and an unresolved core. The background corresponds well with the locations previously detected CO.[189] The 25 m Chilbolton telescope in England detected radio signatures of ammonia in H II regions, HNH2O masers, H-H objects, and other objects associated with star formation. A comparison of emission line widths indicates that turbulent or systematic velocities do not increase in the central cores of molecular clouds.[190]

Microwave radiation from ammonia was observed in several galactic objects including W3(OH), Orion A, W43, W51, and five sources in the galactic centre. The high detection rate indicates that this is a common molecule in the interstellar medium and that high-density regions are common in the galaxy.[191]

Interferometric studies

VLA observations of NH3 in seven regions with high-velocity gaseous outflows revealed condensations of less than 0.1 pc in L1551, S140, and Cepheus A. Three individual condensations were detected in Cepheus A, one of them with a highly elongated shape. They may play an important role in creating the bipolar outflow in the region.[192]

Extragalactic ammonia was imaged using the VLA in IC 342. The hot gas has temperatures above 70 K, which was inferred from ammonia line ratios and appears to be closely associated with the innermost portions of the nuclear bar seen in CO.[193] NH3 was also monitored by VLA toward a sample of four galactic ultracompact HII regions: G9.62+0.19, G10.47+0.03, G29.96-0.02, and G31.41+0.31. Based upon temperature and density diagnostics, it is concluded that in general such clumps are probably the sites of massive star formation in an early evolutionary phase prior to the development of an ultracompact HII region.[194]

Infrared detections

Absorption at 2.97 micrometres due to solid ammonia was recorded from interstellar grains in the Becklin-Neugebauer Object and probably in NGC 2264-IR as well. This detection helped explain the physical shape of previously poorly understood and related ice absorption lines.[195]

A spectrum of the disk of Jupiter was obtained from the Kuiper Airborne Observatory, covering the 100 to 300 cm−1 spectral range. Analysis of the spectrum provides information on global mean properties of ammonia gas and an ammonia ice haze.[196]

A total of 149 dark cloud positions were surveyed for evidence of 'dense cores' by using the (J,K) = (1,1) rotating inversion line of NH3. In general, the cores are not spherically shaped, with aspect ratios ranging from 1.1 to 4.4. It is also found that cores with stars have broader lines than cores without stars.[197]

Ammonia has been detected in the Draco Nebula and in one or possibly two molecular clouds, which are associated with the high-latitude galactic infrared cirrus. The finding is significant because they may represent the birthplaces for the Population I metallicity B-type stars in the galactic halo that could have been borne in the galactic disk.[198]

Observations of nearby dark clouds

By balancing and stimulated emission with spontaneous emission, it is possible to construct a relation between excitation temperature and density. Moreover, since the transitional levels of ammonia can be approximated by a 2-level system at low temperatures, this calculation is fairly simple. This premise can be applied to dark clouds, regions suspected of having extremely low temperatures and possible sites for future star formation. Detections of ammonia in dark clouds show very narrow lines – indicative not only of low temperatures, but also of a low level of inner-cloud turbulence. Line ratio calculations provide a measurement of cloud temperature that is independent of previous CO observations. The ammonia observations were consistent with CO measurements of rotation temperatures of ≈10 K. With this, densities can be determined, and have been calculated to range between 104 and 105 cm−3 in dark clouds. Mapping of NH3 gives typical clouds sizes of 0.1 pc and masses near 1 solar mass. These cold, dense cores are the sites of future star formation.

UC HII regions

Ultra-compact HII regions are among the best tracers of high-mass star formation. The dense material surrounding UCHII regions is likely primarily molecular. Since a complete study of massive star formation necessarily involves the cloud from which the star formed, ammonia is an invaluable tool in understanding this surrounding molecular material. Since this molecular material can be spatially resolved, it is possible to constrain the heating/ionising sources, temperatures, masses, and sizes of the regions. Doppler-shifted velocity components allow for the separation of distinct regions of molecular gas that can trace outflows and hot cores originating from forming stars.

Extragalactic detection

Ammonia has been detected in external galaxies,[199][200] and by simultaneously measuring several lines, it is possible to directly measure the gas temperature in these galaxies. Line ratios imply that gas temperatures are warm (≈50 K), originating from dense clouds with sizes of tens of pc. This picture is consistent with the picture within our Milky Way galaxy – hot dense molecular cores form around newly forming stars embedded in larger clouds of molecular material on the scale of several hundred pc (giant molecular clouds; GMCs).

See also

Notes

  1. ^ Hydrogen required for ammonia synthesis is most often produced through gasification of carbon-containing material, mostly natural gas, but other potential carbon sources include coal, petroleum, peat, biomass, or waste. As of 2012, the global production of ammonia produced from natural gas using the steam reforming process was 72%.[152] Hydrogen can also be produced from water and electricity using electrolysis: at one time, most of Europe's ammonia was produced from the Hydro plant at Vemork. Other possibilities include biological hydrogen production or photolysis, but at present, steam reforming of natural gas is the most economical means of mass-producing hydrogen.

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Works Cited

  • . airgasspecialtyproducts.com. Archived from the original on 19 November 2010. Retrieved 28 November 2010.
  •   This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Ammonia". Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 1 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 861–863.
  • Clark, Jim (April 2013) [2002]. "The Haber Process". Retrieved 15 December 2018.

Further reading

External links

 
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Ammonia.
  • International Chemical Safety Card 0414 (anhydrous ammonia), ilo.org.
  • International Chemical Safety Card 0215 (aqueous solutions), ilo.org.
  • CID 222 from PubChem
  • (in French). Institut National de Recherche et de Sécurité. Archived from the original on 11 December 2010.
  • Emergency Response to Ammonia Fertilizer Releases (Spills) for the Minnesota Department of Agriculture.ammoniaspills.org
  • National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health – Ammonia Page, cdc.gov
  • NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards – Ammonia, cdc.gov

