fbpx
Wikipedia

Greeks

January 01, 1970

For other uses, see Greeks (disambiguation).
"Grecian" redirects here. For other uses, see Grecian (disambiguation).

The Greeks or Hellenes (/ˈhɛliːnz/; Greek: Έλληνες, Éllines [ˈelines]) are an ethnic group and nation native to Greece, Cyprus, southern Albania, Anatolia, parts of Italy and Egypt, and to a lesser extent, other countries surrounding the Eastern Mediterranean and Black Sea. They also form a significant diaspora (omogenia), with many Greek communities established around the world.[46]

Greeks
Hellenes
Έλληνες
Total population
c. 14–17 million[1][2]
Regions with significant populations
 Greece 9,903,268[3][4]
(2011 census)
 Cyprus 659,115–721,000[5][6][7][8]
(2011 census)
 United States1,279,000–3,000,000a (2016 estimate)[9][10]
 Germany449,000b (2021 estimate)[11]
 Australia424,744 (2021 census)[12]
 United Kingdom290,000–345,000 (2011 estimate)[13]
 Canada271,405c (2016 census)[14]
 Albania200,000 (c. 1990 estimate)[15]
 New Zealandest. 2,478 to 10,000, possibly up to 50,000[16]
 South Africa138,000 (2011 estimate)[17]
 Italy110,000–200,000d (2013 estimate)[18][19][20]
 Egypt110,000[21][22]
 Chile100,000[23]
 Ukraine91,000 (2011 estimate)[24]
 Russia85,640 (2010 census)[25]
 Brazil50,000e[26]
 France35,000 (2013 estimate)[27]
 Belgium35,000 (2011 estimate)[28]
 Argentina20,000–30,000 (2013 estimate)[29]
 Netherlands28,856 (2021)[30][31]
 Bulgaria1,356 (2011 census)[32] up to 28,500 (estimate)[33]
 Uruguay25,000–28,000 (2011 census)[34]
 Sweden24,736 (2012 census)[35]
 Georgia15,000 (2011 estimate)[36]
 Czech Republic12,000[37]
 Kazakhstan8,846 (2011 estimate)[38]
  Switzerland11,000 (2015 estimate)[39]
 Romania10,000 (2013 estimate)[40]
 Uzbekistan9,500 (2000 estimate)[41]
 Austria5,261[42]
 Hungary4,454 (2016 census)[43]
 Turkey4,000–49,143f[44][45]
Languages
Greek
Religion
Primarily Greek Orthodox Church
a Includes those of ancestral descent.
b Includes people with "cultural roots".
c Those whose stated ethnic origins included "Greek" among others. The number of those whose stated ethnic origin is solely "Greek" is 145,250. An additional 3,395 Cypriots of undeclared ethnicity live in Canada.
dApprox. 60,000 Griko people and 30,000 post WW2 migrants.
e "Including descendants".
f Including Greek Muslims.

Greek colonies and communities have been historically established on the shores of the Mediterranean Sea and Black Sea, but the Greek people themselves have always been centered on the Aegean and Ionian seas, where the Greek language has been spoken since the Bronze Age.[47][48] Until the early 20th century, Greeks were distributed between the Greek peninsula, the western coast of Asia Minor, the Black Sea coast, Cappadocia in central Anatolia, Egypt, the Balkans, Cyprus, and Constantinople.[48] Many of these regions coincided to a large extent with the borders of the Byzantine Empire of the late 11th century and the Eastern Mediterranean areas of ancient Greek colonization.[49] The cultural centers of the Greeks have included Athens, Thessalonica, Alexandria, Smyrna, and Constantinople at various periods.

In recent times, most ethnic Greeks live within the borders of the modern Greek state or in Cyprus. The Greek genocide and population exchange between Greece and Turkey nearly ended the three millennia-old Greek presence in Asia Minor. Other longstanding Greek populations can be found from southern Italy to the Caucasus and southern Russia and Ukraine and in the Greek diaspora communities in a number of other countries. Today, most Greeks are officially registered as members of the Greek Orthodox Church.[50]

Greeks have greatly influenced and contributed to culture, visual arts, exploration, theatre, literature, philosophy, ethics, politics, architecture, music, mathematics,[51] medicine, science, technology, commerce, cuisine and sports. The Greek language is the oldest recorded living language[52] and its vocabulary has been the basis of many languages, including English as well as international scientific nomenclature. Greek was by far the most widely spoken lingua franca in the Mediterranean world since the fourth century BC and the New Testament of the Christian Bible was also originally written in Greek.[53][54][55]

History

Further information: History of Greece
 
Proto-Greek area of settlement (2200/2100–1900 BC) suggested by Katona (2000), Sakelariou (2016, 1980, 1975) and Phylaktopoulos (1975)
 
Mycenaean funeral mask known as "Mask of Agamemnon", 16th century BC

The Greeks speak the Greek language, which forms its own unique branch within the Indo-European family of languages, the Hellenic.[48] They are part of a group of classical ethnicities, described by Anthony D. Smith as an "archetypal diaspora people".[56][57]

Origins

Further information: Proto-Greek language, List of Ancient Greek tribes, and Ancient Greek religion

The Proto-Greeks probably arrived at the area now called Greece, in the southern tip of the Balkan peninsula, at the end of the 3rd millennium BC between 2200 and 1900 BC.[58][59][a] The sequence of migrations into the Greek mainland during the 2nd millennium BC has to be reconstructed on the basis of the ancient Greek dialects, as they presented themselves centuries later and are therefore subject to some uncertainties. There were at least two migrations, the first being the Ionians and Achaeans, which resulted in Mycenaean Greece by the 16th century BC,[63][64] and the second, the Dorian invasion, around the 11th century BC, displacing the Arcadocypriot dialects, which descended from the Mycenaean period. Both migrations occur at incisive periods, the Mycenaean at the transition to the Late Bronze Age and the Doric at the Bronze Age collapse.

Mycenaean

Main article: Mycenaean Greece

In c. 1600 BC, the Mycenaean Greeks borrowed from the Minoan civilization its syllabic writing system (Linear A) and developed their own syllabic script known as Linear B,[65] providing the first and oldest written evidence of Greek.[65][66] The Mycenaeans quickly penetrated the Aegean Sea and, by the 15th century BC, had reached Rhodes, Crete, Cyprus and the shores of Asia Minor.[48][67]

Around 1200 BC, the Dorians, another Greek-speaking people, followed from Epirus.[68] Older historical research often proposed Dorian invasion caused the collapse of the Mycenaean civilization, but this narrative has been abandoned in all contemporary research. It is likely that one of the factors which contributed to the Mycenaean palatial collapse was linked to raids by groups known in historiography as the "Sea Peoples" who sailed into the eastern Mediterranean around 1180 BC.[69] The Dorian invasion was followed by a poorly attested period of migrations, appropriately called the Greek Dark Ages, but by 800 BC the landscape of Archaic and Classical Greece was discernible.[70]

The Greeks of classical antiquity idealized their Mycenaean ancestors and the Mycenaean period as a glorious era of heroes, closeness of the gods and material wealth.[71] The Homeric Epics (i.e. Iliad and Odyssey) were especially and generally accepted as part of the Greek past and it was not until the time of Euhemerism that scholars began to question Homer's historicity.[70] As part of the Mycenaean heritage that survived, the names of the gods and goddesses of Mycenaean Greece (e.g. Zeus, Poseidon and Hades) became major figures of the Olympian Pantheon of later antiquity.[72]

Classical

Main article: Classical Greece
 
 
 
The three great philosophers of the classical era: Socrates, Plato and Aristotle

The ethnogenesis of the Greek nation is linked to the development of Pan-Hellenism in the 8th century BC.[73] According to some scholars, the foundational event was the Olympic Games in 776 BC, when the idea of a common Hellenism among the Greek tribes was first translated into a shared cultural experience and Hellenism was primarily a matter of common culture.[46] The works of Homer (i.e. Iliad and Odyssey) and Hesiod (i.e. Theogony) were written in the 8th century BC, becoming the basis of the national religion, ethos, history and mythology.[74] The Oracle of Apollo at Delphi was established in this period.[75]

The classical period of Greek civilization covers a time spanning from the early 5th century BC to the death of Alexander the Great, in 323 BC (some authors prefer to split this period into "Classical", from the end of the Greco-Persian Wars to the end of the Peloponnesian War, and "Fourth Century", up to the death of Alexander). It is so named because it set the standards by which Greek civilization would be judged in later eras.[76] The Classical period is also described as the "Golden Age" of Greek civilization, and its art, philosophy, architecture and literature would be instrumental in the formation and development of Western culture.

While the Greeks of the classical era understood themselves to belong to a common Hellenic genos,[77] their first loyalty was to their city and they saw nothing incongruous about warring, often brutally, with other Greek city-states.[78] The Peloponnesian War, the large scale civil war between the two most powerful Greek city-states Athens and Sparta and their allies, left both greatly weakened.[79]

 
Alexander the Great, whose conquests led to the Hellenistic Age

Most of the feuding Greek city-states were, in some scholars' opinions, united by force under the banner of Philip's and Alexander the Great's Pan-Hellenic ideals, though others might generally opt, rather, for an explanation of "Macedonian conquest for the sake of conquest" or at least conquest for the sake of riches, glory and power and view the "ideal" as useful propaganda directed towards the city-states.[80]

In any case, Alexander's toppling of the Achaemenid Empire, after his victories at the battles of the Granicus, Issus and Gaugamela, and his advance as far as modern-day Pakistan and Tajikistan,[81] provided an important outlet for Greek culture, via the creation of colonies and trade routes along the way.[82] While the Alexandrian empire did not survive its creator's death intact, the cultural implications of the spread of Hellenism across much of the Middle East and Asia were to prove long lived as Greek became the lingua franca, a position it retained even in Roman times.[83] Many Greeks settled in Hellenistic cities like Alexandria, Antioch and Seleucia.[84]

Hellenistic

Main articles: Hellenistic period and Hellenistic Greece
 
The Hellenistic realms c. 300 BC as divided by the Diadochi; the Μacedonian Kingdom of Cassander (green), the Ptolemaic Kingdom (dark blue), the Seleucid Empire (yellow), the areas controlled by Lysimachus (orange) and Epirus (red)
 
Bust of Cleopatra VII (Altes Museum, Berlin), the last ruler of a Hellenistic kingdom (apart from the Indo-Greek Kingdom)

The Hellenistic civilization was the next period of Greek civilization, the beginnings of which are usually placed at Alexander's death.[85] This Hellenistic age, so called because it saw the partial Hellenization of many non-Greek cultures, extending all the way into India and Bactria, both of which maintained Greek cultures and governments for centuries.[86] The end is often placed around conquest of Egypt by Rome in 30 BC,[85] although the Indo-Greek kingdoms lasted for a few more decades.

This age saw the Greeks move towards larger cities and a reduction in the importance of the city-state. These larger cities were parts of the still larger Kingdoms of the Diadochi.[87][88] Greeks, however, remained aware of their past, chiefly through the study of the works of Homer and the classical authors.[89] An important factor in maintaining Greek identity was contact with barbarian (non-Greek) peoples, which was deepened in the new cosmopolitan environment of the multi-ethnic Hellenistic kingdoms.[89] This led to a strong desire among Greeks to organize the transmission of the Hellenic paideia to the next generation.[89] Greek science, technology and mathematics are generally considered to have reached their peak during the Hellenistic period.[90]

In the Indo-Greek and Greco-Bactrian kingdoms, Greco-Buddhism was spreading and Greek missionaries would play an important role in propagating it to China.[91] Further east, the Greeks of Alexandria Eschate became known to the Chinese people as the Dayuan.[92]

Roman Empire

Further information: Roman Greece and Greco-Roman world

Between 168 BC and 30 BC, the entire Greek world was conquered by Rome, and almost all of the world's Greek speakers lived as citizens or subjects of the Roman Empire. Despite their military superiority, the Romans admired and became heavily influenced by the achievements of Greek culture, hence Horace's famous statement: Graecia capta ferum victorem cepit ("Greece, although captured, took its wild conqueror captive").[93] In the centuries following the Roman conquest of the Greek world, the Greek and Roman cultures merged into a single Greco-Roman culture.

In the religious sphere, this was a period of profound change. The spiritual revolution that took place, saw a waning of the old Greek religion, whose decline beginning in the 3rd century BC continued with the introduction of new religious movements from the East.[46] The cults of deities like Isis and Mithra were introduced into the Greek world.[88][94] Greek-speaking communities of the Hellenized East were instrumental in the spread of early Christianity in the 2nd and 3rd centuries,[95] and Christianity's early leaders and writers (notably Saint Paul) were generally Greek-speaking,[96] though none were from Greece proper. However, Greece itself had a tendency to cling to paganism and was not one of the influential centers of early Christianity: in fact, some ancient Greek religious practices remained in vogue until the end of the 4th century,[97] with some areas such as the southeastern Peloponnese remaining pagan until well into the mid-Byzantine 10th century AD.[98] The region of Tsakonia remained pagan until the ninth century and as such its inhabitants were referred to as Hellenes, in the sense of being pagan, by their Christianized Greek brethren in mainstream Byzantine society.[99]

While ethnic distinctions still existed in the Roman Empire, they became secondary to religious considerations, and the renewed empire used Christianity as a tool to support its cohesion and promote a robust Roman national identity.[100] From the early centuries of the Common Era, the Greeks self-identified as Romans (Greek: Ῥωμαῖοι Rhōmaîoi).[101] By that time, the name Hellenes denoted pagans but was revived as an ethnonym in the 11th century.[102]

Middle Ages

See also: Byzantine empire, Byzantine Greece, Byzantine Greeks, Fourth Crusade, and Frankokratia
 
Scenes of marriage and family life in Constantinople
 
Emperor Basil II (11th century) is credited with reviving the Byzantine Empire.
 
