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Stalinism

Stalinism is the means of governing and Marxist–Leninist policies implemented in the Soviet Union from 1927 to 1953 by Joseph Stalin. It included the creation of a one-party totalitarian police state, rapid industrialization, the theory of socialism in one country, collectivization of agriculture, intensification of class conflict, a cult of personality,[1][2] and subordination of the interests of foreign communist parties to those of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, deemed by Stalinism to be the leading vanguard party of communist revolution at the time.[3] After Stalin's death and the Khrushchev Thaw, de-Stalinization began in the 1950s and 1960s, which caused the influence of Stalin’s ideology begin to wane in the USSR. The second wave of de-Stalinization started during Mikhail Gorbachev’s Soviet Glasnost.

Joseph Stalin, after whom Stalinism is named.

Stalin's regime forcibly purged society of what it saw as threats to itself and its brand of communism (so-called "enemies of the people"), which included political dissidents, non-Soviet nationalists, the bourgeoisie, better-off peasants ("kulaks"),[4] and those of the working class who demonstrated "counter-revolutionary" sympathies.[5] This resulted in mass repression of such people and their families, including mass arrests, show trials, executions, and imprisonment in forced labour and concentration camps known as gulags.[6] The most notorious examples were the Great Purge and the Dekulakization campaign. Stalinism was also marked by militant atheism, mass anti-religious persecution,[7][8] and ethnic cleansing through forced deportations.[9] However, there was a short era of reconciliation between the Orthodox Church and the state authorities in WW2.[10] Some historians, such as Robert Service, have blamed Stalinist policies, particularly the collectivization policies, for causing famines such as the Holodomor.[7] Other historians and scholars disagree on the role of Stalinism.[11]

Officially designed to accelerate development towards communism, the need for industrialization in the Soviet Union was emphasized because the Soviet Union had previously fallen behind economically compared to Western countries and that socialist society needed industry to face the challenges posed by internal and external enemies of communism.[12] Rapid industrialization was accompanied by mass collectivization of agriculture and rapid urbanization, which converted many small villages into industrial cities.[13] To accelerate the development of industrialization, Stalin imported materials, ideas, expertise, and workers from western Europe and the United States,[14] pragmatically setting up joint-venture contracts with major American private enterprises such as the Ford Motor Company, which, under state supervision, assisted in developing the basis of the industry of the Soviet economy from the late 1920s to the 1930s. After the American private enterprises had completed their tasks, Soviet state enterprises took over.

History

Stalinism is used to describe the period during which Joseph Stalin was the leader of the Soviet Union while serving as General Secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union from 1922 to his death on 5 March 1953.[15]

Etymology

The term Stalinism came into prominence during the mid-1930s when Lazar Kaganovich, a Soviet politician and associate of Stalin, reportedly declared: "Let's replace Long Live Leninism with Long Live Stalinism!"[16] Stalin dismissed this as excessive and contributing to a cult of personality which he thought might be used against him at a later date by the same people who praised him excessively, one of those being Khrushchev - a prominent user of term Stalinism in Stalin's life who would later be responsible for de-Stalinization and the beginning of the Revisionist period in the USSR.[16]

Stalinist policies

 
Modified photo intended to show Vladimir Lenin with Stalin in the early 1920s[17][18]
 
Members of the Chinese Communist Party celebrating Stalin's birthday in 1949

While some historians view Stalinism as a reflection of the ideologies of Leninism and Marxism, some argue that it stands separate from the socialist ideals it stemmed from. After a political struggle that culminated in the defeat of the Bukharinists (the "Party's Right Tendency"), Stalinism was free to shape policy without opposition, ushering forth an era of harsh authoritarianism that worked toward rapid industrialization regardless of the cost.[19]

From 1917 to 1924, though often appearing united, Stalin, Vladimir Lenin, and Leon Trotsky had discernible ideological differences. In his dispute with Trotsky, Stalin de-emphasized the role of workers in advanced capitalist countries (e.g. he considered the American working-class "bourgeoisified" labour aristocracy). Stalin also polemicized against Trotsky on the role of peasants as in China, whereas Trotsky's position favoured urban insurrection over peasant-based guerrilla warfare.[dubious ][citation needed]

All other October Revolution 1917 Bolshevik leaders regarded their revolution more or less just as the beginning, with Russia as the springboard on the road towards the World Wide Revolution. Stalin would eventually introduce the idea of socialism in one country by the autumn of 1924, a theory standing in sharp contrast to Trotsky's permanent revolution and all earlier socialistic theses. However, the revolution did not spread outside Russia as Lenin had assumed it soon would. The revolution had not succeeded even within other former territories of the Russian Empire―such as Poland, Finland, Lithuania, Latvia and Estonia. On the contrary, these countries had returned to capitalist bourgeois rule.[20]

Despite this, by the autumn of 1924, Stalin's notion of socialism in Soviet Russia was initially considered next to blasphemy in the ears of other Politburo members, including Zinoviev and Kamenev to the intellectual left; Rykov, Bukharin, and Tomsky to the pragmatic right; and the powerful Trotsky, who belonged to no side but his own. None would even consider Stalin's concept a potential addition to communist ideology. Stalin's socialism in one country doctrine could not be imposed until he, himself, had become close to being the autocratic ruler of the Soviet Union around 1929. Bukharin and the Right Opposition expressed their support for imposing Stalin's ideas, as Trotsky had been exiled, whereas Zinoviev and Kamenev had been thrown out of the party.[21]

Proletarian state

Traditional communist thought holds that the state will gradually "wither away" as the implementation of socialism reduces class distinction. However, Stalin argued that the proletarian state (as opposed to the bourgeois state) must become stronger before it can wither away. In Stalin's view, counter-revolutionary elements will attempt to derail the transition to full communism, and the state must be powerful enough to defeat them. For this reason, communist regimes influenced by Stalin have been widely described as totalitarian.[22] Other leftists, such as anarcho-communists, have criticized the party-state of the Stalin-era Soviet Union, accusing it of being bureaucratic and calling it a reformist social democracy rather than a form of revolutionary communism.[23]

Sheng Shicai, a Chinese warlord with Communist leanings, invited Soviet intervention and allowed Stalinist rule to be extended to the Xinjiang province in the 1930s. In 1937, Sheng conducted a purge similar to the Great Purge, imprisoning, torturing, and killing about 100,000 people, many of whom were Uyghurs.[24][25]

Class-based violence

Stalin blamed the kulaks as the inciters of reactionary violence against the people during the implementation of agricultural collectivization.[26] In response, the state, under Stalin's leadership, initiated a violent campaign against the kulaks. This kind of campaign would later be known as classicide,[27] though several international legislatures have passed resolutions declaring the campaign a genocide.[28] Some historians dispute that these social-class actions constitute genocide.[29][30][31]

Purges and executions

 
 
 
Left: Lavrenty Beria's January 1940 letter to Stalin asking permission to execute 346 "enemies of the Communist Party and of the Soviet authorities" who conducted "counter-revolutionary, right-Trotskyite plotting and spying activities"
Middle: Stalin's handwriting: "за" (support)
Right: the Politburo's decision is signed by Stalin

As head of the Politburo of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, Stalin consolidated near-absolute power in the 1930s with a Great Purge of the party that claimed to expel "opportunists" and "counter-revolutionary infiltrators."[32][33] Those targeted by the purge were often expelled from the party, though more severe measures ranged from banishment to the Gulag labour camps to execution after trials held by NKVD troikas.[32][34][35]

In the 1930s, Stalin became increasingly worried about the growing popularity of the Leningrad party head Sergei Kirov. At the 1934 Party Congress, where the vote for the new Central Committee was held, Kirov received only three negative votes (the fewest of any candidate), while Stalin received at least over a hundred negative votes.[36][i] After the assassination of Kirov, which Stalin may have orchestrated, Stalin invented a detailed scheme to implicate opposition leaders in the murder, including Trotsky, Lev Kamenev, and Grigory Zinoviev.[37] From thereon, the investigations and trials expanded.[38] Stalin passed a new law on "terrorist organizations and terrorist acts" that were to be investigated for no more than ten days, with no prosecution, defence attorneys, or appeals, followed by a sentence to be executed "quickly."[39]

After that, several trials, known as the Moscow Trials, were held, but the procedures were replicated throughout the country. Article 58 of the legal code, which listed prohibited anti-Soviet activities as a counter-revolutionary crime, was applied most broadly.[40] Many alleged anti-Soviet pretexts were used to brand individuals as "enemies of the people", starting the cycle of public persecution, often proceeding to interrogation, torture, and deportation, if not death. The Russian word troika thereby gained a new meaning: a quick, simplified trial by a committee of three subordinated to the NKVD troika—with sentencing carried out within 24 hours.[39] Stalin's hand-picked executioner Vasili Blokhin was entrusted with carrying out some of the high-profile executions in this period.[41]

Many military leaders were convicted of treason, and a large-scale purge of Red Army officers followed.[ii] The repression of many formerly high-ranking revolutionaries and party members led Leon Trotsky to claim that a "river of blood" separated Stalin's regime from that of Lenin.[43] In August 1940, Trotsky was assassinated in Mexico, where he had lived in exile since January 1937—this eliminated the last of Stalin's opponents among the former Party leadership.[44] Except for Vladimir Milyutin (who died in prison in 1937) and Stalin himself, all of the members of Lenin's original cabinet who had not succumbed to death from natural causes before the purge were executed.[citation needed]

Mass operations of the NKVD also targeted "national contingents" (foreign ethnicities) such as Poles, ethnic Germans, and Koreans. A total of 350,000 (144,000 of them Poles) were arrested and 247,157 (110,000 Poles) were executed.[45][page needed] Many Americans who had emigrated to the Soviet Union during the worst of the Great Depression were executed, while others were sent to prison camps or gulags.[46][47] Concurrent with the purges, efforts were made to rewrite the history in Soviet textbooks and other propaganda materials. Notable people executed by NKVD were removed from the texts and photographs as though they never existed. Gradually, the history of the revolution was transformed into a story about just two key characters, i.e. Lenin and Stalin.[citation needed]

In light of revelations from Soviet archives, historians now estimate that nearly 700,000 people (353,074 in 1937 and 328,612 in 1938) were executed in the course of the terror,[48] with the great mass of victims merely "ordinary" Soviet citizens: workers, peasants, homemakers, teachers, priests, musicians, soldiers, pensioners, ballerinas, and beggars.[49][50]: 4  Many of the executed were interred in mass graves, with some significant killing and burial sites being Bykivnia, Kurapaty, and Butovo.[51]

 
"Wall of sorrow" at the first exhibition of the victims of Stalinism in Moscow, 19 November 1988

Some Western experts believe the evidence released from the Soviet archives is understated, incomplete or unreliable.[52][53][54][55][56] Conversely, historian Stephen G. Wheatcroft, who spent a good portion of his academic career researching the archives, contends that, prior to the collapse of the Soviet Union and the opening of the archives for historical research, "our understanding of the scale and the nature of Soviet repression has been extremely poor" and that some specialists who wish to maintain earlier high estimates of the Stalinist death toll are "finding it difficult to adapt to the new circumstances when the archives are open and when there are plenty of irrefutable data" and instead "hang on to their old Sovietological methods with round-about calculations based on odd statements from emigres and other informants who are supposed to have superior knowledge."[57][58]

