Northern Thai language

Not to be confused with Northern Tai languages.

Kam Mueang (Northern Thai: ᨣᩴᩤᨾᩮᩬᩥᨦ, กำเมือง (listen)) or Northern Thai language (Thai: ภาษาไทยถิ่นเหนือ) is the language of the Northern Thai people of Lanna, Thailand. It is a Southwestern Tai language that is closely related to tai lue language. Kam Mueang has approximately six million speakers, most of whom live in the native Northern Thailand, with a smaller community of Lanna speakers in northwestern Laos.

Northern Thai
ᨣᩴᩤᨾᩮᩬᩥᨦ กำเมือง
Tai Tham script traditional transcription (top) Thai alphabet currently popular with non-standard form (bottom)
Pronunciation	[kam˧.mɯaŋ˧], (listen)
Native to	Thailand (Chiang Mai, Lamphun, Lampang, Uttaradit, Phrae, Nan, Phayao, Chiang Rai, Mae Hong Son and Communities throughout Thailand) Myanmar (Tachileik, Myawaddy) Laos (Houayxay, Ton Pheung)
Region	Northern Thailand
Ethnicity	Northern Thai
Native speakers	6 million (2015)^[1]
Language family	Kra–Dai Tai Southwestern (Thai) Chiang Saen Northern Thai
Writing system	Tai Tham script Thai script
Official status
Recognised minority language in	Thailand
Language codes
ISO 639-3	nod
Glottolog	nort2740

Speakers of this language generally consider the name "Tai Yuan" to be pejorative^{[citation needed]}. They refer to themselves as Khon Mueang (ᨤᩫ᩠ᨶᨾᩮᩬᩥᨦ, คนเมือง, [xon˧.mɯaŋ˧] – literally "people of Mueang" meaning "city dwellers"), Lanna, or Northern Thai. The language is also sometimes referred to as Phayap (พายัพ, Thai pronunciation: [pʰāː.jáp]), "Northwestern (speech)".

The term Yuan is still sometimes used for Northern Thai's distinctive Tai Tham alphabet, which is closely related to the old Tai Lue alphabet and the Lao religious alphabets. The use of the Tua Mueang, as the traditional alphabet is known, is now largely limited to Buddhist temples, where many old sermon manuscripts are still in active use. There is no active production of literature in the traditional alphabet, and when used in writing standard Thai script is invariably used. The modern spoken form is called Kam Mueang. There is a resurgence of interest in writing it in the traditional way, but the modern pronunciation differs from that prescribed in spelling rules.^[2]

Nameboard of a Buddhist temple in Chiang Mai written with Tai Tham script: Wat Mokhamtuang (and street number 119 in Thai)

Classification

Further information: Tai–Kadai languages, Tai languages, and Tai peoples

Northern Thai is classified as one of the Chiang Saen languages—others being Thai, Southern Thai and numerous smaller languages, which together with the Northwestern Tai and Lao-Phutai languages, form the Southwestern branch of Tai languages. The Tai languages are a branch of the Kra–Dai language family, which encompasses a large number of indigenous languages spoken in an arc from Hainan and Guangxi south through Laos and Northern Vietnam to the Cambodian border.

From a purely genealogical standpoint, most linguists consider Northern Thai to be more closely related to Central Thai than to Lao or Isan, but the language has been heavily influenced by both Lao and Central Thai throughout history. All Southwestern Tai languages form a coherent dialect continuum of more or less mutually intelligible varieties, with few sharp dividing lines. Nevertheless, Northern Thai has today become closer to the Central Thai language, as Standard Thai is the principal language of education and government and spoken throughout Thailand.

Kra-Dai

Hlai languages Kam-Sui languages Kra languages Be language  Tai languages  Northern Tai languages Central Tai languages Southwestern Tai languages Northwestern Tai languages Khamti language Shan language others Chiang Saen languages Tai Lue language Kam Mueang language Sukhothai language Thai language Southern Thai language Lao‑Phuthai languages Tai Yo language Phuthai language Lao language (Isan language)

Names

The Northern Thai language has various names in Northern Thai, Thai, and other Tai languages.

• In Northern Thai, it is commonly called kam mueang (ᨣᩴᩤᨾᩮᩬᩥᨦ, /kām.mɯ̄aŋ/, literally "city language"; cf. Standard Thai: คำเมือง /kʰām.mɯ̄əŋ/), or phasa Lan Na (ᨽᩣᩈᩣᩃ᩶ᩣ᩠ᨶᨶᩣ, ภาษาล้านนา /pʰāː.sǎː.láːn.nāː/, literally "the language of Lan Na").
• In Central Thai and Southern Thai, Northern Thai is known as phasa thin phayap (ภาษาถิ่นพายัพ /pʰāː.sǎː.tʰìn.pʰāː.jáp/, literally "the language of the northwestern region"), or phasa thai thin nuea (ภาษาไทยถิ่นเหนือ /pʰāː.sǎː.tʰāj.tʰìn.nɯ̌a/, literally "the Thai language of the northern region", or colloquially it is known as phasa nuea (ภาษาเหนือ /pʰāː.sǎː.nɯ̌a/, literally "the northern language").
• In Lao, it is known as phasa nyuan or phasa nyon (ພາສາຍວນ or ພາສາໂຍນ respectively, /pʰáː.sǎː.ɲúan/ or /pʰáː.sǎː.ɲóːn/ respectively, literally "the Tai Yuan language").
• In Tai Lü, it is known as kam yon (ᦅᧄᦍᦷᧃ kâm.jôn, literally "the Tai Yuan language").
• In Shan it is known as kwam yon (ၵႂၢမ်းယူၼ်း kwáːm.jón, literally "the Tai Yuan language").

History

Further information: Tai languages and Tai peoples

Tai migration

 

Map showing the general migration patterns and diversification of the Tai peoples and languages from the original Tai Urheimat of southeastern China.

The ancestors of the Northern Thai people were speakers of Southwestern Tai dialects that migrated from what is now southeastern China, specifically what is now Guangxi and northern Vietnam where the diversity of various Tai languages suggests an Urheimat. The Southwestern Tai languages began to diverge from the Northern and Central branches of the Tai languages, covered mainly by various Zhuang languages, sometime around 112 AD, but likely completed by the sixth century.^[3] Due to the influx of Han Chinese soldiers and settlers, the end of the Chinese occupation of Vietnam, the fall of Jiaozhi and turbulence associated with the decline and fall of the Tang dynasty led some of the Tai peoples speaking Southwestern Tai to flee into Southeast Asia, with the small-scale migration mainly taking place between the eighth and twelfth centuries. The Tais split and followed the major river courses, with the ancestral Northern Thai originating in the Tai migrants that followed the Mekong River.^[4]

Indianized kingdoms

Ancestors of the Northern Thai people established Ngoenyang, an early kingdom that existed between the 7th to 13th centuries, as well as smaller kingdoms like Phayao, in what is now modern-day northern Thailand. They settled in areas adjacent to the kingdom of Hariphunchai, coming into contact with Mon-speaking people whose writing system was eventually adapted for the Northern Thai language as the Tai Tham script.^[5] In the 13th century, King Mangrai consolidated control of these territories, establishing the kingdom of Lan Na. In the 15th century, King Tilokkarat ushered in a golden age for Northern Thai literature, with a profusion of palm leaf manuscripts written in Tai Tham, using vernacular Northern Thai and interspersed with Pali and Buddhist Indic vocabulary.^[6][5]

Thai subordination

In 1775, Kawila of Lampang revolted with Siamese assistance, and captured the city, ending 200 years of Burmese rule. Kawila was installed as the prince of Lampang and Phraya Chaban as the prince of Chiang Mai, both as vassals of Siam. In 1899, Siam annexed the Northern Thai principalities, effectively dissolving their status as sovereign tributary states.

The Compulsory Education Act of 1921 banned schools and temples from using languages other than Central Thai (standard Thai), in an effort to bring remote regions under Siamese control.^[5] Northern Thai was relegated from the public sphere, with influential religious leaders like Khruba Srivichai jailed for using Northern Thai in sermons.^[5] In the 1940s, authorities promulgated Thai cultural mandates that reinforced the importance of learning and using Central Thai as the prestige language.^[5]

These economic and educational pressures have increased the use of standard Thai to the detriment of other regional languages like Northern Thai.^[7][8] Today, Northern Thai is typically code-switched with standard Thai, especially in more developed and urbanized areas of Northern Thailand, whereas exclusive use of Northern Thai remains prevalent in more remote areas.^[8]

Dialects

Thanajirawat (2018)^[9] classifies Tai Yuan into five major dialect groups based on tonal split and merger patterns. (See also Proto-Tai language#Tones)

1. most Tai Yuan varieties in Thailand, Laos and Myanmar
2. Bokeo Province, Laos (A12-34 and BCD123-4 (B4=DL4=DS4))
3. Mae Chaem District, Chiang Mai Province and Laplae District, Uttaradit Province, Thailand (A12-34 and BCD123-4 (A34=B123=DL123))
4. Tha Pla District, Uttaradit Province and Xayaburi Province, Laos (A12-34, BDL1234, and CDS123-4)
5. Ratchaburi Province, Thailand (A12-34 and BCD123-4 (A34=B123=DL123, B4=C4=DL4))

Phonology

Consonants

Initial consonants

Northern Thai consonant inventory is similar to that of Lao; both languages have the /ɲ/ sound and lack /tɕʰ/.