Gemistos Plethon, one of the most renowned philosophers of the late Byzantine era, a chief pioneer of the revival of Greek scholarship in Western Europe

During most of the Middle Ages, the Byzantine Greeks self-identified as Rhōmaîoi (Ῥωμαῖοι, "Romans", meaning citizens of the Roman Empire), a term which in the Greek language had become synonymous with Christian Greeks.[103][104] The Latinizing term Graikoí (Γραικοί, "Greeks") was also used,[105] though its use was less common, and nonexistent in official Byzantine political correspondence, prior to the Fourth Crusade of 1204.[106] The Eastern Roman Empire (today conventionally named the Byzantine Empire, a name not used during its own time[107]) became increasingly influenced by Greek culture after the 7th century when Emperor Heraclius (r.  610–641 AD) decided to make Greek the empire's official language.[108][109] Although the Catholic Church recognized the Eastern Empire's claim to the Roman legacy for several centuries, after Pope Leo III crowned Charlemagne, king of the Franks, as the "Roman Emperor" on 25 December 800, an act which eventually led to the formation of the Holy Roman Empire, the Latin West started to favour the Franks and began to refer to the Eastern Roman Empire largely as the Empire of the Greeks (Imperium Graecorum).[110][111] While this Latin term for the ancient Hellenes could be used neutrally, its use by Westerners from the 9th century onwards in order to challenge Byzantine claims to ancient Roman heritage rendered it a derogatory exonym for the Byzantines who barely used it, mostly in contexts relating to the West, such as texts relating to the Council of Florence, to present the Western viewpoint.[112][113] Additionally, among the Germanic and the Slavic peoples, the Rhōmaîoi were just called Greeks.[114][115]

There are three schools of thought regarding this Byzantine Roman identity in contemporary Byzantine scholarship: The first considers "Romanity" the mode of self-identification of the subjects of a multi-ethnic empire at least up to the 12th century, where the average subject identified as Roman; a perennialist approach, which views Romanity as the medieval expression of a continuously existing Greek nation; while a third view considers the eastern Roman identity as a pre-modern national identity.[116] The Byzantine Greeks' essential values were drawn from both Christianity and the Homeric tradition of ancient Greece.[117][118]

A distinct Greek identity re-emerged in the 11th century in educated circles and became more forceful after the fall of Constantinople to the Crusaders of the Fourth Crusade in 1204.[119] In the Empire of Nicaea, a small circle of the elite used the term "Hellene" as a term of self-identification.[120] For example, in a letter to Pope Gregory IX, the Nicaean emperor John III Doukas Vatatzes (r. 1221–1254) claimed to have received the gift of royalty from Constantine the Great, and put emphasis on his "Hellenic" descent, exalting the wisdom of the Greek people.[121] After the Byzantines recaptured Constantinople, however, in 1261, Rhomaioi became again dominant as a term for self-description and there are few traces of Hellene (Έλληνας), such as in the writings of George Gemistos Plethon,[122] who abandoned Christianity and in whose writings culminated the secular tendency in the interest in the classical past.[119] However, it was the combination of Orthodox Christianity with a specifically Greek identity that shaped the Greeks' notion of themselves in the empire's twilight years.[119] In the twilight years of the Byzantine Empire, prominent Byzantine personalities proposed referring to the Byzantine Emperor as the "Emperor of the Hellenes".[123][124] These largely rhetorical expressions of Hellenic identity were confined within intellectual circles, but were continued by Byzantine intellectuals who participated in the Italian Renaissance.[125]

The interest in the Classical Greek heritage was complemented by a renewed emphasis on Greek Orthodox identity, which was reinforced in the late Medieval and Ottoman Greeks' links with their fellow Orthodox Christians in the Russian Empire. These were further strengthened following the fall of the Empire of Trebizond in 1461, after which and until the second Russo-Turkish War of 1828–29 hundreds of thousands of Pontic Greeks fled or migrated from the Pontic Alps and Armenian Highlands to southern Russia and the Russian South Caucasus (see also Greeks in Russia, Greeks in Armenia, Greeks in Georgia, and Caucasian Greeks).[126]

These Byzantine Greeks were largely responsible for the preservation of the literature of the classical era.[118][127][128] Byzantine grammarians were those principally responsible for carrying, in person and in writing, ancient Greek grammatical and literary studies to the West during the 15th century, giving the Italian Renaissance a major boost.[129][130] The Aristotelian philosophical tradition was nearly unbroken in the Greek world for almost two thousand years, until the Fall of Constantinople in 1453.[131]

To the Slavic world, the Byzantine Greeks contributed by the dissemination of literacy and Christianity. The most notable example of the later was the work of the two Byzantine Greek brothers, the monks Saints Cyril and Methodius from the port city of Thessalonica, capital of the theme of Thessalonica, who are credited today with formalizing the first Slavic alphabet.[132]

Ottoman Empire

Main articles: Ottoman Greeks and Phanariotes
 
The Byzantine scholar and cardinal Basilios Bessarion (1395/1403–1472) played a key role in transmitting classical knowledge to Western Europe, contributing to the Renaissance.

Following the Fall of Constantinople on 29 May 1453, many Greeks sought better employment and education opportunities by leaving for the West, particularly Italy, Central Europe, Germany and Russia.[129] Greeks are greatly credited for the European cultural revolution, later called the Renaissance. In Greek-inhabited territory itself, Greeks came to play a leading role in the Ottoman Empire, due in part to the fact that the central hub of the empire, politically, culturally, and socially, was based on Western Thrace and Greek Macedonia, both in Northern Greece, and of course was centred on the mainly Greek-populated, former Byzantine capital, Constantinople. As a direct consequence of this situation, Greek-speakers came to play a hugely important role in the Ottoman trading and diplomatic establishment, as well as in the church. Added to this, in the first half of the Ottoman period men of Greek origin made up a significant proportion of the Ottoman army, navy, and state bureaucracy, having been levied as adolescents (along with especially Albanians and Serbs) into Ottoman service through the devshirme. Many Ottomans of Greek (or Albanian or Serb) origin were therefore to be found within the Ottoman forces which governed the provinces, from Ottoman Egypt, to Ottomans occupied Yemen and Algeria, frequently as provincial governors.

For those that remained under the Ottoman Empire's millet system, religion was the defining characteristic of national groups (milletler), so the exonym "Greeks" (Rumlar from the name Rhomaioi) was applied by the Ottomans to all members of the Orthodox Church, regardless of their language or ethnic origin.[133] The Greek speakers were the only ethnic group to actually call themselves Romioi,[134] (as opposed to being so named by others) and, at least those educated, considered their ethnicity (genos) to be Hellenic.[135] There were, however, many Greeks who escaped the second-class status of Christians inherent in the Ottoman millet system, according to which Muslims were explicitly awarded senior status and preferential treatment. These Greeks either emigrated, particularly to their fellow Orthodox Christian protector, the Russian Empire, or simply converted to Islam, often only very superficially and whilst remaining crypto-Christian. The most notable examples of large-scale conversion to Turkish Islam among those today defined as Greek Muslims—excluding those who had to convert as a matter of course on being recruited through the devshirme—were to be found in Crete (Cretan Turks), Greek Macedonia (for example among the Vallahades of western Macedonia), and among Pontic Greeks in the Pontic Alps and Armenian Highlands. Several Ottoman sultans and princes were also of part Greek origin, with mothers who were either Greek concubines or princesses from Byzantine noble families, one famous example being sultan Selim the Grim (r.  1517–1520), whose mother Gülbahar Hatun was a Pontic Greek.[136][137]

 
Adamantios Korais, leading figure of the Modern Greek Enlightenment

The roots of Greek success in the Ottoman Empire can be traced to the Greek tradition of education and commerce exemplified in the Phanariotes.[138] It was the wealth of the extensive merchant class that provided the material basis for the intellectual revival that was the prominent feature of Greek life in the half century and more leading to the outbreak of the Greek War of Independence in 1821.[139] Not coincidentally, on the eve of 1821, the three most important centres of Greek learning were situated in Chios, Smyrna and Aivali, all three major centres of Greek commerce.[139] Greek success was also favoured by Greek domination in the leadership of the Eastern Orthodox church.

Modern

See also: Modern Greek Enlightenment and Greek War of Independence

The movement of the Greek enlightenment, the Greek expression of the Age of Enlightenment, contributed not only in the promotion of education, culture and printing among the Greeks, but also in the case of independence from the Ottomans, and the restoration of the term "Hellene". Adamantios Korais, probably the most important intellectual of the movement, advocated the use of the term "Hellene" (Έλληνας) or "Graikos" (Γραικός) in the place of Romiós, that was seen negatively by him.

The relationship between ethnic Greek identity and Greek Orthodox religion continued after the creation of the modern Greek nation-state in 1830. According to the second article of the first Greek constitution of 1822, a Greek was defined as any native Christian resident of the Kingdom of Greece, a clause removed by 1840.[140] A century later, when the Treaty of Lausanne was signed between Greece and Turkey in 1923, the two countries agreed to use religion as the determinant for ethnic identity for the purposes of population exchange, although most of the Greeks displaced (over a million of the total 1.5 million) had already been driven out by the time the agreement was signed.[b][141] The Greek genocide, in particular the harsh removal of Pontian Greeks from the southern shore area of the Black Sea, contemporaneous with and following the failed Greek Asia Minor Campaign, was part of this process of Turkification of the Ottoman Empire and the placement of its economy and trade, then largely in Greek hands under ethnic Turkish control.[142]

Identity

 
The cover of Hermes o Logios, a Greek literary publication of the late 18th and early 19th centuries in Vienna with major contribution to the Modern Greek Enlightenment

The terms used to define Greekness have varied throughout history but were never limited or completely identified with membership to a Greek state.[143] Herodotus gave a famous account of what defined Greek (Hellenic) ethnic identity in his day, enumerating

  1. shared descent (ὅμαιμον, hómaimon, 'of the same blood')[144]
  2. shared language (ὁμόγλωσσον, homóglōsson, 'speaking the same tongue')[145]
  3. shared sanctuaries and sacrifices (θεῶν ἱδρύματά τε κοινὰ καὶ θυσίαι, theôn hidrúmatá te koinà kaì thusíai, 'common foundations, common sacrifices to gods')[146][147]
  4. shared customs (ἤθεα ὁμότροπα, ḗthea homótropa, 'customs of like fashion').[148][149][150]

By Western standards, the term Greeks has traditionally referred to any native speakers of the Greek language, whether Mycenaean, Byzantine or modern Greek.[133][151] Byzantine Greeks self-identified as Romaioi ("Romans"), Graikoi ("Greeks") and Christianoi ("Christians") since they were the political heirs of imperial Rome, the descendants of their classical Greek forebears and followers of the Apostles;[152] during the mid-to-late Byzantine period (11th–13th century), a growing number of Byzantine Greek intellectuals deemed themselves Hellenes although for most Greek-speakers, "Hellene" still meant pagan.[102][153] On the eve of the Fall of Constantinople the Last Emperor urged his soldiers to remember that they were the descendants of Greeks and Romans.[154]

Before the establishment of the modern Greek nation-state, the link between ancient and modern Greeks was emphasized by the scholars of Greek Enlightenment especially by Rigas Feraios. In his "Political Constitution", he addresses to the nation as "the people descendant of the Greeks".[155] The modern Greek state was created in 1829, when the Greeks liberated a part of their historic homelands, Peloponnese, from the Ottoman Empire.[156] The large Greek diaspora and merchant class were instrumental in transmitting the ideas of western romantic nationalism and philhellenism,[139] which together with the conception of Hellenism, formulated during the last centuries of the Byzantine Empire, formed the basis of the Diafotismos and the current conception of Hellenism.[119][133][157]

The Greeks today are a nation in the meaning of an ethnos, defined by possessing Greek culture and having a Greek mother tongue, not by citizenship, race, and religion or by being subjects of any particular state.[158] In ancient and medieval times and to some extent today the Greek term was genos, which also indicates a common ancestry.[159][160]

Names

Main articles: Achaeans (Homer) and Names of the Greeks
 
Map showing the major regions of mainland ancient Greece, and adjacent "barbarian" lands

Greeks and Greek-speakers have used different names to refer to themselves collectively. The term Achaeans (Ἀχαιοί) is one of the collective names for the Greeks in Homer's Iliad and Odyssey (the Homeric "long-haired Achaeans" would have been a part of the Mycenaean civilization that dominated Greece from c. 1600 BC until 1100 BC). The other common names are Danaans (Δαναοί) and Argives (Ἀργεῖοι) while Panhellenes (Πανέλληνες) and Hellenes (Ἕλληνες) both appear only once in the Iliad;[161] all of these terms were used, synonymously, to denote a common Greek identity.[162][163] In the historical period, Herodotus identified the Achaeans of the northern Peloponnese as descendants of the earlier, Homeric Achaeans.[164]

Homer refers to the "Hellenes" (/ˈhɛliːnz/) as a relatively small tribe settled in Thessalic Phthia, with its warriors under the command of Achilleus.[165] The Parian Chronicle says that Phthia was the homeland of the Hellenes and that this name was given to those previously called Greeks (Γραικοί).[166] In Greek mythology, Hellen, the patriarch of the Hellenes who ruled around Phthia, was the son of Pyrrha and Deucalion, the only survivors after the Great Deluge.[167] The Greek philosopher Aristotle names ancient Hellas as an area in Epirus between Dodona and the Achelous river, the location of the Great Deluge of Deucalion, a land occupied by the Selloi and the "Greeks" who later came to be known as "Hellenes".[168] In the Homeric tradition, the Selloi were the priests of Dodonian Zeus.[169]

In the Hesiodic Catalogue of Women, Graecus is presented as the son of Zeus and Pandora II, sister of Hellen the patriarch of the Hellenes.[170] According to the Parian Chronicle, when Deucalion became king of Phthia, the Graikoi (Γραικοί) were named Hellenes.[166] Aristotle notes in his Meteorologica that the Hellenes were related to the Graikoi.[168]

Etymology

The English names Greece and Greek are derived, via the Latin Graecia and Graecus, from the name of the Graeci (Γραικοί, Graikoí; singular Γραικός, Graikós), who were among the first ancient Greek tribes to settle southern Italy (the so-called "Magna Graecia"). The term is possibly derived from the Proto-Indo-European root *ǵerh₂-, "to grow old",[171][172] more specifically from Graea (ancient city), said by Aristotle to be the oldest in Greece, and the source of colonists for the Naples area.[173]

Continuity

 
Alexander the Great in Byzantine Emperor's clothes, by a manuscript depicting scenes from his life (between 1204 and 1453)

The most obvious link between modern and ancient Greeks is their language, which has a documented tradition from at least the 14th century BC to the present day, albeit with a break during the Greek Dark Ages from which written records are absent (11th- 8th cent. BC, though the Cypriot syllabary was in use during this period).[174] Scholars compare its continuity of tradition to Chinese alone.[174][175] Since its inception, Hellenism was primarily a matter of common culture and the national continuity of the Greek world is a lot more certain than its demographic.[46][176] Yet, Hellenism also embodied an ancestral dimension through aspects of Athenian literature that developed and influenced ideas of descent based on autochthony.[177] During the later years of the Eastern Roman Empire, areas such as Ionia and Constantinople experienced a Hellenic revival in language, philosophy, and literature and on classical models of thought and scholarship.[176] This revival provided a powerful impetus to the sense of cultural affinity with ancient Greece and its classical heritage.[176] Throughout their history, the Greeks have retained their language and alphabet, certain values and cultural traditions, customs, a sense of religious and cultural difference and exclusion (the word barbarian was used by 12th-century historian Anna Komnene to describe non-Greek speakers),[178] a sense of Greek identity and common sense of ethnicity despite the undeniable socio-political changes of the past two millennia.[176] In recent anthropological studies, both ancient and modern Greek osteological samples were analyzed demonstrating a bio-genetic affinity and continuity shared between both groups.[179][180] There is also a direct genetic link between ancient Greeks and modern Greeks.[181][182]

Demographics

Main articles: Demographics of Greece and Demographics of Cyprus

Today, Greeks are the majority ethnic group in the Hellenic Republic,[183] where they constitute 93% of the country's population,[184] and the Republic of Cyprus where they make up 78% of the island's population (excluding Turkish settlers in the occupied part of the country).[185] Greek populations have not traditionally exhibited high rates of growth; a large percentage of Greek population growth since Greece's foundation in 1832 was attributed to annexation of new territories, as well as the influx of 1.5 million Greek refugees after the 1923 population exchange between Greece and Turkey.[186] About 80% of the population of Greece is urban, with 28% concentrated in the city of Athens.[187]

Greeks from Cyprus have a similar history of emigration, usually to the English-speaking world because of the island's colonization by the British Empire. Waves of emigration followed the Turkish invasion of Cyprus in 1974, while the population decreased between mid-1974 and 1977 as a result of emigration, war losses, and a temporary decline in fertility.[188] After the ethnic cleansing of a third of the Greek population of the island in 1974,[189][190] there was also an increase in the number of Greek Cypriots leaving, especially for the Middle East, which contributed to a decrease in population that tapered off in the 1990s.[188] Today more than two-thirds of the Greek population in Cyprus is urban.[188]

Around 1990, most Western estimates of the number of ethnic Greeks in Albania were around 200,000 but in the 1990s, a majority of them migrated to Greece.[15][191] The Greek minority of Turkey, which numbered upwards of 200,000 people after the 1923 exchange, has now dwindled to a few thousand, after the 1955 Constantinople Pogrom and other state sponsored violence and discrimination.[192] This effectively ended, though not entirely, the three-thousand-year-old presence of Hellenism in Asia Minor.[193][194] There are smaller Greek minorities in the rest of the Balkan countries, the Levant and the Black Sea states, remnants of the Old Greek Diaspora (pre-19th century).[195]

Diaspora

Main article: Greek diaspora
 
Greek diaspora (20th century)

The total number of Greeks living outside Greece and Cyprus today is a contentious issue. Where census figures are available, they show around three million Greeks outside Greece and Cyprus. Estimates provided by the SAE – World Council of Hellenes Abroad put the figure at around seven million worldwide.[196] According to George Prevelakis of Sorbonne University, the number is closer to just below five million.[195] Integration, intermarriage, and loss of the Greek language influence the self-identification of the Greek diaspora (omogenia). Important centres include New York, Melbourne, London, and Toronto.[195] In 2010, the Hellenic Parliament introduced a law that allowed members of the diaspora to vote in Greek elections;[197] this law was repealed in early 2014.[198]

Ancient

See also: Colonies in antiquity
 
Greek colonization in antiquity

In ancient times, the trading and colonizing activities of the Greek tribes and city states spread the Greek culture, religion and language around the Mediterranean and Black Sea basins, especially in Southern Italy (the so-called "Magna Graecia"), Spain, the south of France and the Black sea coasts.[199] Under Alexander the Great's empire and successor states, Greek and Hellenizing ruling classes were established in the Middle East, India and in Egypt.[199] The Hellenistic period is characterized by a new wave of Greek colonization that established Greek cities and kingdoms in Asia and Africa.[200] Under the Roman Empire, easier movement of people spread Greeks across the Empire and in the eastern territories, Greek became the lingua franca rather than Latin.[108] The modern-day Griko community of southern Italy, numbering about 60,000,[19][20] may represent a living remnant of the ancient Greek populations of Italy.

