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Mughal Empire

January 01, 1970

Not to be confused with the Mongol Empire or Moghulistan.
"Mughals" redirects here. For the ethnic groups, see Mughal people. For the imperial family, see Mughal dynasty.

The Mughal Empire was an early modern empire in South Asia.[12] At its peak, the empire stretched from the outer fringes of the Indus River Basin in the west, northern Afghanistan in the northwest, and Kashmir in the north, to the highlands of present-day Assam and Bangladesh in the east, and the uplands of the Deccan Plateau in South India.[13]

Mughal Empire
1526–1857
The empire at its greatest extent in c. 1700 under Aurangzeb
StatusEmpire
Capital
Common languages
Religion
State religion:
GovernmentMonarchy, centralized autocracy[4][unreliable source?] (1526–1719)
Emperor[a] 
• 1526–1530 (first)
Babur
• 1837–1857 (last)
Bahadur Shah II
Vakil-i-Mutlaq 
• 1526–1540 (first)
Mir Khalifa
• 1795–1818 (last)
Daulat Rao Sindhia
Grand Vizier 
• 1526–1540 (first)
Mir Khalifa
• 1775–1797 (last)
Asaf-ud-Daula
LegislatureDurbar / darbār[6]
Historical eraEarly modern
21 April 1526
1540–1555
5 November 1556
1526–1752
1680–1707
24 December 1737
10 May 1738–1740
21 September 1857
• Mughal Emperor exiled to Burma
1858
Area
1690[7][8]4,000,000 km2 (1,500,000 sq mi)
Population
• 1595
125,000,000[9]
• 1700
158,000,000[10]
CurrencyRupee, Taka, dam[11]: 73–74 
Today part of

The Mughal Empire is conventionally said to have been founded in 1526 by Babur, a chieftain from what is today Uzbekistan, who employed aid from the neighbouring Safavid and Ottoman Empires,[14] to defeat the Sultan of Delhi, Ibrahim Lodi, in the First Battle of Panipat, and to sweep down the plains of North India. The Mughal imperial structure, however, is sometimes dated to 1600, to the rule of Babur's grandson, Akbar.[15] This imperial structure lasted until 1720, until shortly after the death of the last major emperor, Aurangzeb,[16][17] during whose reign the empire also achieved its maximum geographical extent. By 1760, the emperor de facto ruled the region around Old Delhi only. The empire was formally dissolved by the British Raj after the Indian Rebellion of 1857.

Although the Mughal Empire was created and sustained by military warfare,[18][19][20] it did not vigorously suppress the cultures and peoples it came to rule; rather it equalized and placated them through new administrative practices,[21][22] and diverse ruling elites, leading to more efficient, centralised, and standardized rule.[23] The base of the empire's collective wealth was agricultural taxes, instituted by the third Mughal emperor, Akbar.[24][25] These taxes, which amounted to well over half the output of a peasant cultivator,[26] were paid in the well-regulated silver currency,[23] and caused peasants and artisans to enter larger markets.[27]

Political scientist J. C. Sharman describes the Mughal Empire as an Asian great power which dwarfed contemporary European states in population, wealth and military power.[28] The relative peace maintained by the empire during much of the 17th century was a factor in India's economic expansion.[29] The burgeoning European presence in the Indian Ocean and an increasing demand for Indian raw and finished products generated much wealth for the Mughal court.[30] There was more conspicuous consumption among the Mughal elite,[31] resulting in greater patronage of painting, literary forms, textiles, and architecture, especially during the reign of Shah Jahan.[32] Among the Mughal UNESCO World Heritage Sites in South Asia are: Agra Fort, Fatehpur Sikri, Red Fort, Humayun's Tomb, Lahore Fort, Shalamar Gardens, and the Taj Mahal, which is described as "the jewel of Muslim art in India, and one of the universally admired masterpieces of the world's heritage."[33]

Name

The closest to an official name for the empire was Hindustan, which was documented in the Ain-i-Akbari.[34] Mughal administrative records also refer to the empire as "dominion of Hindustan" (Wilāyat-i-Hindustān),[35] "country of Hind" (Bilād-i-Hind), or "Sultanate of Al-Hind" (Salṭanat(i) al-Hindīyyah) as observed in the epithet of emperor Aurangzeb.[36] Contemporary chronicles from Qing China referred to the empire as Hindustan (Héndūsītǎn).[37] In the west, the term "Mughal" was used for the emperor, and by extension, the empire as a whole.[38]

The Mughal designation for their own dynasty was Gurkani (Gūrkāniyān), a reference to their descent from the Turkic conqueror Timur, who took the title Gūrkān 'son-in-law' after his marriage to a Chinggisid princess.[39] The word Mughal (also spelled Mogul[40] or Moghul in English) is the Indo-Persian form of Mongol. The Mughal dynasty and its early followers were Chagatai Turks, not Mongols,[41] although the dynasty claimed descent from Genghis Khan.[42] The term Mughal was applied to them in India by association with the Mongols and to distinguish them from the Afghan elite which ruled the Delhi Sultanate.[41] The term gained currency during the 19th century, but remains disputed by Indologists.[43] In Marshall Hodgson's view, the dynasty should be called Timurid/Timuri or Indo-Timuri.[41]

History

See also: Mughal dynasty

Babur and Humayun (1526–1556)

Main articles: Babur and Humayun
 
India in 1525 just before the onset of Mughal rule

The Mughal Empire was founded by Babur (reigned 1526–1530), a Central Asian ruler who was descended from the Turco-Mongol conqueror Timur (the founder of the Timurid Empire) on his father's side, and from Genghis Khan on his mother's side.[44] Paternally, Babur belonged to the Turkicized Barlas tribe of Mongol origin.[45] Ousted from his ancestral domains in Central Asia, Babur turned to India to satisfy his ambitions.[46] He established himself in Kabul and then pushed steadily southward into India from Afghanistan through the Khyber Pass.[44] Babur's forces defeated Ibrahim Lodi in the First Battle of Panipat in 1526. Before the battle, Babur sought divine favour by abjuring liquor, breaking the wine vessels and pouring the wine down a well. However, by this time Lodi's empire was already crumbling, and it was the Rajput Confederacy which was the strongest power of Northern India under the capable rule of Rana Sanga of Mewar. He defeated Babur in the Battle of Bayana.[47] However, in the decisive Battle of Khanwa which was fought near Agra, the Timurid forces of Babur defeated the Rajput army of Sanga. This battle was one of the most decisive and historic battles in Indian history, as it sealed the fate of Northern India for the next two centuries.

After the battle, the centre of Mughal power became Agra instead of Kabul. The preoccupation with wars and military campaigns, however, did not allow the new emperor to consolidate the gains he had made in India.[48] The instability of the empire became evident under his son, Humayun (reigned 1530–1556), who was forced into exile in Persia by rebels. The Sur Empire (1540–1555), founded by Sher Shah Suri (reigned 1540–1545), briefly interrupted Mughal rule.[44] Humayun's exile in Persia established diplomatic ties between the Safavid and Mughal Courts, and led to increasing Persian cultural influence in the later restored Mughal Empire.[citation needed] Humayun's triumphant return from Persia in 1555 restored Mughal rule in some parts of India, but he died in an accident the next year.[44]

Akbar to Aurangzeb (1556–1707)

Main articles: Akbar, Jahangir, Shah Jahan, and Aurangzeb
 
Akbar holds a religious assembly of different faiths in the Ibadat Khana in Fatehpur Sikri.

Akbar (reigned 1556–1605) was born Jalal-ud-din Muhammad[49] in the Rajput Umarkot Fort,[50] to Humayun and his wife Hamida Banu Begum, a Persian princess.[51] Akbar succeeded to the throne under a regent, Bairam Khan, who helped consolidate the Mughal Empire in India. Through warfare and diplomacy, Akbar was able to extend the empire in all directions and controlled almost the entire Indian subcontinent north of the Godavari River.[citation needed] He created a new ruling elite loyal to him, implemented a modern administration, and encouraged cultural developments. He increased trade with European trading companies.[44] India developed a strong and stable economy, leading to commercial expansion and economic development.[citation needed] Akbar allowed freedom of religion at his court and attempted to resolve socio-political and cultural differences in his empire by establishing a new religion, Din-i-Ilahi, with strong characteristics of a ruler cult.[44] He left his son an internally stable state, which was in the midst of its golden age, but before long signs of political weakness would emerge.[44]

Jahangir (born Salim,[52] reigned 1605–1627) was born to Akbar and his wife Mariam-uz-Zamani, an Indian Rajput princess.[53] Salim was named after the Indian Sufi saint, Salim Chishti.[54][55] He "was addicted to opium, neglected the affairs of the state, and came under the influence of rival court cliques".[44] Jahangir distinguished himself from Akbar by making substantial efforts to gain the support of the Islamic religious establishment. One way he did this was by bestowing many more madad-i-ma'ash (tax-free personal land revenue grants given to religiously learned or spiritually worthy individuals) than Akbar had.[56] In contrast to Akbar, Jahangir came into conflict with non-Muslim religious leaders, notably the Sikh guru Arjan, whose execution was the first of many conflicts between the Mughal empire and the Sikh community.[57][58][59]

 
Group portrait of Mughal rulers, from Babur to Aurangzeb, with the Mughal ancestor Timur seated in the middle. On the left: Shah Jahan, Akbar and Babur, with Abu Sa'id of Samarkand and Timur's son, Miran Shah. On the right: Aurangzeb, Jahangir and Humayun, and two of Timur's other offspring Umar Shaykh and Muhammad Sultan. Created c. 1707–12

Shah Jahan (reigned 1628–1658) was born to Jahangir and his wife Jagat Gosain, a Rajput princess.[52] His reign ushered in the golden age of Mughal architecture.[60] During the reign of Shah Jahan, the splendour of the Mughal court reached its peak, as exemplified by the Taj Mahal. The cost of maintaining the court, however, began to exceed the revenue coming in.[44] His reign was called as "The Golden Age of Mughal Architecture". Shah Jahan extended the Mughal empire to the Deccan by ending the Nizam Shahi dynasty and forcing the Adil Shahis and Qutb Shahis to pay tribute.[61]

Shah Jahan's eldest son, the liberal Dara Shikoh, became regent in 1658, as a result of his father's illness.[citation needed] Dara championed a syncretistic Hindu-Muslim culture, emulating his great-grandfather Akbar.[62] With the support of the Islamic orthodoxy, however, a younger son of Shah Jahan, Aurangzeb (r. 1658–1707), seized the throne. Aurangzeb defeated Dara in 1659 and had him executed.[44] Although Shah Jahan fully recovered from his illness, Aurangzeb kept Shah Jahan imprisoned until he died in 1666.[63]: 68  Aurangzeb oversaw an increase in the Islamicization of the Mughal state. He encouraged conversion to Islam, reinstated the jizya on non-Muslims, and compiled the Fatawa 'Alamgiri, a collection of Islamic law. Aurangzeb also ordered the execution of the Sikh guru Tegh Bahadur, leading to the militarization of the Sikh community.[64][58][59] From the imperial perspective, conversion to Islam integrated local elites into the king's vision of network of shared identity that would join disparate groups throughout the empire in obedience to the Mughal emperor.[65] His campaign to conquer South and Western India nominally increased the size of Mughal Empire but had a ruinous effect on Mughal Empire.[66] This campaign also had a ruinous effect on Mughal Treasury, and Emperor's absence led to a severe decline in Governance in Northern India. Marathas started expanding northwards shortly after the death of Aurangzeb, defeated the Mughals in Delhi and Bhopal, and extended their empire up to Peshawar by 1758.[67]

Aurangzeb is considered India's most controversial king,[63] with some historians arguing his religious conservatism and intolerance undermined the stability of Mughal society,[44] while other historians question this, noting that he built Hindu temples,[68] employed significantly more Hindus in his imperial bureaucracy than his predecessors did, opposed bigotry against Hindus and Shia Muslims.[63]: 58  Despite these allegations, it has been acknowledged that Emperor Aurangzeh enacted repressive policies towards non-Muslims, which also resulted to a major rebellion by the Marathas.[69]

Decline (1707–1857)

Further information: Bahadur Shah Zafar
 
Delhi under the puppet-emperor Farrukhsiyar. Effective power was held by the Sayyid Brothers
 
Shah Alam II on horseback

Aurangzeb's son, Bahadur Shah I, repealed the religious policies of his father and attempted to reform the administration. "However, after he died in 1712, the Mughal dynasty began to sink into chaos and violent feuds. In 1719 alone, four emperors successively ascended the throne",[44] as figureheads under the rule of a brotherhood of nobles belonging to the Indian Muslim caste known as the Sadaat-e-Bara, whose leaders, the Sayyid Brothers, became the de facto sovereigns of the empire.[70][71]

During the reign of Muhammad Shah (reigned 1719–1748), the empire began to break up, and vast tracts of central India passed from Mughal to Maratha hands. As the Mughals tried to suppress the independence of Nizam-ul-Mulk, Asaf Jah I in the Deccan, he encouraged the Marathas to invade central and northern India.[72][73][74] The far-off Indian campaign of Nader Shah, who had previously reestablished Iranian suzerainty over most of West Asia, the Caucasus, and Central Asia, culminated with the Sack of Delhi and shattered the remnants of Mughal power and prestige. Many of the empire's elites now sought to control their affairs and broke away to form independent kingdoms.[75] But, according to Sugata Bose and Ayesha Jalal, the Mughal Emperor continued to be the highest manifestation of sovereignty. Not only the Muslim gentry, but the Maratha, Hindu, and Sikh leaders took part in ceremonial acknowledgements of the emperor as the sovereign of India.[76]

Meanwhile, some regional polities within the increasingly fragmented Mughal Empire, involved themselves and the state in global conflicts, leading only to defeat and loss of territory during the Carnatic Wars and the Bengal War.

 
The remnants of the empire in 1751

The Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II (1759–1806) made futile attempts to reverse the Mughal decline. Third Battle of Panipat was fought between the Maratha Empire and the Afghans (led by Abdali) in 1761 in which the Afghans were victorious. In 1771, the Marathas recaptured Delhi from Afghan control and in 1784 they officially became the protectors of the emperor in Delhi,[77] a state of affairs that continued until the Second Anglo-Maratha War. Thereafter, the British East India Company became the protectors of the Mughal dynasty in Delhi.[76] The British East India Company took control of the former Mughal province of Bengal-Bihar in 1793 after it abolished local rule (Nizamat) that lasted until 1858, marking the beginning of British colonial era over the Indian subcontinent. By 1857 a considerable part of former Mughal India was under the East India Company's control. After a crushing defeat in the war of 1857–1858 which he nominally led, the last Mughal, Bahadur Shah Zafar, was deposed by the British East India Company and exiled in 1858. Zafar was exiled to Rangoon, Burma.[78] His wife Zeenat Mahal and some of the remaining members of the family accompanied him. At 4 am on 7 October 1858, Zafar along with his wives, and two remaining sons began his journey towards Rangoon in bullock carts escorted by 9th Lancers under the command of Lieutenant Ommaney.[79] Through the Government of India Act 1858 the British Crown assumed direct control of East India Company-held territories in India in the form of the new British Raj. In 1876 the British Queen Victoria assumed the title of Empress of India.