		Labial	Alveolar	(Alveolo-) Palatal	Velar	Glottal
Nasal		/m/ ᨾ ᩉ᩠ᨾ	/n/ ᨶ ᨱ ᩉ᩠ᨶ	/ɲ/ ᨿ ᨬ ᩉ᩠ᨿ	/ŋ/ ᨦ ᩉ᩠ᨦ
Plosive	tenuis	/p/ ᨸ ᨻ	/t/ ᨲ ᨴ ᨭ	/tɕ/ ᨧ ᨩ	/k/ ᨠ ᨣ	/ʔ/^[a] ᩋ
	aspirate	/pʰ/ ᨹ ᨽ ᨷᩕ ᨸᩕ ᨻᩕ	/tʰ/ ᨳ ᨮ ᨵ ᨰ ᨲᩕ ᨴᩕ	(/tɕʰ/)^[b]	(/kʰ/)^[b]
	voiced	/b/ ᨷ	/d/ ᨯ
Fricative		/f/ ᨺ ᨼ	/s/ ᩈ ᩇ ᩆ ᨨ ᨪ ᨫ		/x/ ᨡ ᨤ ᨥ ᨠᩕ ᨣᩕ ᨢ ᨡᩕ	/h/ ᩉ ᩁ ᩌ ᩉᩕ
Approximant		/w/ ᩅ ᩉ᩠ᩅ	/l/ ᩃ ᩁ ᩉᩖ ᩉ᩠ᩃ ᩊ	/j/ ᩀ
Trill			(/r/)^[b] ᩁ ᩊ

1. Implied before any vowel without an initial and after a short vowel without a final.^{[what does 'implied' mean? is it there or not?]}
2. /kʰ/, /tɕʰ/ and /r/ occur in loanwords from Central, Isan and Southern Thai.

Initial consonant clusters

There are two relatively common consonant clusters:

• /kw/ ᨠ᩠ᩅ ᨣ᩠ᩅ
• /xw/ ᨡ᩠ᩅ ᨢ᩠ᩅ ᨥ᩠ᩅ ᨤ᩠ᩅ

There are also several other, less frequent clusters recorded,^[10] though apparently in the process of being lost:^[11]

• /ŋw/ ᨦ᩠ᩅ ᩉ᩠ᨦ᩠ᩅ
• /tɕw/ ᨧ᩠ᩅ ᨩ᩠ᩅ
• /sw/ ᩈ᩠ᩅ ᨪ᩠ᩅ
• /tw/ ᨲ᩠ᩅ ᨴ᩠ᩅ
• /tʰw/^[12] ᨳ᩠ᩅ
• /nw/ ᨶ᩠ᩅ
• /ɲw/ ᨿ᩠ᩅ ᩉ᩠ᨿ᩠ᩅ^[13]
• /jw/ ᩀ᩠ᩅ
• /lw/ ᩃ᩠ᩅ ᩁ᩠ᩅ ᩉᩖ᩠ᩅ ᩉ᩠ᩃ᩠ᩅ
• /ʔw/ ᩋ᩠ᩅ

Final consonants

All plosive sounds are unreleased. Hence, final /p/, /t/, and /k/ sounds are pronounced as [p̚], [t̚], and [k̚] respectively.

	Labial	Alveolar	Palatal	Velar	Glottal
Nasal	/m/ ᨾ	/n/ ᨬ ᨱ ᨶ ᩁ ᩃ ᩊ		/ŋ/ ᨦ
Plosive	/p/ ᨷ ᨸ ᨻ ᨼ ᨽ	/t/ ᨧ ᨩ ᨪ ᨭ ᨮ ᨯ ᨰ ᨲ ᨳ ᨴ ᨵ ᩆ ᩇ ᩈ		/k/ ᨠ ᨡ ᨣ ᨥ	/ʔ/^[a]
Approximant	/w/ ᩅ		/j/ ᨿ

1. A glottal stop occurs after a short vowel when no final consonant is written in the Thai script.

Vowels

The basic vowels of the Northern Thai language are similar to those of Standard Thai. They, from front to back and close to open, are given in the following table. The top entry in every cell is the symbol from the International Phonetic Alphabet, the second entry gives the spelling in the Thai alphabet, where a dash (–) indicates the position of the initial consonant after which the vowel is pronounced. A second dash indicates that a final consonant must follow.

	Front		Back
	Unrounded				Rounded
	short	long	short	long	short	long
High	/i/  -ิ	/iː/  -ี	/ɯ/  -ึ	/ɯː/  -ื-	/u/  -ุ	/uː/  -ู
Mid	/e/ เ-ะ	/eː/ เ-	/ɤ/ เ-อะ	/ɤː/ เ-อ	/o/ โ-ะ	/oː/ โ-
Low	/ɛ/ แ-ะ	/ɛː/ แ-	/a/ -ะ, -ั-	/aː/ -า	/ɔ/ เ-าะ	/ɔː/ -อ

The vowels each exist in long-short pairs: these are distinct phonemes forming unrelated words in Northern Thai,^[14] but usually transliterated the same: เขา (khao) means "they/them", while ขาว (khao) means "white".

The long-short pairs are as follows:

Long						Short
Thai	IPA	Example				Thai	IPA	Example
–า	/aː/	ᨺᩣ᩠ᨶ	ฝาน	/fǎːn/	'to slice'	–ะ	/a/	ᨺᩢ᩠ᨶ	ฝัน	/fǎn/	'to dream'
–ี	/iː/	ᨲᩦ	ตี๋	/tǐː/	'to cut'	–ิ	/i/	ᨲᩥ	ติ๋	/tǐʔ/	'to criticize'
–ู	/uː/	ᩈᩪᨯ	สูด	/sùːt/	'to inhale'	–ุ	/u/	ᩈᩩᨯ	สุ๋ด	/sǔt/	'rearmost'
เ–	/eː/	ᩋᩮ᩠ᨶ	เอน	/ʔēːn/	'to recline'	เ–ะ	/e/	ᩋᩮᩢ᩠ᨶ	เอ็น	/ʔēn/	'tendon, ligament'
แ–	/ɛː/	ᨠᩯ᩵	แก่	/kɛ̀ː/	'to be old'	แ–ะ	/ɛ/	ᨠᩯᩡ	แก๋ะ	/kɛ̌ʔ/	'sheep'
–ื-	/ɯː/	ᨤᩨ᩠ᨶ	ฅืน (คืน)	/xɯ̄ːn/	'to return'	–ึ	/ɯ/	ᨡᩧ᩠᩶ᨶ	ขึ้น	/xɯ᷇n/	'to go up'
เ–อ	/ɤː/	ᨾᩮᩥ᩠ᨶ	เมิน	/mɤː̄n/	'to delay; long time'	เ–อะ	/ɤ/	ᨦᩮᩥ᩠ᨶ	เงิน	/ŋɤ̄n/	'silver'
โ–	/oː/	ᨧᩰᩫ᩠ᩁ	โจ๋ร (โจ๋น)	/t͡ɕǒːn/	'thief'	โ–ะ	/o/	ᨧᩫ᩠ᨶ	จ๋น	/t͡ɕǒn/	'to be poor'
–อ	/ɔː/	ᩃᩬᨦ	ลอง	/lɔ̄ːŋ/	'to try'	เ–าะ	/ɔ/	ᨪᩰᩬᩡ	เซาะ	/sɔ́ʔ/	'to search'

The basic vowels can be combined into diphthongs. For purposes of determining tone, those marked with an asterisk are sometimes classified as long:

Long		Short
Thai script	IPA	Thai script	IPA
–าย	/aːj/	ไ–^*, ใ–^*, ไ–ย, -ัย	/aj/
–าว	/aːw/	เ–า^*	/aw/
เ–ีย	/ia/	เ–ียะ	/iaʔ/
–	–	–ิว	/iw/
–ัว	/ua/	–ัวะ	/uaʔ/
–ูย	/uːj/	–ุย	/uj/
เ–ว	/eːw/	เ–็ว	/ew/
แ–ว	/ɛːw/	–	–
เ–ือ	/ɯa/	เ–ือะ	/ɯaʔ/
เ–ย	/ɤːj/	–	–
–อย	/ɔːj/	–	–
โ–ย	/oːj/	–	–

Additionally, there are three triphthongs, For purposes of determining tone, those marked with an asterisk are sometimes classified as long:

Thai script	IPA
เ–ียว*	/iaw/
–วย*	/uaj/
เ–ือย*	/ɯaj/

Allophones

The following section largely concerns the Nan dialect of Northern Thai.^[15]