January 31, 2023
ammonia, redirects, here, ammonium, other, uses, disambiguation, disambiguation, inorganic, compound, nitrogen, hydrogen, with, formula, stable, binary, hydride, simplest, pnictogen, hydride, ammonia, colourless, with, distinct, pungent, smell, biologically, c. NH3 redirects here For NH 4 see Ammonium For other uses see NH 3 disambiguation and Ammonia disambiguation Ammonia is an inorganic compound of nitrogen and hydrogen with the formula NH3 A stable binary hydride and the simplest pnictogen hydride ammonia is a colourless gas with a distinct pungent smell Biologically it is a common nitrogenous waste particularly among aquatic organisms and it contributes significantly to the nutritional needs of terrestrial organisms by serving as a precursor to 45 of the world s food 12 and fertilizers Around 70 of ammonia is used to make fertilisers 13 in various forms and composition such as urea and Diammonium phosphate Ammonia in pure form is also applied directly into the soil Ammonia NamesIUPAC name Ammonia 1 Systematic IUPAC name AzaneOther names Hydrogen nitrideR 717R717 refrigerant IdentifiersCAS Number 7664 41 7 Y3D model JSmol Interactive image3DMet B00004Beilstein Reference 3587154ChEBI CHEBI 16134 YChEMBL ChEMBL1160819 YChemSpider 217 YECHA InfoCard 100 028 760EC Number 231 635 3Gmelin Reference 79KEGG D02916 YMeSH AmmoniaPubChem CID 222RTECS number BO0875000UNII 5138Q19F1X YUN number 1005CompTox Dashboard EPA DTXSID0023872InChI InChI 1S H3N h1H3 YKey QGZKDVFQNNGYKY UHFFFAOYSA N YInChI 1 H3N h1H3Key QGZKDVFQNNGYKY UHFFFAOYAFSMILES NPropertiesChemical formula NH3Molar mass 17 031 g mol 1Appearance Colourless gasOdor Strong pungent odourDensity 0 86 kg m3 1 013 bar at boiling point 0 769 kg m3 STP 2 0 73 kg m3 1 013 bar at 15 C 0 6819 g cm3 at 33 3 C liquid 3 See also Ammonia data page 0 817 g cm3 at 80 C transparent solid 4 Melting point 77 73 C 107 91 F 195 42 K Triple point at 6 060 kPa 195 4 K Boiling point 33 34 C 28 01 F 239 81 K Critical point T P 132 4 C 405 5 K 111 3 atm 11 280 kPa Solubility in water 47 w w 0 C 31 w w 25 C 18 w w 50 C 5 clarification needed Solubility soluble in chloroform ether ethanol methanolVapor pressure 857 3 kPaAcidity pKa 32 5 33 C 6 9 24 of ammonium Basicity pKb 4 75Conjugate acid AmmoniumConjugate base AmideMagnetic susceptibility x 18 0 10 6 cm3 molRefractive index nD 1 3327Viscosity 10 07 µPa s 25 C 7 0 276 mPa s 40 C StructurePoint group C3vMolecular shape Trigonal pyramidDipole moment 1 42 DThermochemistryStd molarentropy S 298 193 J mol K 8 Std enthalpy offormation DfH 298 46 kJ mol 8 HazardsGHS labelling 10 PictogramsSignal word DangerHazard statements H280 H314 H331 H410Precautionary statements P260 P273 P280 P303 P361 P353 P304 P340 P311 P305 P351 P338 P310NFPA 704 fire diamond 310CORFlash point 132 C 270 F 405 K Autoignitiontemperature 651 C 1 204 F 924 K Explosive limits 15 0 33 6 Lethal dose or concentration LD LC LD50 median dose 0 015 mL kg human oral LC50 median concentration 40 300 ppm rat 10 min 28 595 ppm rat 20 min 20 300 ppm rat 40 min 11 590 ppm rat 1 hr 7338 ppm rat 1 hr 4837 ppm mouse 1 hr 9859 ppm rabbit 1 hr 9859 ppm cat 1 hr 2000 ppm rat 4 hr 4230 ppm mouse 1 hr 9 LCLo lowest published 5000 ppm mammal 5 min 5000 ppm human 5 min 9 NIOSH US health exposure limits 11 PEL Permissible 50 ppm 25 ppm ACGIH TLV 35 ppm STEL REL Recommended TWA 25 ppm 18 mg m3 ST 35 ppm 27 mg m3 IDLH Immediate danger 300 ppmSafety data sheet SDS ICSC 0414 anhydrous Related compoundsRelated nitrogen hydrides HydrazineHydrazoic acidRelated compounds Ammonium hydroxidePhosphineArsineStibineBismuthineSupplementary data pageAmmonia data page Except where otherwise noted data are given for materials in their standard state at 25 C 77 F 100 kPa Y verify what is Y N Infobox references Ammonia either directly or indirectly is also a building block for the synthesis of many pharmaceutical products and is used in many commercial cleaning products It is mainly collected by downward displacement of both air and water Although common in nature both terrestrially and in the outer planets of the Solar System and in wide use ammonia is both caustic and hazardous in its concentrated form In many countries it is classified as an extremely hazardous substance and is subject to strict reporting requirements by facilities which produce store or use it in significant quantities 14 The global industrial production of ammonia in 2018 was 175 million tonnes 15 with no significant change relative to the 2013 global industrial production of 175 million tonnes 16 In 2021 this was 235 million tonnes with very little being made within the United States 17 18 Industrial ammonia is sold either as ammonia liquor usually 28 ammonia in water or as pressurized or refrigerated anhydrous liquid ammonia transported in tank cars or cylinders 19 For fundamental reasons the production of ammonia from the elements hydrogen and nitrogen is difficult requiring high pressures and high temperatures The Haber process that enabled industrial production was invented at the beginning of the 20th century revolutionizing agriculture NH3 boils at 33 34 C 28 012 F at a pressure of one atmosphere so the liquid must be stored under pressure or at low temperature Household ammonia or ammonium hydroxide is a solution of NH3 in water The concentration of such solutions is measured in units of the Baume scale density with 26 degrees Baume about 30 of ammonia by weight at 15 5 C or 59 9 F being the typical high concentration commercial product 20 Contents 1 Etymology 2 Natural occurrence 3 Properties 3 1 Solid 3 2 Liquid 3 3 Solvent properties 3 4 Decomposition 3 5 Structure 3 6 Amphotericity 3 7 Self dissociation 3 8 Combustion 3 9 Formation of other compounds 3 10 Ammonia as a ligand 4 Detection and determination 4 1 Ammonia in solution 4 2 Gaseous ammonia 4 3 Ammoniacal nitrogen NH3 N 5 History 6 Applications 6 1 Solvent 6 1 1 Solubility of salts 6 1 2 Solutions of metals 6 1 3 Redox properties of liquid ammonia 6 2 Fertilizer 6 3 Precursor to nitrogenous compounds 6 4 Cleansing agent 6 5 Fermentation 6 6 Antimicrobial agent for food products 6 7 Fuel 6 8 Other 6 8 1 Remediation of gaseous emissions 6 8 2 As a hydrogen carrier 6 8 3 Refrigeration R717 6 8 4 Stimulant 6 8 5 Textile 6 8 6 Lifting gas 6 8 7 Fuming 6 8 8 Safety 6 9 Toxicity 6 9 1 Coking wastewater 6 9 2 Aquaculture 6 10 Storage information 6 11 Laboratory 6 12 Laboratory use of anhydrous ammonia gas or liquid 7 Production 7 1 Haber Bosch 7 2 Electrochemical 8 Role in biological systems and human disease 8 1 Biosynthesis 8 2 Physiology 8 3 Excretion 9 Beyond Earth 9 1 Interstellar space 9 1 1 Interstellar formation mechanisms 9 1 2 Interstellar destruction mechanisms 9 1 3 Single antenna detections 9 1 4 Interferometric studies 9 1 5 Infrared detections 9 1 6 Observations of nearby dark clouds 9 1 7 UC HII regions 9 1 8 Extragalactic detection 10 See also 11 Notes 12 References 12 1 Works Cited 13 Further reading 14 External linksEtymology EditPliny in Book XXXI of his Natural History refers to a salt named hammoniacum so called because of its proximity to the nearby Temple of Jupiter Amun Greek Ἄmmwn Ammon in the Roman province of Cyrenaica 21 However the description Pliny gives of the salt does not conform to the properties of ammonium chloride According to Herbert Hoover s commentary in his English translation of Georgius Agricola s De re metallica it is likely to have been common sea salt 22 In any case that salt ultimately gave ammonia and ammonium compounds their name Roman visitors to oracle temple of Amun in Siwa oasis collected a white crystalline material from the ceiling and walls caused by various pollutants This white crystalline salt was called salt of Ammon sal ammoniac Joseph Priestley noticed that when this salt reacted with lime a vapor was released which he termed as Ammonia 23 Natural occurrence EditAmmonia is a chemical found in trace quantities on Earth being produced from nitrogenous animal and vegetable matter Ammonia and ammonium salts are also found in small quantities in rainwater whereas ammonium chloride sal ammoniac and ammonium sulfate are found in volcanic districts Crystals of ammonium bicarbonate have been found in Patagonia guano 24 Ammonia is also found throughout the Solar System on Mars Jupiter Saturn Uranus Neptune and Pluto among other places on smaller icy bodies such as Pluto ammonia can act as a geologically important antifreeze as a mixture of water and ammonia can have a melting point as low as 100 C 148 F 173 K if the ammonia concentration is high enough and thus allow such bodies to retain internal oceans and active geology at a far lower temperature than would be possible with water alone 25 26 Substances containing ammonia or those that are similar to it are called ammoniacal Properties EditAmmonia is a colourless gas with a characteristically pungent smell It is lighter than air its density being 0 589 times that of air It is easily liquefied due to the strong hydrogen bonding between molecules Gaseous ammonia turns to the colourless liquid which boils at 33 1 C 27 58 F and freezes to colourless crystals 24 at 77 7 C 107 86 F Few data are available at very high temperatures and pressures such as supercritical conditions 27 Solid Edit The crystal symmetry is cubic Pearson symbol cP16 space group P213 No 198 lattice constant 0 5125 nm 28 Liquid Edit Liquid ammonia possesses strong ionising powers reflecting its high e of 22 Liquid ammonia has a very high standard enthalpy change of vaporization 23 35 kJ mol for comparison water 40 65 kJ mol methane 8 19 kJ mol phosphine 14 6 kJ mol and can therefore be used in laboratories in uninsulated vessels without additional refrigeration See liquid ammonia as a solvent Solvent properties Edit Ammonia readily dissolves in water In an aqueous solution it can be expelled by boiling The aqueous solution of ammonia is basic The maximum concentration of ammonia in water a saturated solution has a density of 0 880 g cm3 and is often known as 880 ammonia Decomposition Edit At high temperature and in the presence of a suitable catalyst or in a pressurized vessel with constant volume and high temperature e g 1 100 C 2 010 F ammonia is decomposed into its constituent elements 29 Decomposition of ammonia is a slightly endothermic process requiring 23 kJ mol 5 5 kcal mol of ammonia and yields hydrogen and nitrogen gas Ammonia can also be used as a source of hydrogen for acid fuel cells if the unreacted ammonia can be removed Ruthenium and platinum catalysts were found to be the most active whereas supported Ni catalysts were less active Table of thermal and physical properties of saturated liquid ammonia 30 31 Temperature C Density kg m3 Specific heat kJ kg K Kinematic viscosity m2 s Thermal conductivity W m K Thermal diffusivity m2 s Prandtl Number Bulk modulus K 1 50 703 69 4 463 4 35 10 7 0 547 1 74 10 7 2 6 40 691 68 4 467 4 06 10 7 0 547 1 78 10 7 2 28 30 679 34 4 476 3 87 10 7 0 549 1 80 10 7 2 15 20 666 69 4 509 3 81 10 7 0 547 1 82 10 7 2 09 10 653 55 4 564 3 78 10 7 0 543 1 83 10 7 2 070 640 1 4 635 3 73 10 7 0 54 1 82 10 7 2 0510 626 16 4 714 3 68 10 7 0 531 1 80 10 7 2 0420 611 75 4 798 3 59 10 7 0 521 1 78 10 7 2 02 2 45 10 330 596 37 4 89 3 49 10 7 0 507 1 74 10 7 2 0140 580 99 4 999 3 40 10 7 0 493 1 70 10 7 250 564 33 5 116 3 30 10 7 0 476 1 65 10 7 1 99Table of thermal and physical properties of ammonia NH3 at atmospheric pressure 30 31 Temperature K Density kg m3 Specific heat kJ kg K Dynamic viscosity kg m s Kinematic viscosity m2 s Thermal conductivity W m K Thermal diffusivity m2 s Prandtl Number273 0 7929 2 177 9 35 10 6 1 18 10 5 0 022 1 31 10 5 0 9323 0 6487 2 177 1 10 10 5 1 70 10 5 0 027 1 92 10 5 0 88373 0 559 2 236 1 29 10 5 1 30 10 5 0 0327 2 62 10 5 0 87423 0 4934 2 315 1 47 10 5 2 97 10 5 0 0391 3 43 10 5 0 87473 0 4405 2 395 1 65 10 5 3 74 10 5 0 0467 4 42 10 5 0 84480 0 4273 2 43 1 67 10 5 3 90 10 5 0 0492 4 74 10 5 0 822500 0 4101 2 467 1 73 10 5 4 22 10 5 0 0525 5 19 10 5 0 813520 0 3942 2 504 1 80 10 5 4 57 10 5 0 0545 5 52 10 5 0 827540 0 3795 2 54 1 87 10 5 4 91 10 5 0 0575 5 97 10 5 0 824560 0 3708 2 577 1 93 10 5 5 20 10 6 0 0606 6 34 10 5 0 827580 0 3533 2 613 2 00 10 5 5 65 10 5 0 0638 6 91 10 5 0 817Structure Edit The ammonia molecule has a trigonal pyramidal shape as predicted by the valence shell electron pair repulsion theory VSEPR theory with an experimentally determined bond angle of 106 7 32 The central nitrogen atom has five outer electrons with an additional electron from each hydrogen atom This gives a total of eight electrons or four electron pairs that are arranged tetrahedrally Three of these electron pairs are used as bond pairs which leaves one lone pair of electrons The lone pair repels more strongly than bond pairs therefore the bond angle is not 109 5 as expected for a regular tetrahedral arrangement but 106 8 32 This shape gives the molecule a dipole moment and makes it polar The molecule s polarity and especially its ability to form hydrogen bonds makes ammonia highly miscible with water The lone pair makes ammonia a base a proton acceptor Ammonia is moderately basic a 1 0 M aqueous solution has a pH of 11 6 and if a strong acid is added to such a solution until the solution is neutral pH 7 99 4 of the ammonia molecules are protonated Temperature and salinity also affect the proportion of ammonium NH4 The latter has the shape of a regular tetrahedron and is isoelectronic with methane The ammonia molecule readily undergoes nitrogen inversion at room temperature a useful analogy is an umbrella turning itself inside out in a strong wind The energy barrier to this inversion is 24 7 kJ mol and the resonance frequency is 23 79 GHz corresponding to microwave radiation of a wavelength of 1 260 cm The absorption at this frequency was the first microwave spectrum to be observed 33 and was used in the first maser Amphotericity Edit One of the most characteristic properties of ammonia is its basicity Ammonia is considered to be a weak base It combines with acids to form ammonium salts thus with hydrochloric acid it forms ammonium chloride sal ammoniac with nitric acid ammonium nitrate etc Perfectly dry ammonia gas will not combine with perfectly dry hydrogen chloride gas moisture is necessary to bring about the reaction 34 35 As a demonstration experiment under air with ambient moisture opened bottles of concentrated ammonia and hydrochloric acid solutions produce a cloud of ammonium chloride which seems to appear out of nothing as the salt aerosol forms where the two diffusing clouds of reagents meet between the two bottles NH3 HCl NH4 ClThe salts produced by the action of ammonia on acids are known as the ammonium salts and all contain the ammonium ion NH4 34 Although ammonia is well known as a weak base it can also act as an extremely weak acid It is a protic substance and is capable of formation of amides which contain the NH 2 ion For example lithium dissolves in liquid ammonia to give a blue solution solvated electron of