Modern

 
Distribution of ethnic groups in 1918, National Geographic
 
Poet Constantine P. Cavafy, a native of Alexandria, Egypt

During and after the Greek War of Independence, Greeks of the diaspora were important in establishing the fledgling state, raising funds and awareness abroad.[201] Greek merchant families already had contacts in other countries and during the disturbances many set up home around the Mediterranean (notably Marseilles in France, Livorno in Italy, Alexandria in Egypt), Russia (Odesa and Saint Petersburg), and Britain (London and Liverpool) from where they traded, typically in textiles and grain.[202] Businesses frequently comprised the extended family, and with them they brought schools teaching Greek and the Greek Orthodox Church.[202]

As markets changed and they became more established, some families grew their operations to become shippers, financed through the local Greek community, notably with the aid of the Ralli or Vagliano Brothers.[203] With economic success, the Diaspora expanded further across the Levant, North Africa, India and the USA.[203][204]

In the 20th century, many Greeks left their traditional homelands for economic reasons resulting in large migrations from Greece and Cyprus to the United States, Great Britain, Australia, Canada, Germany, and South Africa, especially after the Second World War (1939–1945), the Greek Civil War (1946–1949), and the Turkish Invasion of Cyprus in 1974.[205]

While official figures remain scarce, polls and anecdotal evidence point to renewed Greek emigration as a result of the Greek financial crisis.[206] According to data published by the Federal Statistical Office of Germany in 2011, 23,800 Greeks emigrated to Germany, a significant increase over the previous year. By comparison, about 9,000 Greeks emigrated to Germany in 2009 and 12,000 in 2010.[207][208]

Culture

Main article: Culture of Greece

Greek culture has evolved over thousands of years, with its beginning in the Mycenaean civilization, continuing through the classical era, the Hellenistic period, the Roman and Byzantine periods and was profoundly affected by Christianity, which it in turn influenced and shaped.[209] Ottoman Greeks had to endure through several centuries of adversity that culminated in genocide in the 20th century.[210][211] The Diafotismos is credited with revitalizing Greek culture and giving birth to the synthesis of ancient and medieval elements that characterize it today.[119][133]

Language

Main articles: Greek language and Greek language question
 
Early Greek alphabet, c. 8th century BC
A Greek speaker

Most Greeks speak the Greek language, an independent branch of the Indo-European languages, with its closest relations possibly being Armenian (see Graeco-Armenian) or the Indo-Iranian languages (see Graeco-Aryan).[174] It has the longest documented history of any living language and Greek literature has a continuous history of over 2,500 years.[212] The oldest inscriptions in Greek are in the Linear B script, dated as far back as 1450 BC.[213] Following the Greek Dark Ages, from which written records are absent, the Greek alphabet appears in the 9th–8th century BC. The Greek alphabet derived from the Phoenician alphabet, and in turn became the parent alphabet of the Latin, Cyrillic, and several other alphabets. The earliest Greek literary works are the Homeric epics, variously dated from the 8th to the 6th century BC. Notable scientific and mathematical works include Euclid's Elements, Ptolemy's Almagest, and others. The New Testament was originally written in Koine Greek.[214]

Greek demonstrates several linguistic features that are shared with other Balkan languages, such as Albanian, Bulgarian and Eastern Romance languages (see Balkan sprachbund), and has absorbed many foreign words, primarily of Western European and Turkish origin.[215] Because of the movements of Philhellenism and the Diafotismos in the 19th century, which emphasized the modern Greeks' ancient heritage, these foreign influences were excluded from official use via the creation of Katharevousa, a somewhat artificial form of Greek purged of all foreign influence and words, as the official language of the Greek state. In 1976, however, the Hellenic Parliament voted to make the spoken Dimotiki the official language, making Katharevousa obsolete.[216]

Modern Greek has, in addition to Standard Modern Greek or Dimotiki, a wide variety of dialects of varying levels of mutual intelligibility, including Cypriot, Pontic, Cappadocian, Griko and Tsakonian (the only surviving representative of ancient Doric Greek).[217] Yevanic is the language of the Romaniotes, and survives in small communities in Greece, New York and Israel. In addition to Greek, many Greek citizens in Greece and the diaspora are bilingual in other languages such as English, Arvanitika/Albanian, Aromanian, Megleno-Romanian, Macedonian Slavic, Russian and Turkish.[174][218]

Religion

Main articles: Religion in ancient Greece and Greek Orthodox Church
 
Christ Pantocrator mosaic in Hagia Sophia, Istanbul

Most Greeks are Christians, belonging to the Greek Orthodox Church.[219] During the first centuries after Jesus Christ, the New Testament was originally written in Koine Greek, which remains the liturgical language of the Greek Orthodox Church, and most of the early Christians and Church Fathers were Greek-speaking.[209] There are small groups of ethnic Greeks adhering to other Christian denominations like Roman Catholics, Greek Catholics, Greek Evangelicals, Pentecostals, Mormons, and groups adhering to other religions including Romaniot and Sephardic Jews, Greek Muslims and Jehovah's Witnesses. About 2,000 Greeks are members of Hellenic Polytheistic Reconstructionism congregations.[220][221][222]

Greek-speaking Muslims live mainly outside Greece in the contemporary era. There are both Christian and Muslim Greek-speaking communities in Lebanon and Syria, while in the Pontus region of Turkey there is a large community of indeterminate size who were spared from the population exchange because of their religious affiliation.[223]

Arts

Further information: Greek art, Music of Greece, Ancient Greek architecture, Ancient Greek theatre, Modern Greek theatre, Cinema of Greece, Modern Greek architecture, and Modern Greek literature
See also: Greco-Buddhist art
 
Renowned Greek soprano Maria Callas

Greek art has a long and varied history. Greeks have contributed to the visual, literary and performing arts.[224] In the West, classical Greek art was influential in shaping the Roman and later the modern Western artistic heritage. Following the Renaissance in Europe, the humanist aesthetic and the high technical standards of Greek art inspired generations of European artists.[224] Well into the 19th century, the classical tradition derived from Greece played an important role in the art of the Western world.[225] In the East, Alexander the Great's conquests initiated several centuries of exchange between Greek, Central Asian and Indian cultures, resulting in Indo-Greek and Greco-Buddhist art, whose influence reached as far as Japan.[226]

Byzantine Greek art, which grew from the Hellenistic classical art and adapted the pagan motifs in the service of Christianity, provided a stimulus to the art of many nations.[227] Its influences can be traced from Venice in the West to Kazakhstan in the East.[227][228] In turn, Greek art was influenced by eastern civilizations (i.e. Egypt, Persia, etc.) during various periods of its history.[229]

Notable modern Greek artists include the major Renaissance painter Dominikos Theotokopoulos (El Greco), Nikolaos Gyzis, Nikiphoros Lytras, Konstantinos Volanakis, Theodoros Vryzakis, Georgios Jakobides, Thalia Flora-Karavia, Yannis Tsarouchis, Nikos Engonopoulos, Périclès Pantazis, Theophilos, Kostas Andreou, Jannis Kounellis, sculptors such as Leonidas Drosis, Georgios Bonanos, Yannoulis Chalepas, Athanasios Apartis, Konstantinos Dimitriadis and Joannis Avramidis, conductor Dimitri Mitropoulos, soprano Maria Callas, composers such as Mikis Theodorakis, Nikos Skalkottas, Nikolaos Mantzaros, Spyridon Samaras, Manolis Kalomiris, Iannis Xenakis, Manos Hatzidakis, Manos Loïzos, Yanni and Vangelis, the masters of rebetiko Markos Vamvakaris and Vassilis Tsitsanis, and singers such as Giorgos Dalaras, Haris Alexiou, Sotiria Bellou, Nana Mouskouri, Vicky Leandros and Demis Roussos. Poets such as Andreas Kalvos, Athanasios Christopoulos, Kostis Palamas, the writer of Hymn to Liberty Dionysios Solomos, Angelos Sikelianos, Kostas Karyotakis, Maria Polydouri, Yannis Ritsos, Kostas Varnalis, Nikos Kavvadias, Andreas Embirikos and Kiki Dimoula. Constantine P. Cavafy and Nobel laureates Giorgos Seferis and Odysseas Elytis are among the most important poets of the 20th century. Novel is also represented by Alexandros Papadiamantis, Emmanuel Rhoides, Ion Dragoumis, Nikos Kazantzakis, Penelope Delta, Stratis Myrivilis, Vassilis Vassilikos and Petros Markaris, while notable playwrights include the Cretan Renaissance poets Georgios Chortatzis and Vincenzos Cornaros, such as Gregorios Xenopoulos and Iakovos Kambanellis.

 
Eleftherios Venizelos was the leading political figure of 20th century Greece.

Notable cinema or theatre actors include Marika Kotopouli, Melina Mercouri, Ellie Lambeti, Academy Award winner Katina Paxinou, Alexis Minotis, Dimitris Horn, Thanasis Veggos, Manos Katrakis and Irene Papas. Alekos Sakellarios, Karolos Koun, Vasilis Georgiadis, Kostas Gavras, Michael Cacoyannis, Giannis Dalianidis, Nikos Koundouros and Theo Angelopoulos are among the most important directors.

Among the most significant modern-era architects are Stamatios Kleanthis, Lysandros Kaftanzoglou, Anastasios Metaxas, Panagis Kalkos, Anastasios Orlandos, the naturalized Greek Ernst Ziller, Dimitris Pikionis and urban planners Stamatis Voulgaris and George Candilis.

Science

See also: Ancient Greek philosophy, Greek mathematics, Ancient Greek medicine, Byzantine science, Greek scholars in the Renaissance, and List of Greek inventions and discoveries
 
Aristarchus of Samos was the first known individual to propose a heliocentric system, in the 3rd century BC.

The Greeks of the Classical and Hellenistic eras made seminal contributions to science and philosophy, laying the foundations of several western scientific traditions, such as astronomy, geography, historiography, mathematics, medicine, philosophy and political science. The scholarly tradition of the Greek academies was maintained during Roman times with several academic institutions in Constantinople, Antioch, Alexandria and other centers of Greek learning, while Byzantine science was essentially a continuation of classical science.[230] Greeks have a long tradition of valuing and investing in paideia (education).[89] Paideia was one of the highest societal values in the Greek and Hellenistic world while the first European institution described as a university was founded in 5th century Constantinople and operated in various incarnations until the city's fall to the Ottomans in 1453.[231] The University of Constantinople was Christian Europe's first secular institution of higher learning since no theological subjects were taught,[232] and considering the original meaning of the world university as a corporation of students, the world's first university as well.[231]

As of 2007, Greece had the eighth highest percentage of tertiary enrollment in the world (with the percentages for female students being higher than for male) while Greeks of the Diaspora are equally active in the field of education.[187] Hundreds of thousands of Greek students attend western universities every year while the faculty lists of leading Western universities contain a striking number of Greek names.[233] Notable Greek scientists of modern times include: physician Georgios Papanicolaou (pioneer in cytopathology, inventor of the Pap test); mathematician Constantin Carathéodory (acclaimed contributor to real and complex analysis and the calculus of variations); archaeologists Manolis Andronikos (unearthed the tomb of Philip II), Valerios Stais (recognised the Antikythera mechanism), Spyridon Marinatos (specialised in Mycenaean sites) and Ioannis Svoronos; chemists Leonidas Zervas (of Bergmann-Zervas synthesis and Z-group discovery fame), K. C. Nicolaou (first total synthesis of taxol) and Panayotis Katsoyannis (first chemical synthesis of insulin); computer scientists Michael Dertouzos and Nicholas Negroponte (known for their early work with the World Wide Web), John Argyris (co-creator of the FEM), Joseph Sifakis (2007 Turing Award), Christos Papadimitriou (2002 Knuth Prize) and Mihalis Yannakakis (2005 Knuth Prize); physicist-mathematician Demetrios Christodoulou (renowned for work on Minkowski spacetime) and physicists Achilles Papapetrou (known for solutions of general relativity), Dimitri Nanopoulos (extensive work on particle physics and cosmology), and John Iliopoulos (2007 Dirac Prize for work on the charm quark); astronomer Eugenios Antoniadis; biologist Fotis Kafatos (contributor to cDNA cloning technology); botanist Theodoros Orphanides; economist Xenophon Zolotas (held various senior posts in international organisations such as the IMF); Indologist Dimitrios Galanos; linguist Yiannis Psycharis (promoter of Demotic Greek); historians Constantine Paparrigopoulos (founder of modern Greek historiography) and Helene Glykatzi Ahrweiler (excelled in Byzantine studies); and political scientists Nicos Poulantzas (a leading Structural Marxist) and Cornelius Castoriadis (philosopher of history and ontologist, social critic, economist, psychoanalyst).

Significant engineers and automobile designers include Nikolas Tombazis, Alec Issigonis and Andreas Zapatinas.

Symbols

See also: Flag of Greece
 
The national flag of Greece is commonly used as a symbol for Greeks worldwide.
 
The flag of the Greek Orthodox Church is based on the coat of arms of the Palaiologoi, the last dynasty of the Byzantine Empire.