 
Portrait of Bahadur Shah II

Causes of decline

Historians have offered numerous explanations for the rapid collapse of the Mughal Empire between 1707 and 1720, after a century of growth and prosperity. As the Mughals were visibly unassailable across 17th century, external threat sprang out from several sectors, such as from the sea, as the innoculous European trading companies, such as British East Indies Company, racing to get permission from the Mughal rulers to establish trades and factories in India.[80] In fiscal terms, the throne lost the revenues needed to pay its chief officers, the emirs (nobles) and their entourages. The emperor lost authority, as the widely scattered imperial officers lost confidence in the central authorities, and made their deals with local men of influence. The imperial army bogged down in long, futile wars against the more aggressive Marathas, and lost its fighting spirit. Finally came a series of violent political feuds over control of the throne. After the execution of Emperor Farrukhsiyar in 1719, local Mughal successor states took power in region after region.[81]

Contemporary chroniclers bewailed the decay they witnessed, a theme picked up by the first British historians who wanted to underscore the need for a British-led rejuvenation.[82]

Modern views on the decline

Since the 1970s historians have taken multiple approaches to the decline, with little consensus on which factor was dominant. The psychological interpretations emphasise depravity in high places, excessive luxury, and increasingly narrow views that left the rulers unprepared for an external challenge. A Marxist school (led by Irfan Habib and based at Aligarh Muslim University) emphasises excessive exploitation of the peasantry by the rich, which stripped away the will and the means to support the regime.[83] As the Mughals were visibly unassailable across 17th century, external threat sprang out from several sectors, such as from the sea, as the innoculous European trading companies, such as British East Indies Company, racing to get permission from the Mughal rulers to establish trades and factories in India.[80]

Karen Leonard has focused on the failure of the regime to work with Hindu bankers, whose financial support was increasingly needed; the bankers then helped the Maratha and the British.[84] In a religious interpretation, some scholars argue that the Hindu powers revolted against the rule of a Muslim dynasty.[85] Finally, other scholars argue that the very prosperity of the Empire inspired the provinces to achieve a high degree of independence, thus weakening the imperial court.[86]

Jeffrey G. Williamson has argued that the Indian economy went through deindustrialization in the latter half of the 18th century as an indirect outcome of the collapse of the Mughal Empire, with British rule later causing further deindustrialization.[87] According to Williamson, the decline of the Mughal Empire led to a decline in agricultural productivity, which drove up food prices, then nominal wages, and then textile prices, which led to India losing a share of the world textile market to Britain even before it had superior factory technology.[88] Indian textiles, however, still maintained a competitive advantage over British textiles up until the 19th century.[89]

Administration and state

Main article: Government of the Mughal Empire
 
India in 1605 and the end of emperor Akbar's reign; the map shows the different subahs, or provinces, of his administration

The Mughal Empire had a highly centralised, bureaucratic government, most of which was instituted during the rule of the third Mughal emperor Akbar.[90][91] The central government was headed by the Mughal emperor; immediately beneath him were four ministries. The finance/revenue ministry, headed by an official called a diwan, was responsible for controlling revenues from the empire's territories, calculating tax revenues, and using this information to distribute assignments. The ministry of the military (army/intelligence) was headed by an official titled mir bakhshi, who was in charge of military organisation, messenger service, and the mansabdari system. The ministry in charge of law/religious patronage was the responsibility of the sadr as-sudr, who appointed judges and managed charities and stipends. Another ministry was dedicated to the imperial household and public works, headed by the mir saman. Of these ministers, the diwan held the most importance, and typically acted as the wazir (prime minister) of the empire.[78][90][92]

Administrative divisions

The empire was divided into Subah (provinces), each of which was headed by a provincial governor called a subadar. The structure of the central government was mirrored at the provincial level; each suba had its own bakhshi, sadr as-sudr, and finance minister that reported directly to the central government rather than the subahdar. Subas were subdivided into administrative units known as sarkars, which were further divided into groups of villages known as parganas. Mughal government in the pargana consisted of a Muslim judge and local tax collector.[78][90] Parganas were the basic administrative unit of the Mughal empire.[93]

Mughal administrative divisions were not static. Territories were often rearranged and reconstituted for better administrative control, and to extend cultivation. For example, a sarkar could turn into a subah, and Parganas were often transferred between sarkars. The hierarchy of division was ambiguous sometimes, as a territory could fall under multiple overlapping jurisdictions. Administrative divisions were also vague in their geography – the Mughal state did not have enough resources or authority to undertake detailed land surveys, and hence the geographical limits of these divisions were not formalised and maps were not created. The Mughals instead recorded detailed statistics about each division, to assess the territory's capacity for revenue, based on simpler land surveys.[94]

Capitals

The Mughals had multiple imperial capitals, established throughout their rule. These were the cities of Agra, Delhi, Lahore, and Fatehpur Sikri. Power often shifted back and forth between these capitals.[95] Sometimes this was necessitated by political and military demands, but shifts also occurred for ideological reasons (for example, Akbar's establishment of Fatehpur Sikri), or even simply because the cost of establishing a new capital was marginal.[96] Situations where there were two simultaneous capitals happened multiple times in Mughal history. Certain cities also served as short-term, provincial capitals, as was the case with Aurangzeb's shift to Aurangabad in the Deccan.[95] Kabul was the summer capital of Mughals from 1526 to 1681.[97]

The imperial camp, used for military expeditions and royal tours, also served as a kind of mobile, "de facto" administrative capital. From the time of Akbar, Mughal camps were huge in scale, accompanied by numerous personages associated with the royal court, as well as soldiers and labourers. All administration and governance were carried out within them. The Mughal Emperors spent a significant portion of their ruling period within these camps.[98]

After Aurangzeb, the Mughal capital definitively became the walled city of Shahjahanabad (Old Delhi).[99]

Law

 
Police in Delhi under Bahadur Shah II, 1842

The Mughal Empire's legal system was context-specific and evolved throughout the empire's rule. Being a Muslim state, the empire employed fiqh (Islamic jurisprudence) and therefore the fundamental institutions of Islamic law such as those of the qadi (judge), mufti (jurisconsult), and muhtasib (censor and market supervisor) were well-established in the Mughal Empire. However, the dispensation of justice also depended on other factors, such as administrative rules, local customs, and political convenience. This was due to Persianate influences on Mughal ideology, and that the Mughal Empire governed a non-Muslim majority.[100] Scholar Mouez Khalfaoui notes that legal institutions in the Mughal Empire systemically suffered from the corruption of local judges.[101]

Legal ideology

The Mughal Empire followed the Sunni Hanafi system of jurisprudence. In its early years, the empire relied on Hanafi legal references inherited from its predecessor, the Delhi Sultanate. These included the al-Hidayah (the best guidance) and the Fatawa al-Tatarkhaniyya (religious decisions of the Emire Tatarkhan). During the Mughal Empire's peak, the Fatawa 'Alamgiri was commissioned by Emperor Aurangzeb. This compendium of Hanafi law sought to serve as a central reference for the Mughal state that dealt with the specifics of the South Asian context.[101]

The Mughal Empire also drew on Persian notions of kingship. Particularly, this meant that the Mughal emperor was considered the supreme authority on legal affairs.[100]

Courts of law

Various kinds of courts existed in the Mughal Empire. One such court was that of the qadi. The Mughal qadi was responsible for dispensing justice; this included settling disputes, judging people for crimes, and dealing with inheritances and orphans. The qadi also had additional importance in documents, as the seal of the qadi was required to validate deeds and tax records. Qadis did not constitute a single position, but made up a hierarchy. For example, the most basic kind was the pargana (district) qadi. More prestigious positions were those of the qadi al-quddat (judge of judges) who accompanied the mobile imperial camp, and the qadi-yi lashkar (judge of the army).[100] Qadis were usually appointed by the emperor or the sadr-us-sudr (chief of charities).[100][102] The jurisdiction of the qadi was availed by Muslims and non-Muslims alike.[103]

The jagirdar (local tax collector) was another kind of official approach, especially for high-stakes cases. Subjects of the Mughal Empire also took their grievances to the courts of superior officials who held more authority and punitive power than the local qadi. Such officials included the kotwal (local police), the faujdar (an officer controlling multiple districts and troops of soldiers), and the most powerful, the subahdar (provincial governor). In some cases, the emperor dispensed justice directly.[100] Jahangir was known to have installed a "chain of justice" in the Agra Fort that any aggrieved subject could shake to get the attention of the emperor and bypass the inefficacy of officials.[104]

Self-regulating tribunals operating at the community or village level were common, but sparse documentation of them exists. For example, it is unclear how panchayats (village councils) operated in the Mughal era.[100]

Economy

Main article: Economy of the Mughal Empire

The economy in the Indian Subcontinent during the Mughal era performed just as it did in ancient times, though now it would face the stress of extensive regional tensions.[105] The Mughal economy was large and prosperous.[106][107] India was producing 24.5% of the world's manufacturing output up until 1750.[108][107] India's economy has been described as a form of proto-industrialization, like that of 18th-century Western Europe prior to the Industrial Revolution.[109]

Modern historians and researchers generally agreed that The Mughal empire economic policy character is resembling Laissez-faire system in dealing with tradings and bullions, to achieve the economic ends.[110][111][112] [113]

The Mughals were responsible for building an extensive road system, creating a uniform currency, and the unification of the country.[11]: 185–204  The empire had an extensive road network, which was vital to the economic infrastructure, built by a public works department set up by the Mughals which designed, constructed and maintained roads linking towns and cities across the empire, making trade easier to conduct.[106]

The main base of the empire's collective wealth was agricultural taxes, instituted by the third Mughal emperor, Akbar.[24][25] These taxes, which amounted to well over half the output of a peasant cultivator,[26] were paid in the well-regulated silver currency,[23] and caused peasants and artisans to enter larger markets.[27]

Coinage

 
Coin of Aurangzeb, minted in Kabul, dated 1691/2

The Mughals adopted and standardised the rupee (rupiya, or silver) and dam (copper) currencies introduced by Sur Emperor Sher Shah Suri during his brief rule.[114] The currency was initially 48 dams to a single rupee in the beginning of Akbar's reign, before it later became 38 dams to a rupee in the 1580s, with the dam's value rising further in the 17th century as a result of new industrial uses for copper, such as in bronze cannons and brass utensils. The dam was initially the most common coin in Akbar's time, before being replaced by the rupee as the most common coin in succeeding reigns.[11] The dam's value was later worth 30 to a rupee towards the end of Jahangir's reign, and then 16 to a rupee by the 1660s.[115] The Mughals minted coins with high purity, never dropping below 96%, and without debasement until the 1720s.[116]

Despite India having its stocks of gold and silver, the Mughals produced minimal gold of their own but mostly minted coins from imported bullion, as a result of the empire's strong export-driven economy, with global demand for Indian agricultural and industrial products drawing a steady stream of precious metals into India.[11] Around 80% of Mughal India's imports were bullion, mostly silver,[117] with major sources of imported bullion including the New World and Japan,[116] which in turn imported large quantities of textiles and silk from the Bengal Subah province.[11]

Labour

The historian Shireen Moosvi estimates that in terms of contributions to the Mughal economy, in the late 16th century, the primary sector contributed 52%, the secondary sector 18% and the tertiary sector 29%; the secondary sector contributed a higher percentage than in early 20th-century British India, where the secondary sector only contributed 11% to the economy.[118] In terms of the urban-rural divide, 18% of Mughal India's labour force were urban and 82% were rural, contributing 52% and 48% to the economy, respectively.[119]

According to Stephen Broadberry and Bishnupriya Gupta, grain wages in India were comparable to England in the 16th and 17th centuries, but diverged in the 18th century when they fell to 20-40% of England's wages.[120][121] This, however, is disputed by Parthasarathi and Sivramkrishna. Parthasarathi cites his estimates that grain wages for weaving and spinning in mid-18th century Bengal and South India were comparable to Britain.[122] Similarly, Sivramkrishna analyzed agricultural surveys conducted in Mysore by Francis Buchanan during 1800–1801, arrived at estimates using a "subsistence basket" that aggregated millet income could be almost five times subsistence level, while corresponding rice income was three times that much.[123] That could be comparable to advance part of Europe.[124] Due to the scarcity of data, however, more research is needed before drawing any conclusion.[125][126]

According to Moosvi, Mughal India had a per-capita income, in terms of wheat, 1.24% higher in the late 16th century than British India did in the early 20th century.[127] This income, however, would have to be revised downwards if manufactured goods, like clothing, would be considered. Compared to food per capita, expenditure on clothing was much smaller though, so relative income between 1595 and 1596 should be comparable to 1901–1910.[128] However, in a system where wealth was hoarded by elites, wages were depressed for manual labour.[129] In Mughal India, there was a generally tolerant attitude towards manual labourers, with some religious cults in northern India proudly asserting a high status for manual labour. While slavery also existed, it was limited largely to household servants.[129]

Agriculture

Indian agricultural production increased under the Mughal Empire.[106] A variety of crops were grown, including food crops such as wheat, rice, and barley, and non-food cash crops such as cotton, indigo and opium. By the mid-17th century, Indian cultivators began to extensively grow two new crops from the Americas, maize and tobacco.[106]

The Mughal administration emphasised agrarian reform, which began under the non-Mughal emperor Sher Shah Suri, the work of which Akbar adopted and furthered with more reforms. The civil administration was organised hierarchically based on merit, with promotions based on performance.[130] The Mughal government funded the building of irrigation systems across the empire, which produced much higher crop yields and increased the net revenue base, leading to increased agricultural production.[106]

A major Mughal reform introduced by Akbar was a new land revenue system called zabt. He replaced the tribute system, previously common in India and used by Tokugawa Japan at the time, with a monetary tax system based on a uniform currency.[116] The revenue system was biased in favour of higher value cash crops such as cotton, indigo, sugar cane, tree crops, and opium, providing state incentives to grow cash crops, in addition to rising market demand.[11] Under the zabt system, the Mughals also conducted extensive cadastral surveying to assess the area of land under plough cultivation, with the Mughal state encouraging greater land cultivation by offering tax-free periods to those who brought new land under cultivation.[116] The expansion of agriculture and cultivation continued under later Mughal emperors including Aurangzeb, whose 1665 firman edict stated: "the entire elevated attention and desires of the Emperor are devoted to the increase in the population and cultivation of the Empire and the welfare of the whole peasantry and the entire people."[131]

Mughal agriculture was in some ways advanced compared to European agriculture at the time, exemplified by the common use of the seed drill among Indian peasants before its adoption in Europe.[132] While the average peasant across the world was only skilled in growing very few crops, the average Indian peasant was skilled in growing a wide variety of food and non-food crops, increasing their productivity.[133] Indian peasants were also quick to adapt to profitable new crops, such as maize and tobacco from the New World being rapidly adopted and widely cultivated across Mughal India between 1600 and 1650. Bengali farmers rapidly learned techniques of mulberry cultivation and sericulture, establishing Bengal Subah as a major silk-producing region of the world.[11] Sugar mills appeared in India shortly before the Mughal era. Evidence for the use of a draw bar for sugar-milling appears at Delhi in 1540, but may also date back earlier, and was mainly used in the northern Indian subcontinent. Geared sugar rolling mills first appeared in Mughal India, using the principle of rollers as well as worm gearing, by the 17th century.[134]

According to economic historian Immanuel Wallerstein, citing evidence from Irfan Habib, Percival Spear, and Ashok Desai, per-capita agricultural output and standards of consumption in 17th-century Mughal India were probably higher than in 17th-century Europe and certainly higher than early 20th-century British India.[135] The increased agricultural productivity led to lower food prices. In turn, this benefited the Indian textile industry. Compared to Britain, the price of grain was about one-half in South India and one-third in Bengal, in terms of silver coinage. This resulted in lower silver coin prices for Indian textiles, giving them a price advantage in global markets.[136]

Industrial manufacturing

Up until 1750, India produced about 25% of the world's industrial output.[87] Manufactured goods and cash crops from the Mughal Empire were sold throughout the world. Key industries included textiles, shipbuilding, and steel. Processed products included cotton textiles, yarns, thread, silk, jute products, metalware, and foods such as sugar, oils and butter.[106] The growth of manufacturing industries in the Indian subcontinent during the Mughal era in the 17th–18th centuries has been referred to as a form of proto-industrialization, similar to 18th-century Western Europe before the Industrial Revolution.[109]

In early modern Europe, there was significant demand for products from Mughal India, particularly cotton textiles, as well as goods such as spices, peppers, indigo, silks, and saltpetre (for use in munitions).[106] European fashion, for example, became increasingly dependent on Mughal Indian textiles and silks. From the late 17th century to the early 18th century, Mughal India accounted for 95% of British imports from Asia, and the Bengal Subah province alone accounted for 40% of Dutch imports from Asia.[137] In contrast, there was very little demand for European goods in Mughal India, which was largely self-sufficient, thus Europeans had very little to offer, except for some woollens, unprocessed metals and a few luxury items. The trade imbalance caused Europeans to export large quantities of gold and silver to Mughal India to pay for South Asian imports.[106] Indian goods, especially those from Bengal, were also exported in large quantities to other Asian markets, such as Indonesia and Japan.[11]

Textile industry

See also: Muslin trade in Bengal and Mughal clothing
 
Miniature painting – Portrait of an Old Mughal Courtier Wearing Muslin
 
Muslim Lady Reclining or An Indian Girl with a Hookah, painted in Dacca, 18th century

The largest manufacturing industry in the Mughal Empire was textile manufacturing, particularly cotton textile manufacturing, which included the production of piece goods, calicos, and muslins, available unbleached and in a variety of colours. The cotton textile industry was responsible for a large part of the empire's international trade.[106] India had a 25% share of the global textile trade in the early 18th century.[138] Indian cotton textiles were the most important manufactured goods in world trade in the 18th century, consumed across the world from the Americas to Japan.[139] By the early 18th century, Mughal Indian textiles were clothing people across the Indian subcontinent, Southeast Asia, Europe, the Americas, Africa, and the Middle East.[88] The most important centre of cotton production was the Bengal province, particularly around its capital city of Dhaka.[140]

Bengal accounted for more than 50% of textiles and around 80% of silks imported by the Dutch from Asia,[137] Bengali silk and cotton textiles were exported in large quantities to Europe, Indonesia, and Japan,[11]: 202  and Bengali muslin textiles from Dhaka were sold in Central Asia, where they were known as "Dhaka textiles".[140] Indian textiles dominated the Indian Ocean trade for centuries, were sold in the Atlantic Ocean trade, and had a 38% share of the West African trade in the early 18th century, while Indian calicos were a major force in Europe, and Indian textiles accounted for 20% of total English trade with Southern Europe in the early 18th century.[87]

The worm gear roller cotton gin, which was invented in India during the early Delhi Sultanate era of the 13th–14th centuries, came into use in the Mughal Empire sometime around the 16th century,[134] and is still used in India through to the present day.[141] Another innovation, the incorporation of the crank handle in the cotton gin, first appeared in India sometime during the late Delhi Sultanate or the early Mughal Empire.[142] The production of cotton, which may have largely been spun in the villages and then taken to towns in the form of yarn to be woven into cloth textiles, was advanced by the diffusion of the spinning wheel across India shortly before the Mughal era, lowering the costs of yarn and helping to increase demand for cotton. The diffusion of the spinning wheel and the incorporation of the worm gear and crank handle into the roller cotton gin led to greatly expanded Indian cotton textile production during the Mughal era.[143]

Once, the Mughal emperor Akbar asked his courtiers, which was the most beautiful flower. Some said rose, from whose petals were distilled the precious ittar, others, the lotus, glory of every Indian village. But Birbal said, "The cotton boll". There was a scornful laughter and Akbar asked for an explanation. Birbal said, "Your Majesty, from the cotton boll, comes the fine fabric prized by merchants across the seas that has made your empire famous throughout the world. The perfume of your fame far exceeds the scent of roses and jasmine. That is why I say the cotton boll is the most beautiful flower.[144]

Bengal Subah

Main article: Bengal Subah
See also: Muslin trade in Bengal
 
Ruins of the Great Caravanserai in Dhaka.