Phoneme	Allophone	Context	Example (Tai Tham script)	Example (Thai script)	IPA	Gloss
/b/	[b]	onset	ᨷ᩵ᩤ	บ่า	/bàː/	shoulder
/d/	[d]	onset	ᨯᩬ᩠ᨿ, ᨯᩭ	ดอย	/dɔ̄ːj/	mountain
/p/	[p]	onset	ᨸ᩵ᩣ	ป่า	/pàː/	forest
	[p̚]	coda	ᩋᩣ᩠ᨷ	อาบ	/ʔàːp/	bath
	[pm̩]	coda, emphasised	ᨷᩴ᩵ᩉᩖᩢᨷ	บ่หลับ	/bɔ̀ lǎp/	don't sleep!
/t/	[t]	onset	ᨲᩣ	ตา	/tǎː/	eye
	[t̚]	coda	ᨸᩮᩥ᩠ᨯ	เปิด	/pɤ̀ːt/	open
	[tn̩]	coda, emphasised	ᨷᩴ᩵ᨹᩮᩢ᩠ᨯ	บ่เผ็ด	/bɔ̀ pʰět/	not spicy!
/k/	[k]	onset	ᨠᩣ	กา	/kǎː/	crow
	[k̚]	coda	ᨸᩦ᩠ᨠ	ปีก	/pìːk/	wing
	[kŋ̩]	coda, emphasised	ᨷᩴ᩵ᩈᩩᨠ	บ่สุก	/bɔ̀ sǔk/	not ripe!
/x/	[x]	before non-front vowels	ᨡᩯ᩠ᨠ	แขก	/xɛ̀ːk/	guest
	[ç]	before front vowels	ᨤᩥ᩠ᨦ	ฅิง	/xīŋ/	you (familiar)
/s/	[s]	onset	ᨪᩣ᩠ᩅ	ซาว	/sāːw/	twenty
	[ɕ]	under emphasis	ᩈᩣᨴᩩ	สาทุ	/sǎː.túʔ/	surely
/h/	[h]	non-intervocalic	ᩉ᩶ᩣ	ห้า	/ha᷇ː/	five
	[ɦ]	intervocalic	ᨹᩲᨾᩣᩉᩣ	ใผมาหา	/pʰǎj māː hǎː/	who come find (Who is here to see you?)
/nɯ̂ŋ/	[m̩]	after bilabial stop	ᨤᩨ᩠ᨷᨶᩧ᩠᩵ᨦ	ฅืบนึ่ง	/xɯ̂ːp nɯ̂ŋ/	span one (one more span)
	[n̩]	after alveolar stop	ᨳᩯ᩠ᨾᨡ᩠ᩅᨯᨶᩧ᩠᩵ᨦ	แถมขวดนึ่ง	/tʰɛ̌ːm xùat nɯ̂ŋ/	more bottle one (one more bottle)
	[ŋ̩]	after velar stop	ᨳᩯ᩠ᨾᨯᩬᨠᨶᩧ᩠᩵ᨦ	แถมดอกนึ่ง	/tʰɛ̌ːm dɔ̀ːk nɯ̂ŋ/	more flower one (one more flower)

Tones

 

 

 

 

 

 

The six phonemic tones in Northern Thai pronounced with the syllable '/law/':

There are six phonemic tones in the Chiang Mai dialect of Northern Thai: low-rising, low-falling, high-level with glottal closure, mid-level, high-falling, and high-rising.^[16] or low-rising, mid-low, high-falling, mid-high, falling, and high rising-falling^[17]

Contrastive tones in smooth syllables

The table below presents six phonemic tones in the Chiang Mai and Nan dialects in smooth syllables, i.e. closed syllables ending in sonorant sounds such as [m], [n], [ŋ], [w], and [j] and open syllables. Sources have not agreed on the phonetic realization of the six tones in the Chiang Mai dialect. The table presents information based on two sources, one from Gedney (1999)^[17] and the other one from the Lanna dictionary (2007)^[16] which is a Northern Thai-Thai dictionary. Although published in 1999, Gedney's information about the Chiang Mai dialect is based on data he collected from one speaker in Chiang Mai in 1964 (p. 725). As tones may change within one's lifetime (e.g., Bangkok Thai tones have changed over the past 100 years^[18]), the information about the six tones from Gedney (1999) should be considered with caution.

The six tones in the Chiang Mai and Nan dialects

Chiang Mai (the Lanna dictionary, 2007, p. ต)^[16]		Chiang Mai (Gedney, 1999, p. 725)^[17]		Standard Thai tone Equated to^[19]	Example based on the Chiang Mai tones described in the Lanna Dictionary (2007)^[16]
Name	Tone letters	Name	Tone letters		Tone letters	IPA	Northern Thai script	Thai script	Gloss
low-rising (A1-2)	24 or ˨˦	low-rising (A1-2)	14 or ˩˦	23 or ˨˧	rising	/law˨˦/	ᩉᩮᩖᩢᩣ	เหลา	sharpen
low-falling (B1-3)	21 or ˨˩	mid-low (B1-3)	22 or ˨˨	22 or ˨˨	low	/law˨˩/	ᩉᩮᩖᩢ᩵ᩣ	เหล่า	forest; group
high-level with glottal closure (which falls slightly at the end^[16]) (C1-3)	44ʔ or ˦˦ʔ	high-falling, glottalized (C1-3)	53ʔ or ˥˧ʔ	44ʔ or ˦˦ʔ	(none)	/law˦˦ʔ/	ᩉᩮᩖᩢ᩶ᩣ	เหล้า	liquor, alcoholic drink
mid-level (A3-4)	33 or ˧˧	mid-high (A3-4) (which sometimes rises at the end^[17])	44 or ˦˦	35 or ˧˥	mid	/law˧˧/	ᩃᩮᩢᩣ	เลา	beautiful, pretty; reed
high-falling (B4)	42 or ˦˨	falling (B4)	41 or ˦˩	31 or ˧˩	falling	/law˦˨/	ᩃᩮᩢ᩵ᩣ	เล่า	tell (a story)
high-rising (C4)	45 or ˦˥	high rising-falling, glottalized (C4)	454ʔ or ˦˥˦ʔ	41ʔ or ˦˩ʔ	high	/law˦˥/	ᩃᩮᩢ᩶ᩣ	เล้า	coop, pen (for chickens or pigs)

The Gedney boxes for the tones are shown below the descriptions.

Contrastive tones in checked syllables

The table below presents four phonemic tones in checked syllables, i.e. closed syllables ending in a glottal stop [ʔ] and obstruent sounds such as [p], [t], and [k].

Tone^[16]	Standard Thai Tone Equated to^[19]	Example (Northern Thai script)	Example (Thai script)	Phonemic	Phonetic^[16]	gloss
low-rising (D1-3S)	rising	ᩉᩖᩢᨠ	หลั๋ก	/lǎk/	[lak̚˨˦]	post
high-rising (D4S)	high	ᩃᩢ᩠ᨠ	ลัก	/la᷇k/	[lak̚˦˥]	steal
low-falling (D1-3L)	low	ᩉᩖᩣ᩠ᨠ	หลาก	/làːk/	[laːk̚˨˩]	differ from others
high-falling (D4L)	falling	ᩃᩣ᩠ᨠ	ลาก	/lâːk/	[laːk̚˦˨]	drag

Grammar

The grammar of Northern Thai is similar to those of other Tai languages. The word order is subject–verb–object, although the subject is often omitted. Just as Standard Thai, Northern Thai pronouns are selected according to the gender and relative status of speaker and audience.

Adjectives and adverbs

There is no morphological distinction between adverbs and adjectives. Many words can be used in either function. They succeed the word which they modify, which may be a noun, verb, or another adjective or adverb.

• ᨾᩯ᩵ᨿᩥ᩠ᨦᨳᩮᩢ᩶ᩣ / แม่ญิงเฒ่า (mae nying thao, [mɛ̂ː.ɲīŋ.tʰa᷇w]) an old woman
• ᨾᩯ᩵ᨿᩥ᩠ᨦᨴᩦ᩵ᨳᩮᩢ᩶ᩣᩅᩮᩥ᩠ᨿ / แม่ญิงตี้เฒ่าโวย (mae nying ti thao woi, [mɛ̂ː.ɲīŋ.tîː.tʰa᷇w.wōːj]) a woman who became old quickly

Because adjectives can be used as complete predicates, many words used to indicate tense in verbs (see Verbs:Aspect below) may be used to describe adjectives.

• ᨡ᩶ᩣᩉᩥ᩠ᩅ / ข้าหิว (kha hiw, [xa᷇ː hǐw]) I am hungry.
• ᨡ᩶ᩣᨧᩢᩉᩥ᩠ᩅ / ข้าจะหิว (kha cha hiw, [xa᷇ː t͡ɕa hǐw]) I will be hungry.
• ᨡ᩶ᩣᨠ᩵ᩣᩴᩃᩢ᩠ᨦᩉᩥ᩠ᩅ / ข้ากะลังหิว (kha kalang hiw, [xa᷇ː ka.lāŋ hǐw]) I am hungry right now.
• ᨡ᩶ᩣᩉᩥ᩠ᩅᩓ᩠ᩅ / ข้าหิวแล้ว (kha hiu laew, [xa᷇ː hǐw lɛ́ːw]) I am already hungry.

Verbs

Verbs do not inflect. They do not change with person, tense, voice, mood, or number; nor are there any participles.