The most widely used symbol is the flag of Greece, which features nine equal horizontal stripes of blue alternating with white representing the nine syllables of the Greek national motto Eleftheria i Thanatos (Freedom or Death), which was the motto of the Greek War of Independence.[234] The blue square in the upper hoist-side corner bears a white cross, which represents Greek Orthodoxy. The Greek flag is widely used by the Greek Cypriots, although Cyprus has officially adopted a neutral flag to ease ethnic tensions with the Turkish Cypriot minority (see flag of Cyprus).[235]

The pre-1978 (and first) flag of Greece, which features a Greek cross (crux immissa quadrata) on a blue background, is widely used as an alternative to the official flag, and they are often flown together. The national emblem of Greece features a blue escutcheon with a white cross surrounded by two laurel branches. A common design involves the current flag of Greece and the pre-1978 flag of Greece with crossed flagpoles and the national emblem placed in front.[236]

Another highly recognizable and popular Greek symbol is the double-headed eagle, the imperial emblem of the last dynasty of the Eastern Roman Empire and a common symbol in Asia Minor and, later, Eastern Europe.[237] It is not part of the modern Greek flag or coat-of-arms, although it is officially the insignia of the Greek Army and the flag of the Church of Greece. It had been incorporated in the Greek coat of arms between 1925 and 1926.[238]

Politics

See also: Politics in Greece

Classical Athens is considered the birthplace of Democracy. The term appeared in the 5th century BC to denote the political systems then existing in Greek city-states, notably Athens, to mean "rule of the people", in contrast to aristocracy (ἀριστοκρατία, aristokratía), meaning "rule by an excellent elite", and to oligarchy. While theoretically these definitions are in opposition, in practice the distinction has been blurred historically.[239] Led by Cleisthenes, Athenians established what is generally held as the first democracy in 508–507 BC,[240] which took gradually the form of a direct democracy. The democratic form of government declined during the Hellenistic and Roman eras, only to be revived as an interest in Western Europe during the early modern period.

The European enlightenment and the democratic, liberal and nationalistic ideas of the French Revolution was a crucial factor to the outbreak of the Greek War of Independence and the establishment of the modern Greek state.[241][242]

Notable modern Greek politicians include Ioannis Kapodistrias, founder of the First Hellenic Republic, reformist Charilaos Trikoupis, Eleftherios Venizelos, who marked the shape of modern Greece, social democrats Georgios Papandreou and Alexandros Papanastasiou, Konstantinos Karamanlis, founder of the Third Hellenic Republic, and socialist Andreas Papandreou.

Surnames and personal names

See also: Greek name and Ancient Greek personal names

Greek surnames began to appear in the 9th and 10th century, at first among ruling families, eventually supplanting the ancient tradition of using the father's name as disambiguator.[243][244] Nevertheless, Greek surnames are most commonly patronymics,[243] such those ending in the suffix -opoulos or -ides, while others derive from trade professions, physical characteristics, or a location such as a town, village, or monastery.[244] Commonly, Greek male surnames end in -s, which is the common ending for Greek masculine proper nouns in the nominative case. Occasionally (especially in Cyprus), some surnames end in -ou, indicating the genitive case of a patronymic name.[245] Many surnames end in suffixes that are associated with a particular region, such as -akis (Crete), -eas or -akos (Mani Peninsula), -atos (island of Cephalonia), -ellis (island of Lesbos) and so forth.[244] In addition to a Greek origin, some surnames have Turkish or Latin/Italian origin, especially among Greeks from Asia Minor and the Ionian Islands, respectively.[246] Female surnames end in a vowel and are usually the genitive form of the corresponding males surname, although this usage is not followed in the diaspora, where the male version of the surname is generally used.

With respect to personal names, the two main influences are Christianity and classical Hellenism; ancient Greek nomenclatures were never forgotten but have become more widely bestowed from the 18th century onwards.[244] As in antiquity, children are customarily named after their grandparents, with the first born male child named after the paternal grandfather, the second male child after the maternal grandfather, and similarly for female children.[247] Personal names are often familiarized by a diminutive suffix, such as -akis for male names and -itsa or -oula for female names.[244] Greeks generally do not use middle names, instead using the genitive of the father's first name as a middle name. This usage has been passed on to the Russians and other East Slavs (otchestvo).

Sea: exploring and commerce

Main article: Greek shipping
 
Aristotle Onassis, the best-known Greek shipping magnate worldwide

The traditional Greek homelands have been the Greek peninsula and the Aegean Sea, Southern Italy (the so called "Magna Graecia"), the Black Sea, the Ionian coasts of Asia Minor and the islands of Cyprus and Sicily. In Plato's Phaidon, Socrates remarks, "we (Greeks) live around a sea like frogs around a pond" when describing to his friends the Greek cities of the Aegean.[248][249] This image is attested by the map of the Old Greek Diaspora, which corresponded to the Greek world until the creation of the Greek state in 1832. The sea and trade were natural outlets for Greeks since the Greek peninsula is mostly rocky and does not offer good prospects for agriculture.[46]

Notable Greek seafarers include people such as Pytheas of Massalia who sailed to Great Britain, Euthymenes who sailed to Africa, Scylax of Caryanda who sailed to India, the navarch of Alexander the Great Nearchus, Megasthenes, explorer of India, later the 6th century merchant and monk Cosmas Indicopleustes (Cosmas who sailed to India), and the explorer of the Northwestern Passage Ioannis Fokas also known as Juan de Fuca.[250] In later times, the Byzantine Greeks plied the sea-lanes of the Mediterranean and controlled trade until an embargo imposed by the Byzantine emperor on trade with the Caliphate opened the door for the later Italian pre-eminence in trade.[251] Panayotis Potagos was another explorer of modern times who was the first to reach Mbomu and Uele River from the north.

The Greek shipping tradition recovered during the late Ottoman rule (especially after the Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca and during the Napoleonic Wars), when a substantial merchant middle class developed, which played an important part in the Greek War of Independence.[119] Today, Greek shipping continues to prosper to the extent that Greece has one of the largest merchant fleets in the world, while many more ships under Greek ownership fly flags of convenience.[187] The most notable shipping magnate of the 20th century was Aristotle Onassis, others being Yiannis Latsis, Stavros G. Livanos, and Stavros Niarchos.[252][253]

Genetics

Further information: Mycenaean Greece § Genetic and anthropometric studies
See also: Genetic history of Europe and Roopkund § Human skeletons
 
Admixture analysis of autosomal SNPs of the Balkan region in a global context on the resolution level of 7 assumed ancestral populations: African (brown), South/West European (light blue), Asian (yellow), Middle Eastern (orange), South Asian (green), North/East European (dark blue) and Caucasian/Anatolian component (beige).
 
Factor correspondence analysis comparing different individuals from European ancestry groups

In their archaeogenetic study, Lazaridis et al. (2017) found that Minoans and Mycenaean Greeks were genetically highly similar, but not identical; modern Greeks resembled the Mycenaeans, but with some additional dilution of the early Neolithic ancestry. The results of the study support the idea of genetic continuity between these civilizations and modern Greeks, but not isolation in the history of populations of the Aegean, before and after the time of its earliest civilizations. Furthermore, proposed migrations by Egyptian or Phoenician colonists was not discernible in their data, thus "rejecting the hypothesis that the cultures of the Aegean were seeded by migrants from the old civilizations of these regions." The FST between the sampled Bronze Age populations and present-day West Eurasians was estimated, finding that Mycenaean Greeks and Minoans were least differentiated from the populations of modern Greece, Cyprus, Albania, and Italy.[181][182] In a subsequent study, Lazaridis et al. (2022) concluded that around ~58.4–65.8% of the ancestry of the Mycenaeans came from Anatolian Neolithic Farmers (ANF), while the remainder mainly came from ancient populations related to the Caucasus Hunter-Gatherers (CHG) (~20.1–22.7%) and the Pre-Pottery Neolithic (PPN) culture in the Levant (~7–14%). The Mycenaeans had also inherited ~3.3–5.5% ancestry from a source related to the Eastern European Hunter-Gatherers (EHG), introduced via a proximal source related to the inhabitants of the Eurasian steppe who are hypothesized to be the Proto-Indo-Europeans, and ~0.9–2.3% from the Iron Gates Hunter-Gatherers in the Balkans. Mycenaean elites were genetically the same as Mycenaean commoners in terms of their steppe ancestry, while some Mycenaeans lacked it altogether.[254][255]

A genetic study by Clemente et al. (2021) found that in the Early Bronze Age, the populations of the Minoan, Helladic, and Cycladic civilizations in the Aegean, were genetically homogeneous. In contrast, the Aegean population during the Middle Bronze Age was more differentiated; probably due to gene flow from a Yamnaya-related population from the Pontic–Caspian steppe. This is corroborated by sequenced genomes of Middle Bronze Age individuals from northern Greece, who had a much higher proportion of steppe-related ancestry; the timing of this gene flow was estimated at ~2,300 BCE, and is consistent with the dominant linguistic theories explaining the emergence of the Proto-Greek language. Present-day Greeks share ~90% of their ancestry with them, suggesting continuity between the two time periods. In the case of Mycenaean Greeks however, this steppe-related ancestry was diluted. The ancestry of the Mycenaeans could be explained via a 2-way admixture model of such MBA individuals in northern Greece, and either an EBA Aegean or MBA Minoan population; the difference between the two time periods could be explained by the general decline of the Mycenaean civilization.[256]

Genetic studies using multiple autosomal, Y-DNA, and mtDNA markers, show that Greeks share similar backgrounds as the rest of the Europeans and especially Southern Europeans (Italians and Balkan populations such as Albanians, Slavic Macedonians and Romanians). A study in 2008 showed that Greeks are genetically closest to Italians and Romanians[257] and another 2008 study showed that they are close to Italians, Albanians, Romanians and southern Balkan Slavs such as Slavic Macedonians and Bulgarians.[258] A 2003 study showed that Greeks cluster with other South European (mainly Italians) and North-European populations and are close to the Basques,[259] and FST distances showed that they group with other European and Mediterranean populations,[260][261] especially with Italians (−0.0001) and Tuscans (0.0005).[262] A study in 2008 showed that Greek regional samples from the mainland cluster with those from the Balkans, principally Albanians while Cretan Greeks cluster with the central Mediterranean and Eastern Mediterranean samples.[263] Studies using mitochondrial DNA gene markers (mtDNA) showed that Greeks group with other Mediterranean European populations[264][265][266] and principal component analysis (PCA) confirmed the low genetic distance between Greeks and Italians[267] and also revealed a cline of genes with highest frequencies in the Balkans and Southern Italy, spreading to lowest levels in Britain and the Basque country, which Cavalli-Sforza associates it with "the Greek expansion, which reached its peak in historical times around 1000 and 500 BC but which certainly began earlier".[268]

Physical appearance

 
 
 
Greek warriors, details from painted sarcophagus found in Italy, 350–325 BC

A study from 2013 for prediction of hair and eye colour from DNA of the Greek people showed that the self-reported phenotype frequencies according to hair and eye colour categories was as follows: 119 individuals – hair colour, 11 blond, 45 dark blond/light brown, 49 dark brown, 3 brown red/auburn and 11 had black hair; eye colour, 13 with blue, 15 with intermediate (green, heterochromia) and 91 had brown eye colour.[269]

Another study from 2012 included 150 dental school students from the University of Athens, and the results of the study showed that light hair colour (blonde/light ash brown) was predominant in 10.7% of the students. 36% had medium hair colour (light brown/medium darkest brown), 32% had darkest brown and 21% black (15.3 off black, 6% midnight black). In conclusion, the hair colour of young Greeks are mostly brown, ranging from light to dark brown with significant minorities having black and blonde hair. The same study also showed that the eye colour of the students was 14.6% blue/green, 28% medium (light brown) and 57.4% dark brown.[270]

Timeline

The history of the Greek people is closely associated with the history of Greece, Cyprus, Southern Italy, Constantinople, Asia Minor and the Black Sea. During the Ottoman rule of Greece, a number of Greek enclaves around the Mediterranean were cut off from the core, notably in Southern Italy, the Caucasus, Syria and Egypt. By the early 20th century, over half of the overall Greek-speaking population was settled in Asia Minor (now Turkey), while later that century a huge wave of migration to the United States, Australia, Canada and elsewhere created the modern Greek diaspora.

See also

Notes

  1. ^ There is a range of interpretations: Carl Blegen dates the arrival of the Greeks around 1900 BC, John Caskey believes that there were two waves of immigrants and Robert Drews places the event as late as 1600 BC.[60][61] Numerous other theories have also been supported,[62] but there is a general consensus that the Greek tribes arrived around 2100 BC.
  2. ^ While Greek authorities signed the agreement legalizing the population exchange this was done on the insistence of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk and after a million Greeks had already been expelled from Asia Minor (Gilbar 1997, p. 8).