The Bengal Subah province was especially prosperous from the time of its takeover by the Mughals in 1590 until the British East India Company seized control in 1757.[145] Historian C. A. Bayly wrote that it was probably the Mughal Empire's wealthiest province.[146] Domestically, much of India depended on Bengali products such as rice, silks and cotton textiles. Overseas, Europeans depended on Bengali products such as cotton textiles, silks, and opium; Bengal accounted for 40% of Dutch imports from Asia, for example, including more than 50% of textiles and around 80% of silks.[137] From Bengal, saltpetre was also shipped to Europe, opium was sold in Indonesia, raw silk was exported to Japan and the Netherlands, and cotton and silk textiles were exported to Europe, Indonesia and Japan.[11]

Akbar played a key role in establishing Bengal as a leading economic centre, as he began transforming many of the jungles there into farms. As soon as he conquered the region, he brought tools and men to clear jungles to expand cultivation and brought Sufis to open the jungles to farming.[131] Bengal was later described as the Paradise of Nations by Mughal emperors.[147] The Mughals introduced agrarian reforms, including the modern Bengali calendar.[148] The calendar played a vital role in developing and organising harvests, tax collection and Bengali culture in general, including the New Year and Autumn festivals.[citation needed] The province was a leading producer of grains, salt, fruits, liquors and wines, precious metals and ornaments.[149] After Akbar, there are notable contributive factor during the era of Aurangzeb, as Siddiqui M. Azizuddin Hussein from Jamia Millia Islamia and Maulana Azad National Urdu University, has viewed that aside from religious and legal context, Fatawa 'Alamgiri codex has provided direct contribution to the Proto-industrialization in Bengal Subah.[150]

After 150 years of rule by Mughal viceroys, Bengal gained semi-independence as a dominion under the Nawab of Bengal in 1717. The Nawabs permitted European companies to set up trading posts across the region, including firms from Britain, France, the Netherlands, Denmark, Portugal and Austria. An Armenian community dominated banking and shipping in major cities and towns. The Europeans regarded Bengal as the richest place for trade.[149] By the late 18th century, the British displaced the Mughal ruling class in Bengal.

Shipbuilding industry

Mughal India had a large shipbuilding industry, which was also largely centred in the Bengal province. Economic historian Indrajit Ray estimates the shipbuilding output of Bengal during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries at 223,250 tons annually, compared with 23,061 tons produced in nineteen colonies in North America from 1769 to 1771.[151] He also assesses ship repairing as very advanced in Bengal.[151]

An important innovation in shipbuilding was the introduction of a flushed deck design in Bengal rice ships, resulting in hulls that were stronger and less prone to leak than the structurally weak hulls of traditional European ships built with a stepped deck design. The British East India Company later duplicated the flushed deck and hull designs of Bengal rice ships in the 1760s, leading to significant improvements in seaworthiness and navigation for European ships during the Industrial Revolution.[152]

Demographics

See also: Demographics of India: History

Population

India's population growth accelerated under the Mughal Empire, with an unprecedented economic and demographic upsurge which boosted the Indian population by 60%[153] to 253% in 200 years during 1500–1700.[154] The Indian population had a faster growth during the Mughal era than at any known point in Indian history before the Mughal era.[107][153] By the time of Aurangzeb's reign, there were a total of 455,698 villages in the Mughal Empire.[155]

The following table gives population estimates for the Mughal Empire, compared to the total population of South Asia including the regions of modern India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh, and compared to the world population:

Year Mughal Empire
population 		Total Indian
population 		% of South Asian
population 		World
population 		% of world
population
1500 — 100,000,000[153] — 425,000,000[156] —
1600 115,000,000[155] 130,000,000[153] 89 579,000,000[156] 20
1700 158,400,000[10] 160,000,000[153] 99 679,000,000[156] 23

Urbanization

According to Irfan Habib Cities and towns boomed under the Mughal Empire, which had a relatively high degree of urbanization for its time, with 15% of its population living in urban centres.[157] This was higher than the percentage of the urban population in contemporary Europe at the time and higher than that of British India in the 19th century;[157] the level of urbanization in Europe did not reach 15% until the 19th century.[158]

Under Akbar's reign in 1600, the Mughal Empire's urban population was up to 17 million people, 15% of the empire's total population. This was larger than the entire urban population in Europe at the time, and even a century later in 1700, the urban population of England, Scotland and Wales did not exceed 13% of its total population,[155] while British India had an urban population that was under 13% of its total population in 1800 and 9% in 1881, a decline from the earlier Mughal era.[159] By 1700, Mughal India had an urban population of 23 million people, larger than British India's urban population of 22.3 million in 1871.[160]

Those estimates were criticised by Tim Dyson, who consider them exaggerations. According to Dyson urbanization of the Mughal empire was less than 9%.[161]

The historian Nizamuddin Ahmad (1551–1621) reported that, under Akbar's reign, there were 120 large cities and 3200 townships.[157] A number of cities in India had a population between a quarter-million and half-million people,[157] with larger cities including Agra (in Agra Subah) with up to 800,000 people, Lahore (in Lahore Subah) with up to 700,000 people,[162] Dhaka (in Bengal Subah) with over 1 million people,[163] and Delhi (in Delhi Subah) with over 600,000 people.[164]

Cities acted as markets for the sale of goods, and provided homes for a variety of merchants, traders, shopkeepers, artisans, moneylenders, weavers, craftspeople, officials, and religious figures.[106] However, several cities were military and political centres, rather than manufacturing or commerce centres.[165]

Culture

See also: Indo-Persian culture
 
Ghulam Hamdani Mushafi, the poet first believed to have coined the name "Urdu" around 1780 AD for a language that went by a multiplicity of names before his time.[166]

The Mughal Empire was definitive in the early-modern and modern periods of South Asian history, with its legacy in India, Pakistan, Bangladesh and Afghanistan seen in cultural contributions such as:

 
Mir Taqi Mir, an Urdu poet of the 18th century Mughal Empire
 
The Taj Mahal in the 1870s
 
Badshahi Mosque, Lahore, Punjab, Pakistan
 
Buland Darwaza in Fatehpur Sikiri, Agra, India

Architecture

Main article: Mughal architecture

The Mughals made a major contribution to the Indian subcontinent with the development of their distinctive architectural style. This style was derived from earlier Indo-Islamic architecture as well as from Iranian and Central Asian architecture (particularly Timurid architecture), while incorporating further influences from Hindu architecture.[175][176] Mughal architecture is distinguished, among other things, by bulbous domes, ogive arches, carefully-composed and polished façades, and the use of hard red sandstone and marble as construction materials.[175][177]

Many monuments were built during the Mughal era by the Muslim emperors, especially Shah Jahan, including the Taj Mahal—a UNESCO World Heritage Site considered "the jewel of Muslim art in India and one of the universally admired masterpieces of the world's heritage",[33] attracting 7–8 million unique visitors a year. The palaces, tombs, gardens and forts built by the dynasty stand today in Agra, Aurangabad, Delhi, Dhaka, Fatehpur Sikri, Jaipur, Lahore, Kabul, Sheikhupura, and many other cities of India, Pakistan, Afghanistan, and Bangladesh,[178] such as:

 
Lalbagh Fort aerial view in Dhaka, Bangladesh
India Pakistan Bangladesh Afghanistan
  • Bagh-e-Babur in Kabul, Afghanistan
  • Shahjahani Mosque in Kabul, Afghanistan

Art and literature

Main articles: Mughal painting and Mughal clothing
 
Finial in the form of a parrot, Mughal empire, 17th century.

The Mughal artistic tradition, mainly expressed in painted miniatures, as well as small luxury objects, was eclectic, borrowing from Iranian, Indian, Chinese and Renaissance European stylistic and thematic elements.[179] Mughal emperors often took in Iranian bookbinders, illustrators, painters and calligraphers from the Safavid court due to the commonalities of their Timurid styles, and due to the Mughal affinity for Iranian art and calligraphy.[180] Miniatures commissioned by the Mughal emperors initially focused on large projects illustrating books with eventful historical scenes and court life, but later included more single images for albums, with portraits and animal paintings displaying a profound appreciation for the serenity and beauty of the natural world.[181] For example, Emperor Jahangir commissioned brilliant artists such as Ustad Mansur to realistically portray unusual flora and fauna throughout the empire.

The literary works Akbar and Jahangir ordered to be illustrated ranged from epics like the Razmnama (a Persian translation of the Hindu epic, the Mahabharata) to historical memoirs or biographies of the dynasty such as the Baburnama and Akbarnama, and Tuzk-e-Jahangiri. Richly finished albums (muraqqa) decorated with calligraphy and artistic scenes were mounted onto pages with decorative borders and then bound with covers of stamped and gilded or painted and lacquered leather.[182] Aurangzeb (1658–1707) was never an enthusiastic patron of painting, largely for religious reasons, and took a turn away from the pomp and ceremonial of the court around 1668, after which he probably commissioned no more paintings.[183]

 
Folio from Farhang-i-Jahangiri, a Persian dictionary compiled during the Mughal era.

Language

Main articles: Persian language in the Indian subcontinent, Persian and Urdu, and Hindustani language

According to Qazvini, by the time of Shah Jahan, the emperor was only familiar with a few Turki words and showed little interest in the study of the language as a child.[184] Though the Mughals were of Turko-Mongol origin, their reign enacted the revival and height of the Persian language in the Indian subcontinent, and by the end of the 16th-century Turki (Chagatai) was understood by relatively few at court.[185] Accompanied by literary patronage was the institutionalisation of Persian as an official and courtly language; this led to Persian reaching nearly the status of a first language for many inhabitants of Mughal India.[186][187] Muzaffar Alam argues that the Mughals used Persian purposefully as the vehicle of an overarching Indo-Persian political culture, to unite their diverse empire.[188] Persian had a profound impact on the languages of South Asia; one such language, today known as Urdu, developed in the imperial capital of Delhi in the late Mughal era. It began to be used as a literary language in the Mughal court from the reign of Shah Alam II, who described it as the language of his dastans (prose romances) and replaced Persian as the informal language of the Muslim elite.[189][190] According to Mir Taqi Mir, "Urdu was the language of Hindustan by the authority of the King."[191][192]

Military

Further information: Army of the Mughal Empire, Mughal weapons, and Mughal artillery

Gunpowder warfare

 
Mughal matchlock rifle, 16th century.
See also: Gunpowder empires and History of gunpowder: India and the Mughal Empire

Mughal India was one of the three Islamic gunpowder empires, along with the Ottoman Empire and Safavid Persia.[41][193][194] By the time he was invited by Lodi governor of Lahore, Daulat Khan, to support his rebellion against Lodi Sultan Ibrahim Khan, Babur was familiar with gunpowder firearms and field artillery, and a method for deploying them. Babur had employed Ottoman expert Ustad Ali Quli, who showed Babur the standard Ottoman formation—artillery and firearm-equipped infantry protected by wagons in the centre and the mounted archers on both wings. Babur used this formation at the First Battle of Panipat in 1526, where the Afghan and Rajput forces loyal to the Delhi Sultanate, though superior in numbers but without the gunpowder weapons, were defeated. The decisive victory of the Timurid forces is one reason opponents rarely met Mughal princes in pitched battles throughout the empire's history.[195] In India, guns made of bronze were recovered from Calicut (1504) and Diu (1533).[196] Fathullah Shirazi (c. 1582), a Persian polymath and mechanical engineer who worked for Akbar, developed an early multi-gun shot. As opposed to the polybolos and repeating crossbows used earlier in ancient Greece and China, respectively, Shirazi's rapid-firing gun had multiple gun barrels that fired hand cannons loaded with gunpowder. It may be considered a version of a volley gun.[197]

 
Mughal musketeer, 17th century.

By the 17th century, Indians were manufacturing a diverse variety of firearms; large guns in particular, became visible in Tanjore, Dacca, Bijapur and Murshidabad.[198]

Rocketry and explosives

In the sixteenth century, Akbar was the first to initiate and use metal cylinder rockets known as bans, particularly against war elephants, during the Battle of Sanbal.[199] In 1657, the Mughal Army used rockets during the Siege of Bidar.[200] Prince Aurangzeb's forces discharged rockets and grenades while scaling the walls. Sidi Marjan was mortally wounded when a rocket struck his large gunpowder depot, and after twenty-seven days of hard fighting, Bidar was captured by the Mughals.[200]

In A History of Greek Fire and Gunpowder, James Riddick Partington described Indian rockets and explosive mines:[196]

The Indian war rockets ... were formidable weapons before such rockets were used in Europe. They had bam-boo rods, a rocket body lashed to the rod and iron points. They were directed at the target and fired by lighting the fuse, but the trajectory was rather erratic. The use of mines and counter-mines with explosive charges of gunpowder is mentioned for the times of Akbar and Jahangir.

Science

A new curriculum for the madrasas which stressed the importance of uloom-i-muqalat (Rational Sciences) and introduced new subjects such as geometry, medicine, philosophy, and mathematics. The new curriculum produced a series of eminent scholars, engineers and architects.[201] [202]

Astronomy

See also: Astronomy in the medieval Islamic world and Indian astronomy
 
Remains of Mughal observatory Gyarah Sidi near Mehtab Bagh.

While there appears to have been little concern for theoretical astronomy, Mughal astronomers made advances in observational astronomy and produced some Zij treatises. Humayun built a personal observatory near Delhi. According to Sulaiman Nadvi, Jahangir and Shah Jahan intended to build observatories too but were unable to do so. The astronomical instruments and observational techniques used at the Mughal observatories were mainly derived from Islamic astronomy.[203][204] In the 17th century, the Mughal Empire saw a synthesis between Islamic and Hindu astronomy, where Islamic observational instruments were combined with Hindu computational techniques.[203][204]

 
Celestial Globe made by Mughals

During the decline of the Mughal Empire, the Hindu king Jai Singh II of Amber continued the work of Mughal astronomy. In the early 18th century, he built several large observatories called Yantra Mandirs, to rival Ulugh Beg's Samarkand observatory, and to improve on the earlier Hindu computations in the Siddhantas and Islamic observations in Zij-i-Sultani. The instruments he used were influenced by Islamic astronomy, while the computational techniques were derived from Hindu astronomy.[203][204]

Chemistry

See also: Alchemy in the medieval Islamic world

Sake Dean Mahomed had learned much of Mughal chemistry and understood the techniques used to produce various alkali and soaps to produce shampoo. He was also a notable writer who described the Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II and the cities of Allahabad and Delhi in rich detail and also made note of the glories of the Mughal Empire.

In Britain, Sake Dean Mahomed was appointed as shampooing surgeon to both Kings George IV and William IV.[205]

Metallurgy

See also: History of metallurgy in the Indian subcontinent and Mughal Karkhanas

The society within Mughal empire operated the Karkhanas, which functioned as workshops for craftsmen. These Karkhanas were producing arms, ammunition, and also various items for the court and emperor's need such as clothes, shawls, turbans, jewelry, gold and silverware, perfumes, medicines, carpets, beddings, tents, and for the imperial stable-harnesses for the horses in irons, copper and other metals.[206][207][208]

Another aspects of remarkable invention in Mughal India is the lost-wax cast, hollow, seamless, celestial globe. It was invented in Kashmir by Ali Kashmiri ibn Luqman in 998 AH (1589–90 CE). Twenty other such globes were later produced in Lahore and Kashmir during the Mughal Empire. Before they were rediscovered in the 1980s, it was believed by modern metallurgists to be technically impossible to produce hollow metal globes without any seams.[209] A 17th-century celestial globe was also made by Diya’ ad-din Muhammad in Lahore, 1668 (now in Pakistan).[210] It is now housed at the National Museum of Scotland.