lithium amide 2 Li 2 NH3 2 LiNH2 H2Self dissociation Edit Like water liquid ammonia undergoes molecular autoionisation to form its acid and base conjugates 2 NH3 NH 4 NH 2Ammonia often functions as a weak base so it has some buffering ability Shifts in pH will cause more or fewer ammonium cations NH 4 and amide anions NH 2 to be present in solution At standard pressure and temperature K NH 4 NH 2 10 30 Combustion Edit Ammonia does not burn readily or sustain combustion except under narrow fuel to air mixtures of 15 25 air clarification needed When mixed with oxygen it burns with a pale yellowish green flame Ignition occurs when chlorine is passed into ammonia forming nitrogen and hydrogen chloride if chlorine is present in excess then the highly explosive nitrogen trichloride NCl3 is also formed The combustion of ammonia to form nitrogen and water is exothermic 4 NH3 3 O2 2 N2 6 H2O g DH r 1267 20 kJ or 316 8 kJ mol if expressed per mol of NH3 The standard enthalpy change of combustion DH c expressed per mole of ammonia and with condensation of the water formed is 382 81 kJ mol Dinitrogen is the thermodynamic product of combustion all nitrogen oxides are unstable with respect to N2 and O2 which is the principle behind the catalytic converter Nitrogen oxides can be formed as kinetic products in the presence of appropriate catalysts a reaction of great industrial importance in the production of nitric acid 4 NH3 5 O2 4 NO 6 H2OA subsequent reaction leads to NO2 2 NO O2 2 NO2The combustion of ammonia in air is very difficult in the absence of a catalyst such as platinum gauze or warm chromium III oxide due to the relatively low heat of combustion a lower laminar burning velocity high auto ignition temperature high heat of vaporization and a narrow flammability range However recent studies have shown that efficient and stable combustion of ammonia can be achieved using swirl combustors thereby rekindling research interest in ammonia as a fuel for thermal power production 36 The flammable range of ammonia in dry air is 15 15 27 35 and in 100 relative humidity air is 15 95 26 55 37 clarification needed For studying the kinetics of ammonia combustion knowledge of a detailed reliable reaction mechanism is required but this has been challenging to obtain 38 Formation of other compounds Edit Ammonia is a direct or indirect precursor to most manufactured nitrogen containing compounds In organic chemistry ammonia can act as a nucleophile in substitution reactions Amines can be formed by the reaction of ammonia with alkyl halides or with alcohols The resulting NH2 group is also nucleophilic so secondary and tertiary amines are often formed When such multiple substitution is not desired an excess of ammonia helps minimise it For example methylamine is prepared by the reaction of ammonia with chloromethane or with methanol In both cases dimethylamine and trimethylamine are co produced Ethanolamine is prepared by a ring opening reaction with ethylene oxide and when the reaction is allowed to go further it produces diethanolamine and triethanolamine The reaction of ammonia with 2 bromopropanoic acid has been used to prepare racemic alanine in 70 yield Amides can be prepared by the reaction of ammonia with carboxylic acid derivatives For example ammonia reacts with formic acid HCOOH to yield formamide HCONH2 when heated Acyl chlorides are the most reactive but the ammonia must be present in at least a twofold excess to neutralise the hydrogen chloride formed Esters and anhydrides also react with ammonia to form amides Ammonium salts of carboxylic acids can be dehydrated to amides by heating to 150 200 C as long as no thermally sensitive groups are present The hydrogen in ammonia is susceptible to replacement by a myriad of substituents When dry ammonia gas is heated with metallic sodium it converts to sodamide NaNH2 34 With chlorine monochloramine is formed Pentavalent ammonia is known as l5 amine or more commonly ammonium hydride NH4 H This crystalline solid is only stable under high pressure and decomposes back into trivalent ammonia l3 amine and hydrogen gas at normal conditions This substance was once investigated as a possible solid rocket fuel in 1966 39 Ammonia as a ligand Edit Main article Metal ammine complex Ball and stick model of the diamminesilver I cation Ag NH3 2 Ball and stick model of the tetraamminediaquacopper II cation Cu NH3 4 H2O 2 2 Ammonia can act as a ligand in transition metal complexes It is a pure s donor in the middle of the spectrochemical series and shows intermediate hard soft behaviour see also ECW model Its relative donor strength toward a series of acids versus other Lewis bases can be illustrated by C B plots 40 41 For historical reasons ammonia is named ammine in the nomenclature of coordination compounds Some notable ammine complexes include tetraamminediaquacopper II Cu NH3 4 H2O 2 2 a dark blue complex formed by adding ammonia to a solution of copper II salts Tetraamminediaquacopper II hydroxide is known as Schweizer s reagent and has the remarkable ability to dissolve cellulose Diamminesilver I Ag NH3 2 is the active species in Tollens reagent Formation of this complex can also help to distinguish between precipitates of the different silver halides silver chloride AgCl is soluble in dilute 2 M ammonia solution silver bromide AgBr is only soluble in concentrated ammonia solution whereas silver iodide AgI is insoluble in aqueous ammonia Ammine complexes of chromium III were known in the late 19th century and formed the basis of Alfred Werner s revolutionary theory on the structure of coordination compounds Werner noted only two isomers fac and mer of the complex CrCl3 NH3 3 could be formed and concluded the ligands must be arranged around the metal ion at the vertices of an octahedron This proposal has since been confirmed by X ray crystallography An ammine ligand bound to a metal ion is markedly more acidic than a free ammonia molecule although deprotonation in aqueous solution is still rare One example is the reaction of mercury II chloride with ammonia Calomel reaction where the resulting mercuric amidochloride is highly insoluble HgCl2 2 NH3 HgCl NH2 NH4 ClAmmonia forms 1 1 adducts with a variety of Lewis acids such as I2 phenol and Al CH3 3 Ammonia is a hard base HSAB theory and its E amp C parameters are EB 2 31 and CB 2 04 Its relative donor strength toward a series of acids versus other Lewis bases can be illustrated by C B plots Detection and determination EditThis section is about detection in the laboratory For detection in astronomy see In astronomy Ammonia in solution Edit Main article Ammonia solution Ammonia and ammonium salts can be readily detected in very minute traces by the addition of Nessler s solution which gives a distinct yellow colouration in the presence of the slightest trace of ammonia or ammonium salts The amount of ammonia in ammonium salts can be estimated quantitatively by distillation of the salts with sodium NaOH or potassium hydroxide KOH the ammonia evolved being absorbed in a known volume of standard sulfuric acid and the excess of acid then determined volumetrically or the ammonia may be absorbed in hydrochloric acid and the ammonium chloride so formed precipitated as ammonium hexachloroplatinate NH4 2 PtCl6 42 Gaseous ammonia Edit Sulfur sticks are burnt to detect small leaks in industrial ammonia refrigeration systems Larger quantities can be detected by warming the salts with a caustic alkali or with quicklime when the characteristic smell of ammonia will be at once apparent 42 Ammonia is an irritant and irritation increases with concentration the permissible exposure limit is 25 ppm and lethal above 500 ppm 43 clarification needed Higher concentrations are hardly detected by conventional detectors the type of detector is chosen according to the sensitivity required e g semiconductor catalytic electrochemical Holographic sensors have been proposed for detecting concentrations up to 12 5 in volume 44 Ammoniacal nitrogen NH3 N Edit Ammoniacal nitrogen NH3 N is a measure commonly used for testing the quantity of ammonium ions derived naturally from ammonia and returned to ammonia via organic processes in water or waste liquids It is a measure used mainly for quantifying values in waste treatment and water purification systems as well as a measure of the health of natural and man made water reserves It is measured in units of mg L milligram per litre History Edit Jabir ibn Hayyan This high pressure reactor was built in 1921 by BASF in Ludwigshafen and was re erected on the premises of the University of Karlsruhe in Germany The ancient Greek historian Herodotus mentioned that there were outcrops of salt in an area of Libya that was inhabited by a people called the Ammonians now the Siwa oasis in northwestern Egypt where salt lakes still exist 45 46 The Greek geographer Strabo also mentioned the salt from this region However the ancient authors Dioscorides Apicius Arrian Synesius and Aetius of Amida described this salt as forming clear crystals that could be used for cooking and that were essentially rock salt 47 Hammoniacus sal appears in the writings of Pliny 48 although it is not known whether the term is identical with the more modern sal ammoniac ammonium chloride 24 49 50 The fermentation of urine by bacteria produces a solution of ammonia hence fermented urine was used in Classical Antiquity to wash cloth and clothing to remove hair from hides in preparation for tanning to serve as a mordant in dying cloth and to remove rust from iron 51 It was also used by ancient dentists to wash teeth 52 53 54 In the form of sal ammoniac نشادر nushadir ammonia was important to the Muslim alchemists It was mentioned in the Book of Stones likely written in the 9th century and attributed to Jabir ibn Hayyan 55 It was also important to the European alchemists of the 13th century being mentioned by Albertus Magnus 24 It was also used by dyers in the Middle Ages in the form of fermented urine to alter the colour of vegetable dyes In the 15th century Basilius Valentinus showed that ammonia could be obtained by the action of alkalis on sal ammoniac 56 At a later period when sal ammoniac was obtained by distilling the hooves and horns of oxen and neutralizing the resulting carbonate with hydrochloric acid the name spirit of hartshorn was applied to ammonia 24 57 Gaseous ammonia was first isolated by Joseph Black in 1756 by reacting sal ammoniac ammonium chloride with calcined magnesia magnesium oxide 58 59 It was isolated again by Peter Woulfe in 1767 60 61 by Carl Wilhelm Scheele in 1770 62 and by Joseph Priestley in 1773 and was termed by him alkaline air 24 63 Eleven years later in 1785 Claude Louis Berthollet ascertained its composition 64 24 The Haber Bosch process to produce ammonia from the nitrogen in the air was developed by Fritz Haber and Carl Bosch in 1909 and patented in 1910 It was first used on an industrial scale in Germany during World War I 65 following the allied blockade that cut off the supply of nitrates from Chile The ammonia was used to produce explosives to sustain war efforts 66 Before the availability of natural gas hydrogen as a precursor to ammonia production was produced via the electrolysis of water or using the chloralkali process With the advent of the steel industry in the 20th century ammonia became a byproduct of the production of coking coal Applications EditSolvent Edit See also Inorganic nonaqueous solvent Liquid ammonia is the best known and most widely studied nonaqueous ionising solvent Its most conspicuous property is its ability to dissolve alkali metals to form highly coloured electrically conductive solutions containing solvated electrons Apart from these remarkable solutions much of the chemistry in liquid ammonia can be classified by analogy with related reactions in aqueous solutions Comparison of the physical properties of NH3 with those of water shows NH3 has the lower melting point boiling point density viscosity dielectric constant and electrical conductivity this is due at least in part to the weaker hydrogen bonding in NH3 and because such bonding cannot form cross linked networks since each NH3 molecule has only one lone pair of electrons compared with two for each H2O molecule The ionic self dissociation constant of liquid NH3 at 50 C is about 10 33 A train carrying Anhydrous Ammonia Solubility of salts Edit Solubility g of salt per 100 g liquid NH3 Ammonium acetate 253 2Ammonium nitrate 389 6Lithium nitrate 243 7Sodium nitrate 97 6Potassium nitrate 10 4Sodium fluoride 0 35Sodium chloride 157 0Sodium bromide 138 0Sodium iodide 161 9Sodium thiocyanate 205 5Liquid ammonia is an ionising solvent although less so than water and dissolves a range of ionic compounds including many nitrates nitrites cyanides thiocyanates metal cyclopentadienyl complexes and metal bis trimethylsilyl amides 30 Most ammonium salts are soluble and act as acids in liquid ammonia solutions The solubility of halide salts increases from fluoride to iodide A saturated solution of ammonium nitrate Divers solution named after Edward Divers contains 0 83 mol solute per mole of ammonia and has a vapour pressure of less than 1 bar even at 25 C 77 F Solutions of metals Edit See also Solvated electron Liquid ammonia will dissolve all of the alkali metals and other electropositive metals such as Ca 67 Sr Ba Eu and Yb also Mg using an electrolytic process 31 At low concentrations lt 0 06 mol L deep blue solutions are formed these contain metal cations and solvated electrons free electrons that are surrounded by a cage of ammonia molecules These solutions are very useful as strong reducing agents At higher concentrations the solutions are metallic in appearance and in electrical conductivity At low temperatures the two types of solution can coexist as immiscible phases Redox properties of liquid ammonia Edit See also Redox E V ammonia E V water Li e Li 2 24 3 04K e K 1 98 2 93Na e Na 1 85 2 71Zn2 2 e Zn 0 53 0 762 NH4 2 e H2 2 NH3 0 00 Cu2 2 e Cu 0 43 0 34Ag e Ag 0 83 0 80The range of thermodynamic stability of liquid ammonia solutions is very narrow as the potential for oxidation to dinitrogen E N2 6 NH4 6 e 8 NH3 is only 0 04 V In practice both oxidation to dinitrogen and reduction to dihydrogen are slow This is particularly true of reducing solutions the solutions of the alkali metals mentioned above are stable for several days slowly decomposing to the metal amide and dihydrogen Most studies involving liquid ammonia solutions are done in reducing conditions although oxidation of liquid ammonia is usually slow there is still a risk of explosion particularly if transition metal ions are present as possible catalysts Liquid ammonia bottle Fertilizer Edit In the US as of 2019 approximately 88 of ammonia was used as fertilizers either as its salts solutions or anhydrously 15 When applied to soil it helps provide increased yields of crops such as maize and wheat 68 30 of agricultural nitrogen applied in the US is in the form of anhydrous ammonia and worldwide 