Citations

  1. ^ Maratou-Alipranti 2013, p. 196: "The Greek diaspora remains large, consisting of up to 4 million people globally."
  2. ^ Clogg 2013, p. 228: "Greeks of the diaspora, settled in some 141 countries, were held to number 7 million although it is not clear how this figure was arrived at or what criteria were used to define Greek ethnicity, while the population of the homeland, according to the 1991 census, amounted to some 10.25 million."
  3. ^ . Hellenic Statistical Authority. 12 September 2014. Archived from the original on 16 July 2016. Retrieved 18 May 2016. The Resident Population of Greece is 10.816.286, of which 5.303.223 male (49,0%) and 5.513.063 female (51,0%) ... The total number of permanent residents of Greece with foreign citizenship during the Census was 912.000. [See Graph 6: Resident Population by Citizenship]
  4. ^ "Statistical Data on Immigrants in Greece: An Analytic Study of Available Data and Recommendations for Conformity with European Union Standards" (PDF). Archive of European Integration (AEI). University of Pittsburgh. 15 November 2004. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 18 May 2016. [p. 5] The Census recorded 762.191 persons normally resident in Greece and without Greek citizenship, constituting around 7% of total population. Of these, 48.560 are EU or EFTA nationals; there are also 17.426 Cypriots with privileged status.
  5. ^ . Archived from the original on 12 June 2018. Retrieved 12 May 2018.
  6. ^ Cole 2011, Yiannis Papadakis, "Cypriots, Greek", pp. 92–95
  7. ^ . themanews.com. Protothemanews.com. 2013. Archived from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 14 August 2015.
  8. ^ . Cystat.gov.cy. Archived from the original on 15 January 2013. Retrieved 6 August 2023.
  9. ^ "Total ancestry categories tallied for people with one or more ancestry categories reported 2011–2013 American Community Survey 3-Year Estimates". American FactFinder. U.S. Department of Commerce: United States Census Bureau. 2013. Archived from the original on 14 February 2020. Retrieved 23 May 2016.
  10. ^ "U.S. Relations with Greece". United States Department of State. 10 March 2016. from the original on 21 January 2017. Retrieved 18 May 2016. Today, an estimated three million Americans resident in the United States claim Greek descent. This large, well-organized community cultivates close political and cultural ties with Greece.
  11. ^ "Population in private households 2021 by migration background". from the original on 20 April 2019. Retrieved 6 August 2023.
  12. ^ "2021 Census of Population and Housing General Community Profile". Australian Bureau of Statistics. from the original on 28 June 2022. Retrieved 30 December 2022.
  13. ^ "United Kingdom: Cultural Relations and Greek Community". Hellenic Republic: Ministry of Foreign Affairs. 4 February 2011. from the original on 11 September 2018. Retrieved 19 April 2016.
  14. ^ "Immigration and Ethnocultural Diversity Highlight Tables". statcan.gc.ca.
  15. ^ a b Bideleux, Robert; Jeffries, Ian (2007). The Balkans : a post-communist history. London: Routledge. p. 49. ISBN 978-0-203-96911-3. OCLC 85373407. from the original on 29 May 2020. Retrieved 17 December 2022. It is difficult to know how many ethnic Greeks there were in Albania before the exodus of refugees during the early to mid-1990s. The Albanian government claimed there were only 60,000, based on the biased 1989 census, whereas the Greek government claimed there were upwards of 300,000. Most Western estimates were around the 200,000 mark
  16. ^ . AusGreekNet. Archived from the original on 19 June 2006.
  17. ^ . Hellenic Republic: Ministry of Foreign Affairs. 4 February 2011. Archived from the original on 19 June 2006.
  18. ^ "Italy: Cultural Relations and Greek Community". Hellenic Republic: Ministry of Foreign Affairs. 9 July 2013. from the original on 14 May 2016. Retrieved 4 May 2016. The Greek Italian community numbers some 30,000 and is concentrated mainly in central Italy. The age-old presence in Italy of Italians of Greek descent – dating back to Byzantine and Classical times – is attested to by the Griko dialect, which is still spoken in the Magna Graecia region. This historically Greek-speaking villages are Condofuri, Galliciano, Roccaforte del Greco, Roghudi, Bova and Bova Marina, which are in the Calabria region (the capital of which is Reggio). The Grecanic region, including Reggio, has a population of some 200,000, while speakers of the Griko dialect number fewer that 1,000 persons.
  19. ^ a b (in Italian). Unione dei Comuni della Grecìa Salentina. 2016. Archived from the original on 19 August 2014. Retrieved 4 May 2016. La popolazione complessiva dell'Unione è di 54278 residenti così distribuiti (Dati Istat al 31° dicembre 2005. Comune Popolazione Calimera 7351 Carpignano Salentino 3868 Castrignano dei Greci 4164 Corigliano d'Otranto 5762 Cutrofiano 9250 Martano 9588 Martignano 1784 Melpignano 2234 Soleto 5551 Sternatia 2583 Zollino 2143 Totale 54278).
  20. ^ a b Bellinello 1998, p. 53: "Le attuali colonie Greche calabresi; La Grecìa calabrese si inscrive nel massiccio aspromontano e si concentra nell'ampia e frastagliata valle dell'Amendolea e nelle balze più a oriente, dove sorgono le fiumare dette di S. Pasquale, di Palizzi e Sidèroni e che costituiscono la Bovesia vera e propria. Compresa nei territori di cinque comuni (Bova Superiore, Bova Marina, Roccaforte del Greco, Roghudi, Condofuri), la Grecia si estende per circa 233 km (145 mi)q. La popolazione anagrafica complessiva è di circa 14.000 unità."
  21. ^ "English version of Greek Ministry of Foreign Affairs reports a few thousand and Greek version 3.800". MFA.gr. Archived from the original on 4 January 2015. Retrieved 21 August 2019.
  22. ^ Rippin, Andrew (2008). World Islam: Critical Concepts in Islamic Studies. Routledge. p. 77. ISBN 978-0415456531.
  23. ^ Parvex R. (2014). Le Chili et les mouvements migratoires 1 August 2020 at the Wayback Machine, Hommes & migrations, Nº 1305, 2014. doi:10.4000/hommesmigrations.2720 27 September 2023 at the Wayback Machine.
  24. ^ "Ukraine: Cultural Relations and Greek Community". Hellenic Republic: Ministry of Foreign Affairs. 4 February 2011. from the original on 21 October 2016. Retrieved 19 April 2016. There is a significant Greek presence in southern and eastern Ukraine, which can be traced back to ancient Greek and Byzantine settlers. Ukrainian citizens of Greek descent amount to 91,000 people, although their number is estimated to be much higher by the Federation of Greek communities of Mariupol.
  25. ^ "Итоги Всероссийской переписи населения 2010 года в отношении демографических и социально-экономических характеристик отдельных национальностей". from the original on 13 May 2020. Retrieved 4 February 2016.
  26. ^ . Archived from the original on 13 June 2007.
  27. ^ "France: Cultural Relations and Greek Community". Hellenic Republic: Ministry of Foreign Affairs. 9 July 2013. from the original on 21 October 2016. Retrieved 19 April 2016. Some 15,000 Greeks reside in the wider region of Paris, Lille and Lyon. In the region of Southern France, the Greek community numbers some 20,000.
  28. ^ "Belgium: Cultural Relations and Greek Community". Hellenic Republic: Ministry of Foreign Affairs. 28 January 2011. from the original on 11 September 2018. Retrieved 19 April 2016. Some 35,000 Greeks reside in Belgium. Official Belgian data numbers Greeks in the country at 17,000, but does not take into account Greeks who have taken Belgian citizenship or work for international organizations and enterprises.
  29. ^ "Argentina: Cultural Relations and Greek Community". Hellenic Republic: Ministry of Foreign Affairs. 9 July 2013. from the original on 11 September 2018. Retrieved 15 April 2016. It is estimated that some 20,000 to 30,000 persons of Greek origin currently reside in Argentina, and there are Greek communities in the wider region of Buenos Aires.
  30. ^ "CBS Statline". from the original on 28 May 2019. Retrieved 18 January 2020.
  31. ^ "Bevolking; geslacht, leeftijd, generatie en migratieachtergrond, 1 januari" (in Dutch). Central Bureau of Statistics (CBS). 22 July 2021. from the original on 28 May 2019. Retrieved 16 January 2022.
  32. ^ "Население по местоживеене, възраст и етническа група". censusresults.nsi.bg. from the original on 19 May 2023. Retrieved 15 October 2020.
  33. ^ "Bulgaria: Cultural Relations and Greek Community". Hellenic Republic: Ministry of Foreign Affairs. 28 January 2011. from the original on 11 September 2018. Retrieved 19 April 2016. There are some 28,500 persons of Greek origin and citizenship residing in Bulgaria. This number includes approximately 15,000 Sarakatsani, 2,500 former political refugees, 8,000 "old Greeks", 2,000 university students and 1,000 professionals and their families.
  34. ^ (PDF) (in Spanish). INE. Archived from the original (PDF) on 16 August 2013. Retrieved 6 March 2013.
  35. ^ "Sweden: Cultural Relations and Greek Community". Hellenic Republic: Ministry of Foreign Affairs. 4 February 2011. from the original on 5 April 2013. Retrieved 5 October 2019. The Greek community in Sweden consists of approximately 24,000 Greeks who are permanent inhabitants, included in Swedish society and active in various sectors: science, arts, literature, culture, media, education, business, and politics.
  36. ^ "Georgia: Cultural Relations and Greek Community". Hellenic Republic: Ministry of Foreign Affairs. 31 January 2011. from the original on 23 April 2016. Retrieved 15 April 2016. The Greek community of Georgia is currently estimated at 15,000 people, mostly elderly people living in the Tsalkas area.
  37. ^ "Migranti z Řecka v Česku" [Migrants from Greece in the Czech Republic] (PDF). Hellenic Republic: Ministry of Foreign Affairs (in Czech). 9 March 2011. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 25 April 2019.
  38. ^ "Kazakhstan: Cultural Relations and Greek Community". Hellenic Republic: Ministry of Foreign Affairs. 3 February 2011. from the original on 23 April 2016. Retrieved 15 April 2016. There are between 10,000 and 12,000 ethnic Greeks living in Kazakhstan, organized in several communities.
  39. ^ "Switzerland: Cultural Relations and Greek Community". Hellenic Republic: Ministry of Foreign Affairs. 10 December 2015. from the original on 21 October 2016. Retrieved 19 April 2016. The Greek community in Switzerland is estimated to number some 11,000 persons (of a total of 1.5 million foreigners residing in the country.
  40. ^ "Romania: Cultural Relations and Greek Community". Hellenic Republic: Ministry of Foreign Affairs. 6 December 2013. from the original on 8 August 2016. Retrieved 19 April 2016. The Greek Romanian community numbers some 10,000, and there are many Greeks working in established Greek enterprises in Romania.
  41. ^ "Greeks in Uzbekistan". Central Asia-Caucasus Analyst. The Central Asia-Caucasus Institute. 21 June 2000. from the original on 13 June 2010. Retrieved 24 December 2008. Currently there are about 9,500 Greeks living in Uzbekistan, with 6,500 living in Tashkent.
  42. ^ "Bevölkerung nach Staatsangehörigkeit und Geburtsland". from the original on 13 November 2019. Retrieved 31 July 2015.
  43. ^ Vukovich, Gabriella (2018). Mikrocenzus 2016 – 12. Nemzetiségi adatok [2016 microcensus – 12. Ethnic data] (PDF) (in Hungarian). Budapest. ISBN 978-963-235-542-9. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 9 January 2019. {{cite book}}: |work= ignored (help)CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  44. ^ . Minority Rights Group (MRG). 2005. Archived from the original on 29 March 2014. Retrieved 1 March 2014.
  45. ^ "Pontic". Ethnologue: Languages of the World. SIL International. 2016. from the original on 6 June 2019. Retrieved 13 May 2016.
  46. ^ a b c d e Roberts 2007, pp. 171–172, 222.
  47. ^ Latacz 2004, pp. 159, 165–166.
  48. ^ a b c d Sutton 1996.
  49. ^ Beaton 1996, pp. 1–25.
  50. ^ CIA World Factbook on Greece: Greek Orthodox 98%, Greek Muslim 1.3%, other 0.7%.
  51. ^ Thomas Heath (1981). A History of Greek Mathematics. Courier Dover Publications. p. 1. ISBN 978-0-486-24073-2. from the original on 16 February 2023. Retrieved 19 August 2013.
  52. ^ Tulloch, A. (2017). Understanding English Homonyms: Their Origins and Usage. Hong Kong University Press. p. 153. ISBN 978-988-8390-64-9. Retrieved 30 November 2023. Greek is the world's oldest recorded living language.
  53. ^ Kurt Aland, Barbara Aland The text of the New Testament: an introduction to the critical 1995 p. 52
  54. ^ Archibald Macbride Hunter Introducing the New Testament 1972 p. 9
  55. ^ Bubenik, V. (2007). "The rise of Koiné". In A. F. Christidis (ed.). A History of Ancient Greek: From the Beginnings to Late Antiquity. Cambridge: University Press. pp. 342–345.
  56. ^ Guibernau & Hutchinson 2004, p. 23: "Indeed, Smith emphasizes that the myth of divine election sustains the continuity of cultural identity, and, in that regard, has enabled certain pre-modern communities such as the Jews, Armenians, and Greeks to survive and persist over centuries and millennia (Smith 1993: 15–20)."
  57. ^ Smith 1999, p. 21: "It emphasizes the role of myths, memories and symbols of ethnic chosenness, trauma, and the 'golden age' of saints, sages, and heroes in the rise of modern nationalism among the Jews, Armenians, and Greeks—the archetypal diaspora peoples."
  58. ^ Bryce 2006, p. 91
  59. ^ Cadogan 1986, p. 125
  60. ^ Bryce 2006, p. 92
  61. ^ Drews 1994, p. 21
  62. ^ Mallory & Adams 1997, p. 243
  63. ^ "The Greeks". Encyclopædia Britannica. US: Encyclopædia Britannica Inc. 2008. Online Edition.
  64. ^ Chadwick 1976, p. 2
  65. ^ a b "Linear A and Linear B". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc. from the original on 6 April 2019. Retrieved 3 March 2016.
  66. ^ Castleden 2005, p. 228.
  67. ^ Tartaron 2013, p. 28; Schofield 2006, pp. 71–72; Panayotou 2007, pp. 417–426.
  68. ^ Hall 2014, p. 43.
  69. ^ Chadwick 1976, p. 176.