Stalin personally signed 357 proscription lists in 1937 and 1938 that condemned to execute some 40,000 people, about 90% of whom are confirmed to have been shot.[59] While reviewing one such list, he reportedly muttered to no one in particular: "Who's going to remember all this riff-raff in ten or twenty years time? No one. Who remembers the names now of the boyars Ivan the Terrible got rid of? No one."[60] In addition, Stalin dispatched a contingent of NKVD operatives to Mongolia, established a Mongolian version of the NKVD troika, and unleashed a bloody purge in which tens of thousands were executed as "Japanese spies", as Mongolian ruler Khorloogiin Choibalsan closely followed Stalin's lead.[50]: 2 

During the 1930s and 1940s, the Soviet leadership sent NKVD squads into other countries to murder defectors and opponents of the Soviet regime. Victims of such plots included Yevhen Konovalets, Ignace Poretsky, Rudolf Klement, Alexander Kutepov, Evgeny Miller, Leon Trotsky, and the Workers' Party of Marxist Unification (POUM) leadership in Catalonia (e.g. Andréu Nin Pérez).[61]

Deportations

Shortly before, during, and immediately after World War II, Stalin conducted a broad-scale series of deportations that profoundly affected the ethnic map of the Soviet Union. Separatism, resistance to Soviet rule, and collaboration with the invading Germans were the official reasons for the deportations. Individual circumstances of those spending time in German-occupied territories were not examined. After the brief Nazi occupation of the Caucasus, the entire population of five of the small highland peoples and the Crimean Tatars—more than a million people in total—were deported without notice or any opportunity to take their possessions.[62]

As a result of Stalin's lack of trust in the loyalty of particular ethnicities, ethnic groups such as the Soviet Koreans, Volga Germans, Crimean Tatars, Chechens, and many Poles, were forcibly moved out of strategic areas and relocated to places in the central Soviet Union, especially Kazakhstan in Soviet Central Asia. By some estimates, hundreds of thousands of deportees may have died en route.[63] It is estimated that between 1941 and 1949, nearly 3.3 million[63][64] were deported to Siberia and the Central Asian republics. By some estimates, up to 43% of the resettled population died of diseases and malnutrition.[65]

According to official Soviet estimates, more than 14 million people passed through the gulags from 1929 to 1953, with a further 7 to 8 million being deported and exiled to remote areas of the Soviet Union (including entire nationalities in several cases).[66] The emergent scholarly consensus is that from 1930 to 1953, around 1.5 to 1.7 million perished in the gulag system.[67][68][69]

In February 1956, Nikita Khrushchev condemned the deportations as a violation of Leninism and reversed most of them, although it was not until 1991 that the Tatars, Meskhetians, and Volga Germans were allowed to return en masse to their homelands. The deportations had a profound effect on the people of the Soviet Union. The memory of the deportations has played a significant part in the separatist movements in the Baltic states, Tatarstan, and Chechnya, even today.[citation needed]

Economic policy

 
Starved peasants on a street in Kharkiv during the Soviet famine of 1932–1933

At the start of the 1930s, Stalin launched a wave of radical economic policies that completely overhauled the industrial and agricultural face of the Soviet Union. This became known as the Great Turn as Russia turned away from the mixed-economic type New Economic Policy (NEP) and adopted a planned economy. The NEP was implemented by Lenin to ensure the survival of the socialist state following seven years of war (World War I, 1914–1917, and the subsequent Civil War, 1917–1921) and rebuilt Soviet production to its 1913 levels. However, Russia still lagged far behind the West, and the NEP was felt by Stalin and the majority of the Communist Party, not only to be compromising communist ideals but also not delivering satisfactory economic performance as well as not creating the envisaged socialist society. It was felt necessary to increase the pace of industrialization in order to catch up with the West.[citation needed]

Fredric Jameson has said that "Stalinism was…a success and fulfilled its historic mission, socially as well as economically" given that it "modernized the Soviet Union, transforming a peasant society into an industrial state with a literate population and a remarkable scientific superstructure."[70] Robert Conquest disputed such a conclusion, noting that "Russia had already been fourth to fifth among industrial economies before World War I" and that Russian industrial advances could have been achieved without collectivization, famine, or terror. According to Conquest, the industrial successes were far less than claimed, and the Soviet-style industrialization was "an anti-innovative dead-end."[71] Stephen Kotkin said those who argue collectivization was necessary are "dead wrong", arguing that such "only seemed necessary within the straitjacket of Communist ideology and its repudiation of capitalism. And economically, collectivization failed to deliver." Kotkin further claimed that it decreased harvests instead of increasing them as peasants tended to resist heavy taxes by producing less goods and only care about their own subsistence.[72][73]: 5 

According to several Western historians,[74] Stalinist agricultural policies were a key factor in causing the Soviet famine of 1932–1933, which the Ukrainian government now calls the Holodomor, recognizing it as an act of genocide. Some scholars dispute the intentionality of the famine.[75][76]

Relationship to Leninism

Stalin considered the political and economic system under his rule to be Marxism–Leninism, which he considered the only legitimate successor of Marxism and Leninism. The historiography of Stalin is diverse, with many different aspects of continuity and discontinuity between the regimes Stalin and Lenin proposed. Some historians, such as Richard Pipes, consider Stalinism as the natural consequence of Leninism, that Stalin "faithfully implemented Lenin's domestic and foreign policy programs."[77] Robert Service notes that "institutionally and ideologically Lenin laid the foundations for a Stalin [...] but the passage from Leninism to the worse terrors of Stalinism was not smooth and inevitable."[78] Likewise, historian and Stalin biographer Edvard Radzinsky believes that Stalin was a genuine follower of Lenin, exactly as he claimed himself.[79] Another Stalin biographer, Stephen Kotkin, wrote that "his violence was not the product of his subconscious but of the Bolshevik engagement with Marxist–Leninist ideology."[80]

 
A poster of the Stalinist era with the inscription "The whole world will be ours!"

Dmitri Volkogonov, who wrote biographies of both Lenin and Stalin, explained that during the 1960s through 1980s, an official patriotic Soviet de-Stalinized view of the Lenin–Stalin relationship (i.e. during the Khrushchev Thaw and later) was that the overly-autocratic Stalin had distorted the Leninism of the wise dedushka Lenin. However, Volkogonov also lamented that this view eventually dissolved for those like him who had the scales fall from their eyes immediately before and after the dissolution of the Soviet Union. After researching the biographies in the Soviet archives, he came to the same conclusion as Radzinsky and Kotkin, i.e. that Lenin had built a culture of violent autocratic totalitarianism, of which Stalinism was a logical extension. He lamented that, while Stalin had long since fallen in the estimation of many Soviet minds (the many who agreed with de-Stalinization), "Lenin was the last bastion" in Volkogonov's mind to fall, and the fall was the most painful, given the secular apotheosis of Lenin that all Soviet children grew up with.[citation needed]

Proponents of continuity cite a variety of contributory factors, in that it was Lenin, rather than Stalin, whose civil war measures introduced the Red Terror with its hostage-taking and internment camps; that it was Lenin who developed the infamous Article 58 and who established the autocratic system within the Communist Party.[81] They also note that Lenin put a ban on factions within the Russian Communist Party and introduced the one-party state in 1921—a move that enabled Stalin to get rid of his rivals easily after Lenin's death and cite Felix Dzerzhinsky, who, during the Bolshevik struggle against opponents in the Russian Civil War, exclaimed: "We stand for organized terror—this should be frankly stated."[82]

Opponents of this view include revisionist historians and many post-Cold War and otherwise dissident Soviet historians, including Roy Medvedev, who argues that although "one could list the various measures carried out by Stalin that were actually a continuation of anti-democratic trends and measures implemented under Lenin…in so many ways, Stalin acted, not in line with Lenin's clear instructions, but in defiance of them."[83] In doing so, some historians have tried to distance Stalinism from Leninism to undermine the totalitarian view that the negative facets of Stalin were inherent in communism from the start.[84] Critics include anti-Stalinist communists such as Leon Trotsky, who pointed out that Lenin attempted to persuade the Communist Party to remove Stalin from his post as its General Secretary. Lenin's Testament, the document which contained this order, was suppressed after Lenin's death. In his biography of Trotsky, British historian Isaac Deutscher says that, on being faced with the evidence, "only the blind and the deaf could be unaware of the contrast between Stalinism and Leninism."[85]

A similar analysis is present in more recent works such as those of Graeme Gill, who argues that "[Stalinism was] not a natural flow-on of earlier developments; [it formed a] sharp break resulting from conscious decisions by leading political actors."[86] However, Gill notes that "difficulties with the use of the term reflect problems with the concept of Stalinism itself. The major difficulty is a lack of agreement about what should constitute Stalinism."[87] Revisionist historians such as Sheila Fitzpatrick have criticized the focus on the upper levels of society and the use of Cold War concepts such as totalitarianism which have obscured the reality of the system.[88]

Legacy

 
Stalin statue in front of the Joseph Stalin Museum, Gori

Pierre du Bois argues that the cult was elaborately constructed to legitimize his rule. Many deliberate distortions and falsehoods were used.[89] The Kremlin refused access to archival records that might reveal the truth, and critical documents were destroyed. Photographs were altered, and documents were invented.[90] People who knew Stalin were forced to provide "official" accounts to meet the ideological demands of the cult, especially as Stalin presented it in 1938 in Short Course on the History of the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks), which became the official history.[91] Historian David L. Hoffmann sums up the consensus of scholars: "The Stalin cult was a central element of Stalinism, and as such, it was one of the most salient features of Soviet rule. [...] Many scholars of Stalinism cite the cult as integral to Stalin's power or as evidence of Stalin's megalomania."[92]

However, after Stalin died in 1953, his successor Nikita Khrushchev repudiated his policies and condemned Stalin's cult of personality in his Secret Speech to the Twentieth Party Congress in 1956 and instituting de-Stalinization and relative liberalization (within the same political framework). Consequently, some of the world's communist parties who previously adhered to Stalinism abandoned it and, to a greater or lesser degree, adopted the positions of Khrushchev. Others, such as the Chinese Communist Party, chose to split from the Soviet Union, resulting in the Sino-Soviet split. The ousting of Khrushchev in 1964 by his former party-state allies has been described as a Stalinist restoration by some, epitomized by the Brezhnev Doctrine and the apparatchik/nomenklatura "stability of cadres", lasting until the period of glasnost and perestroika in the late 1980s and the fall of the Soviet Union.[citation needed]

Maoism and Hoxhaism

Mao Zedong famously declared that Stalin was 70% good and 30% bad. Maoists criticized Stalin chiefly regarding his view that bourgeois influence within the Soviet Union was primarily a result of external forces, to the almost complete exclusion of internal forces, and his view that class contradictions ended after the basic construction of socialism. However, they praised Stalin for leading the Soviet Union and the international proletariat, defeating fascism in Germany and his anti-revisionism.[93]

 
British prime minister Winston Churchill, United States president Franklin D. Roosevelt and Stalin, the Big Three Allied leaders during World War II at the Yalta Conference in February 1945