• ᨡ᩶ᩣᨲᩦᨻᩮᩥ᩠᩵ᨶ / ข้าตี๋เปิ้น (kha ti poen, [xa᷇ː tǐː pɤ̂n]), I hit him.
• ᨻᩮᩥ᩠᩵ᨶᨲᩦᨡ᩶ᩣ / เปิ้นตี๋ข้า (poen ti kha, [pɤ̂n tǐː xa᷇ː]), He hit me.

The passive voice is indicated by the insertion of ᨯᩰ᩠ᨶ / โดน (don, [dōːn]) before the verb. For example:

• ᨻᩮᩥ᩠᩵ᨶᨯᩰᩫ᩠ᨶᨲᩦ / เปิ้นโดนตี๋ (poen don ti, [pɤ̂n dōːn tǐː]), He is hit or He got hit. This describes an action that is out of the receiver's control and, thus, conveys suffering.

To convey the opposite sense, a sense of having an opportunity arrive, ᨯᩱ᩶ / ได้ (dai, [da᷇j], can) is used. For example:

• ᨻᩮᩥ᩠᩵ᨶᨧᩢᨯᩱ᩶ᨸᩱᩋᩯ᩠᩵ᩅᨾᩮᩬᩥᨦᩃᩣ᩠ᩅ / เปิ้นจะได้ไปแอ่วเมืองลาว (poen cha dai pai aew mueang lao, [pɤ̂n t͡ɕa da᷇j pǎj ʔɛ̀w mɯ̄a̯ŋ lāːw]), He gets to visit Laos.
• ᨻᩮᩥ᩠᩵ᨶᨲᩦᨯᩱ᩶ / เปิ้นตี๋ได้ (poen ti dai, [pɤ̂n tǐː da᷇j]), He is/was allowed to hit or He is/was able to hit

Negation is indicated by placing บ่ (bor,[bɔ̀ː] or [bàʔ] not) before the verb.

• ᨻᩮᩥ᩠᩵ᨶᨷᩴ᩵ᨲᩦ / เปิ้นบ่ตี๋, (poen bor ti, [pɤ̂n bɔ̀ː tǐː]) He is not hitting. or He not hit.

Aspect is conveyed by aspect markers before or after the verb.

Present can be indicated by ᨠ᩵ᩣᩴᩃᩢ᩠ᨦ / กะลัง (kalang, [ka.lāŋ], currently) or ᨠ᩵ᩣᩴᩃᩢ᩠ᨦᩉᩡ / กะลังหะ (kalangha, [ka.lāŋ.hà], currently) before the verb for ongoing action (like English -ing form), by ᩀᩪ᩵ / อยู่ (yu, [jùː]) after the verb, or by both. For example:

• ᨻᩮᩥ᩠᩵ᨶᨠ᩵ᩣᩴᩃᩢ᩠ᨦᩉᩡᩃᩫ᩠᩵ᨶ / เปิ้นกะลังหะล่น (poen kalangha lon, [pɤ̂n ka.lāŋ.hà lôn]), or
• ᨻᩮᩥ᩠᩵ᨶᩃᩫ᩠᩵ᨶᩀᩪ᩵ / เปิ้นล่นอยู่ (poen lon yu, [pɤ̂n lôn jùː]), or
• ᨻᩮᩥ᩠᩵ᨶᨠ᩵ᩣᩴᩃᩢ᩠ᨦᩃᩫ᩠᩵ᨶᩀᩪ᩵ / เปิ้นกะลังหะล่นอยู่ (poen kalanɡha lon yu, [pɤ̂n ka.lāŋ.hà lôn jùː]), He is running.

Future can be indicated by ᨧᩢ / จะ (cha, [t͡ɕaʔ], will) before the verb or by a time expression indicating the future. For example:

• ᨻᩮᩥ᩠᩵ᨶᨧᩢᩃᩫ᩠᩵ᨶ / เปิ้นจะล่น (poen cha lon, [pɤ̂n t͡ɕaʔ lôn]), He will run or He is going to run.

Past can be indicated by ᨯᩱ᩶ / ได้ (dai, [da᷇j]) before the verb or by a time expression indicating the past. However, ᩓ᩠ᩅ / แล้ว (laew,  :[lɛ́ːw], already) is often used to indicate the past aspect by being placed behind the verb. Or, both ได้ and แล้ว are put together to form the past aspect expression. For example:

• ᨻᩮᩥ᩠᩵ᨶᨯᩱ᩶ᨠᩥ᩠ᨶ / เปิ้นได้กิ๋น (poen dai kin, [pɤ̂n da᷇j kǐn]), He ate.
• ᨻᩮᩥ᩠᩵ᨶᨠᩥ᩠ᨶᩓ᩠ᩅ / เปิ้นกิ๋นแล้ว (poen kin laew, [pɤ̂n kǐn lɛ́ːw], He has eaten.
• ᨻᩮᩥ᩠᩵ᨶᨯᩱ᩶ᨠᩥ᩠ᨶᩓ᩠ᩅ / เปิ้นได้กิ๋นแล้ว (poen dai kin laew, [pɤ̂n da᷇j kǐn lɛ́ːw]), He's already eaten.

Aspect markers are not required.

• ᨡ᩶ᩣᨠᩥ᩠ᨶᨴᩦ᩵ᩉᩢ᩠᩶ᨶ / ข้ากิ๋นตี้หั้น (kha kin tihan, [xa᷇ kǐn tîː.ha᷇n]), I eat there.
• ᨡ᩶ᩣᨠᩥ᩠ᨶᨴᩦ᩵ᩉᩢ᩠᩶ᨶᨲᩅᩤ / ข้ากิ๋นตี้หั้นตะวา (kha kin tihan tawa, [xa᷇ kǐn tîː.ha᷇n ta.wāː]), I ate there yesterday.
• ᨡ᩶ᩣᨠᩥ᩠ᨶᨴᩦ᩵ᩉᩢ᩠᩶ᨶᩅᩢ᩠ᨶᨻᩕᩪᨠ / ข้ากิ๋นตี้หั้นวันพูก (kha kin tihan wanphuk, [xa᷇ kǐn tîː.ha᷇n wān.pʰûːk]), I'll eat there tomorrow.

Words that indicate obligation include at cha (ᩣ᩠ᨧᨧᩢ / อาจจะ), na cha (ᩉ᩠ᨶ᩶ᩣᨧᩢ / น่าจะ), khuan cha (ᨤ᩠ᩅᩁᨧᩢ / ควรจะ)^{[dubious ]}, and tong (ᨲ᩶ᩬᨦ / ต้อง).

• at cha (ᩋᩣ᩠ᨧᨧᩢ / อาจจะ, [ʔàːt.t͡ɕa]) Might

• ᨻᩮᩥ᩠᩵ᨶᩋᩣ᩠ᨧᨧᩢᨾᩣ / เปิ้นอาจจะมา (poen at cha ma, [pɤ̂n ʔàːt.t͡ɕa māː]) He might come.

• na cha (ᩉ᩠ᨶ᩶ᩣᨧᩢ / น่าจะ, [na᷇ː.t͡ɕa]) Likely to

• ᨻᩮᩥ᩠᩵ᨶᩉ᩠ᨶ᩶ᩣᨧᩢᨾᩣ / เปิ้นน่าจะมา (poen na cha ma, [pɤ̂n na᷇ː.t͡ɕa māː]) He is likely to come.

• khuan cha (ᨤ᩠ᩅᩁᨧᩢ / ควรจะ, [xūa̯n.t͡ɕa]) Should

• ᨻᩮᩥ᩠᩵ᨶᨤ᩠ᩅᩁᨧᩢᨾᩣ / เปิ้นควรจะมา (poen khuan cha ma, [pɤ̂n xūa̯n.t͡ɕa māː]) He should come.

• tong (ᨲᩬ᩶ᨦ / ต้อง, /tɔ᷇ːŋ/) Must

• ᨻᩮᩥ᩠᩵ᨶᨲᩬ᩶ᨦᨾᩣ / เปิ้นต้องมา (poen tong ma, /pɤ̂n tɔ᷇ŋ māː]) He must come.

Actions that wherein one is busily engaged can be indicated by มัวก่า (mua ka, [mūa̯.kàː]).

• ᨣᩴ᩵ᨾ᩠ᩅᩫᨣ᩵ᩤᨠᩥ᩠ᨶᩉᩢ᩠᩶ᨶᨶᩰᩬᩡ / ก่อมัวก่ากิ๋นหั้นเนาะ (kor mua ka kin han nor, [kɔ̀ mūa̯ kàː kǐn ha᷇n nɔ᷇ʔ]) (It's that you/he/she) just keeps on eating it like that, you know?

Words that express one's desire to do something can by indicated by khai (ใค่) and kan (กั๊น).

• khai (ᨣᩕᩲ᩵ / ใค่, /xâj/, to want, to desire)

• ᨡ᩶ᩣᨧᩮᩢ᩶ᩣᨣᩕᩲ᩵ᨠᩥ᩠ᨶ / ข้าเจ้าใค่กิ๋น (kha.chao khai kin, [xa᷇ː.t͡ɕa᷇w xâj kǐn]) I want to eat.