List of Mughal Emperors

Main article: List of emperors of the Mughal Empire
Portrait Titular Name Birth Name Birth Reign Death
1   Babur
بابر 		Zahir al-Din Muhammad
ظهیر الدین محمد 		14 February 1483 Andijan, Uzbekistan 20 April 1526 – 26 December 1530 26 December 1530 (aged 47) Agra, India
2   Humayun
همایوں 		Nasir al-Din Muhammad
نصیر الدین محمد 		6 March 1508 Kabul, Afghanistan 26 December 1530  – 17 May 1540

22 February 1555 – 27 January 1556

(10 years 3 months 25 days)

27 January 1556 (aged 47) Delhi, India
3   Akbar the Great
اکبر 		Jalal al-Din Muhammad
جلال الدین محمد 		15 October 1542 Umerkot, Pakistan 11 February 1556 – 27 October 1605

(49 years 9 months 0 days)

27 October 1605 (aged 63) Agra, India
4   Jahangir
جهانگیر 		Nur al-Din Muhammad
نور الدین محمد 		31 August 1569 Agra, India 3 November 1605 – 28 October 1627

(21 years 11 months 23 days)

28 October 1627 (aged 58) Jammu and Kashmir, India
5   Shah Jahan
شاہ جهان 		Shihab al-Din Muhammad
شهاب الدین محمد 		5 January 1592 Lahore, Pakistan 19 January 1628 – 31 July 1658

(30 years 8 months 25 days)

22 January 1666 (aged 74) Agra, India
6   Aurangzeb
اورنگزیب

Alamgir
عالمگیر

Muhi al-Din Muhammad
محی الدین محمد 		3 November 1618 Gujarat, India 31 July 1658 – 3 March 1707

(48 years 7 months 0 days)

3 March 1707 (aged 88) Ahmednagar, India
7   Azam Shah
اعظم شاه 		Qutb al-Din Muhammad
قطب الدين محمد 		28 June 1653 Burhanpur, India 14 March 1707 – 20 June 1707 20 June 1707 (aged 53) Agra, India
8   Bahadur Shah
بهادر شاہ 		Qutb al-Din Muhammad
قطب الدین محمد 		14 October 1643 Burhanpur, India 19 June 1707 – 27 February 1712

(4 years, 253 days)

27 February 1712 (aged 68) Lahore, Pakistan
9   Jahandar Shah
جهاندار شاہ 		Muiz al-Din Muhammad
معز الدین محمد 		9 May 1661 Deccan, India 27 February 1712 – 11 February 1713

(0 years, 350 days)

12 February 1713 (aged 51) Delhi, India
10  Farrukh Siyar
فرخ سیر 		Muin al-Din Muhammad
موئن الدین محمد
Puppet King Under the Sayyids of Barha 		20 August 1685 Aurangabad, India 11 January 1713 – 28 February 1719

(6 years, 48 days)

19 April 1719 (aged 33) Delhi, India
11  Rafi ud-Darajat
رفیع الدرجات 		Shams al-Din Muhammad
شمس الدین محمد
Puppet King Under the Sayyids of Barha 		1 December 1699 28 February 1719 – 6 June 1719

(0 years, 98 days)

6 June 1719 (aged 19) Agra, India
12  Shah Jahan II
شاہ جهان دوم 		Rafi al-Din Muhammad
رفع الدين محمد
Puppet King Under the Sayyids of Barha 		5 January 1696 6 June 1719 – 17 September 1719

(0 years, 105 days)

18 September 1719 (aged 23) Agra, India
13  Muhammad Shah
محمد شاه 		Nasir al-Din Muhammad
نصیر الدین محمد
Puppet King Under the Sayyids of Barha 		7 August 1702 Ghazni, Afghanistan 27 September 1719 – 26 April 1748

(28 years, 212 days)

26 April 1748 (aged 45) Delhi, India
14  Ahmad Shah Bahadur
احمد شاہ بهادر 		Mujahid al-Din Muhammad
مجاهد الدین محمد 		23 December 1725 Delhi, India 29 April 1748 – 2 June 1754

(6 years, 37 days)

1 January 1775 (aged 49) Delhi, India
15  Alamgir II
عالمگیر دوم 		Aziz al-Din Muhammad
عزیز اُلدین محمد 		6 June 1699 Burhanpur, India 3 June 1754 – 29 November 1759

(5 years, 180 days)

29 November 1759 (aged 60) Kotla Fateh Shah, India
16  Shah Jahan III
شاه جهان سوم 		Muhi al-Millat
محی الملت 		1711 10 December 1759 – 10 October 1760

(282 days)

1772 (aged 60–61)
17  Shah Alam II
شاه عالم دوم 		Jalal al-Din Muhammad Ali Gauhar
جلال الدین علی گوهر 		25 June 1728 Delhi, India 10 October 1760 – 31 July 1788

(27 years, 301 days)

19 November 1806 (aged 78) Delhi, India
18  Shah Jahan IV
جهان شاه چهارم 		Bidar Bakht Mahmud Shah Bahadur Jahan Shah
 بیدار بخت محمود شاه بهادر جهان شاہ  		1749 Delhi, India 31 July 1788 – 11 October 1788

(63 days)

1790 (aged 40–41) Delhi, India
17  Shah Alam II
شاه عالم دوم 		Jalal al-Din Muhammad Ali Gauhar
جلال الدین علی گوهر
Puppet King under the Maratha Empire 		25 June 1728 Delhi, India 16 October 1788 – 19 November 1806

(18 years, 339 days)

19 November 1806 (aged 78) Delhi, India
19  Akbar Shah II
اکبر شاه دوم 		Muin al-Din Muhammad
میرزا اکبر
Puppet King under the East India Company 		22 April 1760 Mukundpur, India 19 November 1806 – 28 September 1837

(30 years, 321 days)

28 September 1837 (aged 77) Delhi, India
20  Bahadur Shah II Zafar
بهادر شاه ظفر 		Abu Zafar Siraj al-Din Muhammad
ابو ظفر سراج اُلدین محمد 		24 October 1775 Delhi, India 28 September 1837 – 21 September 1857

(19 years, 360 days)

7 November 1862 (aged 87) Rangoon, Myanmar

See also

References

Footnotes

  1. ^ The title (Mirza) descends to all the sons of the family, without exception. In the royal family, it is placed after the name instead of before it, thus, Abbas Mirza and Hosfiein Mirza. Mirza is a civil title, and Khan is a military one. The title of Khan is creative, but not hereditary.[5]

Citations

  1. ^ Sinopoli, Carla M. (1994). "Monumentality and Mobility in Mughal Capitals". Asian Perspectives. 33 (2): 294. ISSN 0066-8435. JSTOR 42928323. from the original on 1 May 2022. Retrieved 11 June 2021.
  2. ^ Conan 2007, p. 235.
  3. ^ "Islam: Mughal Empire (1500s, 1600s)". BBC. 7 September 2009. from the original on 13 August 2018. Retrieved 13 June 2019.
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Further reading

  • Alam, Muzaffar. Crisis of Empire in Mughal North India: Awadh & the Punjab, 1707–48 (1988)
  • Ali, M. Athar (1975), "The Passing of Empire: The Mughal Case", Modern Asian Studies, 9 (3): 385–396, doi:10.1017/s0026749x00005825, JSTOR 311728, S2CID 143861682, on the causes of its collapse
  • Asher, C.B.; Talbot, C (2008), India Before Europe, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-51750-8
  • Black, Jeremy. "The Mughals Strike Twice", History Today (April 2012) 62#4 pp. 22–26. full text online
  • Blake, Stephen P. (November 1979), "The Patrimonial-Bureaucratic Empire of the Mughals", Journal of Asian Studies, 39 (1): 77–94, doi:10.2307/2053505, JSTOR 2053505, S2CID 154527305
  • Dale, Stephen F. The Muslim Empires of the Ottomans, Safavids and Mughals (Cambridge U.P. 2009)
  • Dalrymple, William (2007). The Last Mughal: The Fall of a Dynasty : Delhi, 1857. Random House Digital, Inc. ISBN 978-0-307-26739-9.
  • Faruqui, Munis D. (2005), "The Forgotten Prince: Mirza Hakim and the Formation of the Mughal Empire in India", Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient, 48 (4): 487–523, doi:10.1163/156852005774918813, JSTOR 25165118, on Akbar and his brother
  • J.J.L. Gommans (2002). Mughal Warfare Indian Frontiers and Highroads to Empire 1500-1700. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 9781134552757. Retrieved 18 April 2024. 2 January 2011 at the Wayback Machine
  • Gordon, S. The New Cambridge History of India, II, 4: The Marathas 1600–1818 (Cambridge, 1993).
  • Habib, Irfan. Atlas of the Mughal Empire: Political and Economic Maps (1982).
  • Markovits, Claude, ed. (2004) [First published 1994 as Histoire de l'Inde Moderne]. A History of Modern India, 1480–1950 (2nd ed.). London: Anthem Press. ISBN 978-1-84331-004-4. from the original on 22 September 2023. Retrieved 19 October 2015.
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  • Richards, John F. (1996). The Mughal Empire. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-56603-2. from the original on 1 February 2023. Retrieved 19 October 2015.
  • Majumdar, Ramesh Chandra (1974). The Mughul Empire. B.V. Bhavan.
  • Richards, J.F. (April 1981), "Mughal State Finance and the Premodern World Economy", Comparative Studies in Society and History, 23 (2): 285–308, doi:10.1017/s0010417500013311, JSTOR 178737, S2CID 154809724
  • Robb, P. (2001), A History of India, London: Palgrave, ISBN 978-0-333-69129-8
  • Srivastava, Ashirbadi Lal. The Mughul Empire, 1526–1803 (1952) online.
  • Stein, B. (1998), A History of India (1st ed.), Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell, ISBN 978-0-631-20546-3
  • Stein, B. (2010), Arnold, D. (ed.), A History of India (2nd ed.), Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell, ISBN 978-1-4051-9509-6, from the original on 12 July 2023, retrieved 19 October 2015

Culture

  • Berinstain, V. Mughal India: Splendour of the Peacock Throne (London, 1998).
  • Busch, Allison. Poetry of Kings: The Classical Hindi Literature of Mughal India (2011) excerpt and text search 29 May 2016 at the Wayback Machine
  • Parodi, Laura E. (2021). "Kabul, a Forgotten Mughal Capital: Gardens, City, and Court at the Turn of the Sixteenth Century". Muqarnas Online. 38 (1): 113–153. doi:10.1163/22118993-00381P05. S2CID 245040517.
  • Diana Preston; Michael Preston (2007). Taj Mahal: Passion and Genius at the Heart of the Moghul Empire. Walker & Company. ISBN 978-0-8027-1673-6.
  • Schimmel, Annemarie. The Empire of the Great Mughals: History, Art and Culture (Reaktion 2006)
  • Welch, S.C.; et al. (1987). The Emperors' album: images of Mughal India. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art. ISBN 978-0-87099-499-9. from the original on 27 September 2018. Retrieved 9 October 2013.

Society and economy

  • Chaudhuri, K.N. (1978), "Some Reflections on the Town and Country in Mughal India", Modern Asian Studies, 12 (1): 77–96, doi:10.1017/s0026749x00008155, JSTOR 311823, S2CID 146558617
  • Habib, Irfan. Atlas of the Mughal Empire: Political and Economic Maps (1982).
  • Habib, Irfan. Agrarian System of Mughal India (1963, revised edition 1999).
  • J. C. Sharman (2019). Empires of the Weak: The Real Story of European Expansion and the Creation of the New World Order. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0691182797.
  • Heesterman, J.C. (2004), "The Social Dynamics of the Mughal Empire: A Brief Introduction", Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient, 47 (3): 292–297, doi:10.1163/1568520041974729, JSTOR 25165051
  • Khan, Iqtidar Alam (1976), "The Middle Classes in the Mughal Empire", Social Scientist, 5 (1): 28–49, doi:10.2307/3516601, JSTOR 3516601
  • M. Athar Ali (2008). "The Mughal Polity—A Critique of Revisionist Approaches". Modern Asian Studies. 27 (5). Cambridge University Press. ISSN 1469-8099. Retrieved 18 April 2024. ....contrast between the Oriental despotic state and the occidental laissez faire state.
  • Rothermund, Dietmar. An Economic History of India: From Pre-Colonial Times to 1991 (1993)
  • Oleg Igorevich Krassov (2022). Land Law in Asian Countries (ebook). Norma. p. 75. ISBN 9785001562566. Retrieved 18 April 2024.
  • Streusand, Douglas E. (2018). Islamic Gunpowder Empires Ottomans, Safavids, and Mughals. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 9780429979217. Retrieved 24 April 2024.