Taking the side of the Chinese Communist Party in the Sino-Soviet split, the People's Socialist Republic of Albania remained committed, at least theoretically, to its brand of Stalinism (Hoxhaism) for decades after that under the leadership of Enver Hoxha. Despite their initial cooperation against "revisionism", Hoxha denounced Mao as a revisionist, along with almost every other self-identified communist organization worldwide, resulting in the Sino-Albanian split. This effectively isolated Albania from the rest of the world, as Hoxha was hostile to both the pro-American and pro-Soviet spheres of influence and the Non-Aligned Movement under the leadership of Josip Broz Tito, whom Hoxha had also previously denounced.[94][95]

Trotskyism

Trotskyists argue that the Stalinist Soviet Union was neither socialist nor communist but rather a bureaucratized degenerated workers' state—that is, a non-capitalist state in which exploitation is controlled by a ruling caste which, although not owning the means of production and not constituting a social class in its own right, accrued benefits and privileges at the expense of the working class. Trotsky believed that the Bolshevik Revolution needed to be spread all over the globe's working class, the proletarians, for world revolution. However, after the failure of the revolution in Germany, Stalin reasoned that industrializing and consolidating Bolshevism in Russia would best serve the proletariat in the long run. The dispute did not end until Trotsky's assassination in his Mexican villa by Stalinist assassin Ramón Mercader in 1940.[96]

Max Shachtman, one of the principal Trotskyist theorists in the United States, argued that the Soviet Union had evolved from a degenerated worker's state to a new mode of production called bureaucratic collectivism, whereby orthodox Trotskyists considered the Soviet Union an ally gone astray. Shachtman and his followers thus argued for the formation of a Third Camp opposed to the Soviet and capitalist blocs equally. By the mid-20th century, Shachtman and many of his associates, such as Social Democrats, USA, identified as social democrats rather than Trotskyists, while some ultimately abandoned socialism altogether and embraced neoconservatism. In the United Kingdom, Tony Cliff independently developed a critique of state capitalism that resembled Shachtman's in some respects, but it retained a commitment to revolutionary communism.[97]

Other interpretations

 
Gulag Museum in Moscow, founded in 2001 by historian Anton Antonov-Ovseyenko

Some historians and writers, such as German Dietrich Schwanitz,[98] draw parallels between Stalinism and the economic policy of Tsar Peter the Great, although Schwanitz, in particular, views Stalin as "a monstrous reincarnation" of him. Both men wanted Russia to leave the western European states far behind in terms of development. Both largely succeeded, turning Russia into Europe's leading power.[citation needed] Others[who?] compare Stalin with Ivan the Terrible because of his policies of oprichnina and the restriction of the liberties of common people.[citation needed]

Some reviewers have considered Stalinism as a form of "red fascism".[99] Although fascist regimes were ideologically opposed to the Soviet Union, some positively regarded Stalinism as evolving Bolshevism into a form of fascism. Benito Mussolini positively reviewed Stalinism as having transformed Soviet Bolshevism into a Slavic fascism.[100]

British historian Michael Ellman had written that mass deaths from famines are not a "uniquely Stalinist evil", noting that throughout Russian history, famines and droughts have been a common occurrence, including the Russian famine of 1921–22 (which occurred before Stalin came to power). He also notes that famines were widespread worldwide in the 19th and 20th centuries in countries such as India, Ireland, Russia and China. Ellman compared the behaviour of the Stalinist regime vis-à-vis the Holodomor to that of the British government (towards Ireland and India) and the G8 in contemporary times, arguing that the G8 "are guilty of mass manslaughter or mass deaths from criminal negligence because of their not taking obvious measures to reduce mass deaths" and that the "behaviour [of Stalin] was no worse than that of many rulers in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries".[101]

 
Memorial to the victims of political repression in the USSR, in St. Petersburg, made of a boulder from the Solovetsky Islands

David L. Hoffmann raised the issue of whether Stalinist practices of state violence derived from socialist ideology. Placing Stalinism in an international context, Hoffman argued that many forms of state interventionism used by the Stalinist government, including social cataloguing, surveillance and concentration camps, predated the Soviet regime and originated outside of Russia. Hoffman further argued that technologies of social intervention developed in conjunction with the work of 19th-century European reformers and were greatly expanded during World War I when state actors in all the combatant countries dramatically increased efforts to mobilize and control their populations. According to Hoffman, the Soviet state was born at this moment of total war and institutionalized practices state intervention practices as permanent governance features.[102]

In writing The Mortal Danger: Misconceptions about Soviet Russia and the Threat to America, anti-communist and Soviet dissident Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn argued that the use of the term Stalinism is an excuse to hide the inevitable effects of communism as a whole on human liberties. He wrote that the concept of Stalinism was developed after 1956 by Western intellectuals to be able to keep alive the communist ideal. However, Stalinism was used as early as 1937 when Leon Trotsky wrote his pamphlet Stalinism and Bolshevism.[103]

Writing two The Guardian articles in 2002 and 2006, British journalist Seumas Milne said that the impact of the post-Cold War narrative that Stalin and Hitler were twin evils, therefore communism is as monstrous as Nazism, "has been to relativize the unique crimes of Nazism, bury those of colonialism and feed the idea that any attempt at radical social change will always lead to suffering, killing and failure."[104][105]

Public opinion

In modern Russia, public opinion of Stalin and the former Soviet Union has improved in recent years.[106] According to a 2015 Levada Center poll, 34% of respondents (up from 28% in 2007) say that leading the Soviet people to victory in World War II was such an outstanding achievement that it outweighed his mistakes.[107] A 2019 Levada Center poll showed that support for Stalin, whom many Russians saw as the victor in the Great Patriotic War,[108] reached a record high in the post-Soviet era, with 51% regarding Stalin as a positive figure and 70% saying his reign was good for the country.[109]

Lev Gudkov, a sociologist at the Levada Center, said, "Vladimir Putin's Russia of 2012 needs symbols of authority and national strength, however controversial they may be, to validate the newly authoritarian political order. Stalin, a despotic leader responsible for mass bloodshed but also still identified with wartime victory and national unity, fits this need for symbols that reinforce the current political ideology."[110]

Some positive sentiments can also be found elsewhere in the former Soviet Union. A 2012 survey commissioned by the Carnegie Endowment found 38% of Armenians concurring that their country "will always have need of a leader like Stalin".[110][111] A 2013 survey by Tbilisi University found 45% of Georgians expressing "a positive attitude" toward Stalin.[112]

See also

References

Citations

  1. ^ Deutscher, Isaac (1961). Stalin: A Political Biography (2nd ed.). Oxford University Press. pp. 7–9. ISBN 978-0195002737.
  2. ^ Plamper, Jan (January 17, 2012). The Stalin Cult: A Study in the Alchemy of Power. Yale University Press. ISBN 9780300169522.
  3. ^ Bottomore, Thomas (1991). A Dictionary of Marxist Thought. Wiley-Blackwell. p. 54. ISBN 978-0631180821.
  4. ^ Kotkin 1997, p. 71, 81, 307.
  5. ^ Rossman, Jeffrey (2005). Worker Resistance Under Stalin: Class and Revolution on the Shop Floor. Harvard University Press. ISBN 0674019261.
  6. ^ Pons, Silvo; Service, Robert, eds. (2012). A Dictionary of 20th Century Communism. Princeton University Press. p. 307. ISBN 9780691154299.
  7. ^ a b Service, Robert (2007). Comrades!: A History of World Communism. Harvard University Press. pp. 3–6. ISBN 9780674046993.
  8. ^ Greeley, Andrew, ed. (2009). Religion in Europe at the End of the Second Millennium: A Sociological Profile. Routledge. p. 89. ISBN 9780765808219.
  9. ^ Pons, Silvo; Service, Robert, eds. (2012). A Dictionary of 20th Century Communism. Princeton University Press. pp. 308–310. ISBN 9780691154299.
  10. ^ "How the Russian Orthodox Church helped the Red Army defeat the Nazis".
  11. ^ Sawicky, Nicholas D. (December 20, 2013). (Education and Human Development Master's Theses). The College at Brockport: State University of New York. Archived from the original on February 6, 2021. Retrieved October 6, 2020 – via Digital Commons. Scholars also disagree over what role the Soviet Union played in the tragedy. Some scholars point to Stalin as the mastermind behind the famine, due to his hatred of Ukrainians (Hosking, 1987). Others assert that Stalin did not actively cause the famine, but he knew about it and did nothing to stop it (Moore, 2012). Still other scholars argue that the famine was just an effect of the Soviet Union's push for rapid industrialization and a by-product of that was the destruction of the peasant way of life (Fischer, 1935). The final school of thought argues that the Holodomor was caused by factors beyond the control of the Soviet Union and Stalin took measures to reduce the effects of the famine on the Ukrainian people (Davies & Wheatcroft, 2006).
  12. ^ Kotkin 1997, p. 70-71.
  13. ^ Kotkin 1997, p. 70-79.
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Notes

  1. ^ An exact number of negative votes is unknown. In his memoirs, Anastas Mikoyan writes that out of 1,225 delegates, around 270 voted against Stalin and that the official number of negative votes was given as three, with the rest of ballots destroyed. Following Nikita Khrushchev's "Secret Speech" in 1956, a commission of the central committee investigated the votes and found that 267 ballots were missing.
  2. ^ The scale of Stalin's purge of Red Army officers was exceptional—90% of all generals and 80% of all colonels were killed. This included three out of five Marshals; 13 out of 15 Army commanders; 57 of 85 Corps commanders; 110 of 195 divisional commanders; and 220 of 406 brigade commanders, as well as all commanders of military districts.[citation needed] Carell, P. [1964] 1974. Hitler's War on Russia: The Story of the German Defeat in the East (first Indian ed.), translated by E. Osers. Delhi: B.I. Publications. p. 195.

Sources

Further reading

Books

  • Bullock, Alan. 1998. Hitler and Stalin: Parallel Lives (2nd ed.). Fontana Press.
  • Campeanu, Pavel. 2016. Origins of Stalinism: From Leninist Revolution to Stalinist Society. Routledge.
  • Conquest, Robert. 2008. The Great Terror: A Reassessment (40th anniversary ed.). Oxford University Press.
  • Deutscher, Isaac. 1967. Stalin: A Political Biography (2nd edition). Oxford House.
  • Dobrenko, Evgeny. 2020. Late Stalinism (Yale University Press, 2020).
  • Edele, Mark, ed. 2020. Debates on Stalinism: An introduction (Manchester University Press, 2020).
  • Figes, Orlando. 2008. The Whisperers: Private Life in Stalin's Russia. Picador.
  • Groys, Boris. 2014. The total art of Stalinism: Avant-Garde, aesthetic dictatorship, and beyond. Verso Books.
  • Hasselmann, Anne E. 2021. "Memory Makers of the Great Patriotic War: Curator Agency and Visitor Participation in Soviet War Museums during Stalinism." Journal of Educational Media, Memory, and Society 13.1 (2021): 13–32.
  • Hoffmann, David L. 2008. Stalinism: The Essential Readings. John Wiley & Sons.
  • Hoffmann, David L. 2018. The Stalinist Era. Cambridge University Press.
  • Kotkin, Stephen. 1997. Magnetic Mountain: Stalinism as a civilization. University of California Press.
  • McCauley, Martin. 2019 Stalin and Stalinism (Routledge, 2019).
  • Ree, Erik Van. 2002. The Political Thought of Joseph Stalin, A Study in Twentieth-century Revolutionary Patriotism. RoutledgeCurzon.
  • Ryan, James, and Susan Grant, eds. 2020. Revisioning Stalin and Stalinism: Complexities, Contradictions, and Controversies (Bloomsbury Publishing, 2020).
  • Sharlet, Robert. 2017. Stalinism and Soviet legal culture (Routledge, 2017).
  • Tismăneanu, Vladimir. 2003. Stalinism for All Seasons: A Political History of Romanian Communism. University of California Press.
  • Tucker, Robert C., ed. 2017. Stalinism: essays in historical interpretation. Routledge.
  • Valiakhmetov, Albert, et al. 2018. "History And Historians In The Era Of Stalinism: A Review Of Modern Russian Historiography." National Academy of Managerial Staff of Culture and Arts Herald 1 (2018). online
  • Velikanova, Olga. 2018. Mass Political Culture Under Stalinism: Popular Discussion of the Soviet Constitution of 1936 (Springer, 2018).
  • Wood, Alan. 2004. Stalin and Stalinism (2nd ed.). Routledge.