110 million tonnes are applied each year 69 Precursor to nitrogenous compounds Edit Ammonia is directly or indirectly the precursor to most nitrogen containing compounds Virtually all synthetic nitrogen compounds are derived from ammonia An important derivative is nitric acid This key material is generated via the Ostwald process by oxidation of ammonia with air over a platinum catalyst at 700 850 C 1 292 1 562 F 9 atm Nitric oxide is an intermediate in this conversion 70 NH3 2 O2 HNO3 H2ONitric acid is used for the production of fertilizers explosives and many organonitrogen compounds Ammonia is also used to make the following compounds Hydrazine in the Olin Raschig process and the peroxide process Hydrogen cyanide in the BMA process and the Andrussow process Hydroxylamine and ammonium carbonate in the Raschig process Phenol in the Raschig Hooker process Urea in the Bosch Meiser urea process and in Wohler synthesis Amino acids using Strecker amino acid synthesis Acrylonitrile in the Sohio processAmmonia can also be used to make compounds in reactions which are not specifically named Examples of such compounds include ammonium perchlorate ammonium nitrate formamide dinitrogen tetroxide alprazolam ethanolamine ethyl carbamate hexamethylenetetramine and ammonium bicarbonate Cleansing agent Edit Household ammonia Household ammonia more correctly called ammonium hydroxide is a solution of NH3 in water and is used as a general purpose cleaner for many surfaces Because ammonia results in a relatively streak free shine one of its most common uses is to clean glass porcelain and stainless steel It is also frequently used for cleaning ovens and soaking items to loosen baked on grime Household ammonia ranges in concentration by weight from 5 to 10 ammonia 71 United States manufacturers of cleaning products are required to provide the product s material safety data sheet which lists the concentration used 72 Solutions of ammonia 5 10 by weight are used as household cleaners particularly for glass These solutions are irritating to the eyes and mucous membranes respiratory and digestive tracts and to a lesser extent the skin Experts advise that caution be used to ensure the substance is not mixed into any liquid containing bleach due to the danger of toxic gas Mixing with chlorine containing products or strong oxidants such as household bleach can generate chloramines 73 Experts also warn not to use ammonia based cleaners such as glass or window cleaners on car touchscreens due to the risk of damage to the screen s anti glare and anti fingerprint coatings 74 Fermentation Edit Solutions of ammonia ranging from 16 to 25 are used in the fermentation industry as a source of nitrogen for microorganisms and to adjust pH during fermentation 75 Antimicrobial agent for food products Edit As early as in 1895 it was known that ammonia was strongly antiseptic it requires 1 4 grams per litre to preserve beef tea broth 76 In one study anhydrous ammonia destroyed 99 999 of zoonotic bacteria in 3 types of animal feed but not silage 77 78 Anhydrous ammonia is currently used commercially to reduce or eliminate microbial contamination of beef 79 80 Lean finely textured beef popularly known as pink slime in the beef industry is made from fatty beef trimmings c 50 70 fat by removing the fat using heat and centrifugation then treating it with ammonia to kill E coli The process was deemed effective and safe by the US Department of Agriculture based on a study that found that the treatment reduces E coli to undetectable levels 81 There have been safety concerns about the process as well as consumer complaints about the taste and smell of ammonia treated beef 82 Fuel Edit Ammoniacal Gas Engine Streetcar in New Orleans drawn by Alfred Waud in 1871 The X 15 aircraft used ammonia as one component fuel of its rocket engine The raw energy density of liquid ammonia is 11 5 MJ L 83 which is about a third that of diesel There is the opportunity to convert ammonia back to hydrogen where it can be used to power hydrogen fuel cells or it may be used directly within high temperature solid oxide direct ammonia fuel cells to provide efficient power sources that do not emit greenhouse gases 84 85 The conversion of ammonia to hydrogen via the sodium amide process 86 either for combustion or as fuel for a proton exchange membrane fuel cell 83 is possible Another method is the catalytic decomposition of ammonia using solid catalysts 87 Conversion to hydrogen would allow the storage of hydrogen at nearly 18 wt compared to 5 for gaseous hydrogen under pressure Ammonia engines or ammonia motors using ammonia as a working fluid have been proposed and occasionally used 88 The principle is similar to that used in a fireless locomotive but with ammonia as the working fluid instead of steam or compressed air Ammonia engines were used experimentally in the 19th century by Goldsworthy Gurney in the UK and the St Charles Avenue Streetcar line in New Orleans in the 1870s and 1880s 89 and during World War II ammonia was used to power buses in Belgium 90 Ammonia is sometimes proposed as a practical alternative to fossil fuel for internal combustion engines 90 91 92 93 Its high octane rating of 120 94 and low flame temperature 95 allows the use of high compression ratios without a penalty of high NOx production Since ammonia contains no carbon its combustion cannot produce carbon dioxide carbon monoxide hydrocarbons or soot Ammonia production currently creates 1 8 of global CO2 emissions Green ammonia is ammonia produced by using green hydrogen hydrogen produced by electrolysis whereas blue ammonia is ammonia produced using blue hydrogen hydrogen produced by steam methane reforming where the carbon dioxide has been captured and stored 96 However ammonia cannot be easily used in existing Otto cycle engines because of its very narrow flammability range The 60 MW Rjukan dam in Telemark Norway produced ammonia for many years from 1913 providing fertilizer for much of Europe citation needed Despite this several tests have been run 97 98 99 Compared to hydrogen as a fuel ammonia is much more energy efficient and could be produced stored and delivered at a much lower cost than hydrogen which must be kept compressed or as a cryogenic liquid 83 100 Rocket engines have also been fueled by ammonia The Reaction Motors XLR99 rocket engine that powered the X 15 hypersonic research aircraft used liquid ammonia Although not as powerful as other fuels it left no soot in the reusable rocket engine and its density approximately matches the density of the oxidizer liquid oxygen which simplified the aircraft s design In early August 2018 scientists from Australia s Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation CSIRO announced the success of developing a process to release hydrogen from ammonia and harvest that at ultra high purity as a fuel for cars This uses a special membrane Two demonstration fuel cell vehicles have the technology a Hyundai Nexo and Toyota Mirai 101 In 2020 Saudi Arabia shipped 40 metric tons of liquid blue ammonia to Japan for use as a fuel 102 It was produced as a by product by petrochemical industries and can be burned without giving off greenhouse gases Its energy density by volume is nearly double that of liquid hydrogen If the process of creating it can be scaled up via purely renewable resources producing green ammonia it could make a major difference in avoiding climate change 103 The company ACWA Power and the city of Neom have announced the construction of a green hydrogen and ammonia plant in 2020 104 Green ammonia is considered as a potential fuel for future container ships In 2020 the companies DSME and MAN Energy Solutions announced the construction of an ammonia based ship DSME plans to commercialize it by 2025 105 The use of ammonia as a potential alternative fuel for aircraft jet engines is also being explored 106 Japan intends to implement a plan to develop ammonia co firing technology that can increase the use of ammonia in power generation as part of efforts to assist domestic and other Asian utilities to accelerate their transition to carbon neutrality 107 In October 2021 the first International Conference on Fuel Ammonia ICFA2021 was held 108 109 In June 2022 IHI Corporation succeeded in reducing greenhouse gases by over 99 during combustion of liquid ammonia in a 2 000 kilowatt class gas turbine achieving truly CO2 free power generation 110 In July 2022 Quad nations of Japan the U S Australia and India agreed to promote technological development for clean burning hydrogen and ammonia as fuels at the security grouping s first energy meeting 111 As of 2022 update however significant amounts of NOx are produced 112 Nitrous oxide may also be a problem 113 Other Edit Remediation of gaseous emissions Edit Ammonia is used to scrub SO2 from the burning of fossil fuels and the resulting product is converted to ammonium sulfate for use as fertilizer Ammonia neutralises the nitrogen oxide NOx pollutants emitted by diesel engines This technology called SCR selective catalytic reduction relies on a vanadia based catalyst 114 Ammonia may be used to mitigate gaseous spills of phosgene 115 As a hydrogen carrier Edit Due to its attributes being liquid at ambient temperature under its own vapour pressure and having high volumetric and gravimetric energy density ammonia is considered a suitable carrier for hydrogen 116 and may be cheaper than direct transport of liquid hydrogen 117 Refrigeration R717 Edit Because of ammonia s vaporization properties it is a useful refrigerant 65 It was commonly used before the popularisation of chlorofluorocarbons Freons Anhydrous ammonia is widely used in industrial refrigeration applications and hockey rinks because of its high energy efficiency and low cost It suffers from the disadvantage of toxicity and requiring corrosion resistant components which restricts its domestic and small scale use Along with its use in modern vapor compression refrigeration it is used in a mixture along with hydrogen and water in absorption refrigerators The Kalina cycle which is of growing importance to geothermal power plants depends on the wide boiling range of the ammonia water mixture Ammonia coolant is also used in the S1 radiator aboard the International Space Station in two loops which are used to regulate the internal temperature and enable temperature dependent experiments 118 119 The potential importance of ammonia as a refrigerant has increased with the discovery that vented CFCs and HFCs are extremely potent and stable greenhouse gases 120 Stimulant Edit Anti meth sign on tank of anhydrous ammonia Otley Iowa Anhydrous ammonia is a common farm fertilizer that is also a critical ingredient in making methamphetamine In 2005 Iowa used grant money to provide thousands of locks to prevent criminals from gaining access to the tanks 121 Ammonia as the vapor released by smelling salts has found significant use as a respiratory stimulant Ammonia is commonly used in the illegal manufacture of methamphetamine through a Birch reduction 122 The Birch method of making methamphetamine is dangerous because the alkali metal and liquid ammonia are both extremely reactive and the temperature of liquid ammonia makes it susceptible to explosive boiling when reactants are added 123 Textile Edit Liquid ammonia is used for treatment of cotton materials giving properties like mercerisation using alkalis In particular it is used for prewashing of wool 124 Lifting gas Edit At standard temperature and pressure ammonia is less dense than atmosphere and has approximately 45 48 of the lifting power of hydrogen or helium Ammonia has sometimes been used to fill balloons as a lifting gas Because of its relatively high boiling point compared to helium and hydrogen ammonia could potentially be refrigerated and liquefied aboard an airship to reduce lift and add ballast and returned to a gas to add lift and reduce ballast 125 Fuming Edit See also Ammonia fuming Ammonia has been used to darken quartersawn white oak in Arts amp Crafts and Mission style furniture Ammonia fumes react with the natural tannins in the wood and cause it to change colours 126 Safety Edit The world s longest ammonia pipeline roughly 2400 km long 127 running from the TogliattiAzot plant in Russia to Odessa in Ukraine The U S Occupational Safety and Health Administration OSHA has set a 15 minute exposure limit for gaseous ammonia of 35 ppm by volume in the environmental air and an 8 hour exposure limit of 25 ppm by volume 128 The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health NIOSH recently reduced the IDLH Immediately Dangerous to Life and Health the level to which a healthy worker can be exposed for 30 minutes without suffering irreversible health effects from 500 to 300 based on recent more conservative interpretations of original research in 1943 Other organizations have varying exposure levels U S Navy Standards U S Bureau of Ships 1962 maximum allowable concentrations MACs for continuous exposure 60 days is 25 ppm for exposure of 1 hour is 400 ppm 129 Ammonia vapour has a sharp irritating pungent odour that acts as a warning of potentially dangerous exposure The average odour threshold is 5 ppm well below any danger or damage Exposure to very high concentrations of gaseous ammonia can result in lung damage and death 128 Ammonia is regulated in the United States as a non flammable gas but it meets the definition of a material that is toxic by inhalation and requires a hazardous safety permit when transported in quantities greater than 13 248 L 3 500 gallons 130 Liquid ammonia is dangerous because it is hygroscopic and because it can cause caustic burns See Gas carrier Health effects of specific cargoes carried on gas carriers for more information Toxicity Edit The toxicity of ammonia solutions does not usually cause problems for humans and other mammals as a specific mechanism exists to prevent its build up in the bloodstream Ammonia is converted to carbamoyl phosphate by the enzyme carbamoyl phosphate synthetase and then enters the urea cycle to be either incorporated into amino acids or excreted in the urine 131 Fish and amphibians lack this mechanism as they can usually eliminate ammonia from their bodies by direct excretion Ammonia even at dilute concentrations is highly toxic to aquatic animals and for this reason it is classified as dangerous for the environment Atmospheric ammonia plays a key role in the formation of fine particulate matter 132 Ammonia is a constituent of tobacco smoke 133 Coking wastewater Edit Ammonia is present in coking wastewater streams as a liquid by product of the production of coke from coal 134 In some cases the ammonia is discharged to the marine environment where it acts as a pollutant The Whyalla steelworks in South Australia is one example of a coke producing facility which discharges ammonia into marine waters 135 Aquaculture Edit Ammonia toxicity is believed to be a cause of otherwise unexplained losses in fish hatcheries Excess ammonia