• kan (ᨣᩢ᩠᩶ᨶ / กั๊น, /kán/, to try)

• ᨡ᩶ᩣᨧᩮᩢ᩶ᩣᨣᩢ᩠᩶ᨶᨠᩥ᩠ᨶ / ข้าเจ้ากั๊นกิ๋น (kha.chao kan kin, [xa᷇ː.t͡ɕa᷇w kán kǐn]) I try to eat.

Phor tha wa (ᨹᩬᩴ᩵ᨵ᩵ᩤᩅ᩵ / ผ่อท่าว่า, [pʰɔ̀ː.tʰâː.wâː]) is used to give the impression or sensation of being something or having a particular quality.

• ᨹᩬᩴ᩵ᨵ᩵ᩤᩅ᩵ᩤᨻᩮᩥ᩠᩵ᨶᨻᩖᩥᨠᨾᩣᩓ᩠ᩅ / ผ่อท่าว่าเปิ้นปิ๊กมาแล้ว (phor tha wa poen pik ma laew, [pʰɔ̀ː tʰâː wâː pɤ̂n pi᷇k māː lɛ́ːw]) It seems that he has returned.

Final particles

Northern Thai has a number of final particles, which have different functions.

Interrogative particles

Some of the most common interrogative particles are kor (ᨣᩴ᩵ / ก่อ, [kɔ̀ː]) and ka (ᨣᩤ / กา, /kāː/)

• kor (ᨣᩴ᩵ / ก่อ, [kɔ̀ː], denoting yes/no question)

• ᨾ᩠ᩅ᩵ᩁᨣᩴ᩵ / ม่วนก่อ (muan kor, [mûa̯n kɔ̀ː]) Is it fun?

• ka (ᨣᩤ / กา (and its variants: ก๋า, กา), [kāː], denoting confirmative question)

• ᨾ᩠ᩅ᩵ᩁᨣᩤ / ม่วนกา (muan ka, [mûa̯n kāː]) It is fun, right?

Imperative particles

Some imperative particles are ᩃᩯ᩵ (แล่), ᨧᩥ᩠᩵ᨾ (จิ่ม), and ᨴᩮᩬᩥᩡ (เตอะ).

lae (ᩃᩯ᩵ / แล่, [lɛ̂ː])

• ᨠᩥ᩠ᨶᩃᩯ᩵ / กิ๋นแล่ (kin lae, [kǐn lɛ̂ː]) Eat! (Authoritative).

chim (ᨧᩥ᩠᩵ᨾ / จิ่ม, [t͡ɕìm])

• ᨡᩬᩴᨠᩥ᩠ᨶᨧᩥ᩠᩵ᨾ / ขอกิ๋นจิ่ม (khor kin chim, /xɔ̌ː kǐn t͡ɕìm/) May I eat please?

hia (ᩉᩮ᩠ᨿ / เหีย, /hǐa/)

• ᨠᩥ᩠ᨶᩉᩮ᩠ᨿ / กิ๋นเหีย (kin hia, /kǐn hǐa/) Eat! (because I know it will be beneficial to you).

toe (ᨴᩮᩬᩥᩡ / เต๊อะ, /tɤ᷇ʔ/)

• ᨠᩥ᩠ᨶᨴᩮᩬᩥᩡ / กิ๋นเต๊อะ (kin toe, /kǐn tɤ᷇ʔ/) Eat, please.

Polite particles

Polite particles include ᨣᩕᩢ᩠ᨷ (คับ) and ᨧᩮᩢ᩶ᩣ (เจ้า).

• khap (ᨣᩕᩢ᩠ᨷ / คับ, /xa᷇p/, used by males)

• ᨠᩥ᩠ᨶᨡᩮᩢ᩶ᩣᩓ᩠ᩅᨣᩕᩢ᩠ᨷ / กิ๋นเข้าแล้วคับ (kin khaw laew khap, /kǐn xa᷇w lɛ́ːw xa᷇p/) I have eaten, sir/ma'am.

• chao (ᨧᩮᩢ᩶ᩣ / เจ้า, /t͡ɕa᷇w/, used by females)

• ᨠᩥ᩠ᨶᨡᩮᩢ᩶ᩣᩓ᩠ᩅᨧᩮᩢ᩶ᩣ / กิ๋นเข้าแล้วเจ้า (kin khaw laew chao, /kǐn xa᷇w lɛ́ːw t͡ɕa᷇w/) I have eaten, sir/ma'am.

Nouns

Nouns are uninflected and have no gender; there are no articles.

Nouns are neither singular nor plural. Some specific nouns are reduplicated to form collectives: ᩃᩡᩋᩬ᩵ᩁ / ละอ่อน (la-orn, [la.ʔɔ̀ːn], child) is often repeated as ᩃᩡᩋᩬ᩵ᩁᪧ ละอ่อน ๆ (la-orn la-orn, [la.ʔɔ̀ːn la.ʔɔ̀ːn],) to refer to a group of children.

The word ᩉ᩠ᨾᩪ᩵ / หมู่(mu, [mùː]) may be used as a prefix of a noun or pronoun as a collective to pluralize or emphasise the following word. (ᩉ᩠ᨾᩪ᩵ᨹᩫ᩠ᨾ / หมู่ผม, mu phom, [mùː pʰǒm], we (exclusive), masculine; ᩉ᩠ᨾᩪ᩵ᩁᩮᩢᩣ / หมู่เฮา mu hao, [mùː hāw], emphasised we; ᩉ᩠ᨾᩪ᩵ᩉ᩠ᨾᩣ / หมู่หมา mu ma, [mùː mǎː], (the) dogs).

Plurals are expressed by adding classifiers, used as measure words (ลักษณนาม), in the form of noun-number-classifier ( ᨣᩕᩪᩉ᩶ᩣᨤᩫ᩠ᨶ / คูห้าคน, "teacher five person" for "five teachers").

Pronouns

Pronouns may be omitted once they have already been established in the first sentence, unless the pronoun in the following sentences is different from the first sentence. The pronoun "you" may also be omitted if the speaker is speaking directly to a second person. Moreover, names may replace pronouns, and they can even replace the first person singular pronoun.

Person	Tai Tham script	Thai script	Transliteration	Phonemic (IPA)	Phonetic (IPA)	Meaning
first	ᨣᩪ	กู	kūu	/kūː/	[kuː˧]	I/me (vulgar)
	ᩁᩣ	ฮา	hāa	/hāː/	[haː˧]	I/me (familiar; informal)
	ᨡ᩶ᩣ	ข้า	kha᷇a	/xa᷇ː/	[xaː˥˧]	I/me (formal; used by male). Literally "servant, slave".
	ᨹᩪ᩶ᨡ᩶ᩣ	ผู้ข้า	pʰu᷇u kha᷇a	/pʰu᷇ː.xa᷇ː/	[pʰuː˥˧.xaː˥˧]	I/me (formal)
	ᨡ᩶ᩣᨶᩬ᩠᩶ᨿ, ᨡ᩶ᩣᨶ᩶ᩭ	ข้าน้อย	kha᷇a nóoi	/xa᷇ː.nɔ́ːj/	[xaː˥˧.nɔːj˦˥]	I/me (formal; used by male; archaic)
	ᨡ᩶ᩣᨧᩮᩢ᩶ᩣ	ข้าเจ้า	kha᷇a cha᷇o	/xa᷇ː.t͡ɕa᷇w/	[xaː˥˧.t͡ɕaw˥˧]	I/me (formal; used by female; historically also used by male)
	ᨡ᩶ᩣᨻᩕᨧᩮᩢ᩶ᩣ	ข้าผะเจ้า	kha᷇a pʰà cha᷇o	/xa᷇ː.pʰà.t͡ɕa᷇w/	[xaː˥˧.pʰa˨.t͡ɕaw˥˧]	I/me (very formal)
	ᩁᩮᩢᩣ	เฮา	hāo	/hāw/	[haw˧]	we/us
	ᨲᩪ	ตู๋	tǔu	/tǔː/	[tuː˨˦]	we/us (exclusive)
second	ᨾᩧ᩠ᨦ	มึง	mūenɡ	/mɯ̄ŋ/	[mɯŋ˧]	you (vulgar)
	ᨤᩥ᩠ᨦ	ฅิง	khīng	/xīŋ/	[xiŋ˧]	you (informal, singular)
	ᨲᩫ᩠ᩅ	ตั๋ว	tǔa	/tǔa/	[tua˨˦]	you (familiar, singular)
	ᨧᩮᩢ᩶ᩣ	เจ้า	cha᷇o	/t͡ɕa᷇w/	[t͡ɕaw˥˧]	you (formal, singular). Literally "master, lord"
	ᩈᩪ	สู	sǔu	/sǔː/	[suː˨˦]	you (informal, plural or formal, singular)
	ᩈᩪᨡᩮᩢᩣ	สูเขา	sǔu khǎo	/sǔː.xǎw/	[suː˨˦.xaw˨˦]	you (informal, plural)
	ᩈᩪᨧᩮᩢ᩶ᩣ	สูเจ้า	sǔu cha᷇o	/sǔː.t͡ɕa᷇w/	[suː˨˦.t͡ɕaw˥˧]	you (formal, plural)
third	ᨾᩢ᩠ᨶ	มัน	mān	/mān/	[man˧]	he/she/it (informal)
	ᨡᩮᩢᩣ	เขา	khǎo	/xǎw/	[xaw˨˦]	they/them
	ᨻᩮᩥ᩠᩵ᨶ	เปิ้น	pôen	/pɤ̂n/	[pɤn˥˩]	he/she (general), others
	ᨴ᩵ᩤ᩠ᨶ	ต้าน	tâan	/tâːn/	[taːn˥˩]	he/she (formal), you (formal), others
reflexive	ᨲᩫ᩠ᩅᨠᩮᩢ᩵ᩣ	ตั๋วเก่า	tǔa kàw	/tǔa.kàw/	[tua˨˦.kaw˨]	oneself