Scholarly articles

  • Alexander, Kuzminykh. 2019. "The internal affairs agencies of the Soviet State in the period of Stalinism in the context of Russian historiography." Historia provinciae–the journal of regional history 3.1 (2019). online
  • Barnett, Vincent. 2006. Understanding Stalinism: The 'Orwellian Discrepancy' and the 'Rational Choice Dictator'. Europe-Asia Studies, 58(3), 457–466.
  • Edele, Mark. 2020. "New perspectives on Stalinism?: A conclusion." in Debates on Stalinism (Manchester University Press, 2020) pp. 270–281.
  • Gill, Graeme. 2019. "Stalinism and Executive Power: Formal and Informal Contours of Stalinism." Europe-Asia Studies 71.6 (2019): 994–1012.
  • Kamp, Marianne, and Russell Zanca. 2017. "Recollections of collectivization in Uzbekistan: Stalinism and local activism." Central Asian Survey 36.1 (2017): 55–72. online[dead link]
  • Kuzio, Taras. 2017. "Stalinism and Russian and Ukrainian national identities." Communist and Post-Communist Studies 50.4 (2017): 289–302.
  • Lewin, Moshe. 2017. "The social background of Stalinism." in Stalinism (Routledge, 2017. 111–136).
  • Mishler, Paul C. 2018. "Is the Term 'Stalinism' Valid and Useful for Marxist Analysis?." Science & Society 82.4 (2018): 555–567.
  • Musiał, Filip. 2019. "Stalinism in Poland." The Person and the Challenges: Journal of Theology, Education, Canon Law and Social Studies Inspired by Pope John Paul II 9.2 (2019): 9–23. online
  • Nelson, Todd H. 2015. "History as ideology: The portrayal of Stalinism and the Great Patriotic War in contemporary Russian high school textbooks." Post-Soviet Affairs, 31(1), 37–65.
  • Nikiforov, S. A., et al. "Cultural revolution of Stalinism in its regional context." International Journal of Mechanical Engineering and Technology 9.11 (2018): 1229–1241' impact on schooling
  • Wheatcroft, Stephen G. "Soviet statistics under Stalinism: Reliability and distortions in grain and population statistics." Europe-Asia Studies 71.6 (2019): 1013–1035.
  • Winkler, Martina. 2017. "Children, Childhood, and Stalinism." Kritika 18(3), 628–637.
  • Zawadzka, Anna. 2019. "Stalinism the Polish Way." Studia Litteraria et Historica 8 (2019): 1–6. online
  • Zysiak, Agata. 2019. "Stalinism and Revolution in Universities. Democratization of Higher Education from Above, 1947–1956." Studia Litteraria et Historica 8 (2019): 1–17. online

Primary sources

External links

  • "Stalin Reference Archive". Marxists Internet Archive. Retrieved 11 May 2005.
  • "Joseph Stalin". Spartacus Educational.
  • "Joseph Stalin". BBC.
  • Pedro Campos. "Basic Economic Precepts of Stalinist Socialism". Havana Times. 21 June 2010.