  70. ^ a b Castleden 2005, p. 2.
  71. ^ Hansen 2004, p. 7; Podzuweit 1982, pp. 65–88.
  72. ^ Castleden 2005, p. 235; Dietrich 1974, p. 156.
  73. ^ Burckhardt 1999, p. 168: "The establishment of these Panhellenic sites, which yet remained exclusively Hellenic, was a very important element in the growth and self-consciousness of Hellenic nationalism; it was uniquely decisive in breaking down enmity between tribes, and remained the most powerful obstacle to fragmentation into mutually hostile poleis."
  74. ^ Zuwiyya 2011, pp. 142–143; Budin 2009, pp. 66–67.
  75. ^ Morgan 1990, pp. 1–25, 148–190.
  76. ^ "Ancient Greek Civilization". Encyclopædia Britannica. United States: Encyclopædia Britannica Inc. 18 February 2016. Online Edition. from the original on 17 November 2019. Retrieved 21 June 2022.
  77. ^ Konstan 2001, pp. 29–50.
  78. ^ Steinberger 2000, p. 17; Burger 2008, pp. 57–58.
  79. ^ Burger 2008, pp. 57–58: "Poleis continued to go to war with each other. The Peloponnesian War (431–404 BC) made this painfully clear. The war (really two wars punctuated by a peace) was a duel between Greece's two leading cities, Athens and Sparta. Most other poleis, however, got sucked into the conflict as allies of one side or the other ... The fact that Greeks were willing to fight for their cities against other Greeks in conflicts like the Peloponnesian War showed the limits of the pull of Hellas compared with that of the polis."
  80. ^ Fox, Robin Lane (2004). "Riding with Alexander". Archaeology. The Archaeological Institute of America. from the original on 2 November 2012. Retrieved 27 December 2008. Alexander inherited the idea of an invasion of the Persian Empire from his father Philip whose advance-force was already out in Asia in 336 BC. Philips campaign had the slogan of "freeing the Greeks" in Asia and "punishing the Persians" for their past sacrileges during their own invasion (a century and a half earlier) of Greece. No doubt, Philip wanted glory and plunder.
  81. ^ Brice 2012, pp. 281–286.
  82. ^ "Alexander the Great". Columbia Encyclopedia. United States: Columbia University Press. 2008. Online Edition.
  83. ^ Green 2008, p. xiii.
  84. ^ Morris, Ian (December 2005). "Growth of the Greek Colonies in the First Millennium BC" (PDF). Princeton/Stanford Working Papers in Classics. Princeton/Stanford University. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022.
  85. ^ a b Boardman, Griffin & Murray 1991, p. 364
  86. ^ Arun, Neil (7 August 2007). "Alexander's Gulf outpost uncovered". BBC News. from the original on 2 January 2016. Retrieved 15 June 2009.
  87. ^ Grant 1990, Introduction.
  88. ^ a b "Hellenistic age". Encyclopædia Britannica. United States: Encyclopædia Britannica Inc. 27 May 2015. Online Edition. from the original on 14 April 2020. Retrieved 21 June 2022.
  89. ^ a b c d Harris 1991, pp. 137–138.
  90. ^ Lucore 2009, p. 51: "The Hellenistic period is commonly portrayed as the great age of Greek scientific discovery, above all in mathematics and astronomy."
  91. ^ Foltz 2010, pp. 43–46.
  92. ^ Burton 1993, pp. 244–245.
  93. ^ Zoch 2000, p. 136.
  94. ^ "Hellenistic religion". Encyclopædia Britannica. United States: Encyclopædia Britannica Inc. 13 May 2015. Online Edition. from the original on 27 June 2019. Retrieved 21 June 2022.
  95. ^ Ferguson 2003, pp. 617–618.
  96. ^ Dunstan 2011, p. 500.
  97. ^ Milburn 1988, p. 158.
  98. ^ Makrides 2009, p. 206.
  99. ^ Nicholas, Nick. (2019). "A critical lexicostatistical examination of Ancient and Modern Greek and Tsakonian". Journal of Applied Linguistics and Lexicography. 1 (1): 19. doi:10.33910/2687-0215-2019-1-1-18-68.
  100. ^ Kaldellis 2007, pp. 35–40.
  101. ^ Howatson 1989, p. 264: "From the fourth century AD onwards the Greeks of the eastern Roman empire called themselves Rhomaioi ('Romans') ..."
  102. ^ a b Cameron 2009, p. 7.
  103. ^ Harrison 2002, p. 268: "Roman, Greek (if not used in its sense of 'pagan') and Christian became synonymous terms, counterposed to 'foreigner', 'barbarian', 'infidel'. The citizens of the Empire, now predominantly of Greek ethnicity and language, were often called simply ό χριστώνυμος λαός ['the people who bear Christ's name']."
  104. ^ Earl 1968, p. 148.
  105. ^ Paul the Silentiary. Descriptio S. Sophiae et Ambonis, 425, Line 12 ("χῶρος ὅδε Γραικοῖσι"); Theodore the Studite. Epistulae, 419, Line 30 ("ἐν Γραικοῖς").
  106. ^ Angelov 2007, p. 96; Makrides 2009, Chapter 2: "Christian Monotheism, Orthodox Christianity, Greek Orthodoxy", p. 74; Magdalino 1991, Chapter XIV: "Hellenism and Nationalism in Byzantium", p. 10.
  107. ^ "Byzantine Empire". Encyclopædia Britannica. United States: Encyclopædia Britannica Inc. 23 December 2015. Online Edition. from the original on 4 September 2019. Retrieved 21 June 2022.
  108. ^ a b Haldon 1997, p. 50.
  109. ^ Shahid 1972, pp. 295–296, 305.
  110. ^ Klein 2004, p. 290 (Note #39); Annales Fuldenses, 389: "Mense lanuario c. epiphaniam Basilii, Graecorum imperatoris, legati cum muneribus et epistolis ad Hludowicum regem Radasbonam venerunt ...".
  111. ^ Fouracre & Gerberding 1996, p. 345: "The Frankish court no longer regarded the Byzantine Empire as holding valid claims of universality; instead it was now termed the 'Empire of the Greeks'."
  112. ^ Page 2008, pp. 66, 87, 256
  113. ^ Kaplanis 2014, pp. 86–7
  114. ^ Jakobsson, Sverrir (1 January 2016). "The Varangian legend: testimony from the Old Norse sources". Academia.edu. from the original on 11 April 2022. Retrieved 1 December 2021.
  115. ^ Herrin, Judith; Saint-Guillain, Guillaume (2011). Identities and Allegiances in the Eastern Mediterranean After 1204. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. p. 111. ISBN 9781409410980. from the original on 27 September 2023. Retrieved 1 December 2021.
  116. ^ Stouraitis 2014, pp. 176, 177.
  117. ^ Finkelberg 2012, p. 20.
  118. ^ a b Burstein 1988, pp. 47–49.
  119. ^ a b c d e f "Greece during the Byzantine period (c. AD 300–c. 1453), Population and languages, Emerging Greek identity". Encyclopædia Britannica. United States: Encyclopædia Britannica Inc. 2008. Online Edition.
  120. ^ Angold 1975, p. 65, Page 2008, p. 127.
  121. ^ "Byzantium 1220 To 1330 - PDF - Byzantine Empire - Constantinople". Scribd. 5 August 2021. from the original on 11 August 2016. Retrieved 1 December 2021.
  122. ^ Kaplanis 2014, p. 92.
  123. ^ Vasiliev, Alexander A. (1964). History of the Byzantine Empire, 324–1453. University of Wisconsin Press. p. 582. ISBN 9780299809256.
  124. ^ Jane Perry Clark Carey; Andrew Galbraith Carey (1968). The Web of Modern Greek Politics. Columbia University Press. p. 33. ISBN 9780231031707. from the original on 27 September 2023. Retrieved 11 September 2018. By the end of the fourteenth century the Byzantine emperor was often called "Emperor of the Hellenes"
  125. ^ Mango 1965, p. 33.
  126. ^ See for example Anthony Bryer, 'The Empire of Trebizond and the Pontus' (Variourum, 1980), and his 'Migration and Settlement in the Caucasus and Anatolia' (Variourum, 1988), and other works listed in Caucasian Greeks and Pontic Greeks.
  127. ^ Norwich 1998, p. xxi.
  128. ^ Harris 1999, Part II Medieval Libraries: Chapter 6 Byzantine and Moslem Libraries, pp. 71–88
  129. ^ a b "Renaissance". Encyclopædia Britannica. United States: Encyclopædia Britannica Inc. 30 March 2016. Online Edition. from the original on 16 June 2015. Retrieved 21 June 2022.
  130. ^ Robins 1993, p. 8.
  131. ^ "Aristotelianism". Encyclopædia Britannica. United States: Encyclopædia Britannica Inc. 2016. Online Edition. from the original on 21 October 2019. Retrieved 21 June 2022.
  132. ^ "Cyril and Methodius, Saints". The Columbia Encyclopedia. United States: Columbia University Press. 2016. Online Edition. from the original on 5 June 2016. Retrieved 10 May 2016.
  133. ^ a b c d Mazower 2000, pp. 105–107.
  134. ^ "History of Europe, The Romans". Encyclopædia Britannica. United States: Encyclopædia Britannica Inc. 2008. Online Edition.
  135. ^ Mavrocordatos, Nicholaos (1800). Philotheou Parerga. Grēgorios Kōnstantas (Original from Harvard University Library). Γένος μεν ημίν των άγαν Ελλήνων
  136. ^ "Manastırlar". www.macka.gov.tr (in Turkish). from the original on 9 June 2023. Retrieved 24 June 2021.
  137. ^ Bahadıroğlu, Yavuz (2007). Resimli Osmanlı tarihi ([10.baskı : Eylül 2007] ed.). İstanbul: Nesil yayınları. p. 157. ISBN 978-975-269-299-2. OCLC 235010971.
  138. ^ "Phanariote". Encyclopædia Britannica. United States: Encyclopædia Britannica Inc. 2016. Online Edition. from the original on 23 October 2019. Retrieved 21 June 2022.
  139. ^ a b c "History of Greece, Ottoman Empire, The merchant middle class". Encyclopædia Britannica. United States: Encyclopædia Britannica Inc. 2008. Online Edition.
  140. ^ "Greek Constitution of 1822 (Epidaurus)" (PDF) (in Greek). 1822. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022.
  141. ^ Barutciski 2003, p. 28; Clark 2006, pp. xi–xv; Hershlag 1980, p. 177; Özkırımlı & Sofos 2008, pp. 116–117.
  142. ^ Üngör 2008, pp. 15–39.
  143. ^ Broome 1996, "Greek Identity", pp. 22–27
  144. ^ ὅμαιμος 25 February 2021 at the Wayback Machine, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, on Perseus
  145. ^ ὁμόγλωσσος 25 February 2021 at the Wayback Machine, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, on Perseus
  146. ^ I. Polinskaya, "Shared sanctuaries and the gods of others: On the meaning Of 'common' in Herodotus 8.144", in: R. Rosen & I. Sluiter (eds.), Valuing others in Classical Antiquity (LEiden: Brill, 2010), 43–70.
  147. ^ Macan, Reginald Walter (1908). "8. 144". . Macmillan & Co. Ltd. Archived from the original on 13 September 2023. Retrieved 7 October 2023 – via Perseus.
  148. ^ ὁμότροπος 25 February 2021 at the Wayback Machine, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, on Perseus)
  149. ^ Herodotus, 8.144.2: "The kinship of all Greeks in blood and speech, and the shrines of gods and the sacrifices that we have in common, and the likeness of our way of life."
  150. ^ Athena S. Leoussi, Steven Grosby, Nationalism and Ethnosymbolism: History, Culture and Ethnicity in the Formation of Nations, Edinburgh University Press, 2006, p. 115
  151. ^ Adrados 2005, p. xii.
  152. ^ Finkelberg 2012, p. 20; Harrison 2002, p. 268; Kazhdan & Constable 1982, p. 12; Runciman 1970, p. 14.
  153. ^ Ševčenko 2002, p. 284.
  154. ^ Sphrantzes, George (1477). The Chronicle of the Fall.
  155. ^ Feraios, Rigas. New Political Constitution of the Inhabitants of Rumeli, Asia Minor, the Islands of the Aegean, and the Principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia.
  156. ^ Koliopoulos & Veremis 2002, p. 277.
  157. ^ Smith 2003, p. 98: "After the Ottoman conquest in 1453, recognition by the Turks of the Greek millet under its Patriarch and Church helped to ensure the persistence of a separate ethnic identity, which, even if it did not produce a "precocious nationalism" among the Greeks, provided the later Greek enlighteners and nationalists with a cultural constituency fed by political dreams and apocalyptic prophecies of the recapture of Constantinople and the restoration of Greek Byzantium and its Orthodox emperor in all his glory."
  158. ^ Tonkin, Chapman & McDonald 1989.
  159. ^ Patterson 1998, pp. 18–19.
  160. ^ Psellos, Michael (1994). Michaelis Pselli Orationes Panegyricae. Stuttgart/Leipzig: Walter de Gruyter. p. 33. ISBN 978-0-297-82057-4.
  161. ^ See Iliad, II.2.530 for "Panhellenes" and Iliad II.2.653 for "Hellenes".
  162. ^ Cartledge 2011, Chapter 4: Argos, p. 23: "The Late Bronze Age in Greece is also called conventionally 'Mycenaean', as we saw in the last chapter. But it might in principle have been called 'Argive', 'Achaean', or 'Danaan', since the three names that Homer does apply to Greeks collectively were 'Argives', 'Achaeans', and 'Danaans'."
  163. ^ Nagy 2014, Texts and Commentaries – Introduction #2: "Panhellenism is the least common denominator of ancient Greek civilization ... The impulse of Panhellenism is already at work in Homeric and Hesiodic poetry. In the Iliad, the names "Achaeans" and "Danaans" and "Argives" are used synonymously in the sense of Panhellenes = "all Hellenes" = "all Greeks.""
  164. ^ Herodotus. Histories, 7.94 and 8.73.
  165. ^ Homer. Iliad, 2.681–685
  166. ^ a b The Parian Marble, Entry #6 23 August 2017 at the Wayback Machine: "From when Hellen [son of] Deuc[alion] became king of [Phthi]otis and those previously called Graekoi were named Hellenes."
  167. ^ Pseudo-Apollodorus. Bibliotheca.
  168. ^ a b Aristotle. Meteorologica, 1.14 29 June 2011 at the Wayback Machine: "The deluge in the time of Deucalion, for instance took place chiefly in the Greek world and in it especially about ancient Hellas, the country about Dodona and the Achelous."
  169. ^ Homer. Iliad, 16.233–16.235: "King Zeus, lord of Dodona ... you who hold wintry Dodona in your sway, where your prophets the Selloi dwell around you."
  170. ^ Hesiod. Catalogue of Women, Fragment 5.
  171. ^ Starostin, Sergei (1998). The Tower of Babel: An Etymological Database Project.
  172. ^ Watkins, Calvert (2000). The American Heritage Dictionary of Indo-European Roots. Boston, New York: Houghton Mifflin Company. ISBN 0618082506.
  173. ^ Aristotle, Meteorologica I.xiv
  174. ^ a b c d Adrados 2005, pp. xii, 3–5.
  175. ^ Browning 1983, p. vii: "The Homeric poems were first written down in more or less their present form in the seventh century B.C. Since then Greek has enjoyed a continuous tradition down to the present day. Change there has certainly been. But there has been no break like that between Latin and Romance languages. Ancient Greek is not a foreign language to the Greek of today as Anglo-Saxon is to the modern Englishman. The only other language which enjoys comparable continuity of tradition is Chinese."
  176. ^ a b c d Smith 1991, pp. 29–32.
  177. ^ Isaac 2004, p. 504: "Autochthony, being an Athenian idea and represented in many Athenian texts, is likely to have influenced a broad public of readers, wherever Greek literature was read."