Primary sources

  • Bernier, Francois (1891). Travels in the Mogul Empire, A.D. 1656–1668. Archibald Constable, London.
  • Hiro, Dilip, ed, Journal of Emperor Babur (Penguin Classics 2007)
    • The Baburnama: Memoirs of Babur, Prince and Emperor ed. by W.M. Thackston Jr. (2002); this was the first autobiography in Islamic literature
  • Jackson, A.V. et al., eds. History of India (1907) v. 9. Historic accounts of India by foreign travellers, classic, oriental, and occidental, by A.V.W. Jackson online edition
  • Jouher (1832). The Tezkereh al vakiat or Private Memoirs of the Moghul Emperor Humayun Written in the Persian language by Jouher A confidential domestic of His Majesty. Translated by Major Charles Stewart. John Murray, London.
January 01, 1970
mughal, empire, confused, with, mongol, empire, moghulistan, mughals, redirects, here, ethnic, groups, mughal, people, imperial, family, mughal, dynasty, early, modern, empire, south, asia, peak, empire, stretched, from, outer, fringes, indus, river, basin, we. Not to be confused with the Mongol Empire or Moghulistan Mughals redirects here For the ethnic groups see Mughal people For the imperial family see Mughal dynasty The Mughal Empire was an early modern empire in South Asia 12 At its peak the empire stretched from the outer fringes of the Indus River Basin in the west northern Afghanistan in the northwest and Kashmir in the north to the highlands of present day Assam and Bangladesh in the east and the uplands of the Deccan Plateau in South India 13 Mughal Empire1526 1857The empire at its greatest extent in c 1700 under AurangzebStatusEmpireCapitalAgra 1526 1530 Delhi 1530 1540 Agra 1560 1571 Fatehpur Sikri 1571 1585 Lahore 1586 1598 1 Agra 1598 1648 Delhi 1639 1857 Common languagesPersian official and court language 2 Urdu later given official status 3 Hindustani lingua franca Chagatai spoken in the initial years Arabic for religious ceremonies Other South Asian languagesReligionState religion Sunni Islam Hanafi Din i Ilahi 1582 1605 Other religions Other religions in South AsiaGovernmentMonarchy centralized autocracy 4 unreliable source 1526 1719 Emperor a 1526 1530 first Babur 1837 1857 last Bahadur Shah IIVakil i Mutlaq 1526 1540 first Mir Khalifa 1795 1818 last Daulat Rao SindhiaGrand Vizier 1526 1540 first Mir Khalifa 1775 1797 last Asaf ud DaulaLegislatureDurbar darbar 6 Historical eraEarly modern First Battle of Panipat21 April 1526 Mughal Interregnum1540 1555 Second Battle of Panipat5 November 1556 Mughal Afghan Wars1526 1752 Mughal Maratha Wars1680 1707 Battle of Bhopal24 December 1737 Nader Shah s invasion of India10 May 1738 1740 Siege of Delhi 1857 21 September 1857 Mughal Emperor exiled to Burma1858Area1690 7 8 4 000 000 km2 1 500 000 sq mi Population 1595125 000 000 9 1700158 000 000 10 CurrencyRupee Taka dam 11 73 74 Preceded by Succeeded by Delhi Sultanate Sur Empire Maratha Empire First Sikh State Company rule in India British Raj Durrani EmpireToday part ofIndia Pakistan Afghanistan Bangladesh China Iran The Mughal Empire is conventionally said to have been founded in 1526 by Babur a chieftain from what is today Uzbekistan who employed aid from the neighbouring Safavid and Ottoman Empires 14 to defeat the Sultan of Delhi Ibrahim Lodi in the First Battle of Panipat and to sweep down the plains of North India The Mughal imperial structure however is sometimes dated to 1600 to the rule of Babur s grandson Akbar 15 This imperial structure lasted until 1720 until shortly after the death of the last major emperor Aurangzeb 16 17 during whose reign the empire also achieved its maximum geographical extent By 1760 the emperor de facto ruled the region around Old Delhi only The empire was formally dissolved by the British Raj after the Indian Rebellion of 1857 Although the Mughal Empire was created and sustained by military warfare 18 19 20 it did not vigorously suppress the cultures and peoples it came to rule rather it equalized and placated them through new administrative practices 21 22 and diverse ruling elites leading to more efficient centralised and standardized rule 23 The base of the empire s collective wealth was agricultural taxes instituted by the third Mughal emperor Akbar 24 25 These taxes which amounted to well over half the output of a peasant cultivator 26 were paid in the well regulated silver currency 23 and caused peasants and artisans to enter larger markets 27 Political scientist J C Sharman describes the Mughal Empire as an Asian great power which dwarfed contemporary European states in population wealth and military power 28 The relative peace maintained by the empire during much of the 17th century was a factor in India s economic expansion 29 The burgeoning European presence in the Indian Ocean and an increasing demand for Indian raw and finished products generated much wealth for the Mughal court 30 There was more conspicuous consumption among the Mughal elite 31 resulting in greater patronage of painting literary forms textiles and architecture especially during the reign of Shah Jahan 32 Among the Mughal UNESCO World Heritage Sites in South Asia are Agra Fort Fatehpur Sikri Red Fort Humayun s Tomb Lahore Fort Shalamar Gardens and the Taj Mahal which is described as the jewel of Muslim art in India and one of the universally admired masterpieces of the world s heritage 33 Contents 1 Name 2 History 2 1 Babur and Humayun 1526 1556 2 2 Akbar to Aurangzeb 1556 1707 2 3 Decline 1707 1857 2 4 Causes of decline 2 4 1 Modern views on the decline 3 Administration and state 3 1 Administrative divisions 3 2 Capitals 3 3 Law 3 3 1 Legal ideology 3 3 2 Courts of law 4 Economy 4 1 Coinage 4 2 Labour 4 3 Agriculture 4 4 Industrial manufacturing 4 4 1 Textile industry 4 5 Bengal Subah 4 5 1 Shipbuilding industry 5 Demographics 5 1 Population 5 2 Urbanization 6 Culture 6 1 Architecture 6 2 Art and literature 6 3 Language 7 Military 7 1 Gunpowder warfare 7 2 Rocketry and explosives 8 Science 8 1 Astronomy 8 2 Chemistry 8 3 Metallurgy 9 List of Mughal Emperors 10 See also 11 References 11 1 Footnotes 11 2 Citations 11 3 Sources 12 Further reading 12 1 Culture 12 2 Society and economy 12 3 Primary sources 12 4 Older histories 13 External linksNameThe closest to an official name for the empire was Hindustan which was documented in the Ain i Akbari 34 Mughal administrative records also refer to the empire as dominion of Hindustan Wilayat i Hindustan 35 country of Hind Bilad i Hind or Sultanate of Al Hind Salṭanat i al Hindiyyah as observed in the epithet of emperor Aurangzeb 36 Contemporary chronicles from Qing China referred to the empire as Hindustan Hendusitǎn 37 In the west the term Mughal was used for the emperor and by extension the empire as a whole 38 The Mughal designation for their own dynasty was Gurkani Gurkaniyan a reference to their descent from the Turkic conqueror Timur who took the title Gurkan son in law after his marriage to a Chinggisid princess 39 The word Mughal also spelled Mogul 40 or Moghul in English is the Indo Persian form of Mongol The Mughal dynasty and its early followers were Chagatai Turks not Mongols 41 although the dynasty claimed descent from Genghis Khan 42 The term Mughal was applied to them in India by association with the Mongols and to distinguish them from the Afghan elite which ruled the Delhi Sultanate 41 The term gained currency during the 19th century but remains disputed by Indologists 43 In Marshall Hodgson s view the dynasty should be called Timurid Timuri or Indo Timuri 41 HistorySee also Mughal dynasty Babur and Humayun 1526 1556 Main articles Babur and Humayun nbsp India in 1525 just before the onset of Mughal rule The Mughal Empire was founded by Babur reigned 1526 1530 a Central Asian ruler who was descended from the Turco Mongol conqueror Timur the founder of the Timurid Empire on his father s side and from Genghis Khan on his mother s side 44 Paternally Babur belonged to the Turkicized Barlas tribe of Mongol origin 45 Ousted from his ancestral domains in Central Asia Babur turned to India to satisfy his ambitions 46 He established himself in Kabul and then pushed steadily southward into India from Afghanistan through the Khyber Pass 44 Babur s forces defeated Ibrahim Lodi in the First Battle of Panipat in 1526 Before the battle Babur sought divine favour by abjuring liquor breaking the wine vessels and pouring the wine down a well However by this time Lodi s empire was already crumbling and it was the Rajput Confederacy which was the strongest power of Northern India under the capable rule of Rana Sanga of Mewar He defeated Babur in the Battle of Bayana 47 However in the decisive Battle of Khanwa which was fought near Agra the Timurid forces of Babur defeated the Rajput army of Sanga This battle was one of the most decisive and historic battles in Indian history as it sealed the fate of Northern India for the next two centuries After the battle the centre of Mughal power became Agra instead of Kabul The preoccupation with wars and military campaigns however did not allow the new emperor to consolidate the gains he had made in India 48 The instability of the empire became evident under his son Humayun reigned 1530 1556 who was forced into exile in Persia by rebels The Sur Empire 1540 1555 founded by Sher Shah Suri reigned 1540 1545 briefly interrupted Mughal rule 44 Humayun s exile in Persia established diplomatic ties between the Safavid and Mughal Courts and led to increasing Persian cultural influence in the later restored Mughal Empire citation needed Humayun s triumphant return from Persia in 1555 restored Mughal rule in some parts of India but he died in an accident the next year 44 Akbar to Aurangzeb 1556 1707 Main articles Akbar Jahangir Shah Jahan and Aurangzeb nbsp Akbar holds a religious assembly of different faiths in the Ibadat Khana in Fatehpur Sikri Akbar reigned 1556 1605 was born Jalal ud din Muhammad 49 in the Rajput Umarkot Fort 50 to Humayun and his wife Hamida Banu Begum a Persian princess 51 Akbar succeeded to the throne under a regent Bairam Khan who helped consolidate the Mughal Empire in India Through warfare and diplomacy Akbar was able to extend the empire in all directions and controlled almost the entire Indian subcontinent north of the Godavari River citation needed He created a new ruling elite loyal to him implemented a modern administration and encouraged cultural developments He increased trade with European trading companies 44 India developed a strong and stable economy leading to commercial expansion and economic development citation needed Akbar allowed freedom of religion at his court and attempted to resolve socio political and cultural differences in his empire by establishing a new religion Din i Ilahi with strong characteristics of a ruler cult 44 He left his son an internally stable state which was in the midst of its golden age but before long signs of political weakness would emerge 44 Jahangir born Salim 52 reigned 1605 1627 was born to Akbar and his wife Mariam uz Zamani an Indian Rajput princess 53 Salim was named after the Indian Sufi saint Salim Chishti 54 55 He was addicted to opium neglected the affairs of the state and came under the influence of rival court cliques 44 Jahangir distinguished himself from Akbar by making substantial efforts to gain the support of the Islamic religious establishment One way he did this was by bestowing many more madad i ma ash tax free personal land revenue grants given to religiously learned or spiritually worthy individuals than Akbar had 56 In contrast to Akbar Jahangir came into conflict with non Muslim religious leaders notably the Sikh guru Arjan whose execution was the first of many conflicts between the Mughal empire and the Sikh community 57 58 59 nbsp Group portrait of Mughal rulers from Babur to Aurangzeb with the Mughal ancestor Timur seated in the middle On the left Shah Jahan Akbar and Babur with Abu Sa id of Samarkand and Timur s son Miran Shah On the right Aurangzeb Jahangir and Humayun and two of Timur s other offspring Umar Shaykh and Muhammad Sultan Created c 1707 12 Shah Jahan reigned 1628 1658 was born to Jahangir and his wife Jagat Gosain a Rajput princess 52 His reign ushered in the golden age of Mughal architecture 60 During the reign of Shah Jahan the splendour of the Mughal court reached its peak as exemplified by the Taj Mahal The cost of maintaining the court however began to exceed the revenue coming in 44 His reign was called as The Golden Age of Mughal Architecture Shah Jahan extended the Mughal empire to the Deccan by ending the Nizam Shahi dynasty and forcing the Adil Shahis and Qutb Shahis to pay tribute 61 Shah Jahan s eldest son the liberal Dara Shikoh became regent in 1658 as a result of his father s illness citation needed Dara championed a syncretistic Hindu Muslim culture emulating his great grandfather Akbar 62 With the support of the Islamic orthodoxy however a younger son of Shah Jahan Aurangzeb r 1658 1707 seized the throne Aurangzeb defeated Dara in 1659 and had him executed 44 Although Shah Jahan fully recovered from his illness Aurangzeb kept Shah Jahan imprisoned until he died in 1666 63 68 Aurangzeb oversaw an increase in the Islamicization of the Mughal state He encouraged conversion to Islam reinstated the jizya on non Muslims and compiled the Fatawa Alamgiri a collection of Islamic law Aurangzeb also ordered the execution of the Sikh guru Tegh Bahadur leading to the militarization of the Sikh community 64 58 59 From the imperial perspective conversion to Islam integrated local elites into the king s vision of network of shared identity that would join disparate groups throughout the empire in obedience to the Mughal emperor 65 His campaign to conquer South and Western India nominally increased the size of Mughal Empire but had a ruinous effect on Mughal Empire 66 This campaign also had a ruinous effect on Mughal Treasury and Emperor s absence led to a severe decline in Governance in Northern India Marathas started expanding northwards shortly after the death of Aurangzeb defeated the Mughals in Delhi and Bhopal and extended their empire up to Peshawar by 1758 67 Aurangzeb is considered India s most controversial king 63 with some historians arguing his religious conservatism and intolerance undermined the stability of Mughal society 44 while other historians question this noting that he built Hindu temples 68 employed significantly more Hindus in his imperial bureaucracy than his predecessors did opposed bigotry against Hindus and Shia Muslims 63 58 Despite these allegations it has been acknowledged that Emperor Aurangzeh enacted repressive policies towards non Muslims which also resulted to a major rebellion by the Marathas 69 Decline 1707 1857 Further information Bahadur Shah Zafar nbsp Delhi under the puppet emperor Farrukhsiyar Effective power was held by the Sayyid Brothers nbsp Shah Alam II on horseback Aurangzeb s son Bahadur Shah I repealed the religious policies of his father and attempted to reform the administration However after he died in 1712 the Mughal dynasty began to sink into chaos and violent feuds In 1719 alone four emperors successively ascended the throne 44 as figureheads under the rule of a brotherhood of nobles belonging to the Indian Muslim caste known as the Sadaat e Bara whose leaders the Sayyid Brothers became the de facto sovereigns of the empire 70 71 During the reign of Muhammad Shah reigned 1719 1748 the empire began to break up and vast tracts of central India passed from Mughal to Maratha hands As the Mughals tried to suppress the independence of Nizam ul Mulk Asaf Jah I in the Deccan he encouraged the Marathas to invade central and northern India 72 73 74 The far off Indian campaign of Nader Shah who had previously reestablished Iranian suzerainty over most of West Asia the Caucasus and Central Asia culminated with the Sack of Delhi and shattered the remnants of Mughal power and prestige Many of the empire s elites now sought to control their affairs and broke away to form independent kingdoms 75 But according to Sugata Bose and Ayesha Jalal the Mughal Emperor continued to be the highest manifestation of sovereignty Not only the Muslim gentry but the Maratha Hindu and Sikh leaders took part in ceremonial acknowledgements of the emperor as the sovereign of India 76 Meanwhile some regional polities within the increasingly fragmented Mughal Empire involved themselves and the state in global conflicts leading only to defeat and loss of territory during the Carnatic Wars and the Bengal War nbsp The remnants of the empire in 1751 The Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II 1759 1806 made futile attempts to reverse the Mughal decline Third Battle of Panipat was fought between the Maratha Empire and the Afghans led by Abdali in 1761 in which the Afghans were victorious In 1771 the Marathas recaptured Delhi from Afghan control and in 1784 they officially became the protectors of the emperor in Delhi 77 a state of affairs that continued until the Second Anglo Maratha War Thereafter the British East India Company became the protectors of the Mughal dynasty in Delhi 76 The British East India Company took control of the former Mughal province of Bengal Bihar in 1793 after it abolished local rule Nizamat that lasted until 1858 marking the beginning of British colonial era over the Indian subcontinent By 1857 a considerable part of former Mughal India was under the East India Company s control After a crushing defeat in the war of 1857 1858 which he nominally led the last Mughal Bahadur Shah Zafar was deposed by the British East India Company and exiled in 1858 Zafar was exiled to Rangoon Burma 78 His wife Zeenat Mahal and some of the remaining members of the family accompanied him At 4 am on 7 October 1858 Zafar along with his wives and two remaining sons began his journey towards Rangoon in bullock carts escorted by 9th Lancers under the command of Lieutenant Ommaney 79 Through the Government of India Act 1858 the British Crown assumed direct control of East India Company held territories in India in the form of the new British Raj In 1876 the British Queen Victoria assumed the title of Empress of India nbsp Portrait of Bahadur Shah II Causes of decline Historians have offered numerous explanations for the rapid collapse of the Mughal Empire between 1707 and 1720 after a century of growth and prosperity As the Mughals were visibly unassailable across 17th century external threat sprang out from several sectors such as from the sea as the innoculous European trading companies such as British East Indies Company racing to get permission from the Mughal rulers to establish trades and factories in India 80 In fiscal terms the throne lost the revenues needed to pay its chief officers the emirs nobles and their entourages The emperor lost authority as the widely scattered imperial officers lost confidence in the central authorities and made their deals with local men of influence The imperial army bogged down in long futile wars against the more aggressive Marathas and lost its fighting spirit Finally came a series of violent political feuds over control of the throne After the execution of Emperor Farrukhsiyar in 1719 local Mughal successor states took power in region after region 81 Contemporary chroniclers bewailed the decay they witnessed a theme picked up by the first British historians who wanted to underscore the need for a British led rejuvenation 82 Modern views on the decline Since the 1970s historians have taken multiple approaches to the decline with little consensus on which factor was dominant The psychological interpretations emphasise depravity in high places excessive luxury and increasingly narrow views that left the rulers unprepared for an external challenge A Marxist school led by Irfan Habib and based at Aligarh Muslim University emphasises excessive exploitation of the peasantry by the rich which stripped away the will and the means to support the regime 83 As the Mughals were visibly unassailable across 17th century external threat sprang out from several sectors such as from the sea as the innoculous European trading companies such as British East Indies Company racing to get permission from the Mughal rulers to establish trades and factories in India 80 Karen Leonard has focused on the failure of the regime to work with Hindu bankers whose financial support was increasingly needed the bankers then helped the Maratha and the