stalinism, this, article, about, means, governing, policies, implemented, joseph, stalin, political, philosophy, marxism, leninism, other, uses, disambiguation, means, governing, marxist, leninist, policies, implemented, soviet, union, from, 1927, 1953, joseph. This article is about the means of governing and policies implemented by Joseph Stalin For the political philosophy see Marxism Leninism For other uses see Stalinism disambiguation Stalinism is the means of governing and Marxist Leninist policies implemented in the Soviet Union from 1927 to 1953 by Joseph Stalin It included the creation of a one party totalitarian police state rapid industrialization the theory of socialism in one country collectivization of agriculture intensification of class conflict a cult of personality 1 2 and subordination of the interests of foreign communist parties to those of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union deemed by Stalinism to be the leading vanguard party of communist revolution at the time 3 After Stalin s death and the Khrushchev Thaw de Stalinization began in the 1950s and 1960s which caused the influence of Stalin s ideology begin to wane in the USSR The second wave of de Stalinization started during Mikhail Gorbachev s Soviet Glasnost Joseph Stalin after whom Stalinism is named Stalin s regime forcibly purged society of what it saw as threats to itself and its brand of communism so called enemies of the people which included political dissidents non Soviet nationalists the bourgeoisie better off peasants kulaks 4 and those of the working class who demonstrated counter revolutionary sympathies 5 This resulted in mass repression of such people and their families including mass arrests show trials executions and imprisonment in forced labour and concentration camps known as gulags 6 The most notorious examples were the Great Purge and the Dekulakization campaign Stalinism was also marked by militant atheism mass anti religious persecution 7 8 and ethnic cleansing through forced deportations 9 However there was a short era of reconciliation between the Orthodox Church and the state authorities in WW2 10 Some historians such as Robert Service have blamed Stalinist policies particularly the collectivization policies for causing famines such as the Holodomor 7 Other historians and scholars disagree on the role of Stalinism 11 Officially designed to accelerate development towards communism the need for industrialization in the Soviet Union was emphasized because the Soviet Union had previously fallen behind economically compared to Western countries and that socialist society needed industry to face the challenges posed by internal and external enemies of communism 12 Rapid industrialization was accompanied by mass collectivization of agriculture and rapid urbanization which converted many small villages into industrial cities 13 To accelerate the development of industrialization Stalin imported materials ideas expertise and workers from western Europe and the United States 14 pragmatically setting up joint venture contracts with major American private enterprises such as the Ford Motor Company which under state supervision assisted in developing the basis of the industry of the Soviet economy from the late 1920s to the 1930s After the American private enterprises had completed their tasks Soviet state enterprises took over Contents 1 History 1 1 Etymology 2 Stalinist policies 2 1 Proletarian state 2 2 Class based violence 2 3 Purges and executions 2 4 Deportations 2 5 Economic policy 3 Relationship to Leninism 4 Legacy 4 1 Maoism and Hoxhaism 4 2 Trotskyism 4 3 Other interpretations 4 4 Public opinion 5 See also 6 References 6 1 Citations 6 2 Notes 6 3 Sources 7 Further reading 8 External linksHistoryFurther information History of the Soviet Union 1927 1953 and Rise of Joseph Stalin Stalinism is used to describe the period during which Joseph Stalin was the leader of the Soviet Union while serving as General Secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union from 1922 to his death on 5 March 1953 15 Etymology The term Stalinism came into prominence during the mid 1930s when Lazar Kaganovich a Soviet politician and associate of Stalin reportedly declared Let s replace Long Live Leninism with Long Live Stalinism 16 Stalin dismissed this as excessive and contributing to a cult of personality which he thought might be used against him at a later date by the same people who praised him excessively one of those being Khrushchev a prominent user of term Stalinism in Stalin s life who would later be responsible for de Stalinization and the beginning of the Revisionist period in the USSR 16 Stalinist policies Modified photo intended to show Vladimir Lenin with Stalin in the early 1920s 17 18 Members of the Chinese Communist Party celebrating Stalin s birthday in 1949 While some historians view Stalinism as a reflection of the ideologies of Leninism and Marxism some argue that it stands separate from the socialist ideals it stemmed from After a political struggle that culminated in the defeat of the Bukharinists the Party s Right Tendency Stalinism was free to shape policy without opposition ushering forth an era of harsh authoritarianism that worked toward rapid industrialization regardless of the cost 19 From 1917 to 1924 though often appearing united Stalin Vladimir Lenin and Leon Trotsky had discernible ideological differences In his dispute with Trotsky Stalin de emphasized the role of workers in advanced capitalist countries e g he considered the American working class bourgeoisified labour aristocracy Stalin also polemicized against Trotsky on the role of peasants as in China whereas Trotsky s position favoured urban insurrection over peasant based guerrilla warfare dubious discuss citation needed All other October Revolution 1917 Bolshevik leaders regarded their revolution more or less just as the beginning with Russia as the springboard on the road towards the World Wide Revolution Stalin would eventually introduce the idea of socialism in one country by the autumn of 1924 a theory standing in sharp contrast to Trotsky s permanent revolution and all earlier socialistic theses However the revolution did not spread outside Russia as Lenin had assumed it soon would The revolution had not succeeded even within other former territories of the Russian Empire such as Poland Finland Lithuania Latvia and Estonia On the contrary these countries had returned to capitalist bourgeois rule 20 Despite this by the autumn of 1924 Stalin s notion of socialism in Soviet Russia was initially considered next to blasphemy in the ears of other Politburo members including Zinoviev and Kamenev to the intellectual left Rykov Bukharin and Tomsky to the pragmatic right and the powerful Trotsky who belonged to no side but his own None would even consider Stalin s concept a potential addition to communist ideology Stalin s socialism in one country doctrine could not be imposed until he himself had become close to being the autocratic ruler of the Soviet Union around 1929 Bukharin and the Right Opposition expressed their support for imposing Stalin s ideas as Trotsky had been exiled whereas Zinoviev and Kamenev had been thrown out of the party 21 Proletarian state Traditional communist thought holds that the state will gradually wither away as the implementation of socialism reduces class distinction However Stalin argued that the proletarian state as opposed to the bourgeois state must become stronger before it can wither away In Stalin s view counter revolutionary elements will attempt to derail the transition to full communism and the state must be powerful enough to defeat them For this reason communist regimes influenced by Stalin have been widely described as totalitarian 22 Other leftists such as anarcho communists have criticized the party state of the Stalin era Soviet Union accusing it of being bureaucratic and calling it a reformist social democracy rather than a form of revolutionary communism 23 Sheng Shicai a Chinese warlord with Communist leanings invited Soviet intervention and allowed Stalinist rule to be extended to the Xinjiang province in the 1930s In 1937 Sheng conducted a purge similar to the Great Purge imprisoning torturing and killing about 100 000 people many of whom were Uyghurs 24 25 Class based violence Stalin blamed the kulaks as the inciters of reactionary violence against the people during the implementation of agricultural collectivization 26 In response the state under Stalin s leadership initiated a violent campaign against the kulaks This kind of campaign would later be known as classicide 27 though several international legislatures have passed resolutions declaring the campaign a genocide 28 Some historians dispute that these social class actions constitute genocide 29 30 31 Purges and executions Main article Great Purge Left Lavrenty Beria s January 1940 letter to Stalin asking permission to execute 346 enemies of the Communist Party and of the Soviet authorities who conducted counter revolutionary right Trotskyite plotting and spying activities Middle Stalin s handwriting za support Right the Politburo s decision is signed by Stalin As head of the Politburo of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union Stalin consolidated near absolute power in the 1930s with a Great Purge of the party that claimed to expel opportunists and counter revolutionary infiltrators 32 33 Those targeted by the purge were often expelled from the party though more severe measures ranged from banishment to the Gulag labour camps to execution after trials held by NKVD troikas 32 34 35 In the 1930s Stalin became increasingly worried about the growing popularity of the Leningrad party head Sergei Kirov At the 1934 Party Congress where the vote for the new Central Committee was held Kirov received only three negative votes the fewest of any candidate while Stalin received at least over a hundred negative votes 36 i After the assassination of Kirov which Stalin may have orchestrated Stalin invented a detailed scheme to implicate opposition leaders in the murder including Trotsky Lev Kamenev and Grigory Zinoviev 37 From thereon the investigations and trials expanded 38 Stalin passed a new law on terrorist organizations and terrorist acts that were to be investigated for no more than ten days with no prosecution defence attorneys or appeals followed by a sentence to be executed quickly 39 After that several trials known as the Moscow Trials were held but the procedures were replicated throughout the country Article 58 of the legal code which listed prohibited anti Soviet activities as a counter revolutionary crime was applied most broadly 40 Many alleged anti Soviet pretexts were used to brand individuals as enemies of the people starting the cycle of public persecution often proceeding to interrogation torture and deportation if not death The Russian word troika thereby gained a new meaning a quick simplified trial by a committee of three subordinated to the NKVD troika with sentencing carried out within 24 hours 39 Stalin s hand picked executioner Vasili Blokhin was entrusted with carrying out some of the high profile executions in this period 41 Many military leaders were convicted of treason and a large scale purge of Red Army officers followed ii The repression of many formerly high ranking revolutionaries and party members led Leon Trotsky to claim that a river of blood separated Stalin s regime from that of Lenin 43 In August 1940 Trotsky was assassinated in Mexico where he had lived in exile since January 1937 this eliminated the last of Stalin s opponents among the former Party leadership 44 Except for Vladimir Milyutin who died in prison in 1937 and Stalin himself all of the members of Lenin s original cabinet who had not succumbed to death from natural causes before the purge were executed citation needed Mass operations of the NKVD also targeted national contingents foreign ethnicities such as Poles ethnic Germans and Koreans A total of 350 000 144 000 of them Poles were arrested and 247 157 110 000 Poles were executed 45 page needed Many Americans who had emigrated to the Soviet Union during the worst of the Great Depression were executed while others were sent to prison camps or gulags 46 47 Concurrent with the purges efforts were made to rewrite the history in Soviet textbooks and other propaganda materials Notable people executed by NKVD were removed from the texts and photographs as though they never existed Gradually the history of the revolution was transformed into a story about just two key characters i e Lenin and Stalin citation needed In light of revelations from Soviet archives historians now estimate that nearly 700 000 people 353 074 in 1937 and 328 612 in 1938 were executed in the course of the terror 48 with the great mass of victims merely ordinary Soviet citizens workers peasants homemakers teachers priests musicians soldiers pensioners ballerinas and beggars 49 50 4 Many of the executed were interred in mass graves with some significant killing and burial sites being Bykivnia Kurapaty and Butovo 51 Wall of sorrow at the first exhibition of the victims of Stalinism in Moscow 19 November 1988 Some Western experts believe the evidence released from the Soviet archives is understated incomplete or unreliable 52 53 54 55 56 Conversely historian Stephen G Wheatcroft who spent a good portion of his academic career researching the archives contends that prior to the collapse of the Soviet Union and the opening of the archives for historical research our understanding of the scale and the nature of Soviet repression has been extremely poor and that some specialists who wish to maintain earlier high estimates of the Stalinist death toll are finding it difficult to adapt to the new circumstances when the archives are open and when there are plenty of irrefutable data and instead hang on to their old Sovietological methods with round about calculations based on odd statements from emigres and other informants who are supposed to have superior knowledge 57 58 Stalin personally signed 357 proscription lists in 1937 and 1938 that condemned to execute some 40 000 people about 90 of whom are confirmed to have been shot 59 While reviewing one such list he reportedly muttered to no one in particular Who s going to remember all this riff raff