may accumulate and cause alteration of metabolism or increases in the body pH of the exposed organism Tolerance varies among fish species 136 At lower concentrations around 0 05 mg L un ionised ammonia is harmful to fish species and can result in poor growth and feed conversion rates reduced fecundity and fertility and increase stress and susceptibility to bacterial infections and diseases 137 Exposed to excess ammonia fish may suffer loss of equilibrium hyper excitability increased respiratory activity and oxygen uptake and increased heart rate 136 At concentrations exceeding 2 0 mg L ammonia causes gill and tissue damage extreme lethargy convulsions coma and death 136 138 Experiments have shown that the lethal concentration for a variety of fish species ranges from 0 2 to 2 0 mg L 138 During winter when reduced feeds are administered to aquaculture stock ammonia levels can be higher Lower ambient temperatures reduce the rate of algal photosynthesis so less ammonia is removed by any algae present Within an aquaculture environment especially at large scale there is no fast acting remedy to elevated ammonia levels Prevention rather than correction is recommended to reduce harm to farmed fish 138 and in open water systems the surrounding environment Storage information Edit Similar to propane anhydrous ammonia boils below room temperature when at atmospheric pressure A storage vessel capable of 250 psi 1 7 MPa is suitable to contain the liquid 139 Ammonia is used in numerous different industrial application requiring carbon or stainless steel storage vessels Ammonia with at least 0 2 by weight water content is not corrosive to carbon steel NH3 carbon steel construction storage tanks with 0 2 by weight or more of water could last more than 50 years in service 140 Experts warn that ammonium compounds not be allowed to come in contact with bases unless in an intended and contained reaction as dangerous quantities of ammonia gas could be released Laboratory Edit Hydrochloric acid sample releasing HCl fumes which are reacting with ammonia fumes to produce a white smoke of ammonium chloride The hazards of ammonia solutions depend on the concentration dilute ammonia solutions are usually 5 10 by weight lt 5 62 mol L concentrated solutions are usually prepared at gt 25 by weight A 25 by weight solution has a density of 0 907 g cm3 and a solution that has a lower density will be more concentrated The European Union classification of ammonia solutions is given in the table Concentrationby weight w w Molarity Concentrationmass volume w v GHS pictograms H phrases5 10 2 87 5 62 mol L 48 9 95 7 g L H31410 25 5 62 13 29 mol L 95 7 226 3 g L H314 H335 H400 gt 25 gt 13 29 mol L gt 226 3 g L H314 H335 H400 H411The ammonia vapour from concentrated ammonia solutions is severely irritating to the eyes and the respiratory tract and experts warn that these solutions only be handled in a fume hood Saturated 0 880 see Properties solutions can develop a significant pressure inside a closed bottle in warm weather and experts also warn that the bottle be opened with care This is not usually a problem for 25 0 900 solutions Experts warn that ammonia solutions not be mixed with halogens as toxic and or explosive products are formed Experts also warn that prolonged contact of ammonia solutions with silver mercury or iodide salts can also lead to explosive products such mixtures are often formed in qualitative inorganic analysis and that it needs to be lightly acidified but not concentrated lt 6 w v before disposal once the test is completed Laboratory use of anhydrous ammonia gas or liquid Edit Anhydrous ammonia is classified as toxic T and dangerous for the environment N The gas is flammable autoignition temperature 651 C and can form explosive mixtures with air 16 25 The permissible exposure limit PEL in the United States is 50 ppm 35 mg m3 while the IDLH concentration is estimated at 300 ppm Repeated exposure to ammonia lowers the sensitivity to the smell of the gas normally the odour is detectable at concentrations of less than 50 ppm but desensitised individuals may not detect it even at concentrations of 100 ppm Anhydrous ammonia corrodes copper and zinc containing alloys which makes brass fittings not appropriate for handling the gas Liquid ammonia can also attack rubber and certain plastics Ammonia reacts violently with the halogens Nitrogen triiodide a primary high explosive is formed when ammonia comes in contact with iodine Ammonia causes the explosive polymerisation of ethylene oxide It also forms explosive fulminating compounds with compounds of gold silver mercury germanium or tellurium and with stibine Violent reactions have also been reported with acetaldehyde hypochlorite solutions potassium ferricyanide and peroxides Production EditThis section is about industrial synthesis For synthesis in certain organisms see Biosynthesis See also Ammonia production Global ammonia production 1950 2020 expresses as fixed nitrogen in U S tons 141 Ammonia has one of the highest rates of production of any inorganic chemical Production is sometimes expressed in terms of fixed nitrogen Global production was estimated as being 160 million tonnes in 2020 147 tons of fixed nitrogen 142 China accounted for 26 5 of that followed by Russia at 11 0 the United States at 9 5 and India at 8 3 142 Before the start of World War I most ammonia was obtained by the dry distillation 143 of nitrogenous vegetable and animal waste products including camel dung where it was distilled by the reduction of nitrous acid and nitrites with hydrogen in addition it was produced by the distillation of coal and also by the decomposition of ammonium salts by alkaline hydroxides 144 such as quicklime 24 2 NH4 Cl 2 CaO CaCl2 Ca OH 2 2 NH3 g For small scale laboratory synthesis one can heat urea and calcium hydroxide NH2 2CO Ca OH 2 CaCO3 2 NH3Haber Bosch Edit Main article Haber Bosch process Mass production uses the Haber Bosch process a gas phase reaction between hydrogen H2 and nitrogen N2 at a moderately elevated temperature 450 C and high pressure 100 standard atmospheres 10 MPa 145 N2 3 H2 2 NH3 DH 91 8 kJ molThis reaction is exothermic and results in decreased entropy meaning that the reaction is favoured at lower temperatures 146 and higher pressures 147 It is difficult and expensive to achieve as lower temperatures result in slower reaction kinetics hence a slower reaction rate 148 and high pressure requires high strength pressure vessels 149 that are not weakened by hydrogen embrittlement Diatomic nitrogen is bound together by a triple bond which makes it rather inert 150 Yield and efficiency are low meaning that the output must be continuously separated and extracted for the reaction to proceed at an acceptable pace 151 Combined with the energy needed to produce hydrogen note 1 and purified atmospheric nitrogen ammonia production is energy intensive accounting for 1 to 2 of global energy consumption 3 of global carbon emissions 153 and 3 to 5 of natural gas consumption 154 The choice of catalyst is important for synthesizing ammonia In 2012 Hideo Hosono s group found that Ru loaded calcium aluminum oxide C12A7 e electride works well as a catalyst and pursued more efficient formation 155 156 This method is implemented in a small plant for ammonia synthesis in Japan 157 158 In 2019 Hosono s group found another catalyst a novel perovskite oxynitride hydride BaCeO3 xNyHz that works at lower temperature and without costly ruthenium 159 Electrochemical Edit Ammonia can be synthesized electrochemically The only required inputs are sources of nitrogen potentially atmospheric and hydrogen water allowing generation at the point of use The availability of renewable energy creates the possibility of zero emission production 160 161 Another electrochemical synthesis mode involves the reductive formation of lithium nitride which can be protonated to ammonia given a proton source Ethanol has been used as such a source although it may degrade The first use of this chemistry was reported in 1930 where lithium solutions in ethanol were used to produce ammonia at pressures of up to 1000 bar 162 In 1994 Tsuneto et al used lithium electrodeposition in tetrahydrofuran to synthesize ammonia at more moderate pressures with reasonable Faradaic efficiency 163 Other studies have since used the ethanol tetrahydrofuran system for electrochemical ammonia synthesis 164 165 In 2019 Lazouski et al proposed a mechanism to explain observed ammonia formation kinetics 164 In 2020 Lazouski et al developed a solvent agnostic gas diffusion electrode to improve nitrogen transport to the reactive lithium The study observed NH3 production rates of up to 30 5 nanomoles s cm2 and Faradaic efficiencies of up to 47 5 4 at ambient temperature and 1 bar pressure 166 In 2021 Suryanto et al replaced ethanol with a tetraalkyl phosphonium salt This cation can stably undergo deprotonation reprotonation cycles while it enhances the medium s ionic conductivity 167 The study observed NH3 production rates of 53 1 nanomoles s cm2 at 69 1 faradaic efficiency experiments under 0 5 bar hydrogen and 19 5 bar nitrogen partial pressure at ambient temperature 167 Role in biological systems and human disease Edit Main symptoms of hyperammonemia ammonia reaching toxic concentrations 168 Ammonia is both a metabolic waste and a metabolic input throughout the biosphere It is an important source of nitrogen for living systems Although atmospheric nitrogen abounds more than 75 few living creatures are capable of using atmospheric nitrogen in its diatomic form N2 gas Therefore nitrogen fixation is required for the synthesis of amino acids which are the building blocks of protein Some plants rely on ammonia and other nitrogenous wastes incorporated into the soil by decaying matter Others such as nitrogen fixing legumes benefit from symbiotic relationships with rhizobia bacteria that create ammonia from atmospheric nitrogen 169 In humans inhaling ammonia in high concentrations can be fatal Exposure to ammonia can cause headaches edema impaired memory seizures and coma as it is neurotoxic in nature 170 Biosynthesis Edit In certain organisms ammonia is produced from atmospheric nitrogen by enzymes called nitrogenases The overall process is called nitrogen fixation Intense effort has been directed toward understanding the mechanism of biological nitrogen fixation The scientific interest in this problem is motivated by the unusual structure of the active site of the enzyme which consists of an Fe7MoS9 ensemble 171 Ammonia is also a metabolic product of amino acid deamination catalyzed by enzymes such as glutamate dehydrogenase 1 Ammonia excretion is common in aquatic animals In humans it is quickly converted to urea which is much less toxic particularly less basic This urea is a major component of the dry weight of urine Most reptiles birds insects and snails excrete uric acid solely as nitrogenous waste Physiology Edit Ammonia plays a role in both normal and abnormal animal physiology It is biosynthesised through normal amino acid metabolism and is toxic in high concentrations The liver converts ammonia to urea through a series of reactions known as the urea cycle Liver dysfunction such as that seen in cirrhosis may lead to elevated amounts of ammonia in the blood hyperammonemia Likewise defects in the enzymes responsible for the urea cycle such as ornithine transcarbamylase lead to hyperammonemia Hyperammonemia contributes to the confusion and coma of hepatic encephalopathy as well as the neurologic disease common in people with urea cycle defects and organic acidurias 172 Ammonia is important for normal animal acid base balance After formation of ammonium from glutamine a ketoglutarate may be degraded to produce two bicarbonate ions which are then available as buffers for dietary acids Ammonium is excreted in the urine resulting in net acid loss Ammonia may itself diffuse across the renal tubules combine with a hydrogen ion and thus allow for further acid excretion 173 Excretion Edit Main article Excretion Ammonium ions are a toxic waste product of metabolism in animals In fish and aquatic invertebrates it is excreted directly into the water In mammals sharks and amphibians it is converted in the urea cycle to urea which is less toxic and can be stored more efficiently In birds reptiles and terrestrial snails metabolic ammonium is converted into uric acid which is solid and can therefore be excreted with minimal water loss 174 Reference ranges for blood tests comparing blood content of ammonia shown in yellow near middle with other constituentsBeyond Earth Edit Ammonia occurs in the atmospheres of the outer giant planets such as Jupiter 0 026 ammonia Saturn 0 012 ammonia and in the atmospheres and ices of Uranus and Neptune Ammonia has been detected in the atmospheres of the giant planets Jupiter Saturn Uranus and Neptune along with other gases such as methane hydrogen and helium The interior of Saturn may include frozen ammonia crystals 175 It is found on Deimos and Phobos the two moons of Mars Interstellar space Edit Ammonia was first detected in interstellar space in 1968 based on microwave emissions from the direction of the galactic core 176 This was the first polyatomic molecule to be so detected The sensitivity of the molecule to a broad range of excitations and the ease with which it can be observed in a number of regions has made ammonia one of the most important molecules for studies of molecular clouds 177 The relative intensity of the ammonia lines can be used to measure the temperature of the emitting medium The following isotopic species of ammonia have been detected NH3 15NH3 NH2D NHD2 and ND3 The detection of triply deuterated ammonia was considered a surprise as deuterium is relatively scarce It is thought that the low temperature conditions allow this molecule to survive and accumulate 178 Since its interstellar discovery NH3 has proved to be an invaluable spectroscopic tool in the study of the interstellar medium With a large number of transitions sensitive to a wide range of excitation conditions NH3 has been widely astronomically detected its detection has been reported in hundreds of journal articles Listed below is a sample of journal articles that highlights the range of detectors that have been used to identify ammonia The study of interstellar ammonia has been important to a number of areas of research in the last few decades Some of these are delineated below and primarily involve using ammonia as an interstellar thermometer Interstellar formation mechanisms Edit The interstellar abundance for ammonia has been measured for a variety of environments The NH3 H2 ratio has been estimated to range from 10 7 in small dark clouds 179 up to 10 5 in the dense core of the Orion molecular cloud complex 180 Although a total of 18 total production routes have been proposed 181 the principal formation mechanism for interstellar NH3 is the reaction NH4 e NH3 HThe rate constant k of this reaction depends on the temperature of the