Vocabulary

Northern Thai shares much vocabulary with Standard Thai, especially scientific terms, which draw many prefixes and suffixes from Sanskrit and Pali, and it also has its own distinctive words. Just like Thai and Lao, Northern Thai has borrowed many loanwords from Khmer, Sanskrit, and Pali.

word	gloss	origin
[xɔ̌ːŋ kǐn] ᨡᩬᨦᨠᩥ᩠ᨶ ของกิ๋น	food	native Tai word
[ʔāː hǎːn] ᩋᩣᩉᩣ᩠ᩁ อาหาร	food	Pali and/or Sanskrit
[kàm nɤ̀ːt] ᨠ᩵ᩣᩴᨶᩮᩥ᩠ᨭ ก่ำเนิด (กำเนิด)^[dubious ]	birth	Khmer

Writing system

 

Northern Thai in its own alphabet, the Tai Tham alphabet

Currently, different scripts are used to write Northern Thai. Northern Thai is traditionally written with the Tai Tham script, which in Northern Thai is called tua mueang (ᨲᩫ᩠ᩅᨾᩮᩬᩥᨦ ตั๋วเมือง /tǔa.mɯ̄aŋ/) or tua tham (ᨲᩫ᩠ᩅᨵᩢᨾ᩠ᨾ᩺ ตั๋วธัมม์ /tǔa.tʰām/). However, native speakers are presently illiterate in the traditional script; therefore, they instead use the Thai script to write the language. In Laos, the Lao script is commonly used to write Northern Thai.

 

A sign written in Northern Thai, Thai, and English

Some problems arise when the Thai script is used to write Northern Thai. In particular, Standard Thai script cannot transcribe all Northern Thai tones. The two falling tones in Northern Thai correspond to a single falling tone in Thai. Specifically, Northern Thai has two types of falling tones: high-falling tone (˥˧) and falling tone (˥˩). However, Thai lacks the distinction between the two falling tones, not having a high-falling tone (˥˧). When using Thai script to write Northern Thai tones, the distinction of the two falling tones is lost because Thai script can only indicate a low falling tone (˥˩). As an example, the tonal distinction between /ka᷇ː/ (ก้า (ᨠᩖ᩶ᩣ กล้า) "to be brave") and /kâː/ (ก้า (ᨣ᩵ᩤ ค่า) "value") is lost when written in Thai since as only /kâː/ (ก้า) is permitted. Consequently, the meaning of ก้า is ambiguous as it can mean both "to be brave" and "value". Similarly, /pa᷇ːj/ (ป้าย (ᨸ᩶ᩣ᩠ᨿ ป้าย) "sign") and /pâːj/ (ป้าย (ᨻ᩵ᩣ᩠ᨿ พ่าย) "to lose") have the same problem and only /pâːj/ (ป้าย) is permitted. As a result, the spelling ป้าย is ambiguous because it can mean both "sign" or "to lose". Such tonal mergence ambiguity is avoided when the language is written with the Northern Thai script.

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  Northern Thai script page 1

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  Northern Thai script page 2

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  Northern Thai script page 3

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  Northern Thai script page 4

Northern Thai and Standard Thai

The tables below present the differences between Northern Thai and Standard Thai.

Different sounds

Unlike Northern Thai, Standard Thai lacks palatal nasal sound (/ɲ/). Thus, the palatal nasal sound (/ɲ/) and the palatal approximant sound (/j/) in Northern Thai both correspond to the palatal approximant sound in Standard Thai:

Standard Thai	Northern Thai	gloss	note
[jâːk] ยาก	[ɲâːk] ᨿᩣ᩠ᨠ	difficult	cf. Lao: ຍາກ [ɲâːk]
[jūŋ] ยุง	[ɲūŋ] ᨿᩩᨦ	mosquito	cf. Lao: ຍຸງ [ɲúŋ]
[jāːw] ยาว	[ɲāːw] ᨿᩣ᩠ᩅ	long	cf. Lao: ຍາວ [ɲáːw]
[jāː] ยา	[jāː] ᩀᩣ	medicine	cf. Lao: ຢາ [jàː]
[jàːk] อยาก	[jàːk] ᩀᩣ᩠ᨠ	desire	cf. Lao: ຢາກ [jȁːk]
[jàːŋ] อย่าง	[jàːŋ] ᩀ᩵ᩣ᩠ᨦ	manner, way	cf. Lao: ຢ່າງ [jāːŋ]

Unlike Northern Thai, Standard Thai lacks a high-falling tone ([˥˧]). The high falling tone ([˥˧]) and falling tone ([˥˩]) in Northern Thai both correspond to the falling tone in Standard Thai ([˥˩]).

Standard Thai	Northern Thai	gloss
[bâːn] บ้าน	[ba᷇ːn] ᨷ᩶ᩤ᩠ᨶ	village, home
[hâː] ห้า	[ha᷇ː] ᩉ᩶ᩣ	five
[t͡ɕâw] เจ้า	[t͡ɕa᷇w] ᨧᩮᩢ᩶ᩣ	master, lord, you
[lâw] เหล้า	[la᷇w] ᩉᩖᩮᩢ᩶ᩣ	alcohol
[lâw] เล่า	[lâw] ᩃᩮᩢ᩵ᩣ	tell (a story)

Different words

Many words differ from Standard Thai greatly:

Standard Thai	Northern Thai	gloss	note
/jîː.sìp/ ยี่สิบ	/sāːw/ ᨪᩣ᩠ᩅ ซาว	twenty	cf. Lao: ຊາວ /sáːw/ "twenty" and Shan: သၢဝ်း /sáːw/ "twenty"
/pʰûːt/ พูด	/ʔu᷇ː/ ᩋᩪ᩶ อู้	speak
/pʰîː.tɕʰaːj/ พี่ชาย	/ʔa᷇ːj/ ᩋ᩶ᩣ᩠ᨿ อ้าย	older brother	cf. Lao: ອ້າຍ /ʔâːj/ "older brother" and Shan: ဢၢႆႈ /ʔāːj/ "eldest brother, first born son"
/tʰáːj.tʰɔ̄ːj/ ท้ายทอย	/ŋɔ̂n/ ᨦᩬ᩵ᩁ ง่อน	nape	cf. Lao: ງ່ອນ /ŋɔ̄ɔn/ "nape"
/t͡ɕa.mùːk/ จมูก	/dāŋ/ ᨯᩢ᩠ᨦ ดัง	nose	cf. Lao: ດັງ /dàŋ/ "nose", Standard Thai: ดั้ง /dâŋ/ "nasal bridge".
/tʰām/ ทำ	/ɲa᷇ʔ/ ᨿᩡ/ᨿᩮ᩠ᨿᩡ ญะ/เญียะ	do
/dūː/ ดู	/pʰɔ̀ː/ ᨹᩬᩴ᩵ ผ่อ	look	cf. Lao: ຜໍ່ /pʰɔ̀ː/ "to see, to look" and Tai Lü: ᦕᦸᧈ /pʰɔ̀ː/ "to see, to look"
/tʰîaw/ เที่ยว	/ʔɛ̀ːw/ ᩋᩯ᩠ᩅ᩵ แอ่ว	visit, travel	cf. Tai Lü: ᦶᦀᧁᧈ /ʔɛ᷄w/ "to visit, to travel"
/nɯ́a/ เนื้อ	/t͡ɕín/ ᨩᩥ᩠᩶ᨶ จิ๊น	meat	cf. Lao: ຊີ້ນ /sîːn/ "meat"
/mâj/ ไม่	/bɔ̀ː/ ᨷᩴ᩵ บ่อ	no	cf. Lao: ບໍ່ /bɔ̄ː/ "no, not"
/t͡ɕʰɔ̂ːp/ ชอบ	/ma᷇k/ ᨾᩢ᩠ᨠ มัก	like	cf. Lao: ມັກ /māk/ "to like"
/mâːk/ มาก	/na᷇k/ ᨶᩢ᩠ᨠ นัก	much, many
/dɤ̄ːn/ เดิน	/tīaw/ ᨴ᩠ᨿᩅ เตียว	walk	cf. Tai Lü: ᦵᦑᧁ /têw/ "to walk"
/wîŋ/ วิ่ง	/lôn/ ᩃᩫ᩠᩵ᨶ ล่น	run
/hǔa.rɔ́ʔ/ หัวเราะ	/xâj.hǔa/ ᨣᩕᩲ᩵ᩉ᩠ᩅᩫ ใค่หัว	laugh	cf. Tai Lü: ᦺᦆᧈᦷᦠ /xāj.hó/ "to laugh"
/sa.nùk/ สนุก	/mûan/ ᨾ᩠ᩅ᩵ᩁ ม่วน	funny, amusing	cf. Lao: ມ່ວນ /mūan/ "fun, amusing, pleasant", Tai Lü: ᦷᦙᦓᧈ /mōn/ "fun, amusing, pleasant", and Shan: မူၼ်ႈ /mōn/ "fun, amusing, pleasant"
/kōː.hòk/ โกหก	/t͡ɕúʔ/ ᨧᩩ จุ๋	lie	cf. Tai Lü: ᦈᦳ /t͡su᷄ʔ/ "to lie, to deceive"
/ʔa.rāj/ อะไร	/ʔa.ɲǎŋ/ ᩋᩉ᩠ᨿᩢᨦ อะหญัง	what	cf. Lao: ອີ່ຫຍັງ /ʔī.ɲǎŋ/ "what"
/dèk/ เด็ก	/la.ʔɔ̀ːn/ ᩃᩋᩬ᩵ᩁ ละอ่อน	child	cf. Tai Lü: ᦟᦳᧅᦀᦸᧃᧈ /lūk.ʔɔ᷄n/ "child, young offspring"
/pʰráʔ/ พระ	/tu᷇.t͡ɕa᷇w/ ᨴᩩᨧᩮᩢ᩶ᩣ ตุ๊เจ้า	Buddhist monk	cf. Tai Lü: ᦑᦳᦈᧁᧉ /tūʔ.tsa᷅w/ "Buddhist monk"