in ten or twenty years time No one Who remembers the names now of the boyars Ivan the Terrible got rid of No one 60 In addition Stalin dispatched a contingent of NKVD operatives to Mongolia established a Mongolian version of the NKVD troika and unleashed a bloody purge in which tens of thousands were executed as Japanese spies as Mongolian ruler Khorloogiin Choibalsan closely followed Stalin s lead 50 2 During the 1930s and 1940s the Soviet leadership sent NKVD squads into other countries to murder defectors and opponents of the Soviet regime Victims of such plots included Yevhen Konovalets Ignace Poretsky Rudolf Klement Alexander Kutepov Evgeny Miller Leon Trotsky and the Workers Party of Marxist Unification POUM leadership in Catalonia e g Andreu Nin Perez 61 Deportations Main article Population transfer in the Soviet Union Shortly before during and immediately after World War II Stalin conducted a broad scale series of deportations that profoundly affected the ethnic map of the Soviet Union Separatism resistance to Soviet rule and collaboration with the invading Germans were the official reasons for the deportations Individual circumstances of those spending time in German occupied territories were not examined After the brief Nazi occupation of the Caucasus the entire population of five of the small highland peoples and the Crimean Tatars more than a million people in total were deported without notice or any opportunity to take their possessions 62 As a result of Stalin s lack of trust in the loyalty of particular ethnicities ethnic groups such as the Soviet Koreans Volga Germans Crimean Tatars Chechens and many Poles were forcibly moved out of strategic areas and relocated to places in the central Soviet Union especially Kazakhstan in Soviet Central Asia By some estimates hundreds of thousands of deportees may have died en route 63 It is estimated that between 1941 and 1949 nearly 3 3 million 63 64 were deported to Siberia and the Central Asian republics By some estimates up to 43 of the resettled population died of diseases and malnutrition 65 According to official Soviet estimates more than 14 million people passed through the gulags from 1929 to 1953 with a further 7 to 8 million being deported and exiled to remote areas of the Soviet Union including entire nationalities in several cases 66 The emergent scholarly consensus is that from 1930 to 1953 around 1 5 to 1 7 million perished in the gulag system 67 68 69 In February 1956 Nikita Khrushchev condemned the deportations as a violation of Leninism and reversed most of them although it was not until 1991 that the Tatars Meskhetians and Volga Germans were allowed to return en masse to their homelands The deportations had a profound effect on the people of the Soviet Union The memory of the deportations has played a significant part in the separatist movements in the Baltic states Tatarstan and Chechnya even today citation needed Economic policy Main articles Collectivization in the Soviet Union and Industrialization in the Soviet Union Starved peasants on a street in Kharkiv during the Soviet famine of 1932 1933 At the start of the 1930s Stalin launched a wave of radical economic policies that completely overhauled the industrial and agricultural face of the Soviet Union This became known as the Great Turn as Russia turned away from the mixed economic type New Economic Policy NEP and adopted a planned economy The NEP was implemented by Lenin to ensure the survival of the socialist state following seven years of war World War I 1914 1917 and the subsequent Civil War 1917 1921 and rebuilt Soviet production to its 1913 levels However Russia still lagged far behind the West and the NEP was felt by Stalin and the majority of the Communist Party not only to be compromising communist ideals but also not delivering satisfactory economic performance as well as not creating the envisaged socialist society It was felt necessary to increase the pace of industrialization in order to catch up with the West citation needed Fredric Jameson has said that Stalinism was a success and fulfilled its historic mission socially as well as economically given that it modernized the Soviet Union transforming a peasant society into an industrial state with a literate population and a remarkable scientific superstructure 70 Robert Conquest disputed such a conclusion noting that Russia had already been fourth to fifth among industrial economies before World War I and that Russian industrial advances could have been achieved without collectivization famine or terror According to Conquest the industrial successes were far less than claimed and the Soviet style industrialization was an anti innovative dead end 71 Stephen Kotkin said those who argue collectivization was necessary are dead wrong arguing that such only seemed necessary within the straitjacket of Communist ideology and its repudiation of capitalism And economically collectivization failed to deliver Kotkin further claimed that it decreased harvests instead of increasing them as peasants tended to resist heavy taxes by producing less goods and only care about their own subsistence 72 73 5 According to several Western historians 74 Stalinist agricultural policies were a key factor in causing the Soviet famine of 1932 1933 which the Ukrainian government now calls the Holodomor recognizing it as an act of genocide Some scholars dispute the intentionality of the famine 75 76 Relationship to LeninismFurther information Leninism after 1924 Stalin considered the political and economic system under his rule to be Marxism Leninism which he considered the only legitimate successor of Marxism and Leninism The historiography of Stalin is diverse with many different aspects of continuity and discontinuity between the regimes Stalin and Lenin proposed Some historians such as Richard Pipes consider Stalinism as the natural consequence of Leninism that Stalin faithfully implemented Lenin s domestic and foreign policy programs 77 Robert Service notes that institutionally and ideologically Lenin laid the foundations for a Stalin but the passage from Leninism to the worse terrors of Stalinism was not smooth and inevitable 78 Likewise historian and Stalin biographer Edvard Radzinsky believes that Stalin was a genuine follower of Lenin exactly as he claimed himself 79 Another Stalin biographer Stephen Kotkin wrote that his violence was not the product of his subconscious but of the Bolshevik engagement with Marxist Leninist ideology 80 A poster of the Stalinist era with the inscription The whole world will be ours Dmitri Volkogonov who wrote biographies of both Lenin and Stalin explained that during the 1960s through 1980s an official patriotic Soviet de Stalinized view of the Lenin Stalin relationship i e during the Khrushchev Thaw and later was that the overly autocratic Stalin had distorted the Leninism of the wise dedushka Lenin However Volkogonov also lamented that this view eventually dissolved for those like him who had the scales fall from their eyes immediately before and after the dissolution of the Soviet Union After researching the biographies in the Soviet archives he came to the same conclusion as Radzinsky and Kotkin i e that Lenin had built a culture of violent autocratic totalitarianism of which Stalinism was a logical extension He lamented that while Stalin had long since fallen in the estimation of many Soviet minds the many who agreed with de Stalinization Lenin was the last bastion in Volkogonov s mind to fall and the fall was the most painful given the secular apotheosis of Lenin that all Soviet children grew up with citation needed Proponents of continuity cite a variety of contributory factors in that it was Lenin rather than Stalin whose civil war measures introduced the Red Terror with its hostage taking and internment camps that it was Lenin who developed the infamous Article 58 and who established the autocratic system within the Communist Party 81 They also note that Lenin put a ban on factions within the Russian Communist Party and introduced the one party state in 1921 a move that enabled Stalin to get rid of his rivals easily after Lenin s death and cite Felix Dzerzhinsky who during the Bolshevik struggle against opponents in the Russian Civil War exclaimed We stand for organized terror this should be frankly stated 82 Opponents of this view include revisionist historians and many post Cold War and otherwise dissident Soviet historians including Roy Medvedev who argues that although one could list the various measures carried out by Stalin that were actually a continuation of anti democratic trends and measures implemented under Lenin in so many ways Stalin acted not in line with Lenin s clear instructions but in defiance of them 83 In doing so some historians have tried to distance Stalinism from Leninism to undermine the totalitarian view that the negative facets of Stalin were inherent in communism from the start 84 Critics include anti Stalinist communists such as Leon Trotsky who pointed out that Lenin attempted to persuade the Communist Party to remove Stalin from his post as its General Secretary Lenin s Testament the document which contained this order was suppressed after Lenin s death In his biography of Trotsky British historian Isaac Deutscher says that on being faced with the evidence only the blind and the deaf could be unaware of the contrast between Stalinism and Leninism 85 A similar analysis is present in more recent works such as those of Graeme Gill who argues that Stalinism was not a natural flow on of earlier developments it formed a sharp break resulting from conscious decisions by leading political actors 86 However Gill notes that difficulties with the use of the term reflect problems with the concept of Stalinism itself The major difficulty is a lack of agreement about what should constitute Stalinism 87 Revisionist historians such as Sheila Fitzpatrick have criticized the focus on the upper levels of society and the use of Cold War concepts such as totalitarianism which have obscured the reality of the system 88 Legacy Stalin statue in front of the Joseph Stalin Museum Gori Pierre du Bois argues that the cult was elaborately constructed to legitimize his rule Many deliberate distortions and falsehoods were used 89 The Kremlin refused access to archival records that might reveal the truth and critical documents were destroyed Photographs were altered and documents were invented 90 People who knew Stalin were forced to provide official accounts to meet the ideological demands of the cult especially as Stalin presented it in 1938 in Short Course on the History of the All Union Communist Party Bolsheviks which became the official history 91 Historian David L Hoffmann sums up the consensus of scholars The Stalin cult was a central element of Stalinism and as such it was one of the most salient features of Soviet rule Many scholars of Stalinism cite the cult as integral to Stalin s power or as evidence of Stalin s megalomania 92 However after Stalin died in 1953 his successor Nikita Khrushchev repudiated his policies and condemned Stalin s cult of personality in his Secret Speech to the Twentieth Party Congress in 1956 and instituting de Stalinization and relative liberalization within the same political framework Consequently some of the world s communist parties who previously adhered to Stalinism abandoned it and to a greater or lesser degree adopted the positions of Khrushchev Others such as the Chinese Communist Party chose to split from the Soviet Union resulting in the Sino Soviet split The ousting of Khrushchev in 1964 by his former party state allies has been described as a Stalinist restoration by some epitomized by the Brezhnev Doctrine and the apparatchik nomenklatura stability of cadres lasting until the period of glasnost and perestroika in the late 1980s and the fall of the Soviet Union citation needed Maoism and Hoxhaism Mao Zedong famously declared that Stalin was 70 good and 30 bad Maoists criticized Stalin chiefly regarding his view that bourgeois influence within the Soviet Union was primarily a result of external forces to the almost complete exclusion of internal forces and his view that class contradictions ended after the basic construction of socialism However they praised Stalin for leading the Soviet Union and the international proletariat defeating fascism in Germany and his anti revisionism 93 British prime minister Winston Churchill United States president Franklin D Roosevelt and Stalin the Big Three Allied leaders during World War II at the Yalta Conference in February 1945 Taking the side of the Chinese Communist Party in the Sino Soviet split the People s Socialist Republic of Albania remained committed at least theoretically to its brand of Stalinism Hoxhaism for decades after that under the leadership of Enver Hoxha Despite their initial cooperation against revisionism Hoxha denounced Mao as a revisionist along with almost every other self identified communist organization worldwide resulting in the Sino Albanian split This effectively isolated Albania from the rest of the world as Hoxha was hostile to both the pro American and pro Soviet spheres of influence and the Non Aligned Movement under the leadership of Josip Broz Tito whom Hoxha had also previously denounced 94 95 Trotskyism Trotskyists argue that the Stalinist Soviet Union was neither socialist nor communist but rather a bureaucratized degenerated workers state that is a non capitalist state in which exploitation is controlled by a ruling caste which although not owning the means of production and not constituting a social class in its own right accrued benefits and privileges at the expense of the working class Trotsky believed that the Bolshevik Revolution needed to be spread all over the globe s working class the proletarians for world revolution However after the failure of the revolution in Germany Stalin reasoned that industrializing and consolidating Bolshevism in Russia would best serve the proletariat in the long run The dispute did not end until Trotsky s assassination in his Mexican villa by Stalinist assassin Ramon Mercader in 1940 96 Max Shachtman one of the principal Trotskyist theorists in the United States argued that the Soviet Union had evolved from a degenerated worker s state to a new mode of production called bureaucratic collectivism