British 84 In a religious interpretation some scholars argue that the Hindu powers revolted against the rule of a Muslim dynasty 85 Finally other scholars argue that the very prosperity of the Empire inspired the provinces to achieve a high degree of independence thus weakening the imperial court 86 Jeffrey G Williamson has argued that the Indian economy went through deindustrialization in the latter half of the 18th century as an indirect outcome of the collapse of the Mughal Empire with British rule later causing further deindustrialization 87 According to Williamson the decline of the Mughal Empire led to a decline in agricultural productivity which drove up food prices then nominal wages and then textile prices which led to India losing a share of the world textile market to Britain even before it had superior factory technology 88 Indian textiles however still maintained a competitive advantage over British textiles up until the 19th century 89 Administration and stateMain article Government of the Mughal Empire nbsp India in 1605 and the end of emperor Akbar s reign the map shows the different subahs or provinces of his administration The Mughal Empire had a highly centralised bureaucratic government most of which was instituted during the rule of the third Mughal emperor Akbar 90 91 The central government was headed by the Mughal emperor immediately beneath him were four ministries The finance revenue ministry headed by an official called a diwan was responsible for controlling revenues from the empire s territories calculating tax revenues and using this information to distribute assignments The ministry of the military army intelligence was headed by an official titled mir bakhshi who was in charge of military organisation messenger service and the mansabdari system The ministry in charge of law religious patronage was the responsibility of the sadr as sudr who appointed judges and managed charities and stipends Another ministry was dedicated to the imperial household and public works headed by the mir saman Of these ministers the diwan held the most importance and typically acted as the wazir prime minister of the empire 78 90 92 Administrative divisions The empire was divided into Subah provinces each of which was headed by a provincial governor called a subadar The structure of the central government was mirrored at the provincial level each suba had its own bakhshi sadr as sudr and finance minister that reported directly to the central government rather than the subahdar Subas were subdivided into administrative units known as sarkars which were further divided into groups of villages known as parganas Mughal government in the pargana consisted of a Muslim judge and local tax collector 78 90 Parganas were the basic administrative unit of the Mughal empire 93 Mughal administrative divisions were not static Territories were often rearranged and reconstituted for better administrative control and to extend cultivation For example a sarkar could turn into a subah and Parganas were often transferred between sarkars The hierarchy of division was ambiguous sometimes as a territory could fall under multiple overlapping jurisdictions Administrative divisions were also vague in their geography the Mughal state did not have enough resources or authority to undertake detailed land surveys and hence the geographical limits of these divisions were not formalised and maps were not created The Mughals instead recorded detailed statistics about each division to assess the territory s capacity for revenue based on simpler land surveys 94 Capitals The Mughals had multiple imperial capitals established throughout their rule These were the cities of Agra Delhi Lahore and Fatehpur Sikri Power often shifted back and forth between these capitals 95 Sometimes this was necessitated by political and military demands but shifts also occurred for ideological reasons for example Akbar s establishment of Fatehpur Sikri or even simply because the cost of establishing a new capital was marginal 96 Situations where there were two simultaneous capitals happened multiple times in Mughal history Certain cities also served as short term provincial capitals as was the case with Aurangzeb s shift to Aurangabad in the Deccan 95 Kabul was the summer capital of Mughals from 1526 to 1681 97 The imperial camp used for military expeditions and royal tours also served as a kind of mobile de facto administrative capital From the time of Akbar Mughal camps were huge in scale accompanied by numerous personages associated with the royal court as well as soldiers and labourers All administration and governance were carried out within them The Mughal Emperors spent a significant portion of their ruling period within these camps 98 After Aurangzeb the Mughal capital definitively became the walled city of Shahjahanabad Old Delhi 99 Law nbsp Police in Delhi under Bahadur Shah II 1842 The Mughal Empire s legal system was context specific and evolved throughout the empire s rule Being a Muslim state the empire employed fiqh Islamic jurisprudence and therefore the fundamental institutions of Islamic law such as those of the qadi judge mufti jurisconsult and muhtasib censor and market supervisor were well established in the Mughal Empire However the dispensation of justice also depended on other factors such as administrative rules local customs and political convenience This was due to Persianate influences on Mughal ideology and that the Mughal Empire governed a non Muslim majority 100 Scholar Mouez Khalfaoui notes that legal institutions in the Mughal Empire systemically suffered from the corruption of local judges 101 Legal ideology The Mughal Empire followed the Sunni Hanafi system of jurisprudence In its early years the empire relied on Hanafi legal references inherited from its predecessor the Delhi Sultanate These included the al Hidayah the best guidance and the Fatawa al Tatarkhaniyya religious decisions of the Emire Tatarkhan During the Mughal Empire s peak the Fatawa Alamgiri was commissioned by Emperor Aurangzeb This compendium of Hanafi law sought to serve as a central reference for the Mughal state that dealt with the specifics of the South Asian context 101 The Mughal Empire also drew on Persian notions of kingship Particularly this meant that the Mughal emperor was considered the supreme authority on legal affairs 100 Courts of law Various kinds of courts existed in the Mughal Empire One such court was that of the qadi The Mughal qadi was responsible for dispensing justice this included settling disputes judging people for crimes and dealing with inheritances and orphans The qadi also had additional importance in documents as the seal of the qadi was required to validate deeds and tax records Qadis did not constitute a single position but made up a hierarchy For example the most basic kind was the pargana district qadi More prestigious positions were those of the qadi al quddat judge of judges who accompanied the mobile imperial camp and the qadi yi lashkar judge of the army 100 Qadis were usually appointed by the emperor or the sadr us sudr chief of charities 100 102 The jurisdiction of the qadi was availed by Muslims and non Muslims alike 103 The jagirdar local tax collector was another kind of official approach especially for high stakes cases Subjects of the Mughal Empire also took their grievances to the courts of superior officials who held more authority and punitive power than the local qadi Such officials included the kotwal local police the faujdar an officer controlling multiple districts and troops of soldiers and the most powerful the subahdar provincial governor In some cases the emperor dispensed justice directly 100 Jahangir was known to have installed a chain of justice in the Agra Fort that any aggrieved subject could shake to get the attention of the emperor and bypass the inefficacy of officials 104 Self regulating tribunals operating at the community or village level were common but sparse documentation of them exists For example it is unclear how panchayats village councils operated in the Mughal era 100 EconomyMain article Economy of the Mughal Empire The economy in the Indian Subcontinent during the Mughal era performed just as it did in ancient times though now it would face the stress of extensive regional tensions 105 The Mughal economy was large and prosperous 106 107 India was producing 24 5 of the world s manufacturing output up until 1750 108 107 India s economy has been described as a form of proto industrialization like that of 18th century Western Europe prior to the Industrial Revolution 109 Modern historians and researchers generally agreed that The Mughal empire economic policy character is resembling Laissez faire system in dealing with tradings and bullions to achieve the economic ends 110 111 112 113 The Mughals were responsible for building an extensive road system creating a uniform currency and the unification of the country 11 185 204 The empire had an extensive road network which was vital to the economic infrastructure built by a public works department set up by the Mughals which designed constructed and maintained roads linking towns and cities across the empire making trade easier to conduct 106 The main base of the empire s collective wealth was agricultural taxes instituted by the third Mughal emperor Akbar 24 25 These taxes which amounted to well over half the output of a peasant cultivator 26 were paid in the well regulated silver currency 23 and caused peasants and artisans to enter larger markets 27 Coinage nbsp Coin of Aurangzeb minted in Kabul dated 1691 2 The Mughals adopted and standardised the rupee rupiya or silver and dam copper currencies introduced by Sur Emperor Sher Shah Suri during his brief rule 114 The currency was initially 48 dams to a single rupee in the beginning of Akbar s reign before it later became 38 dams to a rupee in the 1580s with the dam s value rising further in the 17th century as a result of new industrial uses for copper such as in bronze cannons and brass utensils The dam was initially the most common coin in Akbar s time before being replaced by the rupee as the most common coin in succeeding reigns 11 The dam s value was later worth 30 to a rupee towards the end of Jahangir s reign and then 16 to a rupee by the 1660s 115 The Mughals minted coins with high purity never dropping below 96 and without debasement until the 1720s 116 Despite India having its stocks of gold and silver the Mughals produced minimal gold of their own but mostly minted coins from imported bullion as a result of the empire s strong export driven economy with global demand for Indian agricultural and industrial products drawing a steady stream of precious metals into India 11 Around 80 of Mughal India s imports were bullion mostly silver 117 with major sources of imported bullion including the New World and Japan 116 which in turn imported large quantities of textiles and silk from the Bengal Subah province 11 Labour The historian Shireen Moosvi estimates that in terms of contributions to the Mughal economy in the late 16th century the primary sector contributed 52 the secondary sector 18 and the tertiary sector 29 the secondary sector contributed a higher percentage than in early 20th century British India where the secondary sector only contributed 11 to the economy 118 In terms of the urban rural divide 18 of Mughal India s labour force were urban and 82 were rural contributing 52 and 48 to the economy respectively 119 According to Stephen Broadberry and Bishnupriya Gupta grain wages in India were comparable to England in the 16th and 17th centuries but diverged in the 18th century when they fell to 20 40 of England s wages 120 121 This however is disputed by Parthasarathi and Sivramkrishna Parthasarathi cites his estimates that grain wages for weaving and spinning in mid 18th century Bengal and South India were comparable to Britain 122 Similarly Sivramkrishna analyzed agricultural surveys conducted in Mysore by Francis Buchanan during 1800 1801 arrived at estimates using a subsistence basket that aggregated millet income could be almost five times subsistence level while corresponding rice income was three times that much 123 That could be comparable to advance part of Europe 124 Due to the scarcity of data however more research is needed before drawing any conclusion 125 126 According to Moosvi Mughal India had a per capita income in terms of wheat 1 24 higher in the late 16th century than British India did in the early 20th century 127 This income however would have to be revised downwards if manufactured goods like clothing would be considered Compared to food per capita expenditure on clothing was much smaller though so relative income between 1595 and 1596 should be comparable to 1901 1910 128 However in a system where wealth was hoarded by elites wages were depressed for manual labour 129 In Mughal India there was a generally tolerant attitude towards manual labourers with some religious cults in northern India proudly asserting a high status for manual labour While slavery also existed it was limited largely to household servants 129 Agriculture Indian agricultural production increased under the Mughal Empire 106 A variety of crops were grown including food crops such as wheat rice and barley and non food cash crops such as cotton indigo and opium By the mid 17th century Indian cultivators began to extensively grow two new crops from the Americas maize and tobacco 106 The Mughal administration emphasised agrarian reform which began under the non Mughal emperor Sher Shah Suri the work of which Akbar adopted and furthered with more reforms The civil administration was organised hierarchically based on merit with promotions based on performance 130 The Mughal government funded the building of irrigation systems across the empire which produced much higher crop yields and increased the net revenue base leading to increased agricultural production 106 A major Mughal reform introduced by Akbar was a new land revenue system called zabt He replaced the tribute system previously common in India and used by Tokugawa Japan at the time with a monetary tax system based on a uniform currency 116 The revenue system was biased in favour of higher value cash crops such as cotton indigo sugar cane tree crops and opium providing state incentives to grow cash crops in addition to rising market demand 11 Under the zabt system the Mughals also conducted extensive cadastral surveying to assess the area of land under plough cultivation with the Mughal state encouraging greater land cultivation by offering tax free periods to those who brought new land under cultivation 116 The expansion of agriculture and cultivation continued under later Mughal emperors including Aurangzeb whose 1665 firman edict stated the entire elevated attention and desires of the Emperor are devoted to the increase in the population and cultivation of the Empire and the welfare of the whole peasantry and the entire people 131 Mughal agriculture was in some ways advanced compared to European agriculture at the time exemplified by the common use of the seed drill among Indian peasants before its adoption in Europe 132 While the average peasant across the world was only skilled in growing very few crops the average Indian peasant was skilled in growing a wide variety of food and non food crops increasing their productivity 133 Indian peasants were also quick to adapt to profitable new crops such as maize and tobacco from the New World being rapidly adopted and widely cultivated across Mughal India between 1600 and 1650 Bengali farmers rapidly learned techniques of mulberry cultivation and sericulture establishing Bengal Subah as a major silk producing region of the world 11 Sugar mills appeared in India shortly before the Mughal era Evidence for the use of a draw bar for sugar milling appears at Delhi in 1540 but may also date back earlier and was mainly used in the northern Indian subcontinent Geared sugar rolling mills first appeared in Mughal India using the principle of rollers as well as worm gearing by the 17th century 134 According to economic historian Immanuel Wallerstein citing evidence from Irfan Habib Percival Spear and Ashok Desai per capita agricultural output and standards of consumption in 17th century Mughal India were probably higher than in 17th century Europe and certainly higher than early 20th century British India 135 The increased agricultural productivity led to lower food prices In turn this benefited the Indian textile industry Compared to Britain the price of grain was about one half in South India and one third in Bengal in terms of silver coinage This resulted in lower silver coin prices for Indian textiles giving them a price advantage in global markets 136 Industrial manufacturing Up until 1750 India produced about 25 of the world s industrial output 87 Manufactured goods and cash crops from the Mughal Empire were sold throughout the world Key industries included textiles shipbuilding and steel Processed products included cotton textiles yarns thread silk jute products metalware and foods such as sugar oils and butter 106 The growth of manufacturing industries in the Indian subcontinent during the Mughal era in the 17th 18th centuries has been referred to as a form of proto industrialization similar to 18th century Western Europe before the Industrial Revolution 109 In early modern Europe there was significant demand for products from Mughal India particularly cotton textiles as well as goods such as spices peppers indigo silks and saltpetre for use in munitions 106 European fashion for example became increasingly dependent on Mughal Indian textiles and silks From the late 17th century to the early 18th century Mughal India accounted for 95 of British imports from Asia and the Bengal Subah province alone accounted for 40 of Dutch imports from Asia 137 In contrast there was very little demand for European goods in Mughal India which was largely self sufficient thus Europeans had very little to offer except for some woollens unprocessed metals and a few luxury items The trade imbalance caused Europeans to export large quantities of gold and silver to Mughal India to pay for South Asian imports 106 Indian goods especially those from Bengal were also exported in large quantities to other Asian markets such as Indonesia and Japan 11 Textile industry See also Muslin trade in Bengal and Mughal clothing nbsp Miniature painting Portrait of an Old Mughal Courtier Wearing Muslin nbsp Muslim Lady Reclining or An Indian Girl with a Hookah painted in Dacca 18th century The largest manufacturing industry in the Mughal Empire was textile manufacturing particularly cotton textile manufacturing which included the production of piece goods calicos and muslins available unbleached and in a variety of colours The cotton textile industry was responsible for a large part of the empire s international trade 106 India had a 25 share of the global textile trade in the early 18th century 138 Indian cotton textiles were the most important manufactured goods in world trade in the 18th century consumed across the world from the Americas to Japan 139 By the early 18th century Mughal Indian textiles were clothing people across the Indian subcontinent Southeast Asia Europe the Americas Africa and the Middle East 88 The most important centre of cotton production was the Bengal province particularly around its capital city of Dhaka 140 Bengal accounted for more than 50 of textiles and around 80 of silks imported by the Dutch from Asia 137 Bengali silk and cotton textiles were exported in large quantities to Europe Indonesia and Japan 11 202 and Bengali muslin textiles from Dhaka were sold in Central Asia where they were known as Dhaka textiles 140 Indian textiles dominated the Indian Ocean trade for centuries were sold in the Atlantic Ocean trade and had a 38 share of the West African trade in the early 18th century while Indian calicos were a major force in Europe and Indian textiles accounted for 20 of total English trade with Southern Europe in the early 18th century 87 The worm gear roller cotton gin which was invented in India during the early Delhi Sultanate era of the 13th 14th centuries came into use in the Mughal Empire sometime around the 16th century 134 and is still used in India through to the present day 141 Another innovation the incorporation