  178. ^ Anna Comnena. Alexiad, Books 1–15.
  179. ^ Papagrigorakis, Kousoulis & Synodinos 2014, p. 237: "Interpreted with caution, the craniofacial morphology in modern and ancient Greeks indicates elements of ethnic group continuation within the unavoidable multicultural mixtures."
  180. ^ Argyropoulos, Sassouni & Xeniotou 1989, p. 200: "An overall view of the finding obtained from these cephalometric analyses indicates that the Greek ethnic group has remained genetically stable in its cephalic and facial morphology for the last 4,000 years."
  181. ^ a b Gibbons, Ann (2 August 2017). "The Greeks really do have near-mythical origins, ancient DNA reveals". Science. doi:10.1126/science.aan7200.
  182. ^ a b Lazaridis et al. 2017
  183. ^ (PDF) (in Greek). Hellenic Statistical Authority. 2001. Archived from the original (PDF) on 6 February 2009. Retrieved 7 January 2009.
  184. ^ "CIA Factbook". Central Intelligence Agency. United States Government. 2007. from the original on 9 January 2021. Retrieved 19 December 2008.
  185. ^ . Γραφείο Τύπου και Πληροφοριών, Υπουργείο Εσωτερικών, Κυπριακή Δημοκρατία. Archived from the original on 3 February 2017. Retrieved 11 June 2016.
  186. ^ "Greece: Demographic trends". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc. 2016. Online Edition. from the original on 17 July 2019. Retrieved 21 June 2022.
  187. ^ a b c "Merchant Marine, Tertiary enrollment by age group". Pocket World in Figures (Economist). London: Economist Books. 2006. p. 150. ISBN 978-1-86197-825-7.
  188. ^ a b c "Cyprus: Demographic trends". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc. 2016. Online Edition. from the original on 22 June 2008. Retrieved 21 June 2022.
  189. ^ Papadakis, Peristianis & Welz 2006, pp. 2–3; Borowiec 2000, p. 2; Rezun 2001, p. 6; Brown 2004, p. 48.
  190. ^ Yotopoulos-Marangopoulos 2001, p. 24: "In occupied Cyprus on the other hand, where heavy ethnic cleansing took place, only 300 Greek Cypriots remain from the original 200,000!"
  191. ^ Georgiou, Myria (2004). Mapping Minorities and their Media: The National Context – Greece (PDF). London School of Economics. (PDF) from the original on 14 December 2022. Retrieved 17 December 2022. "The long and adventurous 20th century history of migration in Greece can be drawn by period: .... 1990's: The vast majority of the 200,000 ethnic Greeks from Albania".
  192. ^ Gilson, George (24 June 2005). . Athens News. Archived from the original on 17 June 2008. Retrieved 19 December 2008.
  193. ^ Vryonis 2005, pp. 1–10.
  194. ^ Birand, Mehm; et al. (7 September 2005). "The shame of Sept. 6–7 is always with us". Hürriyet Daily News. Archived from the original on 9 December 2012. Retrieved 19 December 2008.
  195. ^ a b c Prevelakis, George (2003). "Finis Greciae or the Return of the Greeks? State and Diaspora in the Context of Globalisation" (PDF). Oxford: Transnational Communities Programme (Working Paper Series). Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 16 May 2016.
  196. ^ . SAE. 29 December 2006. Archived from the original on 21 July 2011. Retrieved 19 December 2008.
  197. ^ . Greek Ministry of Foreign Affairs. 15 July 2008. Archived from the original on 16 February 2012. Retrieved 19 December 2008.
  198. ^ "Non-Greeks and diaspora lose out on voting rights". Ekathimerini.com. 8 February 2014. from the original on 13 January 2015. Retrieved 13 January 2015.
  199. ^ a b Boardman 1984, pp. 199–289.
  200. ^ Horden & Purcell 2000, pp. 111, 128.
  201. ^ Calotychos 2003, p. 16.
  202. ^ a b McCabe & Harlaftis 2005, pp. 147–149.
  203. ^ a b Kardasis 2001, pp. xvii–xxi.
  204. ^ Clogg 2000, "The Greeks in America"
  205. ^ Laliotou 2004, pp. 85–92.
  206. ^ Seiradaki, Emmanouela (11 April 2012). "As Crisis Deepens, Astoria Finds Its Greek Essence Again". Greek Reporter. GreekReporter.com. from the original on 25 February 2019. Retrieved 21 May 2016.
  207. ^ Papachristou, Harry; Elgood, Giles (20 May 2012). "Greece Already Close to Breaking Point". The Fiscal Times. Reuters. from the original on 30 July 2013. Retrieved 22 May 2012.
  208. ^ Hannon, Paul (27 June 2012). "OECD Says Euro-Zone Crisis Has Led to Some Emigration". The Wall Street Journal. from the original on 24 February 2019. Retrieved 21 May 2016.
  209. ^ a b van der Horst 1998, pp. 9–11; Voegelin & Moulakis 1997, pp. 175–179
  210. ^ (PDF) (Press release). International Association of Genocide Scholars. 16 December 2007. Archived from the original (PDF) on 27 February 2008.
  211. ^ Bjørnlund 2008, pp. 41–58; Schaller & Zimmerer 2008, pp. 7–14; Levene 1998, p. 393; Tatz 2003, pp. xiii, 178.
  212. ^ "Greek literature". Encyclopædia Britannica. United States: Encyclopædia Britannica Inc. 27 August 2014. Online Edition. from the original on 21 June 2020. Retrieved 21 June 2022.
  213. ^ . Comité International Permanent des Études Mycéniennes, UNESCO. Archived from the original on 15 October 2013. Retrieved 29 April 2012.
  214. ^ Aland, K.; Aland, B. (1995). The Text of the New Testament. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. ISBN 978-0-8028-4098-1.
  215. ^ Winford 2003, p. 71.
  216. ^ Mackridge 1990, p. 25.
  217. ^ Tomić 2006, p. 703.
  218. ^ Fasold 1984, p. 160.
  219. ^ "Greece". PewForum. 4 April 2014. from the original on 23 October 2018. Retrieved 4 April 2014.
  220. ^ Head, James (20 March 2007). "The ancient gods of Greece are not extinct". New Statesman. p. The Faith Column. from the original on 12 June 2018. Retrieved 12 May 2016.
  221. ^ de Quetteville, Harry (8 May 2004). "Modern Athenians fight for the right to worship the ancient Greek gods". The Telegraph. Archived from the original on 11 January 2022. Retrieved 12 May 2016.
  222. ^ "Freedom of Religion in Greece". International Religious Freedom Report. United States Department of State. 2006. from the original on 9 February 2020. Retrieved 12 May 2016.
  223. ^ Tsokalidou, Roula (2002). "Greek-Speaking Enclaves of Lebanon and Syria" (PDF). Actas/Proceedings II Simposio Internacional Bilingüismo. Roula Tsokalidou (Primary School Education Department, University of Thessaly, Greece). pp. 1245–1255. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022.
  224. ^ a b Osborne 1998, pp. 1–3.
  225. ^ Pollitt 1972, pp. xii–xv.
  226. ^ Puri 1987, pp. 28–29.
  227. ^ a b Mango 1986, pp. ix–xiv, 183.
  228. ^ "The Byzantine empire, The lasting glory of its art". The Economist. 4 October 2007. from the original on 21 February 2010. Retrieved 10 May 2016.
  229. ^ Stansbury-O'Donnell 2015; Tarbell 1907.
  230. ^ . Antiqua Medicina. University of Virginia. 2007. Archived from the original on 10 October 2018. Retrieved 10 May 2016.
  231. ^ a b Bump, Jerome. . The Origin of Universities. University of Texas at Austin. Archived from the original on 20 February 2009. Retrieved 19 December 2008.
  232. ^ Tatakes & Moutafakis 2003, p. 189.
  233. ^ "University reforms in Greece face student protests". The Economist. 6 July 2006. from the original on 7 December 2008. Retrieved 19 December 2008.
  234. ^ Papadakis 1995, p. 55.
  235. ^ . Law 851, Gov. Gazette 233, issue A, dated 21/22.12.1978. Presidency of the Hellenic Republic. Archived from the original on 15 October 2008. Retrieved 19 December 2008.
  236. ^ "Older Flags: 19 December 2008". Flags of the Greeks. Skafidas Zacharias. from the original on 14 May 2010. Retrieved 23 December 2008. [Note: Website contains image of the 1665 original for the current Greek flag.]
  237. ^ Grierson & Bellinger 1999, "Eagles", pp. 85–86
  238. ^ "Byzantine Flags". Byzantine Heraldry. François Velde. 1997. from the original on 6 January 2014. Retrieved 13 May 2016.
  239. ^ Wilson, N.G. (2006). Encyclopedia of ancient Greece. New York: Routledge. p. 511. ISBN 0-415-97334-1.
  240. ^ R. Po-chia Hsia, Lynn Hunt, Thomas R. Martin, Barbara H. Rosenwein, and Bonnie G. Smith, The Making of the West, Peoples and Cultures, A Concise History, Volume I: To 1740 (Boston and New York: Bedford/St. Martin's, 2007), 44.
  241. ^ Clogg, A Concise History of Greece , pp. 25–26
  242. ^ Goldstein, Wars and Peace Treaties, p. 20
  243. ^ a b Wickham 2005, p. 237.
  244. ^ a b c d e . Lexicon of Greek Personal Names. Oxford University. Archived from the original on 22 July 2018. Retrieved 10 May 2016.
  245. ^ Fong 2004, p. 39.
  246. ^ Koliopoulos 1987, p. xii.
  247. ^ . Lexicon of Greek Personal Names. Oxford University. Archived from the original on 16 August 2018. Retrieved 16 October 2016.
  248. ^ Plato. Phaidon, 109c: "ὥσπερ περὶ τέλμα μύρμηκας ἢ βατράχους περὶ τὴν θάλατταν οἰκοῦντας."
  249. ^ Harl 1996, p. 260: "Cities employed the coins of an empire that formed a community of cities encircling the Mediterranean Sea, which Romans audaciously called "Our Sea" (mare nostrum). "We live around a sea like frogs around a pond" was how Socrates, so Plato tells us, described to his friends the Hellenic cities of the Aegean in the late fifth century B.C."
  250. ^ Pletcher 2013; Casson 1991, p. 124; Winstedt 1909, pp. 1–3; Withey 1989, p. 42.
  251. ^ Brown 2001, pp. 30–32; Postan, Miller & Postan 1987, pp. 132–166
  252. ^ Blyth, Myrna (12 August 2004). . National Review. Archived from the original on 7 December 2008. Retrieved 19 December 2008.
  253. ^ Smith, Helena (6 October 2006). "Callas takes centre stage again as exhibition recalls Onassis's life". The Guardian. from the original on 24 February 2019. Retrieved 13 May 2016.
  254. ^ Lazaridis et al. 2022, pp. 1–13, Supplementary Materials: pp. 233–241 27 September 2023 at the Wayback Machine
  255. ^ "Lecture by Prof. David Reich - "The Genetic History of the Southern Arc: A Bridge between West Asia & Europe"". iias.huji.ac.il. from the original on 2 February 2023. Retrieved 21 June 2022.
  256. ^ Clemente et al. 2021
  257. ^ Lao, Oscar; et al. (2008). "Correlation between genetic and geographic structure in Europe". Current Biology. 18 (16): 1241–1248. Bibcode:2008CBio...18.1241L. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2008.07.049. PMID 18691889. S2CID 16945780.
  258. ^ Novembre, John; et al. (2008). "Genes mirror geography within Europe". Nature. 456 (7218): 98–101. Bibcode:2008Natur.456...98N. doi:10.1038/nature07331. PMC 2735096. PMID 18758442.
  259. ^ Ayub, Q (2003). "Reconstruction of human evolutionary tree using polymorphic autosomal microsatellites". American Journal of Physical Anthropology. 122 (3): 259–268. doi:10.1002/ajpa.10234. PMID 14533184. S2CID 467540.
  260. ^ Cavalli-Sforza, Luigi Luca; Menozzi, Paolo; Piazza, Alberto (1996). The History and Geography of Human Genes. Princeton University Press. pp. 255–301. ISBN 978-0691029054.
  261. ^ Bauchet, M; et al. (2007). "Measuring European population stratification with microarray genotype data". Am. J. Hum. Genet. 80 (5): 948–956. doi:10.1086/513477. PMC 1852743. PMID 17436249.
  262. ^ Tian, Chao; et al. (2009). "European Population Genetic Substructure: Further Definition of Ancestry Informative Markers for Distinguishing Among Diverse European Ethnic Groups". Molecular Medicine. 15 (11–12): 371–383. doi:10.2119/molmed.2009.00094. PMC 2730349. PMID 19707526.
  263. ^ King, Roy J.; et al. (2008). "Differential Y-chromosome Anatolian influences on the Greek and Cretan Neolithic". Annals of Human Genetics. 72 (Pt 2): 205–214. doi:10.1111/j.1469-1809.2007.00414.x. PMID 18269686. S2CID 22406638.
  264. ^ Richards, Martin; et al. (2002). "In search of geographical patterns in European mitochondrial DNA". Am. J. Hum. Genet. 71 (5): 1168–1174. doi:10.1086/342930. PMC 385092. PMID 12355353.
  265. ^ Richards, Martin; et al. (2000). "Tracing European founder Lineages in the Near Eastern mtDNA pool". Am. J. Hum. Genet. 67 (5): 1251–1276. doi:10.1016/S0002-9297(07)62954-1. PMC 1288566. PMID 11032788.
  266. ^ Achilli, Alessandro; et al. (2007). "Mitochondrial DNA variation of modern Tuscans supports the Near Eastern origin of Etruscans". Am. J. Hum. Genet. 80 (4): 759–768. doi:10.1086/512822. PMC 1852723. PMID 17357081.
  267. ^ Tian, Chao; et al. (2008). "Analysis and Application of European Genetic Substructure Using 300 K SNP Information". PLOS Genetics. 4 (1): e4. doi:10.1371/journal.pgen.0040004. PMC 2211544. PMID 18208329.
  268. ^ Cavalli-Sforza, Luigi Luca; Piazza, Alberto (1993). "Human genomic diversity in Europe: a summary of recent research and prospects for the future". Eur J Hum Genet. 1 (1): 3–18. doi:10.1159/000472383. PMID 7520820. S2CID 25475102.
  269. ^ Walsh 2013, pp. 98–115.
  270. ^ Lagouvardos et al. 2012
  271. ^ McEnroe, John C. (2010). Architecture of Minoan Crete: Constructing Identity in the Aegean Bronze Age. Web: University of Texas Press. pp. 117–120, 122, 126–130.
  272. ^ Beckman, Gary; Bryce, Trevor; Cline, Eric (2012). The Ahhiyawa Texts. Brill. pp. 268–270. ISBN 978-1589832688. The archaeological and textual evidence clearly demonstrates that there were well-established connections between the Aegean and western Anatolia during the late-fifteenth through the thirteenth centuries B.C.E
  273. ^ R. J. Rummel. "Statistics of Democide". Chapter 5, Statistics of Turkey's Democide Estimates, Calculations, And Sources. from the original on 25 August 2012. Retrieved 4 October 2006.
  274. ^ Smith, Helena (19 January 2015). "Young, gifted and Greek: Generation G – the world's biggest brain drain". The Guardian. from the original on 11 March 2019. Retrieved 17 December 2016.
  275. ^ Lowen, Mark (29 May 2013). "Greece's young: Dreams on hold as fight for jobs looms". BBC News. from the original on 25 February 2019. Retrieved 25 July 2013. The brain drain is quickening. A recent study by the University of Thessaloniki found that more than 120,000 professionals, including doctors, engineers and scientists, have left Greece since the start of the crisis in 2010.
  276. ^ Melander, Ingrid (28 October 2011). "Greeks seek to escape debt crisis abroad". Reuters. from the original on 2 January 2016. Retrieved 25 July 2013.