whereby orthodox Trotskyists considered the Soviet Union an ally gone astray Shachtman and his followers thus argued for the formation of a Third Camp opposed to the Soviet and capitalist blocs equally By the mid 20th century Shachtman and many of his associates such as Social Democrats USA identified as social democrats rather than Trotskyists while some ultimately abandoned socialism altogether and embraced neoconservatism In the United Kingdom Tony Cliff independently developed a critique of state capitalism that resembled Shachtman s in some respects but it retained a commitment to revolutionary communism 97 Other interpretations Gulag Museum in Moscow founded in 2001 by historian Anton Antonov Ovseyenko Some historians and writers such as German Dietrich Schwanitz 98 draw parallels between Stalinism and the economic policy of Tsar Peter the Great although Schwanitz in particular views Stalin as a monstrous reincarnation of him Both men wanted Russia to leave the western European states far behind in terms of development Both largely succeeded turning Russia into Europe s leading power citation needed Others who compare Stalin with Ivan the Terrible because of his policies of oprichnina and the restriction of the liberties of common people citation needed Some reviewers have considered Stalinism as a form of red fascism 99 Although fascist regimes were ideologically opposed to the Soviet Union some positively regarded Stalinism as evolving Bolshevism into a form of fascism Benito Mussolini positively reviewed Stalinism as having transformed Soviet Bolshevism into a Slavic fascism 100 British historian Michael Ellman had written that mass deaths from famines are not a uniquely Stalinist evil noting that throughout Russian history famines and droughts have been a common occurrence including the Russian famine of 1921 22 which occurred before Stalin came to power He also notes that famines were widespread worldwide in the 19th and 20th centuries in countries such as India Ireland Russia and China Ellman compared the behaviour of the Stalinist regime vis a vis the Holodomor to that of the British government towards Ireland and India and the G8 in contemporary times arguing that the G8 are guilty of mass manslaughter or mass deaths from criminal negligence because of their not taking obvious measures to reduce mass deaths and that the behaviour of Stalin was no worse than that of many rulers in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries 101 Memorial to the victims of political repression in the USSR in St Petersburg made of a boulder from the Solovetsky Islands David L Hoffmann raised the issue of whether Stalinist practices of state violence derived from socialist ideology Placing Stalinism in an international context Hoffman argued that many forms of state interventionism used by the Stalinist government including social cataloguing surveillance and concentration camps predated the Soviet regime and originated outside of Russia Hoffman further argued that technologies of social intervention developed in conjunction with the work of 19th century European reformers and were greatly expanded during World War I when state actors in all the combatant countries dramatically increased efforts to mobilize and control their populations According to Hoffman the Soviet state was born at this moment of total war and institutionalized practices state intervention practices as permanent governance features 102 In writing The Mortal Danger Misconceptions about Soviet Russia and the Threat to America anti communist and Soviet dissident Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn argued that the use of the term Stalinism is an excuse to hide the inevitable effects of communism as a whole on human liberties He wrote that the concept of Stalinism was developed after 1956 by Western intellectuals to be able to keep alive the communist ideal However Stalinism was used as early as 1937 when Leon Trotsky wrote his pamphlet Stalinism and Bolshevism 103 Writing two The Guardian articles in 2002 and 2006 British journalist Seumas Milne said that the impact of the post Cold War narrative that Stalin and Hitler were twin evils therefore communism is as monstrous as Nazism has been to relativize the unique crimes of Nazism bury those of colonialism and feed the idea that any attempt at radical social change will always lead to suffering killing and failure 104 105 Public opinion Main article Neo Stalinism In modern Russia public opinion of Stalin and the former Soviet Union has improved in recent years 106 According to a 2015 Levada Center poll 34 of respondents up from 28 in 2007 say that leading the Soviet people to victory in World War II was such an outstanding achievement that it outweighed his mistakes 107 A 2019 Levada Center poll showed that support for Stalin whom many Russians saw as the victor in the Great Patriotic War 108 reached a record high in the post Soviet era with 51 regarding Stalin as a positive figure and 70 saying his reign was good for the country 109 Lev Gudkov a sociologist at the Levada Center said Vladimir Putin s Russia of 2012 needs symbols of authority and national strength however controversial they may be to validate the newly authoritarian political order Stalin a despotic leader responsible for mass bloodshed but also still identified with wartime victory and national unity fits this need for symbols that reinforce the current political ideology 110 Some positive sentiments can also be found elsewhere in the former Soviet Union A 2012 survey commissioned by the Carnegie Endowment found 38 of Armenians concurring that their country will always have need of a leader like Stalin 110 111 A 2013 survey by Tbilisi University found 45 of Georgians expressing a positive attitude toward Stalin 112 See alsoAnti Stalinist left Bibliography of Stalinism and the Soviet Union Comparison of Nazism and Stalinism Everyday Stalinism Industrialization in the Soviet Union Juche Mass killings under communist regimes Soviet Empire Stalin s cult of personality Stalin s Peasants Stalin Society Stalinist architecture The Whisperers Private Life in Stalin s RussiaReferencesCitations Deutscher Isaac 1961 Stalin A Political Biography 2nd ed Oxford University Press pp 7 9 ISBN 978 0195002737 Plamper Jan January 17 2012 The Stalin Cult A Study in the Alchemy of Power Yale University Press ISBN 9780300169522 Bottomore Thomas 1991 A Dictionary of Marxist Thought Wiley Blackwell p 54 ISBN 978 0631180821 Kotkin 1997 p 71 81 307 Rossman Jeffrey 2005 Worker Resistance Under Stalin Class and Revolution on the Shop Floor Harvard University Press ISBN 0674019261 Pons Silvo Service Robert eds 2012 A Dictionary of 20th Century Communism Princeton University Press p 307 ISBN 9780691154299 a b Service Robert 2007 Comrades A History of World Communism Harvard University Press pp 3 6 ISBN 9780674046993 Greeley Andrew ed 2009 Religion in Europe at the End of the Second Millennium A Sociological Profile Routledge p 89 ISBN 9780765808219 Pons Silvo Service Robert eds 2012 A Dictionary of 20th Century Communism Princeton University Press pp 308 310 ISBN 9780691154299 How the Russian Orthodox Church helped the Red Army defeat the Nazis Sawicky Nicholas D December 20 2013 The Holodomor Genocide and National Identity Education and Human Development Master s Theses The College at Brockport State University of New York Archived from the original on February 6 2021 Retrieved October 6 2020 via Digital Commons Scholars also disagree over what role the Soviet Union played in the tragedy Some scholars point to Stalin as the mastermind behind the famine due to his hatred of Ukrainians Hosking 1987 Others assert that Stalin did not actively cause the famine but he knew about it and did nothing to stop it Moore 2012 Still other scholars argue that the famine was just an effect of the Soviet Union s push for rapid industrialization and a by product of that was the destruction of the peasant way of life Fischer 1935 The final school of thought argues that the Holodomor was caused by factors beyond the control of the Soviet Union and Stalin took measures to reduce the effects of the famine on the Ukrainian people Davies amp Wheatcroft 2006 Kotkin 1997 p 70 71 Kotkin 1997 p 70 79 De Basily N 2017 1938 Russia Under Soviet Rule Twenty Years of Bolshevik Experiment Routledge Library Editions Early Western Responses to Soviet Russia Abingdon Oxon Routledge ISBN 9781351617178 Retrieved November 3 2017 vast sums were spent on importing foreign technical ideas and on securing the services of alien experts Foreign countries again American and Germany in particular lent the U S S R active aid in drafting the plans for all the undertakings to be constructed They supplied the Soviet Union with tens of thousands of engineers mechanics and supervisors During the first Five Year Plan not a single plant was erected nor was a new industry launched without the direct help of foreigners working on the spot Without the importation of Western European and American objects ideas and men the miracle in the East would not have been realized or at least not in so short a time Communism Encyclopaedia Britannica Online Retrieved 4 February 2020 a b Montefiore 2004 p 164 Gilbert Felix Large David Clay 2008 The End of the European Era 1890 to the Present 6th ed New York City W W Norton amp Company p 213 ISBN 978 0393930405 Jones Jonathan August 29 2012 The fake photographs that predate Photoshop The Guardian Retrieved August 27 2016 In a 1949 portrait the Soviet leader Joseph Stalin is seen as a young man with Lenin Stalin and Lenin were close friends judging from this photograph But it is doctored of course Two portraits have been sutured to sentimentalise Stalin s life and closeness to Lenin Suny Ronald 1998 The Soviet Experiment Russia the USSR and the Successor States New York New York Oxford University Press pp 221 On Finland Poland etc Deutcher chapter 6 Stalin during the Civil War p 148 in the Swedish 1980 printing Deutscher Isaac 1949 1961 The General Secretary Pp 221 29 in Stalin A Political Biography 2nd ed Stalinism Encyclopaedia Britannica 1998 2020 Price Wayne The Abolition of the State PDF Retrieved March 2 2022 Andrew D W Forbes 1986 Warlords and Muslims in Chinese Central Asia a political history of Republican Sinkiang 1911 1949 Cambridge England CUP Archive p 151 ISBN 978 0 521 25514 1 Retrieved December 31 2010 Rudelson Justin Jon Rudelson Justin Ben Adam Ben Adam Justin 1997 Oasis Identities Uyghur Nationalism Along China s Silk Road Columbia University Press ISBN 978 0 231 10786 0 Zuehlke Jeffrey 2006 Joseph Stalin Twenty First Century Books p 63 Semelin Jacques and Stanley Hoffman 2007 Purify and Destroy The Political Uses of Massacre and Genocide New York Columbia University Press p 37 Worldwide Recognition of the Holodomor as Genocide October 18 2019 Davies Robert Wheatcroft Stephen 2009 The Industrialisation of Soviet Russia Volume 5 The Years of Hunger Soviet Agriculture 1931 1933 Palgrave Macmillan UK p xiv ISBN 978 0 230 27397 9 Retrieved September 20 2020 Tauger Mark B 2001 Natural Disaster and Human Actions in the Soviet Famine of 1931 1933 The Carl Beck Papers in Russian and East European Studies 1506 1 65 doi 10 5195 CBP 2001 89 ISSN 2163 839X Archived from the original on June 12 2017 Getty J Arch 2000 The Future Did Not Work The Atlantic Retrieved September 20 2020 a b Figes Orlando 2007 The Whisperers Private Life in Stalin s Russia ISBN 0 8050 7461 9 Gellately 2007 Kershaw Ian and Moshe Lewin 1997 Stalinism and Nazism Dictatorships in Comparison Cambridge Cambridge University Press ISBN 0 521 56521 9 p 300 Kuper Leo 1982 Genocide Its Political Use in the Twentieth Century Yale University Press ISBN 0 300 03120 3 Brackman 2001 p 204 Brackman 2001 pp 205 206 Brackman 2001 p 207 a b Overy 2004 p 182 Tucker 1992 p 456 Snyder Timothy Bloodlands Europe Between Hitler and Stalin Basic Books 2010 ISBN 0 465 00239 0 p 137 Newseum The Commissar Vanishes Archived from the original on June 11 2008 Retrieved July 19 2008 Tucker Robert C 1999 Stalinism Essays in Historical Interpretation American Council of Learned Societies Planning Group on Comparative Communist Studies Transaction Publishers ISBN 0 7658 0483 2 p 5 Overy 2004 p 338 Montefiore 2004 Tzouliadis Tim August 2 2008 Nightmare in the workers paradise BBC Tzouliadis Tim 2008 The Forsaken An American Tragedy in Stalin s Russia Penguin Press ISBN 1 59420 168 4 McLoughlin Barry McDermott Kevin eds 2002 Stalin s Terror High Politics and Mass Repression in the Soviet Union Palgrave Macmillan p 141 ISBN 978 1 4039 0119 4 McLoughlin Barry McDermott Kevin eds 2002 Stalin s Terror High Politics and Mass Repression in the Soviet Union Palgrave Macmillan p 6 ISBN 978 1 4039 0119 4 a b Kuromiya Hiroaki 2007 The Voices of the Dead Stalin s Great Terror in the 1930s Yale University Press ISBN 0 300 12389 2 Snyder Timothy 2010 Bloodlands Europe Between Hitler and Stalin Basic Books ISBN 0 465 00239 0 p 101 Rosefielde Stephen 1996 Stalinism in Post Communist Perspective New Evidence on Killings Forced Labour and Economic Growth in the 1930s PDF Europe Asia Studies 48 6 959 doi 10 1080 09668139608412393 Comment on Wheatcroft by Robert Conquest 1999 Pipes Richard 2003 Communism A History Modern Library Chronicles p 67 ISBN 0 8129 6864 6 Applebaum 2003 p 584 Keep John 1997 Recent Writing on Stalin s Gulag An Overview Crime Histoire amp Societes 1 2 91 112 doi 10 4000 chs 1014 Wheatcroft S G 1996 The Scale and Nature of German and Soviet Repression and Mass Killings 1930 45 PDF Europe Asia Studies 48 8 1319 53 doi 10 1080 09668139608412415 JSTOR 152781 Wheatcroft S G 2000 The Scale and Nature of Stalinist Repression and its Demographic Significance On Comments by Keep and Conquest PDF Europe Asia Studies 52 6 1143 59 doi 10 1080 09668130050143860 PMID 19326595 S2CID 205667754 Ellman Michael 2007 Stalin and the Soviet Famine of 1932 33 Revisited Europe Asia Studies 59 4 663 93 doi 10 1080 09668130701291899 S2CID 53655536 Archived from the original PDF on October 14 2007 Retrieved April 6 2014 Volkogonov Dmitri 1991 Stalin Triumph and Tragedy New York p 210 ISBN 0 7615 0718 3 Ellman Michael 2005 The Role of Leadership Perceptions and of Intent in the Soviet Famine of 1931 1934 PDF Europe Asia Studies 57 6 826 doi 10 1080 09668130500199392 S2CID 13880089 Archived from