of the crank handle in the cotton gin first appeared in India sometime during the late Delhi Sultanate or the early Mughal Empire 142 The production of cotton which may have largely been spun in the villages and then taken to towns in the form of yarn to be woven into cloth textiles was advanced by the diffusion of the spinning wheel across India shortly before the Mughal era lowering the costs of yarn and helping to increase demand for cotton The diffusion of the spinning wheel and the incorporation of the worm gear and crank handle into the roller cotton gin led to greatly expanded Indian cotton textile production during the Mughal era 143 Once the Mughal emperor Akbar asked his courtiers which was the most beautiful flower Some said rose from whose petals were distilled the precious ittar others the lotus glory of every Indian village But Birbal said The cotton boll There was a scornful laughter and Akbar asked for an explanation Birbal said Your Majesty from the cotton boll comes the fine fabric prized by merchants across the seas that has made your empire famous throughout the world The perfume of your fame far exceeds the scent of roses and jasmine That is why I say the cotton boll is the most beautiful flower 144 Bengal Subah Main article Bengal Subah See also Muslin trade in Bengal nbsp Ruins of the Great Caravanserai in Dhaka The Bengal Subah province was especially prosperous from the time of its takeover by the Mughals in 1590 until the British East India Company seized control in 1757 145 Historian C A Bayly wrote that it was probably the Mughal Empire s wealthiest province 146 Domestically much of India depended on Bengali products such as rice silks and cotton textiles Overseas Europeans depended on Bengali products such as cotton textiles silks and opium Bengal accounted for 40 of Dutch imports from Asia for example including more than 50 of textiles and around 80 of silks 137 From Bengal saltpetre was also shipped to Europe opium was sold in Indonesia raw silk was exported to Japan and the Netherlands and cotton and silk textiles were exported to Europe Indonesia and Japan 11 Akbar played a key role in establishing Bengal as a leading economic centre as he began transforming many of the jungles there into farms As soon as he conquered the region he brought tools and men to clear jungles to expand cultivation and brought Sufis to open the jungles to farming 131 Bengal was later described as the Paradise of Nations by Mughal emperors 147 The Mughals introduced agrarian reforms including the modern Bengali calendar 148 The calendar played a vital role in developing and organising harvests tax collection and Bengali culture in general including the New Year and Autumn festivals citation needed The province was a leading producer of grains salt fruits liquors and wines precious metals and ornaments 149 After Akbar there are notable contributive factor during the era of Aurangzeb as Siddiqui M Azizuddin Hussein from Jamia Millia Islamia and Maulana Azad National Urdu University has viewed that aside from religious and legal context Fatawa Alamgiri codex has provided direct contribution to the Proto industrialization in Bengal Subah 150 After 150 years of rule by Mughal viceroys Bengal gained semi independence as a dominion under the Nawab of Bengal in 1717 The Nawabs permitted European companies to set up trading posts across the region including firms from Britain France the Netherlands Denmark Portugal and Austria An Armenian community dominated banking and shipping in major cities and towns The Europeans regarded Bengal as the richest place for trade 149 By the late 18th century the British displaced the Mughal ruling class in Bengal Shipbuilding industry Mughal India had a large shipbuilding industry which was also largely centred in the Bengal province Economic historian Indrajit Ray estimates the shipbuilding output of Bengal during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries at 223 250 tons annually compared with 23 061 tons produced in nineteen colonies in North America from 1769 to 1771 151 He also assesses ship repairing as very advanced in Bengal 151 An important innovation in shipbuilding was the introduction of a flushed deck design in Bengal rice ships resulting in hulls that were stronger and less prone to leak than the structurally weak hulls of traditional European ships built with a stepped deck design The British East India Company later duplicated the flushed deck and hull designs of Bengal rice ships in the 1760s leading to significant improvements in seaworthiness and navigation for European ships during the Industrial Revolution 152 DemographicsSee also Demographics of India History Population India s population growth accelerated under the Mughal Empire with an unprecedented economic and demographic upsurge which boosted the Indian population by 60 153 to 253 in 200 years during 1500 1700 154 The Indian population had a faster growth during the Mughal era than at any known point in Indian history before the Mughal era 107 153 By the time of Aurangzeb s reign there were a total of 455 698 villages in the Mughal Empire 155 The following table gives population estimates for the Mughal Empire compared to the total population of South Asia including the regions of modern India Pakistan and Bangladesh and compared to the world population Year Mughal Empire population Total Indian population of South Asian population World population of world population 1500 100 000 000 153 425 000 000 156 1600 115 000 000 155 130 000 000 153 89 579 000 000 156 20 1700 158 400 000 10 160 000 000 153 99 679 000 000 156 23 Urbanization According to Irfan Habib Cities and towns boomed under the Mughal Empire which had a relatively high degree of urbanization for its time with 15 of its population living in urban centres 157 This was higher than the percentage of the urban population in contemporary Europe at the time and higher than that of British India in the 19th century 157 the level of urbanization in Europe did not reach 15 until the 19th century 158 Under Akbar s reign in 1600 the Mughal Empire s urban population was up to 17 million people 15 of the empire s total population This was larger than the entire urban population in Europe at the time and even a century later in 1700 the urban population of England Scotland and Wales did not exceed 13 of its total population 155 while British India had an urban population that was under 13 of its total population in 1800 and 9 in 1881 a decline from the earlier Mughal era 159 By 1700 Mughal India had an urban population of 23 million people larger than British India s urban population of 22 3 million in 1871 160 Those estimates were criticised by Tim Dyson who consider them exaggerations According to Dyson urbanization of the Mughal empire was less than 9 161 The historian Nizamuddin Ahmad 1551 1621 reported that under Akbar s reign there were 120 large cities and 3200 townships 157 A number of cities in India had a population between a quarter million and half million people 157 with larger cities including Agra in Agra Subah with up to 800 000 people Lahore in Lahore Subah with up to 700 000 people 162 Dhaka in Bengal Subah with over 1 million people 163 and Delhi in Delhi Subah with over 600 000 people 164 Cities acted as markets for the sale of goods and provided homes for a variety of merchants traders shopkeepers artisans moneylenders weavers craftspeople officials and religious figures 106 However several cities were military and political centres rather than manufacturing or commerce centres 165 CultureSee also Indo Persian culture nbsp Ghulam Hamdani Mushafi the poet first believed to have coined the name Urdu around 1780 AD for a language that went by a multiplicity of names before his time 166 The Mughal Empire was definitive in the early modern and modern periods of South Asian history with its legacy in India Pakistan Bangladesh and Afghanistan seen in cultural contributions such as nbsp Mir Taqi Mir an Urdu poet of the 18th century Mughal Empire nbsp The Taj Mahal in the 1870s Centralised imperial rule that consolidated the smaller polities of South Asia 167 The amalgamation of Persian art and literature with Indian art 168 nbsp Badshahi Mosque Lahore Punjab Pakistan The development of Mughlai cuisine an amalgamation of South Asian Iranian and Central Asian culinary styles The development of Mughal clothing jewellery and fashion utilizing richly decorated fabrics such as muslin silk brocade and velvet The Persian and Arabic language mixed with Hindi grammar thus the development of Urdu 169 The introduction of sophisticated Iranian style waterworks and horticulture through Mughal gardening 170 The introduction of Turkish baths into the Indian subcontinent The evolution and refinement of Mughal and Indian architecture and in turn the development of later Rajput and Sikh palatial architecture A famous Mughal landmark is the Taj Mahal The development of the Pehlwani style of Indian wrestling a combination of Indian malla yuddha and Persian varzesh e bastani 171 172 The construction of Maktab schools where youth were taught the Quran and Islamic law such as the Fatawa Alamgiri in their indigenous languages The development of Hindustani classical music 173 and instruments such as the sitar 174 self published source nbsp Buland Darwaza in Fatehpur Sikiri Agra India Architecture Main article Mughal architecture The Mughals made a major contribution to the Indian subcontinent with the development of their distinctive architectural style This style was derived from earlier Indo Islamic architecture as well as from Iranian and Central Asian architecture particularly Timurid architecture while incorporating further influences from Hindu architecture 175 176 Mughal architecture is distinguished among other things by bulbous domes ogive arches carefully composed and polished facades and the use of hard red sandstone and marble as construction materials 175 177 Many monuments were built during the Mughal era by the Muslim emperors especially Shah Jahan including the Taj Mahal a UNESCO World Heritage Site considered the jewel of Muslim art in India and one of the universally admired masterpieces of the world s heritage 33 attracting 7 8 million unique visitors a year The palaces tombs gardens and forts built by the dynasty stand today in Agra Aurangabad Delhi Dhaka Fatehpur Sikri Jaipur Lahore Kabul Sheikhupura and many other cities of India Pakistan Afghanistan and Bangladesh 178 such as nbsp Lalbagh Fort aerial view in Dhaka Bangladesh India Pakistan Bangladesh Afghanistan Taj Mahal in Agra India Agra Fort in Agra India Buland Darwaza in Agra India Akbar s tomb in Sikandra India Tomb of Mariam uz Zamani in Sikandra India Humayun s Tomb in Delhi India Jama Masjid in Delhi India Red Fort in Delhi India Sunder Nursery in Delhi India Purana Qila in Delhi India Sher Mandal in Delhi India Pinjore Gardens in Pinjore India Shalimar Bagh in Srinagar India Nishat Bagh in Srinagar India Chasma Shahi in Srinagar India Pari Mahal in Srinagar India Verinag Gardens in Srinagar India Allahabad Fort in Prayagraj India Shahi Bridge in Jaunpur India Bibi Ka Maqbara in Aurangabad India Kos Minar in Haryana India Baoli Ghaus Ali Shah in Farrukhnagar India Badshahi Masjid in Lahore Pakistan Shalimar Gardens in Lahore Pakistan Lahore Fort in Lahore Pakistan Shahi Hammam in Lahore Pakistan Wazir Khan Mosque in Lahore Pakistan Tomb of Jahangir in Lahore Pakistan Tomb of Anarkali in Lahore Pakistan Tomb of Nur Jahan in Lahore Pakistan Tomb of Asif Khan in Lahore Pakistan Begum Shahi Mosque in Lahore Pakistan Akbari Sarai in Lahore Pakistan Hiran Minar in Sheikhpura Pakistan Mahabat Khan Mosque in Peshawar Pakistan Shahi Eid Gah Mosque in Multan Pakistan Mausoleum of Masum Shah in Sukkur Pakistan Losar Baoli in Taxila Pakistan Makli Necropolis in Thatta Pakistan Shah Jahan Mosque in Thatta Pakistan Mughal Eidgah in Dhaka Bangladesh Lalbagh Fort in Dhaka Bangladesh Shahi Eidgah in Sylhet Bangladesh Mughal Tahakhana in Chapai Nawabganj Bangladesh Sat Gambuj Mosque in Dhaka Bangladesh Masjid e Siraj ud Daulah in Chittagong Bangladesh Allakuri Masjid in Dhaka Bangladesh Chawkbazar Shahi Masjid in Dhaka Bangladesh Laldighi Masjid in Rangpur Bangladesh Khan Mohammad Mridha Masjid in Dhaka Bangladesh Wali Khan Masjid in Chittagong Bangladesh Shaista Khan Masjid in Dhaka Bangladesh Musa Khan Masjid in Dhaka Bangladesh Shahbaz Khan Masjid in Dhaka Bangladesh Kartalab Khan Masjid in Dhaka Bangladesh Azimpur Masjid in Dhaka Bangladesh Goaldi Masjid in Sonargaon Bangladesh Atia Masjid in Tangail Bangladesh Arifail Masjid in Brahmanbaria Bangladesh Bazra Shahi Masjid in Noakhali Bangladesh Masjid Kur in Khulna Bangladesh Nayabad Masjid in Dinajpur Bangladesh Ghayebi Dighi Masjid in Sylhet Bangladesh Hussaini Dalan in Dhaka Bangladesh Bara Katra in Dhaka Bangladesh Hajiganj Fort in Narayanganj Bangladesh Idrakpur Fort in Munshiganj Bangladesh Choto Katra in Dhaka Bangladesh Sonakanda Fort in Narayanganj Bangladesh Bagh e Babur in Kabul Afghanistan Shahjahani Mosque in Kabul Afghanistan Art and literature Main articles Mughal painting and Mughal clothing nbsp Finial in the form of a parrot Mughal empire 17th century The Mughal artistic tradition mainly expressed in painted miniatures as well as small luxury objects was eclectic borrowing from Iranian Indian Chinese and Renaissance European stylistic and thematic elements 179 Mughal emperors often took in Iranian bookbinders illustrators painters and calligraphers from the Safavid court due to the commonalities of their Timurid styles and due to the Mughal affinity for Iranian art and calligraphy 180 Miniatures commissioned by the Mughal emperors initially focused on large projects illustrating books with eventful historical scenes and court life but later included more single images for albums with portraits and animal paintings displaying a profound appreciation for the serenity and beauty of the natural world 181 For example Emperor Jahangir commissioned brilliant artists such as Ustad Mansur to realistically portray unusual flora and fauna throughout the empire The literary works Akbar and Jahangir ordered to be illustrated ranged from epics like the Razmnama a Persian translation of the Hindu epic the Mahabharata to historical memoirs or biographies of the dynasty such as the Baburnama and Akbarnama and Tuzk e Jahangiri Richly finished albums muraqqa decorated with calligraphy and artistic scenes were mounted onto pages with decorative borders and then bound with covers of stamped and gilded or painted and lacquered leather 182 Aurangzeb 1658 1707 was never an enthusiastic patron of painting largely for religious reasons and took a turn away from the pomp and ceremonial of the court around 1668 after which he probably commissioned no more paintings 183 nbsp Folio from Farhang i Jahangiri a Persian dictionary compiled during the Mughal era Language Main articles Persian language in the Indian subcontinent Persian and Urdu and Hindustani language According to Qazvini by the time of Shah Jahan the emperor was only familiar with a few Turki words and showed little interest in the study of the language as a child 184 Though the Mughals were of Turko Mongol origin their reign enacted the revival and height of the Persian language in the Indian subcontinent and by the end of the 16th century Turki Chagatai was understood by relatively few at court 185 Accompanied by literary patronage was the institutionalisation of Persian as an official and courtly language this led to Persian reaching nearly the status of a first language for many inhabitants of Mughal India 186 187 Muzaffar Alam argues that the Mughals used Persian purposefully as the vehicle of an overarching Indo Persian political culture to unite their diverse empire 188 Persian had a profound impact on the languages of South Asia one such language today known as Urdu developed in the imperial capital of Delhi in the late Mughal era It began to be used as a literary language in the Mughal court from the reign of Shah Alam II who described it as the language of his dastans prose romances and replaced Persian as the informal language of the Muslim elite 189 190 According to Mir Taqi Mir Urdu was the language of Hindustan by the authority of the King 191 192 MilitaryFurther information Army of the Mughal Empire Mughal weapons and Mughal artillery Gunpowder warfare nbsp Mughal matchlock rifle 16th century See also Gunpowder empires and History of gunpowder India and the Mughal EmpireMughal India was one of the three Islamic gunpowder empires along with the Ottoman Empire and Safavid Persia 41 193 194 By the time he was invited by Lodi governor of Lahore Daulat Khan to support his rebellion against Lodi Sultan Ibrahim Khan Babur was familiar with gunpowder firearms and field artillery and a method for deploying them Babur had employed Ottoman expert Ustad Ali Quli who showed Babur the standard Ottoman formation artillery and firearm equipped infantry protected by wagons in the centre and the mounted archers on both wings Babur used this formation at the First Battle of Panipat in 1526 where the Afghan and Rajput forces loyal to the Delhi Sultanate though superior in numbers but without the gunpowder weapons were defeated The decisive victory of the Timurid forces is one reason opponents rarely met Mughal princes in pitched battles throughout the empire s history 195 In India guns made of bronze were recovered from Calicut 1504 and Diu 1533 196 Fathullah Shirazi c 1582 a Persian polymath and mechanical engineer who worked for Akbar developed an early multi gun shot As opposed to the polybolos and repeating crossbows used earlier in ancient Greece and China respectively Shirazi s rapid firing gun had multiple gun barrels that fired hand cannons loaded with gunpowder It may be considered a version of a volley gun 197 nbsp Mughal musketeer 17th century By the 17th century Indians were manufacturing a diverse variety of firearms large guns in particular became visible in Tanjore Dacca Bijapur and Murshidabad 198 Rocketry and explosives In the sixteenth century Akbar was the first to initiate and use metal cylinder rockets known as bans particularly against war elephants during the Battle of Sanbal 199 In 1657 the Mughal Army used rockets during the Siege of Bidar 200 Prince Aurangzeb s forces discharged rockets and grenades while scaling the walls Sidi Marjan was mortally wounded when a rocket struck his large gunpowder depot and after twenty seven days of hard fighting Bidar was captured by the Mughals 200 In A History of Greek Fire and Gunpowder James Riddick Partington described Indian rockets and explosive mines 196 The Indian war rockets were formidable weapons before such rockets were used in Europe They had bam boo rods a rocket body lashed to the rod and iron points They were directed at the target and fired by lighting the fuse but the trajectory was rather erratic The use of mines and counter mines with explosive charges of gunpowder is mentioned for the times of Akbar and Jahangir ScienceA new curriculum for the madrasas which stressed the importance of uloom i muqalat Rational Sciences and introduced new subjects such as geometry medicine philosophy and mathematics The new curriculum produced a series of eminent scholars engineers and architects 201 202 Astronomy See also Astronomy in the medieval Islamic world and Indian astronomy nbsp Remains of Mughal observatory Gyarah Sidi near Mehtab Bagh While there appears to have been little concern for theoretical astronomy Mughal astronomers made advances in observational astronomy and produced some Zij treatises Humayun built a personal observatory near Delhi According to Sulaiman Nadvi Jahangir and Shah Jahan intended to build observatories too but were unable to do so The astronomical instruments and observational techniques used at the Mughal observatories were mainly derived from Islamic astronomy 203 204 In the 17th century the Mughal Empire saw a synthesis between Islamic and Hindu astronomy where Islamic observational instruments were combined with Hindu computational techniques 203 204 nbsp Celestial Globe made by Mughals During the decline of the Mughal Empire the Hindu king Jai Singh II of Amber continued the work of Mughal astronomy In the early 18th century he built several large observatories called Yantra Mandirs to rival Ulugh Beg s Samarkand