Similar words

There is not a straightforward correspondence between the tones of Northern and Standard Thai. It also depends on the initial consonant, as can be seen from the merged Gedney tone boxes for Standard Thai and the accent of Chiang Mai:

Ancestral tone:	A (smooth, no tone mark)			B (mai ek)			DL (checked, long vowel)			DS (dead, short vowel)			C (mai tho)
Initial Consonant	Std Thai	CM NT	gloss	Std Thai	CM NT	gloss	Std Thai	CM NT	gloss	Std Thai	CM NT	gloss	Std Thai	CM NT	gloss
1. High	rising	low-rising	ear	low	mid-low	four	low	low	to hit	low	low-rising	to dig	falling	high-falling	old
	/hǔː/ หู	/hǔː/ ᩉᩪ หู		/sìː/ สี่	/sìː/ ᩈᩦ᩵ สี่		/tʰùːk/ ถูก	/tʰùːk/ ᨳᩪᨠ ถูก		/kʰùt/ ขุด	/xǔt/ ᨡᩩᨯ ขุ๋ด		/tʰâw/ เฒ่า	/tʰa᷇w/ ᨳᩮᩢ᩶ᩣ เฒ่า
2. CM High but Std Mid (= Std Thai ก ต ป)	mid	low-rising	eye	low	mid-low	turtle	low	low	mouth	low	low-rising	to fall	falling	high-falling	aunt
	/tāː/ ตา	/tǎː/ ᨲᩣ ต๋า		/tàw/ เต่า	/tàw/ ᨲᩮᩢ᩵ᩣ เต่า		/pàːk/ ปาก	/pàːk/ ᨯᩬᨠ ปาก		/tòk/ ตก	/tǒk/ ᨲᩫ᩠ᨠ ต๋ก		/pâː/ ป้า	/pa᷇ː/ ᨸ᩶ᩣ ป้า
3. Mid for Both (= Std Thai ด บ อ อย)	mid	mid-high	good	low	mid-low	to scold	low	low	flower	low	low-rising	to bend	falling	high-falling	mad
	/dīː/ ดี	/dīː/ ᨯᩦ ดี		/dàː/ ด่า	/dà:/ ᨯ᩵ᩣ ด่า		/dɔ̀ːk/ ดอก	/dɔ̀ːk/ ᨯᩬᨠ ดอก		/dàt/ ดัด	/dǎt/ ᨯᩢ᩠ᨯ ดั่ด		/bâː/ บ้า	/ba᷇ː/ ᨷ᩶ᩤ บ้า
4. Low	mid	mid-high	fly	falling	falling	mother	falling	falling	knife	high	high-falling	bird	high	high rising-falling	horse
	/bīn/ บิน	/bīn/ ᨷᩥ᩠ᨶ บิน		/mɛ̂ː/ แม่	/mɛ̂ː/ ᨾᩯ᩵ แม่		/mîːt/ มีด	/mîːt/ ᨾᩦ᩠ᨯ มีด		/nók/ นก	/no᷇k/ ᨶᩫ᩠ᨠ นก		/máː/ ม้า	/máː/ ᨾ᩶ᩣ ม้า

Note that the commonalities between columns are features of the Chiang Mai accent. On the other hand, the relationships between rows are typical of Northern Thai, being found for at least for Chiang Mai, Chiang Rai,^[20] Phayao,^[20]Nan and Prae,^[20] and extending at least to Tak^[20] and the old 6-tone accent of Tai Khuen,^[20] except that the checked syllables of Chiang Rai are more complicated.

The primary function of a tone box is etymological. However, it also serves as a summary of the rules for tone indication when the writing system is essentially etymological in that regard, as is the case with the major Tai-language writing systems using the Thai, Lanna, New Tai Lue, Lao and Tai Dam scripts.

Some words differ only as a result of the regular tone correspondences:

Standard Thai	Northern Thai	gloss
/hòk/ หก	/hǒk/^[21] ᩉᩫ᩠ᨠ ห๋ก	six
/t͡ɕèt/ เจ็ด	/t͡ɕět/^[22] ᨧᩮᩢ᩠ᨯ เจ๋ด	seven
/sìp/ สิบ	/sǐp/^[23] ᩈᩥ᩠ᨷ สิ๋บ	ten
/pēn/ เป็น	/pěn/ ᨸᩮ᩠ᨶ เป๋น	be (copula)
/kīn/ กิน	/kǐn/ ᨠᩥ᩠ᨶ กิ๋น	eat

Other tone differences are unpredictable, such as:

Standard Thai	Northern Thai	gloss
/nɯ̀ŋ/ หนึ่ง	/nɯ̂ŋ/ ᨶᩧ᩠᩵ᨦ นึ่ง	one

Some words differ in a single sound and associated tone. In many words, the initial ร (/r/) in Standard Thai corresponds to ฮ (/h/) in Northern Thai:

Standard Thai	Northern Thai	gloss	note
/rɔ́ːn/ ร้อน	/hɔ́ːn/ ᩁᩬ᩶ᩁ ฮ้อน	hot	cf. Lao: ຮ້ອນ /hɔ̂ːn/ "to be hot" and Shan: ႁွၼ်ႉ /hɔ̰n/ "to be hot"
/rák/ รัก	/ha᷇k/ ᩁᩢ᩠ᨠ ฮัก	love	cf. Lao: ຮັກ /hāk/ "to love" and Shan: ႁၵ်ႉ /ha̰k/ "to love"
/rúː/ รู้	/húː/ ᩁᩪ᩶ ฮู้	know	cf. Lao: ຮູ້ /hûː/ "know" and Shan: ႁူ /hṵ/ "know"

Aspiration of initial consonants

Some aspirated consonants in the low-class consonant group (อักษรต่ำ /ʔàk.sɔ̌ːn.tàm/) in Standard Thai correspond to unaspirated sounds in Northern Thai. These sounds include ค, ช, ท, and พ (/kʰ/, /t͡ɕʰ/, /tʰ/, and /pʰ/ respectively), but sounds such as ฅ, คร, ฆ, ฒ, พร, ภ (/kʰ/, /kʰr/, /kʰ/, /tʰ/, /pʰr/, and /pʰ/ respectively) remain aspirated. Such aspirated consonants that are unaspirated in Northern Thai correspond to unaspirated voiced sounds in Proto-Tai which are *ɡ, *ɟ, *d, and *b (ค, ช, ท, and พ respectively).:

Standard Thai	Northern Thai	gloss	note
/t͡ɕʰiaŋ.rāːj/ เชียงราย	/t͡ɕiaŋ.hāːj/ ᨩ᩠ᨿᨦᩁᩣ᩠ᨿ เจียงฮาย	Chiang Rai city and province	cf. Tai Lü: ᦵᦈᧂᦣᦻ /tsêŋ.hâːj/ "Chiang Rai"
/kʰít/ คิด	/kɯ́t/ ᨣᩧ᩠ᨯ กึ๊ด	think	cf. Tai Lü: ᦅᦹᧆ /kɯ̄t/ "to think"
/t͡ɕʰɔ́ːn/ ช้อน	/t͡ɕɔ́ːn/ ᨩᩬ᩶ᩁ จ๊อน	spoon	cf. Tai Lü: ᦋᦸᧃᧉ /tsɔ̀n/ "spoon"
/t͡ɕʰáj/ ใช้	/t͡ɕáj/ ᨩᩲ᩶ ใจ๊	use	cf. Shan: ၸႂ်ႉ /tsa̰ɰ/ "to use", Tai Lü: ᦺᦋᧉ /tsàj/ "to use"
/pʰɔ̂ː/ พ่อ	/pɔ̂ː/ ᨻᩬᩴ᩵ ป้อ	father	cf. Shan: ပေႃႈ /pɔ̄/ "father", Tai Lü: ᦗᦸᧈ /pɔ̄/ "father"
/tʰāːŋ/ ทาง	/tāːŋ/ ᨴᩤ᩠ᨦ ตาง	way	cf. Shan: တၢင်း /táːŋ/ "way", Tai Lü: ᦑᦱᧂ /tâːŋ/ "way"