the original PDF on February 27 2009 Retrieved April 6 2014 Bullock 1962 pp 904 906 a b Boobbyer 2000 p 130 Pohl Otto Ethnic Cleansing in the USSR 1937 1949 ISBN 0 313 30921 3 Soviet Transit Camp and Deportation Death Rates Retrieved June 25 2010 Conquest Robert 1997 Victims of Stalinism A Comment Europe Asia Studies 49 7 1317 1319 doi 10 1080 09668139708412501 We are all inclined to accept the Zemskov totals even if not as complete with their 14 million intake to Gulag camps alone to which must be added 4 5 million going to Gulag colonies to say nothing of the 3 5 million already in or sent to labour settlements However taken these are surely high figures Wheatcroft Stephen G 1999 Victims of Stalinism and the Soviet Secret Police The Comparability and Reliability of the Archival Data Not the Last Word PDF Europe Asia Studies 51 2 315 345 doi 10 1080 09668139999056 Rosefielde Steven 2009 Red Holocaust Routledge 2009 ISBN 0 415 77757 7 pg 67 M ore complete archival data increases camp deaths by 19 4 percent to 1 258 537 pg 77 The best archivally based estimate of Gulag excess deaths at present is 1 6 million from 1929 to 1953 Healey Dan 2018 Golfo Alexopoulos Illness and Inhumanity in Stalin s Gulag review American Historical Review 123 3 1049 51 doi 10 1093 ahr 123 3 1049 Fredric Jameson Marxism Beyond Marxism 1996 p 43 ISBN 0 415 91442 6 Robert Conquest Reflections on a Ravaged Century 2000 p 101 ISBN 0 393 04818 7 Kotkin 2014 p 724 725 Fitzpatrick Sheila 1994 Stalin s peasants resistance and survival in the Russian village after collectivization New York Oxford University Press ISBN 0 19 506982 X OCLC 28293091 Genocide in the 20th century History Place Davies Robert Wheatcroft Stephen 2009 The Industrialisation of Soviet Russia Volume 5 The Years of Hunger Soviet Agriculture 1931 1933 Palgrave Macmillan UK p xiv ISBN 978 0 230 27397 9 Tauger Mark B 2001 Natural Disaster and Human Actions in the Soviet Famine of 1931 1933 The Carl Beck Papers in Russian and East European Studies 1506 1 65 doi 10 5195 CBP 2001 89 ISSN 2163 839X Archived from the original on 12 June 2017 Pipes Richard Three Whys of the Russian Revolution pp 83 4 Lenin Individual and Politics in the October Revolution Modern History Review 2 1 16 19 1990 Edvard Radzinsky Stalin The First In depth Biography Based on Explosive New Documents from Russia s Secret Archives Anchor 1997 ISBN 0 385 47954 9 Anne Applebaum October 14 2014 Understanding Stalin The Atlantic Retrieved April 4 2015 Pipes Richard 2001 Communism A History pp 73 74 ISBN 978 0 8129 6864 4 George Leggett The Cheka Lenin s Political Police Roy Medvedev Leninism and Western Socialism Verso 1981 Moshe Lewin Lenin s Last Testament University of Michigan Press 2005 Deutscher Isaac 1959 Trotsky The Prophet Unarmed pp 464 5 Gill 1998 Gill 1998 p 1 Geyer Michael Fitzpatrick Sheila 2009 Beyond Totalitarianism Stalinism and Nazism Compared Cambridge University Press doi 10 1017 CBO9780511802652 ISBN 978 0 521 72397 8 Pierre du Bois Stalin Genesis of a Myth Survey A Journal of East amp West Studies 28 1 1984 pp 166 181 See abstract in David R Egan Melinda A Egan 2007 Joseph Stalin An Annotated Bibliography of English Language Periodical Literature to 2005 Scarecrow Press p 157 ISBN 9780810866713 Carol Strong and Matt Killingsworth Stalin the Charismatic Leader Explaining the Cult of Personality as a legitimation technique Politics Religion amp Ideology 12 4 2011 391 411 N N Maslov Short Course of the History of the All Russian Communist Party Bolshevik An Encyclopedia of Stalin s Personality Cult Soviet Studies in History 28 3 1989 41 68 David L Hoffmann The Stalin Cult The Historian 2013 75 4 p 909 Mao s Evaluations of Stalin MassLine Retrieved August 3 2014 Hoxha Enver Halil The Titoites www marx2mao com p 501 Retrieved January 14 2023 Enver Hoxha Imperialism and the Revolution 1979 www marxists org Retrieved January 14 2023 Faria MA January 8 2012 Stalin Communists and Fatal Statistics Retrieved September 5 2012 Cliff Tony 1948 The Theory of Bureaucratic Collectivism A Critique In Cliff Tony 1988 1974 State Capitalism in Russia London Bookmarks pp 333 353 ISBN 9780906224441 Retrieved 23 April 2020 Schwanitz Dietrich Bildung Alles was man wissen muss At the same time Stalin was a kind of monstrous reincarnation of Peter the Great Under his tyranny Russia transformed into a country of industrial slaves and the gigantic empire was gifted with a network of working camps the Gulag Archipelago Fried Richard M 1991 Nightmare in Red The McCarthy Era in Perspective Oxford University Press p 50 ISBN 978 0 19 504361 7 MacGregor Knox Mussolini Unleashed 1939 1941 Politics and Strategy in Italy s Last War pp 63 64 Ellman Michael November 2002 Soviet Repression Statistics Some Comments Europe Asia Studies Taylor amp Francis 54 7 1152 1172 doi 10 1080 0966813022000017177 JSTOR 826310 Hoffmann David 2011 Cultivating the Masses Modern State Practices and Soviet Socialism 1914 1939 Ithaca New York Cornell University Press pp 6 10 ISBN 978 0 8014 4629 0 Leon Trotsky Stalinism and Bolshevism 1937 Marxists org 28 August 1937 Retrieved 12 July 2013 Milne Seumas 12 September 2002 The battle for history The Guardian Retrieved 7 October 2020 Milne Seumas 16 February 2006 Communism may be dead but clearly not dead enough The Guardian Retrieved 18 April 2020 In Russia nostalgia for Soviet Union and positive feelings about Stalin Pew Research Center June 29 2017 Retrieved July 23 2018 Stalin Retrieved February 12 2021 Joseph Stalin Why so many Russians like the Soviet dictator BBC News April 18 2019 Arkhipov Ilya April 16 2019 Russian Support for Stalin Surges to Record High Poll Says Bloomberg Retrieved May 2 2019 a b Poll Finds Stalin s Popularity High Archived 20 March 2017 at the Wayback Machine The Moscow Times 2 March 2013 The Stalin Puzzle Deciphering Post Soviet Public Opinion Archived 2 April 2017 at the Wayback Machine Carnegie Endowment for International Peace 1 March 2013 Georgia divided over Stalin local hero status in Gori BBC News 5 March 2013 Archived from the original on 19 July 2018 Retrieved 21 June 2018 Notes An exact number of negative votes is unknown In his memoirs Anastas Mikoyan writes that out of 1 225 delegates around 270 voted against Stalin and that the official number of negative votes was given as three with the rest of ballots destroyed Following Nikita Khrushchev s Secret Speech in 1956 a commission of the central committee investigated the votes and found that 267 ballots were missing The scale of Stalin s purge of Red Army officers was exceptional 90 of all generals and 80 of all colonels were killed This included three out of five Marshals 13 out of 15 Army commanders 57 of 85 Corps commanders 110 of 195 divisional commanders and 220 of 406 brigade commanders as well as all commanders of military districts citation needed Carell P 1964 1974 Hitler s War on Russia The Story of the German Defeat in the East first Indian ed translated by E Osers Delhi B I Publications p 195 Sources Applebaum Anne 2003 Gulag A History Doubleday ISBN 978 0 7679 0056 0 Boobbyer Phillip 2000 The Stalin Era Routledge ISBN 978 0 415 18298 0 Brackman Roman 2001 The Secret File of Joseph Stalin A Hidden Life Frank Cass Publishers ISBN 978 0 7146 5050 0 Bullock Alan 1962 Hitler A Study in Tyranny Penguin Books ISBN 978 0 14 013564 0 Conquest Robert 1991 Stalin Breaker of Nations New York Penguin Random House Davies Sarah 1997 Popular Opinion in Stalin s Russia Terror Propaganda and Dissent 1934 1941 Cambridge Cambridge University Press ISBN 978 0 52 156676 6 Davies Sarah Harris James eds 2005 Stalin A New History Cambridge Cambridge University Press ISBN 978 1 13 944663 1 Davies Sarah Harris James eds 2014 Stalin s World Dictating the Soviet Order New Haven Yale University Press ISBN 978 0 30 018281 1 Fitzpatrick Sheila 1996 Stalin s Peasants Resistance and Survival in the Russian Village After Collectivization Oxford Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 510459 2 Fitzpatrick Sheila 2000 Everyday Stalinism Ordinary Life in Extraordinary Times Soviet Russia in the 1930s Oxford Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 505001 1 Gellately Robert 2007 Lenin Stalin and Hitler The Age of Social Catastrophe Knopf ISBN 978 1 4000 4005 6 Getty J Arch 1987 Origins of the Great Purges The Soviet Communist Party Reconsidered 1933 1938 Cambridge Cambridge University Press ISBN 978 0 52 133570 6 Getty J Arch 1993 Stalinist Terror New Perspectives Cambridge Cambridge University Press ISBN 978 0 52 144670 9 Getty J Arch 2013 Practicing Stalinism Bolsheviks Boyars and the Persistence of Tradition New Haven Yale University Press ISBN 978 0 30 016929 4 Gill Graeme J 1998 Stalinism Palgrave Macmillan ISBN 978 0 312 17764 5 Retrieved October 1 2010 Kotkin Stephen 2014 Stalin Paradoxes of Power 1878 1928 New York Penguin Random House ISBN 978 0143127864 Kotkin Stephen 2017 Stalin Waiting for Hitler 1929 1941 New York Penguin Random House Kotkin Stephen 1997 Magnetic Mountain Stalinism As a Civilization 1st ed Berkeley University of California Press ISBN 9780520208230 Montefiore Simon Sebag 2004 Stalin The Court of the Red Tsar Knopf ISBN 978 1 4000 4230 2 Overy Richard J 2004 The Dictators Hitler s Germany and Stalin s Russia W W Norton amp Company ISBN 978 0 393 02030 4 Tucker Robert C 1992 Stalin in Power The Revolution from Above 1928 1941 W W Norton amp Company ISBN 978 0 393 30869 3 Further readingMain article Bibliography of Stalinism and the Soviet Union Books Bullock Alan 1998 Hitler and Stalin Parallel Lives 2nd ed Fontana Press Campeanu Pavel 2016 Origins of Stalinism From Leninist Revolution to Stalinist Society Routledge Conquest Robert 2008 The Great Terror A Reassessment 40th anniversary ed Oxford University Press Deutscher Isaac 1967 Stalin A Political Biography 2nd edition Oxford House Dobrenko Evgeny 2020 Late Stalinism Yale University Press 2020 Edele Mark ed 2020 Debates on Stalinism An introduction Manchester University Press 2020 Figes Orlando 2008 The Whisperers Private Life in Stalin s Russia Picador Groys Boris 2014 The total art of Stalinism Avant Garde aesthetic dictatorship and beyond Verso Books Hasselmann Anne E 2021 Memory Makers of the Great Patriotic War Curator Agency and Visitor Participation in Soviet War Museums during Stalinism Journal of Educational Media Memory and Society 13 1 2021 13 32 Hoffmann David L 2008 Stalinism The Essential Readings John Wiley amp Sons Hoffmann David L 2018 The Stalinist Era Cambridge University Press Kotkin Stephen 1997 Magnetic Mountain Stalinism as a civilization University of California Press McCauley Martin 2019 Stalin and Stalinism Routledge 2019 Ree Erik Van 2002 The Political Thought of Joseph Stalin A Study in Twentieth century Revolutionary Patriotism RoutledgeCurzon Ryan James and Susan Grant eds 2020 Revisioning Stalin and Stalinism Complexities Contradictions and Controversies Bloomsbury Publishing 2020 Sharlet Robert 2017 Stalinism and Soviet legal culture Routledge 2017 Tismăneanu Vladimir 2003 Stalinism for All Seasons A Political History of Romanian Communism University of California Press Tucker Robert C ed 2017 Stalinism essays in historical interpretation Routledge Valiakhmetov Albert et al 2018 History And Historians In The Era Of Stalinism A Review Of Modern Russian Historiography National Academy of Managerial Staff of Culture and Arts Herald 1 2018 onlineVelikanova Olga 2018 Mass Political Culture Under Stalinism Popular Discussion of the Soviet Constitution of 1936 Springer 2018 Wood Alan 2004 Stalin and Stalinism 2nd ed Routledge Scholarly articles Alexander Kuzminykh 2019 The internal affairs agencies of the Soviet State in the period of Stalinism in the context of Russian historiography Historia provinciae the journal of regional history 3 1 2019 online Barnett Vincent 2006 Understanding Stalinism The Orwellian Discrepancy and the Rational Choice Dictator Europe Asia Studies 58 3 457 466 Edele Mark 2020 New perspectives on Stalinism A conclusion in Debates on Stalinism Manchester University Press 2020 pp 270 281 Gill Graeme 2019 Stalinism and Executive Power Formal and Informal Contours of Stalinism Europe Asia Studies 71 6 2019 994 1012 Kamp Marianne and Russell Zanca 2017 Recollections of collectivization in Uzbekistan Stalinism and local activism Central Asian Survey 36 1 2017 55 72 online dead link Kuzio Taras 2017 Stalinism and Russian and Ukrainian national identities Communist and Post Communist Studies 50 4 2017 289 302 Lewin Moshe 2017 The social background of Stalinism in Stalinism Routledge 2017 111 136 Mishler Paul C 2018 Is the Term Stalinism Valid and Useful for Marxist Analysis Science amp Society 82 4 2018 555 567 Musial Filip 2019 Stalinism in Poland The Person and the Challenges Journal of Theology Education Canon Law and Social Studies Inspired by Pope John Paul II 9 2 2019 9 23 onlineNelson Todd H 2015 History as ideology The portrayal of Stalinism and the Great Patriotic War in contemporary Russian high school textbooks Post Soviet Affairs 31 1 37 65 Nikiforov S A et al Cultural revolution of Stalinism in its regional context International Journal of Mechanical Engineering and Technology 9 11 2018 1229 1241 impact on schooling Wheatcroft Stephen G Soviet statistics under Stalinism Reliability and distortions in grain and population statistics Europe Asia Studies 71 6 2019 1013 1035 Winkler Martina 2017 Children Childhood and Stalinism Kritika 18 3 628 637 Zawadzka Anna 2019 Stalinism the Polish Way Studia Litteraria et Historica 8 2019 1 6 online Zysiak Agata 2019 Stalinism and Revolution in Universities Democratization of Higher Education from Above 1947 1956 Studia Litteraria et Historica 8 2019 1 17 onlinePrimary sources Stalin Joseph 1924 1975 Foundations of Leninism Foreign Languages Press Stalin Joseph 1951 Economic Problems of Socialism in the USSR Foreign Languages Press External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to Stalinism Stalin Reference Archive Marxists Internet Archive Retrieved 11 May 2005 Joseph Stalin Spartacus Educational Joseph Stalin BBC Pedro Campos Basic Economic Precepts of Stalinist Socialism Havana Times 21 June 2010 Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Stalinism amp oldid 1135514481, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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