environment with a value of 5 2 10 6 at 10 K 182 The rate constant was calculated from the formula k a T 300 B displaystyle k a T 300 B For the primary formation reaction a 1 05 10 6 and B 0 47 Assuming an NH 4 abundance of 3 10 7 and an electron abundance of 10 7 typical of molecular clouds the formation will proceed at a rate of 1 6 10 9 cm 3s 1 in a molecular cloud of total density 105 cm 3 183 All other proposed formation reactions have rate constants of between 2 and 13 orders of magnitude smaller making their contribution to the abundance of ammonia relatively insignificant 184 As an example of the minor contribution other formation reactions play the reaction H2 NH2 NH3 Hhas a rate constant of 2 2 10 15 Assuming H2 densities of 105 and NH2 H2 ratio of 10 7 this reaction proceeds at a rate of 2 2 10 12 more than 3 orders of magnitude slower than the primary reaction above Some of the other possible formation reactions are H NH4 NH3 H2 PNH3 e P NH3Interstellar destruction mechanisms Edit There are 113 total proposed reactions leading to the destruction of NH3 Of these 39 were tabulated in extensive tables of the chemistry among C N and O compounds 185 A review of interstellar ammonia cites the following reactions as the principal dissociation mechanisms 177 NH3 H3 NH4 H2 1 NH3 HCO NH4 CO 2 with rate constants of 4 39 10 9 186 and 2 2 10 9 187 respectively The above equations 1 2 run at a rate of 8 8 10 9 and 4 4 10 13 respectively These calculations assumed the given rate constants and abundances of NH3 H2 10 5 H3 H2 2 10 5 HCO H2 2 10 9 and total densities of n 105 typical of cold dense molecular clouds 188 Clearly between these two primary reactions equation 1 is the dominant destruction reaction with a rate 10 000 times faster than equation 2 This is due to the relatively high abundance of H3 Single antenna detections Edit Radio observations of NH3 from the Effelsberg 100 m Radio Telescope reveal that the ammonia line is separated into two components a background ridge and an unresolved core The background corresponds well with the locations previously detected CO 189 The 25 m Chilbolton telescope in England detected radio signatures of ammonia in H II regions HNH2O masers H H objects and other objects associated with star formation A comparison of emission line widths indicates that turbulent or systematic velocities do not increase in the central cores of molecular clouds 190 Microwave radiation from ammonia was observed in several galactic objects including W3 OH Orion A W43 W51 and five sources in the galactic centre The high detection rate indicates that this is a common molecule in the interstellar medium and that high density regions are common in the galaxy 191 Interferometric studies Edit VLA observations of NH3 in seven regions with high velocity gaseous outflows revealed condensations of less than 0 1 pc in L1551 S140 and Cepheus A Three individual condensations were detected in Cepheus A one of them with a highly elongated shape They may play an important role in creating the bipolar outflow in the region 192 Extragalactic ammonia was imaged using the VLA in IC 342 The hot gas has temperatures above 70 K which was inferred from ammonia line ratios and appears to be closely associated with the innermost portions of the nuclear bar seen in CO 193 NH3 was also monitored by VLA toward a sample of four galactic ultracompact HII regions G9 62 0 19 G10 47 0 03 G29 96 0 02 and G31 41 0 31 Based upon temperature and density diagnostics it is concluded that in general such clumps are probably the sites of massive star formation in an early evolutionary phase prior to the development of an ultracompact HII region 194 Infrared detections Edit Absorption at 2 97 micrometres due to solid ammonia was recorded from interstellar grains in the Becklin Neugebauer Object and probably in NGC 2264 IR as well This detection helped explain the physical shape of previously poorly understood and related ice absorption lines 195 A spectrum of the disk of Jupiter was obtained from the Kuiper Airborne Observatory covering the 100 to 300 cm 1 spectral range Analysis of the spectrum provides information on global mean properties of ammonia gas and an ammonia ice haze 196 A total of 149 dark cloud positions were surveyed for evidence of dense cores by using the J K 1 1 rotating inversion line of NH3 In general the cores are not spherically shaped with aspect ratios ranging from 1 1 to 4 4 It is also found that cores with stars have broader lines than cores without stars 197 Ammonia has been detected in the Draco Nebula and in one or possibly two molecular clouds which are associated with the high latitude galactic infrared cirrus The finding is significant because they may represent the birthplaces for the Population I metallicity B type stars in the galactic halo that could have been borne in the galactic disk 198 Observations of nearby dark clouds Edit By balancing and stimulated emission with spontaneous emission it is possible to construct a relation between excitation temperature and density Moreover since the transitional levels of ammonia can be approximated by a 2 level system at low temperatures this calculation is fairly simple This premise can be applied to dark clouds regions suspected of having extremely low temperatures and possible sites for future star formation Detections of ammonia in dark clouds show very narrow lines indicative not only of low temperatures but also of a low level of inner cloud turbulence Line ratio calculations provide a measurement of cloud temperature that is independent of previous CO observations The ammonia observations were consistent with CO measurements of rotation temperatures of 10 K With this densities can be determined and have been calculated to range between 104 and 105 cm 3 in dark clouds Mapping of NH3 gives typical clouds sizes of 0 1 pc and masses near 1 solar mass These cold dense cores are the sites of future star formation UC HII regions Edit Ultra compact HII regions are among the best tracers of high mass star formation The dense material surrounding UCHII regions is likely primarily molecular Since a complete study of massive star formation necessarily involves the cloud from which the star formed ammonia is an invaluable tool in understanding this surrounding molecular material Since this molecular material can be spatially resolved it is possible to constrain the heating ionising sources temperatures masses and sizes of the regions Doppler shifted velocity components allow for the separation of distinct regions of molecular gas that can trace outflows and hot cores originating from forming stars Extragalactic detection Edit Ammonia has been detected in external galaxies 199 200 and by simultaneously measuring several lines it is possible to directly measure the gas temperature in these galaxies Line ratios imply that gas temperatures are warm 50 K originating from dense clouds with sizes of tens of pc This picture is consistent with the picture within our Milky Way galaxy hot dense molecular cores form around newly forming stars embedded in larger clouds of molecular material on the scale of several hundred pc giant molecular clouds GMCs See also EditAmmonia data page Chemical data page Ammonia fountain Type of chemical demonstration Ammonia production Overview of history and methods to produce NH3 Ammonia solution Chemical compound Cost of electricity by source Comparison of costs of different electricity generation sources Forming gas Mixture of hydrogen and nitrogen Haber process Main process of ammonia production Hydrazine Colorless flammable liquid with an ammonia like odor Water purification Process of removing impurities from waterNotes Edit Hydrogen required for ammonia synthesis is most often produced through gasification of carbon containing material mostly natural gas but other potential carbon sources include coal petroleum peat biomass or waste As of 2012 the global production of ammonia produced from natural gas using the steam reforming process was 72 152 Hydrogen can also be produced from water and electricity using electrolysis at one time most of Europe s ammonia was produced from the Hydro plant at Vemork Other possibilities include biological hydrogen production or photolysis but at present steam reforming of natural gas is the most economical means of mass producing hydrogen References Edit NOMENCLATURE OF INORGANIC CHEMISTRY IUPAC Recommendations 2005 PDF Archived PDF from the original on 9 October 2022 Gases Densities Retrieved 3 March 2016 Yost Don M 2007 Ammonia and Liquid Ammonia Solutions Systematic Inorganic Chemistry READ BOOKS p 132 ISBN 978 1 4067 7302 6 Blum Alexander 1975 On crystalline character of transparent solid ammonia Radiation Effects and Defects in Solids 24 4 277 Bibcode 1975RadEf 24 277B doi 10 1080 00337577508240819 Budavari Susan ed 1996 The Merck Index An Encyclopedia of Chemicals Drugs and Biologicals 12th ed Merck ISBN 978 0 911910 12 4 Perrin D D Ionisation Constants of Inorganic Acids and Bases in Aqueous Solution 2nd Ed Pergamon Press Oxford 1982 Iwasaki Hiroji Takahashi Mitsuo 1968 Studies on the transport properties of fluids at high pressure The Review of Physical Chemistry of Japan 38 1 a b Zumdahl Steven S 2009 Chemical Principles 6th Ed Houghton Mifflin Company p A22 ISBN 978 0 618 94690 7 a b Ammonia Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health Concentrations IDLH National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health NIOSH Sigma Aldrich Co Ammonia NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards 0028 National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health NIOSH Hannah Ritchie How many people does synthetic fertilizer feed Our World in Data Our World in Data Retrieved 4 September 2021 Ammonia Technology Roadmap Analysis 40 C F R Appendix A to Part 355 The List of Extremely Hazardous Substances and Their Threshold Planning Quantities PDF 1 July 2008 ed Government Printing Office Archived from the original PDF on 25 February 2012 Retrieved 29 October 2011 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a Cite journal requires journal help a b Mineral Commodity Summaries 2020 p 117 Nitrogen PDF USGS 2020 Archived PDF from the original on 9 October 2022 Retrieved 12 February 2020 Nitrogen fixed ammonia statistics USGS 2017 Retrieved 12 February 2020 Global ammonia annual production capacity Mitsubishi Heavy Industries BrandVoice Scaling Ammonia Production for the World s Food Supply Forbes R Norris Shreve Joseph Brink 1977 Chemical Process Industries 4th ed p 276 ISBN 978 0 07 057145 7 See also Gas carrier and Bottled gas Ammonium hydroxide physical properties PDF Archived from the original PDF on 27 November 2007 Pliny the Elder The Natural History BOOK XXXI REMEDIES DERIVED FROM THE AQUATIC PRODUCTION CHAP 39 7 THE VARIOUS KINDS OF SALT THE METHODS OF PREPARING IT AND THE REMEDIES DERIVED FROM IT TWO HUNDRED AND FOUR OBSERVATIONS THERE UPON www perseus tufts edu Hoover Herbert 1950 Georgius Agricola De Re Metallica Translated from the first Latin edition of 1556 New York Dover Publications p 560 ISBN 978 0486600062 Siwa Egypt a b c d e f g h Chisholm 1911 p 861 Shannon Francis Patrick 1938 Tables of the properties of aqua ammonia solutions Part 1 of The Thermodynamics of Absorption Refrigeration Lehigh University studies Science and technology series An ammonia water slurry may swirl below Pluto s icy surface Purdue University 9 November 2015 Pimputkar Siddha Nakamura Shuji January 2016 Decomposition of supercritical ammonia and modeling of supercritical ammonia nitrogen hydrogen solutions with applicability toward ammonothermal conditions The Journal of Supercritical Fluids 107 17 30 doi 10 1016 j supflu 2015 07 032 Hewat A W Riekel C 1979 The crystal structure of deuteroammonia between 2 and 180 K by neutron powder profile refinement Acta Crystallographica Section A 35 4 569 Bibcode 1979AcCrA 35 569H doi 10 1107 S0567739479001340 White Alfred H Melville Wm April 1905 The Decomposition of Ammonia at High Temperatures Journal of the American Chemical Society 27 4 373 386 doi 10 1021 ja01982a005 ISSN 0002 7863 a b c Neufeld R Michel R Herbst Irmer R Schone R Stalke D 2016 Introducing a Hydrogen Bond Donor into a Weakly Nucleophilic Bronsted Base Alkali Metal Hexamethyldisilazides MHMDS M Li Na K Rb and Cs with Ammonia Chem Eur J 22 35 12340 12346 doi 10 1002 chem 201600833 PMID 27457218 a b c Combellas C Kanoufi F Thiebault A 2001 Solutions of solvated electrons in liquid ammonia Journal of Electroanalytical Chemistry 499 144 151 doi 10 1016 S0022 0728 00 00504 0 a b Haynes William M ed 2013 CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics 94th ed CRC Press pp 9 26 ISBN 9781466571143 Cleeton C E Williams N H 1934 Electromagnetic Waves of 1 1 cm 0 in Wave Length and the Absorption Spectrum of Ammonia Physical Review 45 4 234 Bibcode 1934PhRv 45 234C doi 10 1103 PhysRev 45 234 a b c Chisholm 1911 p 862 Baker H B 1894 Influence of moisture on chemical change J Chem Soc 65 611 624 doi 10 1039 CT8946500611 Kobayashi Hideaki Hayakawa Akihiro Somarathne K D Kunkuma A Okafor Ekenechukwu C 2019 Science and technology of ammonia combustion Proceedings of the Combustion Institute 37 109 133 doi 10 1016 j proci 2018 09 029 Khan A S Kelley R D Chapman K S Fenton D L 1995 Flammability limits of ammonia air mixtures U S U S DOE Office of Scientific and Technical Information OSTI 215703 Shrestha Krishna P Seidel Lars Zeuch Thomas Mauss Fabian 7 July 2018 Detailed kinetic mechanism for the oxidation of ammonia including the formation and reduction of nitrogen oxides PDF Energy amp Fuels 32 10 10202 10217 doi 10 1021 acs energyfuels 8b01056 ISSN 0887 0624 S2CID 103854263 Archived PDF from the original on 9 October 2022 Sterrett K F Caron A P 1966 High pressure chemistry of hydrogenous fuels Northrop Space Labs Archived from the original on 23 August 2011 Retrieved 24 December 2009 Laurence C and Gal J F Lewis Basicity and Affinity Scales Data and Measurement Wiley 2010 pp 50 51 ISBN 978 0 470 74957 9 Cramer R E Bopp T T 1977 Graphical display of the enthalpies of adduct formation for Lewis acids and bases Journal of Chemical Education 54 612 613 doi 10 1021 ed054p612 The plots shown in this paper used older parameters Improved E amp C parameters are listed in ECW model a b Chisholm 1911 p 863 OSHA Source Sax N Irving 1984 Dangerous Properties of Industrial Materials 6th Ed Van Nostrand Reinhold ISBN 0 442 28304 0 Hurtado J L Martinez Lowe C R 2014 Ammonia Sensitive Photonic Structures Fabricated in Nafion Membranes by Laser Ablation ACS Applied Materials amp Interfaces 6 11 8903 8908 doi 10 1021 am5016588 ISSN 1944 8244 PMID 24803236 Herodotus with George Rawlinson trans The History of Herodotus New York New York Tandy Thomas Co 1909 vol 2 Book 4 181 pp 304 305 The land of the Ammonians is mentioned elsewhere in Herodotus History and in Pausanias Description of Greece Herodotus with George Rawlinson trans The History of Herodotus New York New York Tandy