observatory and to improve on the earlier Hindu computations in the Siddhantas and Islamic observations in Zij i Sultani The instruments he used were influenced by Islamic astronomy while the computational techniques were derived from Hindu astronomy 203 204 Chemistry See also Alchemy in the medieval Islamic world Sake Dean Mahomed had learned much of Mughal chemistry and understood the techniques used to produce various alkali and soaps to produce shampoo He was also a notable writer who described the Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II and the cities of Allahabad and Delhi in rich detail and also made note of the glories of the Mughal Empire In Britain Sake Dean Mahomed was appointed as shampooing surgeon to both Kings George IV and William IV 205 Metallurgy See also History of metallurgy in the Indian subcontinent and Mughal Karkhanas The society within Mughal empire operated the Karkhanas which functioned as workshops for craftsmen These Karkhanas were producing arms ammunition and also various items for the court and emperor s need such as clothes shawls turbans jewelry gold and silverware perfumes medicines carpets beddings tents and for the imperial stable harnesses for the horses in irons copper and other metals 206 207 208 Another aspects of remarkable invention in Mughal India is the lost wax cast hollow seamless celestial globe It was invented in Kashmir by Ali Kashmiri ibn Luqman in 998 AH 1589 90 CE Twenty other such globes were later produced in Lahore and Kashmir during the Mughal Empire Before they were rediscovered in the 1980s it was believed by modern metallurgists to be technically impossible to produce hollow metal globes without any seams 209 A 17th century celestial globe was also made by Diya ad din Muhammad in Lahore 1668 now in Pakistan 210 It is now housed at the National Museum of Scotland List of Mughal EmperorsMain article List of emperors of the Mughal Empire Portrait Titular Name Birth Name Birth Reign Death 1 nbsp Baburبابر Zahir al Din Muhammadظهیر الدین محمد 14 February 1483 Andijan Uzbekistan 20 April 1526 26 December 1530 26 December 1530 aged 47 Agra India 2 nbsp Humayunهمایوں Nasir al Din Muhammadنصیر الدین محمد 6 March 1508 Kabul Afghanistan 26 December 1530 17 May 1540 22 February 1555 27 January 1556 10 years 3 months 25 days 27 January 1556 aged 47 Delhi India 3 nbsp Akbar the Greatاکبر Jalal al Din Muhammadجلال الدین محمد 15 October 1542 Umerkot Pakistan 11 February 1556 27 October 1605 49 years 9 months 0 days 27 October 1605 aged 63 Agra India 4 nbsp Jahangirجهانگیر Nur al Din Muhammadنور الدین محمد 31 August 1569 Agra India 3 November 1605 28 October 1627 21 years 11 months 23 days 28 October 1627 aged 58 Jammu and Kashmir India 5 nbsp Shah Jahanشاہ جهان Shihab al Din Muhammadشهاب الدین محمد 5 January 1592 Lahore Pakistan 19 January 1628 31 July 1658 30 years 8 months 25 days 22 January 1666 aged 74 Agra India 6 nbsp Aurangzeb اورنگزیب Alamgirعالمگیر Muhi al Din Muhammad محی الدین محمد 3 November 1618 Gujarat India 31 July 1658 3 March 1707 48 years 7 months 0 days 3 March 1707 aged 88 Ahmednagar India 7 nbsp Azam Shahاعظم شاه Qutb al Din Muhammadقطب الدين محمد 28 June 1653 Burhanpur India 14 March 1707 20 June 1707 20 June 1707 aged 53 Agra India 8 nbsp Bahadur Shahبهادر شاہ Qutb al Din Muhammadقطب الدین محمد 14 October 1643 Burhanpur India 19 June 1707 27 February 1712 4 years 253 days 27 February 1712 aged 68 Lahore Pakistan 9 nbsp Jahandar Shahجهاندار شاہ Muiz al Din Muhammad معز الدین محمد 9 May 1661 Deccan India 27 February 1712 11 February 1713 0 years 350 days 12 February 1713 aged 51 Delhi India 10 nbsp Farrukh Siyarفرخ سیر Muin al Din Muhammad موئن الدین محمد Puppet King Under the Sayyids of Barha 20 August 1685 Aurangabad India 11 January 1713 28 February 1719 6 years 48 days 19 April 1719 aged 33 Delhi India 11 nbsp Rafi ud Darajatرفیع الدرجات Shams al Din Muhammadشمس الدین محمد Puppet King Under the Sayyids of Barha 1 December 1699 28 February 1719 6 June 1719 0 years 98 days 6 June 1719 aged 19 Agra India 12 nbsp Shah Jahan IIشاہ جهان دوم Rafi al Din Muhammad رفع الدين محمد Puppet King Under the Sayyids of Barha 5 January 1696 6 June 1719 17 September 1719 0 years 105 days 18 September 1719 aged 23 Agra India 13 nbsp Muhammad Shahمحمد شاه Nasir al Din Muhammad نصیر الدین محمد Puppet King Under the Sayyids of Barha 7 August 1702 Ghazni Afghanistan 27 September 1719 26 April 1748 28 years 212 days 26 April 1748 aged 45 Delhi India 14 nbsp Ahmad Shah Bahadurاحمد شاہ بهادر Mujahid al Din Muhammad مجاهد الدین محمد 23 December 1725 Delhi India 29 April 1748 2 June 1754 6 years 37 days 1 January 1775 aged 49 Delhi India 15 nbsp Alamgir IIعالمگیر دوم Aziz al Din Muhammad عزیز ا لدین محمد 6 June 1699 Burhanpur India 3 June 1754 29 November 1759 5 years 180 days 29 November 1759 aged 60 Kotla Fateh Shah India 16 nbsp Shah Jahan IIIشاه جهان سوم Muhi al Millat محی الملت 1711 10 December 1759 10 October 1760 282 days 1772 aged 60 61 17 nbsp Shah Alam IIشاه عالم دوم Jalal al Din Muhammad Ali Gauhar جلال الدین علی گوهر 25 June 1728 Delhi India 10 October 1760 31 July 1788 27 years 301 days 19 November 1806 aged 78 Delhi India 18 nbsp Shah Jahan IVجهان شاه چهارم Bidar Bakht Mahmud Shah Bahadur Jahan Shah بیدار بخت محمود شاه بهادر جهان شاہ 1749 Delhi India 31 July 1788 11 October 1788 63 days 1790 aged 40 41 Delhi India 17 nbsp Shah Alam IIشاه عالم دوم Jalal al Din Muhammad Ali Gauhar جلال الدین علی گوهر Puppet King under the Maratha Empire 25 June 1728 Delhi India 16 October 1788 19 November 1806 18 years 339 days 19 November 1806 aged 78 Delhi India 19 nbsp Akbar Shah IIاکبر شاه دوم Muin al Din Muhammad میرزا اکبر Puppet King under the East India Company 22 April 1760 Mukundpur India 19 November 1806 28 September 1837 30 years 321 days 28 September 1837 aged 77 Delhi India 20 nbsp Bahadur Shah II Zafarبهادر شاه ظفر Abu Zafar Siraj al Din Muhammad ابو ظفر سراج ا لدین محمد 24 October 1775 Delhi India 28 September 1837 21 September 1857 19 years 360 days 7 November 1862 aged 87 Rangoon MyanmarSee alsoHistory of India Flags of the Mughal Empire List of Mongol states Mughal Mongol genealogy Islam in South AsiaReferencesFootnotes The title Mirza descends to all the sons of the family without exception In the royal family it is placed after the name instead of before it thus Abbas Mirza and Hosfiein Mirza Mirza is a civil title and Khan is a military one The title of Khan is creative but not hereditary 5 Citations Sinopoli Carla M 1994 Monumentality and Mobility in Mughal Capitals Asian Perspectives 33 2 294 ISSN 0066 8435 JSTOR 42928323 Archived from the original on 1 May 2022 Retrieved 11 June 2021 Conan 2007 p 235 Islam Mughal Empire 1500s 1600s BBC 7 September 2009 Archived from the original on 13 August 2018 Retrieved 13 June 2019 Pagaza amp Argyriades 2009 p 129 Morier 1812 p 601 Oleg Igorevich Krassov 2022 p 75 Turchin Peter Adams Jonathan M Hall Thomas D 2006 East West Orientation of Historical Empires and Modern States Journal of World Systems Research 12 2 219 229 doi 10 5195 JWSR 2006 369 ISSN 1076 156X Rein Taagepera September 1997 Expansion and Contraction Patterns of Large Polities Context for Russia International Studies Quarterly 41 3 475 504 doi 10 1111 0020 8833 00053 JSTOR 2600793 Archived from the original on 19 November 2018 Retrieved 6 July 2019 Dyson Tim 2018 A Population History of India From the First Modern People to the Present Day Oxford University Press pp 70 71 ISBN 978 0 19 256430 6 We have seen that there is considerable uncertainty about the size of India s population c 1595 Serious assessments vary from 116 to 145 million with an average of 125 million However the true figure could even be outside of this range Accordingly while it seems likely that the population grew over the seventeenth century it is unlikely that we will ever have a good idea of its size in 1707 a b Jozsef Borocz 2009 The European Union and Global Social Change Routledge p 21 ISBN 978 1 135 25580 0 Retrieved 26 June 2017 a b c d e f g h i j Richards John F 1995 The Mughal Empire Cambridge University Press ISBN 978 0 521 56603 2 Richards John F 1995 The Mughal Empire Cambridge University Press p 2 ISBN 978 0 521 56603 2 archived from the original on 22 September 2023 retrieved 9 August 2017 Quote Although the first two Timurid emperors and many of their noblemen were recent migrants to the subcontinent the dynasty and the empire itself became indisputably Indian The interests and futures of all concerned were in India not in ancestral homelands in the Middle East or Central Asia Furthermore the Mughal Empire emerged from the Indian historical experience It was the end product of a millennium of Muslim conquest colonization and state building in the Indian subcontinent Stein Burton 2010 A History of India John Wiley amp Sons pp 159 ISBN 978 1 4443 2351 1 archived from the original on 22 September 2023 retrieved 15 July 2019 Quote The realm so defined and governed was a vast territory of some 750 000 square miles 1 900 000 km2 ranging from the frontier with Central Asia in northern Afghanistan to the northern uplands of the Deccan plateau and from the Indus basin on the west to the Assamese highlands in the east Gilbert Marc Jason 2017 South Asia in World History Oxford University Press p 62 ISBN 978 0 19 066137 3 retrieved 15 July 2019 Quote Babur then adroitly gave the Ottomans his promise not to attack them in return for their military aid which he received in the form of the newest of battlefield inventions the matchlock gun and cast cannons as well as instructors to train his men to use them Stein Burton 2010 A History of India John Wiley amp Sons pp 159 ISBN 978 1 4443 2351 1 archived from the original on 22 September 2023 retrieved 15 July 2019 Quote Another possible date for the beginning of the Mughal regime was 1600 when the institutions that defined the regime were set firmly in place and when the heartland of the empire was defined both of these were the accomplishment of Babur s grandson Akbar Stein Burton 2010 A History of India John Wiley amp Sons pp 159 ISBN 978 1 4443 2351 1 archived from the original on 22 September 2023 retrieved 15 July 2019 Quote The imperial career of the Mughal house is conventionally reckoned to have ended in 1707 when the emperor Aurangzeb a fifth generation descendant of Babur died His fifty year reign began in 1658 with the Mughal state seeming as strong as ever or even stronger But in Aurangzeb s later years the state was brought to the brink of destruction over which it toppled within a decade and a half after his death by 1720 imperial Mughal rule was largely finished and an epoch of two imperial centuries had closed Richards John F 1995 The Mughal Empire Cambridge University Press p xv ISBN 978 0 521 56603 2 archived from the original on 22 September 2023 retrieved 1 July 2019 Quote By the latter date 1720 the essential structure of the centralized state was disintegrated beyond repair Stein Burton 2010 A History of India John Wiley amp Sons pp 159 ISBN 978 1 4443 2351 1 archived from the original on 22 September 2023 retrieved 15 July 2019 Quote The vaunting of such progenitors pointed up the central character of the Mughal regime as a warrior state it was born in war and it was sustained by war until the eighteenth century when warfare destroyed it Robb Peter 2011 A History of India Macmillan pp 108 ISBN 978 0 230 34549 2 Quote The Mughal state was geared for war and succeeded while it won its battles It controlled territory partly through its network of strongholds from its fortified capitals in Agra Delhi or Lahore which defined its heartlands to the converted and expanded forts of Rajasthan and the Deccan The emperor s will was frequently enforced in battle Hundreds of army scouts were an important source of information But the empire s administrative structure too was defined by and directed at war Local military checkpoints or thanas kept order Directly appointed imperial military and civil commanders faujdars controlled the cavalry and infantry or the administration in each region The peasantry in turn were often armed able to provide supporters for regional powers and liable to rebellion on their account continual pacification was required of the rulers Gilbert Marc Jason 2017 South Asia in World History Oxford University Press pp 75 ISBN 978 0 19 066137 3 archived from the original on 22 September 2023 retrieved 15 July 2019 Quote With Safavid and Ottoman aid the Mughals would soon join these two powers in a triumvirate of warrior driven expansionist and both militarily and bureaucratically efficient early modern states now often called gunpowder empires due to their common proficiency is using such weapons to conquer lands they sought to control Asher Catherine B Talbot Cynthia 2006 India Before Europe Cambridge University Press pp 115 ISBN 978 0 521 80904 7 archived from the original on 22 September 2023 retrieved 15 July 2019 Robb Peter 2011 A History of India Macmillan pp 99 100 ISBN 978 0 230 34549 2 a b c Asher Catherine B Talbot Cynthia 2006 India Before Europe Cambridge University Press pp 152 ISBN 978 0 521 80904 7 archived from the original on 22 September 2023 retrieved 15 July 2019 a b Stein Burton 2010 A History of India John Wiley amp Sons pp 164 ISBN 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978 81 7307 021 1 Sharma Sri Ram 1951 Mughal Government and Administration Hind Kitabs p 61 Sumit 2012 An Eighteenth Century Survey of Jaipur Chhapakhana Based on Jaipur Karkhanajat Records Proceedings of the Indian History Congress 73 421 430 ISSN 2249 1937 JSTOR 44156233 Savage Smith Emilie 1985 Islamicate Celestial Globes Their History Construction and Use Smithsonian Institution Press Washington DC Celestial globe National Museums Scotland Archived from the original on 14 June 2020 Retrieved 15 October 2020 Sources Conan Michel 2007 Middle East Garden Traditions Unity and Diversity Questions Methods and Resources in a Multicultural Perspective Dumbarton Oaks ISBN 978 0 88402 329 6 Archived from the original on 22 September 2023 Retrieved 13 June 2019 Moosvi Shireen 2015 First published 1987 The economy of the Mughal Empire c 1595 a statistical study 2nd ed Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 908549 1 Archived from the original on 22 September 2023 Retrieved 13 June 2019 Morier James 1812 A journey through Persia Armenia and Asia Minor The Monthly Magazine Vol 34 R Phillips Archived from the original on 22 September 2023 Retrieved 19 October 2015 Rutherford Alex 2010 Empire of the Moghul Brothers at War Brothers at War Headline ISBN 978 0 7553 8326 9 Archived from the original on 22 September 2023 Retrieved 10 June 2019 Seyller John 2011 A Mughal Manuscript of the Diwan of Nawa i Artibus Asiae 71 2 325 334 Further readingAlam Muzaffar Crisis of Empire in Mughal North India Awadh amp the Punjab 1707 48 1988 Ali M Athar 1975 The Passing of Empire The Mughal Case Modern Asian Studies 9 3 385 396 doi 10 1017 s0026749x00005825 JSTOR 311728 S2CID 143861682 on the causes of its collapse Asher C B Talbot C 2008 India Before Europe Cambridge University Press ISBN 978 0 521 51750 8 Black Jeremy The Mughals Strike Twice History Today April 2012 62 4 pp 22 26 full text online Blake Stephen P November 1979 The Patrimonial Bureaucratic Empire of the Mughals Journal of Asian Studies 39 1 77 94 doi 10 2307 2053505 JSTOR 2053505 S2CID 154527305 Dale Stephen F The Muslim Empires of the Ottomans Safavids and Mughals Cambridge U P 2009 Dalrymple William 2007 The Last Mughal The Fall of a Dynasty Delhi 1857 Random House Digital Inc ISBN 978 0 307 26739 9 Faruqui Munis D 2005 The Forgotten Prince Mirza Hakim and the Formation of the Mughal Empire in India Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient 48 4 487 523 doi 10 1163 156852005774918813 JSTOR 25165118 on Akbar and his brother J J L Gommans 2002 Mughal Warfare Indian Frontiers and Highroads to Empire 1500 1700 Taylor amp Francis ISBN 9781134552757 Retrieved 18 April 2024 Archived 2 January 2011 at the Wayback Machine Gordon S The New Cambridge History of India II 4 The Marathas 1600 1818 Cambridge 1993 Habib Irfan Atlas of the Mughal Empire Political and Economic Maps 1982 Markovits Claude ed 2004 First published 1994 as Histoire de l Inde Moderne A History of Modern India 1480 1950 2nd ed London Anthem Press ISBN 978 1 84331 004 4 Archived from the original on 22 September 2023 Retrieved 19 October 2015 Metcalf B Metcalf T R 2006 A Concise History of Modern India 2nd ed Cambridge University Press ISBN 978 0 521 68225 1 archived from the original on 2 July 2023 retrieved 19 October 2015 Richards John F 1996 The Mughal Empire Cambridge University Press ISBN 978 0 521 56603 2 Archived from the original on 1 February 2023 Retrieved 19 October 2015 Majumdar Ramesh Chandra 1974 The Mughul Empire B V Bhavan Richards J F April 1981 Mughal State Finance and the Premodern World Economy Comparative Studies in Society and History 23 2 285 308 doi 10 1017 s0010417500013311 JSTOR 178737 S2CID 154809724 Robb P 2001 A History of India London Palgrave ISBN 978 0 333 69129 8 Srivastava Ashirbadi Lal The Mughul Empire 1526 1803 1952 online Stein B 1998 A History of India 1st ed Oxford Wiley Blackwell ISBN 978 0 631 20546 3 Stein B 2010 Arnold D ed A History of India 2nd ed Oxford Wiley Blackwell ISBN 978 1 4051 9509 6 archived from the original on 12 July 2023 retrieved 19 October 2015 Culture Berinstain V Mughal India Splendour of the Peacock Throne London 1998 Busch Allison Poetry of Kings The Classical Hindi Literature of Mughal India 2011 excerpt and text search Archived 29 May 2016 at the Wayback Machine Parodi Laura E 2021 Kabul a Forgotten Mughal Capital Gardens City and Court at the Turn of the Sixteenth Century Muqarnas Online 38 1 113 153 doi 10 1163 22118993 00381P05 S2CID 245040517 Diana Preston Michael Preston 2007 Taj Mahal Passion and Genius at the Heart of the Moghul Empire Walker amp Company ISBN 978 0 8027 1673 6 Schimmel Annemarie The Empire of the Great Mughals History Art and Culture Reaktion 2006 Welch S C et al 1987 The Emperors album images of Mughal India New York The Metropolitan Museum of Art ISBN 978 0 87099 499 9 Archived from the original on 27 September 2018 Retrieved 9 October 2013 Society and economy Chaudhuri K N 1978 Some Reflections on the Town and Country in Mughal India Modern Asian Studies 12 1 77 96 doi 10 1017 s0026749x00008155 JSTOR 311823 S2CID 146558617 Habib Irfan Atlas of the Mughal Empire Political and Economic Maps 1982 Habib Irfan Agrarian System of Mughal India 1963 revised edition 1999 J C Sharman 2019 Empires of the Weak The Real Story of European Expansion and the Creation of the New World Order Princeton University Press ISBN 978 0691182797 Heesterman J C 2004 The Social Dynamics of the Mughal Empire A Brief Introduction Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient 47 3 292 297 doi 10 1163 1568520041974729 JSTOR 25165051 Khan Iqtidar Alam 1976 The Middle Classes in the Mughal Empire Social Scientist 5 1 28 49 doi 10 2307 3516601 JSTOR 3516601 M Athar Ali 2008 The Mughal Polity A Critique of Revisionist Approaches Modern Asian Studies 27 5 Cambridge University Press ISSN 1469 8099 Retrieved 18 April 2024 contrast between the Oriental despotic state and the occidental laissez faire state Rothermund Dietmar An Economic History of India From Pre Colonial Times to 1991 1993 Oleg Igorevich Krassov 2022 Land Law in Asian Countries ebook Norma p 75 ISBN 9785001562566 Retrieved 18 April 2024 Streusand Douglas E 2018 Islamic Gunpowder Empires Ottomans Safavids and Mughals Taylor amp Francis ISBN 9780429979217 Retrieved 24 April 2024 Primary sources Bernier Francois 1891 Travels in the Mogul Empire A D 1656 1668 Archibald Constable London Hiro Dilip ed Journal of Emperor Babur Penguin Classics 2007 The Baburnama Memoirs of Babur Prince and Emperor ed by W M Thackston Jr 2002 this was the first autobiography in Islamic literature Jackson A V et al eds History of India 1907 v 9 Historic accounts of India by foreign travellers classic oriental and occidental by A V W Jackson online edition Jouher 1832 The Tezkereh al vakiat or Private Memoirs of the Moghul Emperor Humayun Written in the Persian language by Jouher A confidential domestic of His Majesty Translated by Major Charles Stewart John Murray London span, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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