But not:

Standard Thai	Northern Thai	gloss	note
/kʰôːt.sa.nāː/ โฆษณา	/xôːt.sa.nāː/ ᨥᩰᩇᨱᩣ โฆษณา	commercial, advertisement	cf. Tai Lü: ᦷᦆᦉᦓᦱ /xôː.sa.nâː/ "advertisement"
/pʰāː.sǎː/ ภาษา	/pʰāː.sǎː/ ᨽᩣᩈᩣ ภาษา	language	cf. Tai Lü: ᦘᦱᦉᦱ /pʰâː.sáː/ "nationality"
/wát.tʰa.náʔ.tʰām/ วัฒนธรรม	/wa᷇t.tʰa.na᷇ʔ.tʰām/ ᩅᨯ᩠ᨰᨶᨵᨾ᩠ᨾ᩺ วัฒนธัมม์	culture	cf. Tai Lü: ᦞᧆᦒᦓᦱᦒᧄ /wāt.tʰa.na.tʰâm/ "culture"
/tʰām/ ธรรม	/tʰām/ ᨵᨾ᩠ᨾ᩺ ธัมม์	Dharma	cf. Tai Lü: ᦒᧄ /tʰâm/ "Dharma"

Though a number of aspirated consonants in Standard Thai often correspond to unaspirated sounds in Northern Thai, when an unaspirated consonant is followed by ร (/r/) the unaspirated consonant becomes aspirated:

Standard Thai	Northern Thai	gloss	note
/pràʔ.tʰêːt/ ประเทศ	/pʰa.têːt/ ᨷᩕᨴᩮ᩠ᩆ ผะเต้ด	country	cf. Tai Lü: ᦕᦵᦑᧆ /pʰa.te᷄ːt/ "country"
/kràːp/ กราบ	/xàːp/ or /kʰàːp/ ᨠᩕᩣ᩠ᨷ ขาบ	kowtow, prostrate	cf. Tai Lü: ᦃᦱᧇ /xa᷄ːp/ "to prostrate oneself"
/prāː.sàːt/ ปราสาท	/pʰǎː.sàːt/ ᨷᩕᩤᩈᩣ᩠ᨴ ผาสาท	palace	cf. Tai Lü: ᦕᦱᦉᦱᧆ /pʰáː.sa᷄ːt/ "palace"

Notes

1. Northern Thai at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required)
2. Natnapang 2004, Section 3.5.6 The changing pronunciation of the Lanna script and Kammuang As with all languages, the pronunciation of the written and spoken forms changes over time. This is another problem that Kammuang speakers may have when they learn to write the Lanna script. These changes occur in only some words, and there are no readily apparent rules to explain the changes....
3. Edmondson, J.A. and Gregerson, K.J. (2007). The Languages of Vietnam: Mosaics and Expansions in Language and Linguistics Compass, 1(0). pp. 727-749.
4. Pittayaporn, Pittayawat (2014). 'Layers of Chinese Loanwords in Proto-Southwestern Tai as Evidence for the Dating of the Spread of Southwestern Tai.' MANUSYA: Journal of Humanities, Special Issue No 20: 47–64.
5. Kemasingki, Pim; Prateepkoh, Pariyakorn (2017-08-01). "RIP Kham Mueang: the slow death of a language". Chiang Mai Citylife. Retrieved 2021-11-01.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
6. Chiu, Angela S. (2017-03-31). The Buddha in Lanna: Art, Lineage, Power, and Place in Northern Thailand. University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-7312-7.
7. Panyaatisin, Kosin (2018-07-21). Dialect Maintenance, Shift and Variation in a Northern Thai Industrial Estate (phd thesis). University of Essex.
8. Sukprasert, Maliwan; Wongsothorn, Achara (2015). "Kham Mueang Dialect Usage over Three Generations in Tambon Wiang Phayao". Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities. 41: 153–166. ISSN 0125-2860.
9. Thanajirawat, Zirivarnphicha (2018). Tonal Geography of Tai Yuan in Southeast Asia. Paper presented at the 28th Annual Meeting of the Southeast Asian Linguistics Society, held May 17–19, 2018 in Kaohsiung, Taiwan.
10. Rungruengsi 2004, pp. ณ-ด
11. Natnapang 2004, Section 3.5.2 Initial consonant clusters in the Lanna script
12. Rungrueangsi 2004, p. 307, but not listed by Natnapang
13. Rungruengsi 2004, p. 795, word ᩉ᩠ᨿ᩠ᩅᩣ᩠ᨾ
14. Tingsabadh & Abramson (1993:25) harvcoltxt error: no target: CITEREFTingsabadh_&_Abramson1993 (help)
15. Hundius, Harald. Phonologie und Schrift des Nordthai. Marburg: Deutsche Morgenländische Gesellschaft ;, 1990. Print.
16. พจนานุกรมภาษาล้านนา = The Lanna dictionary (พิมพ์ครั้งที่ 2). (พ.ศ. 2550 [= 2007 CE]). เชียงใหม่: สถาบันภาษา ศิลปะและวัฒนธรรม มหาวิทยาลัยราชภัฏเชียงใหม่.
17. Gedney, W. J. (1999). Southwestern Tai dialects: Glossaries, texts, and translations (T. J. Hudak, Ed.). University of Michigan Center for South East Asian Studies.
18. Pittayaporn, P. (2007). Directionality of tone change. Proceedings of the 16th International Congress of Phonetic Sciences (ICPhS XVI), 1421–1424.
19. Rungrueangsi 2004, p. ฉ
20. Li, Fang Kuei (1977). A Handbook of Comparative Tai. Oceanic Linguistics Special Publications. Vol. 15. The University Press of Hawaii. pp. 46, 52. ISBN 0-8248-0540-2.
21. Rungrueangsi 2004, pp. ฉ, ช & 769
22. Rungrueangsi 2004, pp. ฉ, ช & 199
23. Rungrueangsi 2004, pp. ฉ, ช & 746

References

• Khamjan, Mala (2008). Kham Mueang Dictionary พจนานุกรมคำเมือง [Photchananukrom Kham Mueang] (in Thai). Chiang Mai: Bookworm. ISBN 978-974-8418-55-1.
• Natnapang Burutphakdee (October 2004). Khon Muang Neu Kap Phasa Muang [Attitudes of Northern Thai Youth towards Kammuang and the Lanna Script] (PDF) (M.A. Thesis). Presented at 4th National Symposium on Graduate Research, Chiang Mai, Thailand, August 10–11, 2004. Asst. Prof. Dr. Kirk R. Person, adviser. Chiang Mai: Payap University. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2013-06-09. Retrieved June 8, 2013.
• Rungrueangsi, Udom (ศาสตราจารย์ ดร.อุดม รุ่งเรืองศรี) (2004) [1991]. Lanna-Thai Dictionary, Princess Mother Version พจนานุกรมล้านนา ~ ไทย ฉบับแม่ฟ้าหลวง [Photchananukrom Lanna ~ Thai, Chabap Maefa Luang] (in Thai) (Revision 1 ed.). Chiang Mai: Rongphim Ming Mueang (โรงพิมพ์มิ่งเมือง). ISBN 974-8359-03-4.

Further reading

• Bilmes, J. (1996). Problems And Resources In Analyzing Northern Thai Conversation For English Language Readers. Journal of Pragmatics, 26(2), 171–188.
• Davis, R. (1970). A Northern Thai reader. Bangkok: Siam Society.
• Filbeck, D. (1973). Pronouns in Northern Thai. Anthropological Linguistics, 15(8), 345–361.
• Herington, Jennifer, Margaret Potter, Amy Ryan and Jennifer Simmons (2013). Sociolinguistic Survey of Northern Thai. SIL Electronic Survey Reports.
• Howard, K. M. (2009). "When Meeting Khun Teacher, Each Time We Should Pay Respect": Standardizing Respect In A Northern Thai Classroom. Linguistics and Education, 20(3), 254–272.
• Khankasikam, K. (2012). Printed Lanna character recognition by using conway's game of life. In ICDIM (pp. 104–109).
• Pankhuenkhat, R. (1982). The Phonology of the Lanna Language:(a Northern Thai Dialect). Institute of Language and Culture for Rural Development, Mahidol University.
• Strecker, D. (1979). "A preliminary typology of tone shapes and tonal sound changes in Tai: the La-n N-a A-tones", in Studies in Tai and Mon-Khmer Phonetics and Phonology In Honour of Eugénie J.A. Henderson, ed. T.L. Thongkum et al., pp. 171–240. Chulalongkorn University Press.
• Wangsai, Piyawat. (2007). A Comparative Study of Phonological Yong and Northern Thai Language (Kammuang). M.A. thesis. Kasetsart University.

External links

• Northern Thai New Testament. The New Testament in hard copy form was written using two scripts Amazon link.
• Khamuang (Chiang Mai variety) (Intercontinental Dictionary Series)

 

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