Thomas Co 1909 vol 1 Book 2 42 p 245 vol 2 Book 3 25 p 73 and vol 2 Book 3 26 p 74 Pausanias with W H S Jones trans Description of Greece London England William Heinemann Ltd 1979 vol 2 Book 3 Ch 18 3 pp 109 and 111 and vol 4 Book 9 Ch 16 1 p 239 Kopp Hermann Geschichte der Chemie History of Chemistry Braunschweig Germany Friedrich Vieweg und Sohn 1845 Part 3 p 237 in German Chisholm 1911 cites Pliny Nat Hist xxxi 39 See Pliny the Elder with John Bostock and H T Riley ed s The Natural History London England H G Bohn 1857 vol 5 Book 31 39 p 502 Sal ammoniac Webmineral Retrieved 7 July 2009 Pliny also mentioned that when some samples of what was purported to be natron Latin nitrum impure sodium carbonate were treated with lime calcium carbonate and water the natron would emit a pungent smell which some authors have interpreted as signifying that the natron either was ammonium chloride or was contaminated with it See Pliny with W H S Jones trans Natural History London England William Heinemann Ltd 1963 vol 8 Book 31 46 pp 448 449 From pp 448 449 Adulteratur in Aegypto calce deprehenditur gusto Sincerum enim statim resolvitur adulteratum calce pungit et asperum or aspersum reddit odorem vehementer In Egypt it i e natron is adulterated with lime which is detected by taste for pure natron melts at once but adulterated natron stings because of the lime and emits a strong bitter odour or when sprinkled aspersum with water emits a vehement odour Kidd John Outlines of Mineralogy Oxford England N Bliss 1809 vol 2 p 6 Moore Nathaniel Fish Ancient Mineralogy Or An Inquiry Respecting Mineral Substances Mentioned by the Ancients New York New York G amp C Carvill amp Co 1834 pp 96 97 See Forbes R J Studies in Ancient Technology vol 5 2nd ed Leiden Netherlands E J Brill 1966 pp 19 48 and 65 Moeller Walter O The Wool Trade of Ancient Pompeii Leiden Netherlands E J Brill 1976 p 20 Faber G A pseudonym of Goldschmidt Gunther May 1938 Dyeing and tanning in classical antiquity Ciba Review 9 277 312 Available at Elizabethan Costume Smith William A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities London England John Murray 1875 article Fullo i e fullers or launderers pp 551 553 Rousset Henri 31 March 1917 The laundries of the Ancients Scientific American Supplement 83 2152 197 Bond Sarah E Trade and Taboo Disreputable Professions in the Roman Mediterranean Ann Arbor Michigan University of Michigan Press 2016 p 112 Binz Arthur 1936 Altes und Neues uber die technische Verwendung des Harnes Ancient and modern information about the technological use of urine Zeitschrift fur Angewandte Chemie 49 23 355 360 in German Witty Michael December 2016 Ancient Roman urine chemistry Acta Archaeologica 87 1 179 191 Witty speculates that the Romans obtained ammonia in concentrated form by adding wood ash impure potassium carbonate to urine that had been fermented for several hours Struvite magnesium ammonium phosphate is thereby precipitated and the yield of struvite can be increased by then treating the solution with bittern a magnesium rich solution that is a byproduct of making salt from sea water Roasting struvite releases ammonia vapors Lenkeit Roberta Edwards 23 October 2018 High Heels and Bound Feet And Other Essays on Everyday Anthropology Second Edition Waveland Press p 72 ISBN 978 1 4786 3841 4 Perdigao Jorge 3 August 2016 Tooth Whitening An Evidence Based Perspective Springer p 170 ISBN 978 3 319 38849 6 Bonitz Michael Lopez Jose Becker Kurt Thomsen Hauke 9 April 2014 Complex Plasmas Scientific Challenges and Technological Opportunities Springer Science amp Business Media p 465 ISBN 978 3 319 05437 7 Haq Syed Nomanul 1995 Names Natures and Things The Alchemist Jabir Ibn Hayyan and His Kitab Al Ahjar Book of Stones Springer ISBN 978 0 7923 3254 1 Spiritus salis urinae spirit of the salt of urine i e ammonium carbonate had apparently been produced before Valentinus although he presented a new simpler method for preparing it in his book Valentinus Basilius Vier Tractatlein Fr Basilii Valentini Four essays of Brother Basil Valentine Frankfurt am Main Germany Luca Jennis 1625 Supplementum oder Zugabe Supplement or appendix pp 80 81 Der Weg zum Universal damit die drei Stein zusammen kommen The path to the Universal so that the three stones come together From p 81 Der Spiritus salis Urinae nimbt langes wesen zubereiten dieser process aber ist wass leichter unnd naher auss dem Salz von Armenia Nun nimb sauberen schonen Armenischen Salz armoniac ohn alles sublimiren thue ihn in ein Kolben giesse ein Oleum Tartari drauff dass es wie ein Muss oder Brey werde vermachs baldt dafur thu auch ein grosen vorlag so lege sich als baldt der Spiritus Salis Urinae im Helm an Crystallisch Spirit of the salt of urine i e ammonium carbonate requires a long method i e procedure to prepare this i e Valentine s process starting from the salt from Armenia i e ammonium chloride however is somewhat easier and shorter Now take clean nice Armenian salt without sublimating all of it put it in a distillation flask pour oil of tartar i e potassium carbonate that has dissolved only in the water that it has absorbed from the air on it so that it i e the mixture becomes like a mush or paste assemble it i e the distilling apparatus alembic quickly for that purpose connect a large receiving flask then soon spirit of the salt of urine deposits as crystals in the helmet i e the outlet for the vapors which is atop the distillation flask See also Kopp Hermann Geschichte der Chemie History of Chemistry Braunschweig Germany Friedrich Vieweg und Sohn 1845 Part 3 p 243 in German Maurice P Crosland 2004 Historical Studies in the Language of Chemistry Courier Dover Publications p 72 ISBN 978 0 486 43802 3 Black Joseph 1893 1755 Experiments upon magnesia alba quick lime and other alcaline substances Edinburgh W F Clay Jacobson Mark Z 23 April 2012 Air Pollution and Global Warming History Science and Solutions Cambridge University Press ISBN 9781107691155 Woulfe s bottle Chemistry World Retrieved 1 July 2017 Woulfe Peter 1 January 1767 Experiments on the Distillation of Acids Volatile Alkalies amp c Shewing How They May be Condensed without Loss and How Thereby We May Avoid Disagreeable and Noxious Fumes In a Letter from Mr Peter Woulfe F R S to John Ellis Esq F R S Philosophical Transactions 57 517 536 Bibcode 1767RSPT 57 517W doi 10 1098 rstl 1767 0052 ISSN 0261 0523 Pictorial life history of the apothecary chemist Carl Wilhelm Scheele American Institute of the History of Pharmacy 1942 hdl 1811 28946 Pictorial 20Life 20History Scheele pdf See Priestley Joseph 1773 Extrait d une lettre de M Priestley en date du 14 Octobre 1773 Extract of a letter from Mr Priestley dated 14 October 1773 Observations sur la Physique 2 389 Priestley Joseph Experiments and Observations on Different Kinds of Air vol 1 2nd ed London England 1775 Part 2 1 Observations on Alkaline Air pp 163 177 Schofield Robert E The Enlightened Joseph Priestley A Study of His Life and Work from 1773 to 1804 University Park Pennsylvania Pennsylvania State University Press 2004 pp 93 94 By 1775 Priestley had observed that electricity could decompose ammonia alkaline air yielding a flammable gas hydrogen See Priestley Joseph Experiments and Observations on Different Kinds of Air vol 2 London England J Johnson 1775 pp 239 240 Berthollet 1785 Analyse de l alkali volatil Analysis of volatile alkali Memoires de l Academie Royale des Sciences 316 326 a b Max Appl 2006 Ammonia Ammonia in Ullmann s Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry Weinheim Wiley VCH doi 10 1002 14356007 a02 143 pub2 ISBN 978 3527306732 Smith Roland 2001 Conquering Chemistry Sydney McGraw Hill ISBN 978 0 07 470146 1 Edwin M Kaiser 2001 Calcium Ammonia Encyclopedia of Reagents for Organic Synthesis doi 10 1002 047084289X rc003 ISBN 978 0471936237 Lassaletta Luis Billen Gilles Grizzetti Bruna Anglade Juliette Garnier Josette 2014 50 year trends in nitrogen use efficiency of world cropping systems the relationship between yield and nitrogen input to cropland Environmental Research Letters 9 10 105011 Bibcode 2014ERL 9j5011L doi 10 1088 1748 9326 9 10 105011 ISSN 1748 9326 David Brown 18 April 2013 Anhydrous ammonia fertilizer abundant important hazardous Washington Post Retrieved 23 April 2013 Holleman A F Wiberg E 2001 Inorganic Chemistry San Diego Academic Press ISBN 978 0 12 352651 9 The Facts About Ammonia www health ny gov Retrieved 6 April 2018 OSHA Hazard Communication Standard Safety Data Sheets PDF OSHA Archived PDF from the original on 9 October 2022 Rizk Ouaini Rosette Ferriol Michel Gazet Josette Saugier Cohen Adad Marie Therese 2006 Oxidation reaction of ammonia with sodium hypochlorite Production and degradation reactions of chloramines Bulletin de la Societe Chimique de France Vol 4 p 512 doi 10 1002 14356007 a02 143 pub2 ISBN 978 3527306732 Barry Keith How To Clean Your Car s Interior Consumer Reports Retrieved 31 January 2021 Applications of Anhydrous Ammonia and Aqueous Ammonia www mysoreammonia com Retrieved 2 February 2022 Samuel Rideal 1895 Disinfection and Disinfectants An Introduction to the Study of London Charles Griffin and Company p 109 Tajkarimi Mehrdad Riemann H P Hajmeer M N Gomez E L Razavilar V Cliver D O et al 2008 Ammonia disinfection of animal feeds Laboratory study International Journal of Food Microbiology 122 1 2 23 28 doi 10 1016 j ijfoodmicro 2007 11 040 PMID 18155794 Kim J S Lee Y Y Kim T H January 2016 A review on alkaline pretreatment technology for bioconversion of lignocellulosic biomass Bioresource Technology 199 42 48 doi 10 1016 j biortech 2015 08 085 PMID 26341010 Evaluation of Treatment Methods for Reducing Bacteria in Textured Beef Jensen Jean L et al American Society of Agricultural and Biological Engineers Annual Meeting 2009 Reference Document Antimicrobial Interventions for Beef Dawna Winkler and Kerri B Harris Center for Food Safety Department of Animal Science Texas A amp M University May 2009 page 12 Moss Michael 3 October 2009 The Burger That Shattered Her Life The New York Times Moss Michael 31 December 2009 Safety of Beef Processing Method Is Questioned The New York Times a b c Lan Rong Tao Shanwen 28 August 2014 Ammonia as a suitable fuel for fuel cells Frontiers in Energy Research 2 35 doi 10 3389 fenrg 2014 00035 Giddey S Badwal S P S Munnings C Dolan M 10 October 2017 Ammonia as a Renewable Energy Transportation Media ACS Sustainable Chemistry amp Engineering 5 11 10231 10239 doi 10 1021 acssuschemeng 7b02219 Afif Ahmed Radenahmad Nikdilila Cheok Quentin Shams Shahriar Hyun Kim Jung Azad Abul 12 February 2016 Ammonia fed fuel cells a comprehensive review Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 60 822 835 doi 10 1016 j rser 2016 01 120 Retrieved 1 January 2021 David William I F Makepeace Joshua W Callear Samantha K Hunter Hazel M A Taylor James D Wood Thomas J Jones Martin O 24 September 2014 Hydrogen Production from Ammonia Using Sodium Amide Journal of the American Chemical Society 136 38 13082 13085 doi 10 1021 ja5042836 ISSN 0002 7863 PMID 24972299 Lucentini Ilaria Garcia Colli German Luzi Carlos D Serrano Isabel Martinez Osvaldo M Llorca Jordi 5 June 2021 Catalytic ammonia decomposition over Ni Ru supported on CeO2 for hydrogen production Effect of metal loading and kinetic analysis Applied Catalysis B Environmental 286 119896 doi 10 1016 j apcatb 2021 119896 ISSN 0926 3373 S2CID 233540470 Douglas Self 1 October 2007 Ammonia Motors Retrieved 28 November 2010 Louis C Hennick Elbridge Harper Charlton 1965 The Streetcars of New Orleans Pelican Publishing pp 14 16 ISBN 9781455612598 a b Ammonia as a Transportation Fuel IV PDF Norm Olson Iowa Energy Center 15 16 October 2007 Archived from the original PDF on 7 February 2012 Lee Dongeun Min Hyungeun Park Hyunho Song Han Ho 1 November 2017 Development of new combustion strategy for internal combustion engine fueled by pure ammonia PDF Seoul National University Department of Mechanical Engineering Archived PDF from the original on 9 October 2022 Retrieved 29 January 2019 Brohi Emtiaz Ali 2014 Ammonia as fuel for internal combustion engines PDF Chalmers University of Technology Archived PDF from the original on 9 October 2022 Retrieved 29 January 2019 Elucidare 2 February 2008 Ammonia New possibilities for hydrogen storage and transportation PDF Elucidare Limited Archived PDF from the original on 8 October 2010 Ammonia chm bris ac uk Retrieved 3 March 2016 Zacharakis Jutz George Kong Song Charng 2013 Characteristics of an SI Engine Using Direct Ammonia Injection PDF Department of Mechanical Engineering Iowa State University Archived PDF from the original on 9 October 2022 Retrieved 29 January 2019 Green ammonia Royal Society royalsociety org Ammonia Powered Car on YouTube Watch Ammonia Fuel Greg Vezina Retrieved 7 July 2009 Welcome to NH3 Car NH3Car com Lindzon Jared 27 February 2019 He s Creating a New Fuel Out of Thin Air for 85 Cents per Gallon OZY Retrieved 26 April 2019 Carbon free fuel Australian hydrogen car breakthrough could go global Lexy Hamilton Smith ABC News Online 2018 08 08 Saudi Arabia Sends Blue Ammonia to Japan in World First Shipment Bloomberg com 27 September 2020 Retrieved 28 September 2020 Service Robert F 12 July 2018 Ammonia a renewable fuel made from sun air and water could power the globe without carbon Science AAAS Retrieved 28 September 2020 Will Saudi Arabia build the world s largest green hydrogen and ammonia plant energypost eu 17 September 2020 Retrieved 9 October 2020 DSME gets LR AIP for ammonia fueled 23 000 TEU boxship Offshore Energy 6 October 2020 Retrieved 9 October 2020 What will power aircraft in the future Aviafuture 30 March 2022 Retrieved 24 May 2022 Japan to advance ammonia co firing technology Argus Media 24 June 2021 Retrieved 8 November 2021 First International Conference on Fuel Ammonia 2021 ICFA 6 October 2021 Retrieved 7 November 2021 First International Conference on Fuel Ammonia Held METI Japan 12 October 2021 Retrieved 7 November 2021 CO2 free power generation achieved with the world s first gas turbine using 100 liquid ammonia Press release IHI Corporation 16 June 2022 Retrieved 1 July 2022 Masaya Kato 14 July 2022 Quad members agree to promote hydrogen ammonia fuel tech The Nikkei Retrieved 14 July 2022 On the use of ammonia as a fuel A perspective PDF Nitrogen Oxides as a By product of Ammonia Hydrogen Combustion Regimes PDF Diesel Greener Than You Think Retrieved 7 July 2009 Phosgene Health and Safety Guide International Programme on Chemical Safety 1998 MOL studies ammonia FSRU concept Offshore Energy 3 February 2022 Retrieved 3 February 2022 Collins l collins Leigh 27 January 2022 SPECIAL REPORT Why shipping pure hydrogen around the world might already be dead in the water Recharge Recharge Latest renewable energy news Retrieved 3 February 2022 Wright Jerry 13 April 2015 Cooling System Keeps Space Station Safe Productive NASA Retrieved 1 July 2017 International Space Station s Cooling System How It Works Infographic Space com Retrieved 1 July 2017 Reducing Hydrofluorocarbon HFC Use and Emissions in the Federal Sector through SNAP PDF Archived PDF from the original on 9 October 2022 Retrieved 2 December 2018 Anhydrous ammonia tank locks have flaws Cedar Rapids Gazette 6 October 2009 Illinois Attorney General Basic Understanding of Meth Illinoisattorneygeneral gov Archived from the original on 10 September 2010 Retrieved 21 May 2011 Greenberg Michael I 1 January 2003 Occupational Industrial and Environmental Toxicology Elsevier Health Sciences ISBN 978 0323013406 Wlochowicz A Stelmasiak E 1983 Change in thermal properties of wool after treatment with liquid ammonia Journal of Thermal Analysis and Calorimetry 26 1 17 doi 10 1007 BF01914084 S2CID 96930751 Horkheimer Donald 2005 Ammonia A Solution for Airships Demanding Rapid Changes in Net Buoyancy AIAA 5th ATIO and16th Lighter Than Air Sys Tech And Balloon Systems Conferences Aerospace Researh Central doi 10 2514 6 2005 7393 ISBN 978 1 62410 067 3 Retrieved 27 October 2022 Fuming white oak woodweb com minerals year book vol 3 a b Toxic FAQ Sheet for Ammonia PDF Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry ATSDR September 2004 Archived PDF from the original on 9 October 2022 Ammonia IDLH Documentation Is Anhydrous Ammonia covered under the Hazardous Materials Safety Permit Program from the website of the United States Department of Transportation DOT Berg J M Tymoczko J L Stryer L 2002 23 4 Ammonium Ion is Converted into Urea in Most Terrestrial Vertebrates Biochemistry 5th ed Wang Mingyi Kong Weimeng Marten Ruby He Xu Cheng Chen Dexian Pfeifer Joschka Heitto Arto Kontkanen Jenni Dada Lubna Kurten Andreas Yli Juuti Taina 13 May 2020 Rapid growth of new atmospheric particles by nitric acid and ammonia condensation Nature 581 7807 184 189 Bibcode 2020Natur 581 184W doi 10 1038 s41586 020 2270 4 ISSN 1476 4687 PMC 7334196 PMID 32405020 Talhout Reinskje Schulz Thomas Florek Ewa Van Benthem Jan Wester Piet Opperhuizen Antoon 2011 Hazardous Compounds in Tobacco Smoke International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 8 12 613 628 doi 10 3390 ijerph8020613 ISSN 1660 4601 PMC 3084482 PMID 21556207 Cutting Edge Solutions For Coking Wastewater Reuse To Meet The Standard of Circulation Cooling Systems www wateronline com Retrieved 16 January 2016 Vasudevan Rajaram Subijoy Dutta Krishna Parameswaran 30 June 2005 Sustainable Mining Practices A Global Perspective CRC Press p 113 ISBN 978 1 4398 3423 7 a b c Oram Brian Ammonia in Groundwater Runoff and Streams The Water Centre Retrieved 3 December 2014 Hargreaves J A Tucker C S 2004 Managing ammonia in fish ponds Southern Regional Aquaculture Center a b c Sergeant Chris 5 February 2014 The Management of Ammonia Levels in an Aquaculture Environment Water Wastewater Retrieved 3 December 2014 Electronic Code of Federal Regulations Archived 4 November 2011 at the Wayback Machine Ecfr gpoaccess gov Retrieved on 22 December 2011 Ammonia Tanks Carbon and Stainless Steel Construction ammoniatanks com Retrieved 28 June 2021 Nitrogen Statistics and Information U S Geological Survey www usgs gov Retrieved 24 January 2023 a b Nitrogen Fixed Ammonia 2022 PDF U S National Minerals Information Center Retrieved 24 January 2023 Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1918 Haber Bosch process Retrieved 7 July 2009 Chemistry of the Group 2 Elements Be Mg Ca Sr Ba Ra BBC co uk Retrieved 7 July 2009 Atkins P W Overton T L Rourke J P Weller M T and Armstrong F A 2010 Shriver and Atkins Inorganic Chemistry 5th Edi W H Freeman and Company New York p 383 ISBN 978 1 42 921820 7 Clark 2013 The forward reaction the production of ammonia is exothermic According to Le Chatelier s Principle this will be favoured at a lower temperature The system will respond by moving the position of equilibrium to counteract this in other words by producing more heat To obtain as much ammonia as possible in the equilibrium mixture as low a temperature as possible is needed Clark 2013 Notice that there are 4 molecules on the left hand side of the equation but only 2 on the right According to Le Chatelier s Principle by increasing the pressure the system will respond by favouring the reaction which produces fewer molecules That will cause the pressure to fall again To get as much ammonia as possible in the equilibrium mixture as high a pressure as possible is needed 200 atmospheres is a high pressure but not amazingly high Clark 2013 However 400 450 C isn t a low temperature Rate considerations The lower the temperature you use the slower the reaction becomes A manufacturer is trying to produce as much ammonia as possible per day It makes no sense to try to achieve an equilibrium mixture which contains a very high proportion of ammonia if it takes several years for the reaction to reach that equilibrium Clark 2013 Rate considerations Increasing the pressure brings the molecules closer together In this particular instance it will increase their chances of hitting and sticking to the surface of the catalyst where they can react The higher the pressure the better in terms of the rate of a gas reaction Economic considerations Very high pressures are expensive to produce on two counts Extremely strong pipes and containment vessels are needed to withstand the very high pressure That increases capital costs when the plant is built Chemistry of Nitrogen Compounds Chem LibreTexts org 5 June 2019 Retrieved 7 July 2019 Clark 2013 At each pass of the gases through the reactor only about 15 of the nitrogen and hydrogen converts to ammonia This figure also varies from plant to plant By continual recycling of the unreacted nitrogen and hydrogen the overall conversion is about 98 Ammonia Industrial Efficiency Technology amp Measures 30 April 2013 Retrieved 6 April 2018 Electrochemically produced ammonia could revolutionize food production 9 July 2018 Retrieved 15 December 2018 Ammonia manufacturing consumes 1 to 2 of total global energy and is responsible for approximately 3 of global carbon dioxide emissions Song Yang Hensley Dale Bonnesen Peter Liang Liango Huang Jingsong Baddorf Arthur Tschaplinski Timothy Engle Nancy Wu Zili Cullen David Meyer Harry III Sumpter Bobby Rondinone Adam 2 May 2018 A physical catalyst for the electrolysis of nitrogen to ammonia Science Advances Oak Ridge National Laboratory 4 4 e1700336 Bibcode 2018SciA 4E0336S doi 10 1126 sciadv 1700336 PMC 5922794 PMID 29719860 Retrieved 15 December 2018 Ammonia synthesis consumes 3 to 5 of the world s natural gas making it a significant contributor to greenhouse gas emissions Kuganathan Navaratnarajah Hosono Hideo Shluger Alexander L Sushko Peter V January 2014 Enhanced N2 Dissociation on Ru Loaded Inorganic Electride Journal of the American Chemical Society 136 6 2216 2219 doi 10 1021 ja410925g PMID 24483141 Hara Michikazu Kitano Masaaki Hosono Hideo Sushko Peter V 2017 Ru Loaded C12A7 e Electride as a Catalyst for Ammonia Synthesi ACS Catalysis 7 4 2313 2324 doi 10 1021 acscatal 6b03357 Ajinomoto Co Inc UMI and Tokyo Institute of Technology Professors Establish New Company to implement the World s First On Site Production of Ammonia Ajinomoto 27 April 2017 Retrieved 9 November 2021 Stephen H Crolius 17 December 2020 Tsubame BHB Launches Joint Evaluation with Mitsubishi Chemical Ammonia Energy Association Retrieved 9 November 2021 Kitano Masaaki Kujirai Jun Ogasawara Kiya Matsuishi Satoru Tada Tomofumi Abe Hitoshi Niwa Yasuhiro Hosono Hideo 2019 Low Temperature Synthesis of Perovskite Oxynitride Hydrides as Ammonia Synthesis Catalysts Journal of the American Chemical Society 141 51 20344 20353 doi 10 1021 jacs 9b10726 PMID 31755269 S2CID 208227325 Lavars Nick 30 November 2021 Green ammonia electrolysis breakthrough could finally kill Haber Bosch New Atlas Archived from the original on 30 November 2021 Retrieved 3 December 2021 Blaine Loz 19 November 2021 FuelPositive promises green ammonia at 60 the cost of today s gray New Atlas Archived from the original on 19 November 2021 Retrieved 3 December 2021 Fichter Fr Girard Pierre Erlenmeyer Hans 1 December 1930 Elektrolytische Bindung von komprimiertem Stickstoff bei gewohnlicher Temperatur Helvetica Chimica Acta 13 6 1228 1236 doi 10 1002 hlca 19300130604 Tsuneto Akira Kudo Akihiko Sakata Tadayoshi 4 March 1994 Lithium mediated electrochemical reduction of high pressure N2 to NH3 Journal of Electroanalytical Chemistry 367 1 183 188 doi 10 1016 0022 0728 93 03025 K ISSN 1572 6657 a b Lazouski Nikifar Schiffer Zachary J Williams Kindle Manthiram Karthish 17 April 2019 Understanding Continuous Lithium Mediated Electrochemical Nitrogen Reduction Joule 3 4 1127 1139 doi 10 1016 j joule 2019 02 003 ISSN 2542 4351 S2CID 107985507 Andersen Suzanne Z Colic Viktor Yang Sungeun Schwalbe Jay A Nielander Adam C McEnaney Joshua M Enemark Rasmussen Kasper Baker Jon G Singh Aayush R Rohr Brian A Statt Michael J June 2019 A rigorous electrochemical ammonia synthesis protocol with quantitative isotope measurements Nature 570 7762 504 508 Bibcode 2019Natur 570 504A doi 10 1038 s41586 019 1260 x hdl 10044 1 72812 ISSN 1476 4687 PMID 31117118 S2CID 162182383 Lazouski Nikifar Chung Minju Williams Kindle Gala Michal L Manthiram Karthish 1 May 2020 Non aqueous gas diffusion electrodes for rapid ammonia synthesis from nitrogen and water splitting derived hydrogen Nature Catalysis 3 5 463 469 doi 10 1038 s41929 020 0455 8 ISSN 2520 1158 S2CID 218495730 a b Suryanto Bryan H R Matuszek Karolina Choi Jaecheol Hodgetts Rebecca Y Du Hoang Long Bakker Jacinta M Kang Colin S M Cherepanov Pavel V Simonov Alexandr N MacFarlane Douglas R 11 June 2021 Nitrogen reduction to ammonia at high efficiency and rates based on a phosphonium proton shuttle Science 372 6547 1187 1191 Bibcode 2021Sci 372 1187S doi 10 1126 science abg2371 ISSN 0036 8075 PMID 34112690 S2CID 235396282 Roth Karl S eMedicine Specialties gt Metabolic Diseases gt Hyperammonemia Retrieved 7 July 2009 Adjei M B Quesenberry K H Chamblis C G June 2002 Nitrogen Fixation and Inoculation of Forage Legumes University of Florida IFAS Extension Archived from the original on 20 May 2007 Identifying the direct effects of ammonia on the brain PubMed Igarashi Robert Y Laryukhin Mikhail Dos Santos Patricia C Lee Hong In Dean Dennis R Seefeldt Lance C Hoffman Brian M May 2005 Trapping H Bound to the Nitrogenase FeMo Cofactor Active Site during H2 Evolution Characterization by ENDOR Spectroscopy Journal of the American Chemical Society 127 17 6231 6241 doi 10 1021 ja043596p PMID 15853328 Zschocke Johannes Hoffman Georg 2004 Vademecum Metabolism Schattauer Verlag ISBN 978 3794523856 Rose Burton Helmut Rennke 1994 Renal Pathophysiology Baltimore Williams amp Wilkins ISBN 978 0 683 07354 6 Campbell Neil A Jane B Reece 2002 44 Biology 6th ed San Francisco Pearson Education Inc pp 937 938 ISBN 978 0 8053 6624 2 Edited by Kirk Munsell Image page credit Lunar and Planetary Institute NASA NASA s Solar Exploration Multimedia Gallery Gas Giant Interiors Archived 20 February 2006 at the Wayback Machine Retrieved 26 April 2006 Cheung A C Rank D M Townes C H Thornton D D Welch W J 1968 Detection of NH3 molecules in the interstellar medium by their microwave emission Phys Rev Lett 21 25 1701 Bibcode 1968PhRvL 21 1701C doi 10 1103 PhysRevLett 21 1701 a b Ho P T P Townes C H 1983 Interstellar ammonia Annu Rev Astron Astrophys 21 1 239 70 Bibcode 1983ARA amp A 21 239H doi 10 1146 annurev aa 21 090183 001323 Millar T J 2003 Deuterium Fractionation in Interstellar Clouds Space Science Reviews 106 1 73 86 Bibcode 2003SSRv 106 73M doi 10 1023 A 1024677318645 S2CID 189793190 Ungerechts H Walmsley C M Winnewisser G 1980 Ammonia and cyanoacetylene observations of the high density core of L 183 L 134 N Astron Astrophys 88 259 Bibcode 1980A amp A 88 259U Genzel R Downes D Ho P T P 1982 NH3 in Orion KL A new interpretation Astrophysical Journal 259 L103 Bibcode 1982ApJ 259L 103G doi 10 1086 183856 The UMIST data for Astrochemistry Retrieved 7 July 2009 Vikor L Al Khalili A Danared H Djuric N Dunn G H Larsson M Le Padellec A Rosen S Af Ugglas M 1999 Branching fractions of dissociative recombination of NH4 and NH2 molecular ions Astronomy and Astrophysics 344 1027 Bibcode 1999A amp A 344 1027V van Dishoeck E F Black J H 1986 Comprehensive models of diffuse interstellar clouds Physical conditions and molecular abundances PDF Astrophys J Suppl Ser 62 109 145 Bibcode 1986ApJS 62 109V doi 10 1086 191135 hdl 1887 1980 astrochemistry net astrochemistry net Retrieved 21 May 2011 Prasad S S Huntress W T 1980 A model for gas phase chemistry in interstellar clouds The Astrophysical Journal 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52 1 81 Bibcode 1982Icar 52 81O doi 10 1016 0019 1035 82 90170 1 Benson P J Myers P 1989 A survey for dense cores in dark clouds Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series 71 89 Bibcode 1989ApJS 71 89B doi 10 1086 191365 Mebold U Heithausen A Reif K 1987 Ammonia in the galactic halo and the infrared cirrus Astronomy and Astrophysics 180 213 Bibcode 1987A amp A 180 213M Martin R N Ho P T P 1979 Detection of extragalactic ammonia Astronomy and Astrophysics 74 1 L7 Bibcode 1979A amp A 74L 7M Takano S Nakai N Kawaguchi K 1 April 2002 Observations of Ammonia in External Galaxies I NGC 253 and M 82 Publications of the Astronomical Society of Japan 54 2 195 207 Bibcode 2002PASJ 54 195T doi 10 1093 pasj 54 2 195 Works Cited Edit Aqua Ammonia airgasspecialtyproducts com Archived from the original on 19 November 2010 Retrieved 28 November 2010 This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain Chisholm Hugh ed 1911 Ammonia Encyclopaedia Britannica Vol 1 11th ed Cambridge University Press pp 861 863 Clark Jim April 2013 2002 The Haber Process Retrieved 15 December 2018 Further reading EditBretherick L ed 1986 Hazards in the Chemical Laboratory 4th ed London Royal Society of Chemistry ISBN 978 0 85186 489 1 OCLC 16985764 Greenwood Norman N Earnshaw Alan 1997 Chemistry of the Elements 2nd ed Butterworth Heinemann ISBN 978 0 08 037941 8 Housecroft C E Sharpe A G 2000 Inorganic Chemistry 1st ed New York Prentice Hall ISBN 978 0 582 31080 3 Weast R C ed 1972 Handbook of Chemistry and Physics 53rd ed Cleveland OH Chemical Rubber Co External links Edit Wikimedia Commons has media related to Ammonia International Chemical Safety Card 0414 anhydrous ammonia ilo org International Chemical Safety Card 0215 aqueous solutions ilo org CID 222 from PubChem Ammoniac et solutions aqueuses in French Institut National de Recherche et de Securite Archived from the original on 11 December 2010 Emergency Response to Ammonia Fertilizer Releases Spills for the Minnesota Department of Agriculture ammoniaspills org National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health Ammonia Page cdc gov NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards Ammonia cdc gov Ammonia video Portal Chemistry Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Ammonia amp oldid 1136443587, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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