References

  • Adrados, Francisco Rodriguez (2005). A History of the Greek Language: From its Origins to the Present. Leiden: Brill Academic Publishers. ISBN 978-90-04-12835-4. from the original on 15 July 2023. Retrieved 4 May 2016.
  • Angelov, Dimiter (2007). Imperial Ideology and Political Thought in Byzantium (1204–1330). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-85703-1. from the original on 27 September 2023. Retrieved 2 May 2016.
  • Angold, Michael (1975). "Byzantine 'Nationalism' and the Nicaean Empire". Byzantine and Modern Greek Studies. 1 (1): 49–70. doi:10.1179/030701375790158257. S2CID 161584160.
  • Argyropoulos, Evangelos; Sassouni, Viken; Xeniotou, Anna (1 September 1989). "A comparative cephalometric investigation of the Greek craniofacial pattern through 4,000 years". The Angle Orthodontist. 59 (3): 195–204. PMID 2672905. from the original on 1 August 2020. Retrieved 17 May 2020.
  • Atkinson, Quentin D.; Gray, Russel D. (2006). "Chapter 8: How Old is the Indo-European Language Family? Illumination or More Moths to the Flame?". In Forster, Peter; Renfrew, Colin (eds.). Phylogenetic Methods and the Prehistory of Languages. Cambridge: McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research. pp. 91–109. ISBN 978-1-902937-33-5.
  • Barutciski, Michael (2003). "3 Lausanne Revisited: Population Exchanges in International Law and Policy". In Hirschon, Renée (ed.). Crossing the Aegean: The Consequences of the 1923 Greek-Turkish Population Exchange (Studies in Forced Migration). New York: Berghahn Books. ISBN 978-1-57181-562-0.
  • Beaton, Roderick (1996). The Medieval Greek Romance (2nd ed.). New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-12032-6.
  • Bellinello, Pier Francesco (1998). Minoranze Etniche e Linguistiche (in Italian). Cosenza: Editoriale Bios. ISBN 978-88-7740-121-2.
  • Bjørnlund, Matthias (February 2008). "The 1914 Cleansing of Aegean Greeks as a Case of Violent Turkification". Journal of Genocide Research. 10 (1): 41–58. doi:10.1080/14623520701850286. S2CID 72975930.
  • Boardman, John; Griffin, Jasper; Murray, Oswyn, eds. (1991) [1986]. The Oxford History of Greece and the Hellenistic World. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-285247-2.
  • Boardman, John (1984). "13. The Greek World". In Boardman, John (ed.). The Cambridge Ancient History: Plates to Volume III, the Middle East, the Greek World and the Balkans to the Sixth Century B.C. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 199–289. ISBN 978-0-521-24289-9.
  • Borowiec, Andrew (2000). Cyprus: A Troubled Island. London and Westport, CT: Praeger. ISBN 978-0-275-96533-4.
  • Brice, Lee L. (2012). Greek Warfare: From the Battle of Marathon to the Conquests of Alexander the Great. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO, LLC. ISBN 978-1-61069-069-0.
  • Broome, Benjamin J. (1996). Exploring the Greek Mosaic: A Guide to Intercultural Communication in Greece. Yarmouth, ME: Intercultural Press. ISBN 978-1-931930-39-0.
  • Brown, Neville (2004). Global Instability and Strategic Defence. New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-30413-9.
  • Bryce, Trevor (2006). The Trojans and Their Neighbours. Routledge. ISBN 978-0415349550.
  • Budin, Stephanie Lynn (2009) [2004]. The Ancient Greeks: An Introduction. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-537984-6.
  • Burckhardt, Jacob (1999) [1872]. The Greeks and Greek Civilization. New York: St. Martin's Press. ISBN 978-0-312-24447-7.
  • Burger, Michael (2008). The Shaping of Western Civilization: From Antiquity to the Enlightenment. Ontario: Broadview Press. ISBN 978-1-55111-432-3.
  • Burstein, Stanley M. (1988). "The Greek Tradition from Alexander to the End of Antiquity". In Thomas, Carol G. (ed.). Paths from Ancient Greece. Leiden: BRILL. pp. 27–50. ISBN 978-90-04-08846-7.
  • Brown, Thomas (2001). "The Transformation of the Roman Mediterranean, 400–900". In Holmes, George (ed.). The Oxford History of Medieval Europe. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 1–58. ISBN 978-0-19-280133-3.
  • Browning, Robert (1983) [1969]. Medieval and Modern Greek. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-23488-7. from the original on 27 September 2023. Retrieved 7 May 2016.
  • Burton, Watson (1993). Records of the Grand Historian by Sima Qian, Han Dynasty II (Revised ed.). New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0-231-08166-5.
  • Cadogan, Gerald, ed. (1986). The End of the Early Bronze Age in the Aegean. Leiden: E. J. Brill. ISBN 90-04-07309-4.
  • Calotychos, Vangelis (2003). Modern Greece: A Cultural Poetics. Oxford and New York: Berg. ISBN 978-1-85973-716-3.
  • Cameron, Averil (2009). The Byzantines. Oxford: John Wiley and Sons. ISBN 978-1-4051-9833-2. from the original on 27 September 2023. Retrieved 2 May 2016.
  • Cartledge, Paul (2011). Ancient Greece: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-960134-9. from the original on 27 September 2023. Retrieved 4 May 2016.
  • Castleden, Rodney (2005). The Mycenaeans. London and New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-36336-5. from the original on 15 January 2023. Retrieved 22 April 2016.
  • Casson, Lionel (1991). The Ancient Mariners: Seafarers and Sea Fighters of the Mediterranean in Ancient Times. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-01477-7.
  • Chadwick, John (1976). The Mycenaean World. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-29037-1.
  • Clark, Bruce (2006). Twice A Stranger: How Mass Expulsion Forged Modern Greece and Turkey. London: Granta Books. ISBN 978-1-86207-752-2.
  • Clemente, Florian; Unterländer, Martina; Dolgova, Olga; Amorim, Carlos Eduardo G.; et al. (13 May 2021). "The genomic history of the Aegean palatial civilizations". Cell. 184 (10): 2565–2586.e21. doi:10.1016/j.cell.2021.03.039. ISSN 0092-8674. PMC 8127963. PMID 33930288.
  • Clogg, Richard (2013) [1992]. A Concise History of Greece. Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-107-65644-4. from the original on 27 September 2023. Retrieved 16 May 2016.
  • Clogg, Richard (2000). The Greek Diaspora in the Twentieth Century. Basingstoke, Hampshire: Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-333-60047-4.
  • Cole, Jeffrey, ed. (2011). Ethnic Groups of Europe: An Encyclopedia. Ethnic Groups of the World Series. Santa Barbara and Oxford: ABC-CLIO Incorporated. ISBN 978-1-59884-302-6. from the original on 11 March 2023. Retrieved 13 May 2016.
  • Dietrich, Bernard Clive (1974). The Origins of Greek Religion. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter. ISBN 978-3-11-003982-5. from the original on 27 September 2023. Retrieved 22 April 2016.
  • Drews, Robert (1994). The Coming of the Greeks: Indo-European Conquests in the Aegean and the Near East. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-02951-1.
  • Dunstan, William (2011). Ancient Rome. Lanham and New York: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. ISBN 978-0-7425-6834-1.
  • Earl, Donald C. (1968). The Age of Augustus. New York: Exeter Books (Paul Elek Productions Incorporated). from the original on 27 September 2023. Retrieved 21 June 2020.
  • Fasold, Ralph W. (1984). The Sociolinguistics of Society. Oxford and New York: Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 978-0-631-13462-6.
  • Ferguson, Everett (2003). Backgrounds of Early Christianity. Grand Rapids, MI: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company. ISBN 978-0-8028-2221-5.
  • Finkelberg, Margalit (2012). "Canonising and Decanonising Homer: Reception of the Homeric Poems in Antiquity and Modernity". In Niehoff, Maren R. (ed.). Homer and the Bible in the Eyes of Ancient Interpreters. Leiden: BRILL. pp. 15–28. ISBN 978-90-04-22134-5. from the original on 15 July 2023. Retrieved 2 May 2016.
  • Foltz, Richard (2010) [1999]. Religions of the Silk Road: Premodern Patterns of Globalization (2nd ed.). New York: Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-230-62125-1.
  • Fong, Mary (2004). "3. Ethnic and Cultural Identity: Distinguishing Features". In Fong, Mary; Chuang, Rueyling (eds.). Communicating Ethnic and Cultural Identity. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. pp. 35–50. ISBN 978-0-7425-1739-4.
  • Fouracre, Paul; Gerberding, Richard A. (1996). Late Merovingian France: History and Hagiography, 640–720. Manchester: Manchester University Press. ISBN 978-0-7190-4791-6.
  • Georgiev, Vladimir Ivanov (1981). Introduction to the History of the Indo-European Languages. Sofia: Bulgarian Academy of Sciences. ISBN 9789535172611. from the original on 26 March 2023. Retrieved 15 April 2016.
  • Gilbar, Gad G. (1997). Population Dilemmas in the Middle East: Essays in Political Demography and Economy. London and Portland: Frank Cass. ISBN 978-0-7146-4706-7.
  • Grant, Michael (1990). The Hellenistic Greeks: From Alexander to Cleopatra. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson. ISBN 978-0-297-82057-4.
  • Gray, Russel D.; Atkinson, Quentin D. (2003). "Language-tree Divergence Times Support the Anatolian Theory of Indo-European Origin". Nature. 426 (6965): 435–439. Bibcode:2003Natur.426..435G. doi:10.1038/nature02029. PMID 14647380. S2CID 42340. from the original on 18 June 2021. Retrieved 1 September 2020.
  • Green, Peter (2008). Alexander the Great and the Hellenistic Age: A Short History. London: Phoenix. ISBN 978-0-7538-2413-9. from the original on 27 September 2023. Retrieved 2 May 2016.
  • Grierson, Philip; Bellinger, Alfred Raymond (1999). Catalogue of the Byzantine Coins in the Dumbarton Oaks Collection and in the Whittemore Collection (Volume Five: Michael VIII to Constantine XI 1258–1453). Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks. ISBN 978-0-88402-261-9.
  • Guibernau, Montserrat; Hutchinson, John, eds. (2004). History and National Destiny: Ethnosymbolism and its Critics. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 978-1-4051-2391-4.
  • Haldon, John F. (1997). Byzantium in the Seventh Century: The Transformation of a Culture. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-31917-1. from the original on 27 September 2023. Retrieved 17 May 2020.
  • Hall, Jonathan M. (2014) [2007]. A History of the Archaic Greek World, ca. 1200–479 BCE. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 978-0-631-22667-3.
  • Hansen, William F. (2004). Handbook of Classical Mythology. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-1-57607-226-4. from the original on 27 September 2023. Retrieved 31 August 2017.
  • Harl, Kenneth W. (1996). Coinage in the Roman Economy, 300 B.C. to A.D. 700, Part 700. Baltimore and London: The Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 978-0-8018-5291-6. from the original on 27 September 2023. Retrieved 10 May 2016.
  • Harris, William Vernon (1991) [1989]. Ancient Literacy. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-03837-0.
  • Harris, Michael H. (1999) [1995]. History of Libraries in the Western World (4th ed.). Lanham, MD: The Scarecrow Press Incorporated. ISBN 978-0-8108-7715-3.
  • Harrison, Thomas (2002). Greeks and Barbarians. New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-93958-4. from the original on 27 September 2023. Retrieved 7 May 2016.
  • Hershlag, Zvi Yehuda (1980). Introduction to the Modern Economic History of the Middle East. Leiden: E.J. Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-06061-6.
  • Horden, Peregrine; Purcell, Nicholas (2000). The Corrupting Sea: A Study of Mediterranean History. Oxford and Malden: Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 978-0-631-21890-6.
  • Howatson, M.C. (1989). The Oxford Companion to Classical Literature. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-866121-4.
  • Isaac, Benjamin H. (2004). The Invention of Racism in Classical Antiquity. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-12598-5. from the original on 27 September 2023. Retrieved 4 May 2016.
  • Jeffries, Ian (2002). Eastern Europe at the Turn of the Twenty-First Century: A Guide to the Economies in Transition. London and New York: Routledge (Taylor & Francis). ISBN 978-0-415-23671-3. from the original on 27 September 2023. Retrieved 19 April 2016.
  • Kaldellis, Anthony (2007). Hellenism in Byzantium: The Transformations of Greek Identity and the Reception of the Classical Tradition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-87688-9. from the original on 27 September 2023. Retrieved 28 April 2016.
  • Kaplanis, Tassos (2014). "Antique Names and Self-Identification: Hellenes, Graikoi, and Romaioi from Late Byzantium to the Greek Nation-State". In Tziovas, Dimitris (ed.). Re-imagining the Past: Antiquity and Modern Greek Culture. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 81–97. from the original on 12 March 2022. Retrieved 28 December 2017.
  • Kardasis, Vassilis (2001). Diaspora Merchants in the Black Sea: The Greeks in Southern Russia, 1775–1861. Lanham and Oxford: Lexington Books. ISBN 978-0-7391-0245-9.
  • Kazhdan, Alexander Petrovich; Constable, Giles (1982). People and Power in Byzantium: An Introduction to Modern Byzantine Studies. Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks. ISBN 978-0-88402-103-2. from the original on 15 July 2023. Retrieved 7 May 2016.
  • Klein, Holgen A. (2004). "Eastern Objects and Western Desires: Relics and Reliquaries between Byzantium and the West". Dumbarton Oaks Papers. 58: 283–314. doi:10.2307/3591389. JSTOR 3591389. S2CID 12649697.
  • Koliopoulos, John S.; Veremis, Thanos M. (2002). Greece: The Modern Sequel: From 1831 to the Present. New York, NY: New York University Press. ISBN 978-0-8147-4767-4.
  • Koliopoulos, Giannes (1987). Brigands with a Cause: Brigandage and Irredentism in Modern Greece, 1821–1912. Oxford: Clarendon. ISBN 9780198228639. from the original on 27 September 2023. Retrieved 12 May 2016.
  • Konstan, David (2001). "To Hellenikon Ethnos: Ethnicity and the Construction of Ancient Greek Identity". In Malkin, Irad (ed.). Ancient Perceptions of Greek Ethnicity. Washington, DC: Center for Hellenic Studies, Trustees for Harvard University. pp. 29–50. ISBN 978-0-674-00662-1. from the original on 27 September 2023. Retrieved 30 April 2016.
  • Lagouvardos, Panagiotis E.; Tsamali, Ioana; Papadopoulou, Christine; Polyzois, Gregory (2012). "Tooth, Skin, Hair and Eye Colour Interrelationships in Greek Young Adults". Odontology. 101 (1): 75–83. doi:10.1007/s10266-012-0058-1. PMID 22349932. S2CID 11606304.
January 01, 1970
greeks, other, uses, disambiguation, grecian, redirects, here, other, uses, grecian, disambiguation, hellenes, greek, Έλληνες, Éllines, ˈelines, ethnic, group, nation, native, greece, cyprus, southern, albania, anatolia, parts, italy, egypt, lesser, extent, ot. For other uses see Greeks disambiguation Grecian redirects here For other uses see Grecian disambiguation The Greeks or Hellenes ˈ h ɛ l iː n z Greek Ellhnes Ellines ˈelines are an ethnic group and nation native to Greece Cyprus southern Albania Anatolia parts of Italy and Egypt and to a lesser extent other countries surrounding the Eastern Mediterranean and Black Sea They also form a significant diaspora omogenia with many Greek communities established around the world 46 GreeksHellenesEllhnesTotal populationc 14 17 million 1 2 Regions with significant populations Greece 9 903 268 3 4 2011 census Cyprus 659 115 721 000 5 6 7 8 2011 census United States1 279 000 3 000 000a 2016 estimate 9 10 Germany449 000b 2021 estimate 11 Australia424 744 2021 census 12 United Kingdom290 000 345 000 2011 estimate 13 Canada271 405c 2016 census 14 Albania200 000 c 1990 estimate 15 New Zealandest 2 478 to 10 000 possibly up to 50 000 16 South Africa138 000 2011 estimate 17 Italy110 000 200 000d 2013 estimate 18 19 20 Egypt110 000 21 22 Chile100 000 23 Ukraine91 000 2011 estimate 24 Russia85 640 2010 census 25 Brazil50 000e 26 France35 000 2013 estimate 27 Belgium35 000 2011 estimate 28 Argentina20 000 30 000 2013 estimate 29 Netherlands28 856 2021 30 31 Bulgaria1 356 2011 census 32 up to 28 500 estimate 33 Uruguay25 000 28 000 2011 census 34 Sweden24 736 2012 census 35 Georgia15 000 2011 estimate 36 Czech Republic12 000 37 Kazakhstan8 846 2011 estimate 38 Switzerland11 000 2015 estimate 39 Romania10 000 2013 estimate 40 Uzbekistan9 500 2000 estimate 41 Austria5 261 42 Hungary4 454 2016 census 43 Turkey4 000 49 143f 44 45 LanguagesGreekReligionPrimarily Greek Orthodox Churcha Includes those of ancestral descent b Includes people with cultural roots c Those whose stated ethnic origins included Greek among others The number of those whose stated ethnic origin is solely Greek is 145 250 An additional 3 395 Cypriots of undeclared ethnicity live in Canada dApprox 60 000 Griko people and 30 000 post WW2 migrants e Including descendants f Including Greek Muslims Greek colonies and communities have been historically established on the shores of the Mediterranean Sea and Black Sea but the Greek people themselves have always been centered on the Aegean and Ionian seas where the Greek language has been spoken since the Bronze Age 47 48 Until the early 20th century Greeks were distributed between the Greek peninsula the western coast of Asia Minor the Black Sea coast Cappadocia in central Anatolia Egypt the Balkans Cyprus and Constantinople 48 Many of these regions coincided to a large extent with the borders of the Byzantine Empire of the late 11th century and the Eastern Mediterranean areas of ancient Greek colonization 49 The cultural centers of the Greeks have included Athens Thessalonica Alexandria Smyrna and Constantinople at various periods In recent times most ethnic Greeks live within the borders of the modern Greek state or in Cyprus The Greek genocide and population exchange between Greece and Turkey nearly ended the three millennia old Greek presence in Asia Minor Other longstanding Greek populations can be found from southern Italy to the Caucasus and southern Russia and Ukraine and in the Greek diaspora communities in a number of other countries Today most Greeks are officially registered as members of the Greek Orthodox Church 50 Greeks have greatly influenced and contributed to culture visual arts exploration theatre literature philosophy ethics politics architecture music mathematics 51 medicine science technology commerce cuisine and sports The Greek language is the oldest recorded living language 52 and its vocabulary has been the basis of many languages including English as well as international scientific nomenclature Greek was by far the most widely spoken lingua franca in the Mediterranean world since the fourth century BC and the New Testament of the Christian Bible was also originally written in Greek 53 54 55 Contents 1 History 1 1 Origins 1 2 Mycenaean 1 3 Classical 1 4 Hellenistic 1 5 Roman Empire 1 6 Middle Ages 1 7 Ottoman Empire 1 8 Modern 2 Identity 2 1 Names 2 1 1 Etymology 2 2 Continuity 2 3 Demographics 2 4 Diaspora 2 4 1 Ancient 2 4 2 Modern 3 Culture 3 1 Language 3 2 Religion 3 3 Arts 3 4 Science 3 5 Symbols 3 6 Politics 3 7 Surnames and personal names 3 8 Sea exploring and commerce 4 Genetics 5 Physical appearance 6 Timeline 7 See also 8 Notes 9 Citations 10 References 11 Further reading 12 External linksHistoryFurther information History of Greece nbsp Proto Greek area of settlement 2200 2100 1900 BC suggested by Katona 2000 Sakelariou 2016 1980 1975 and Phylaktopoulos 1975 nbsp Mycenaean funeral mask known as Mask of Agamemnon 16th century BC The Greeks speak the Greek language which forms its own unique branch within the Indo European family of languages the Hellenic 48 They are part of a group of classical ethnicities described by Anthony D Smith as an archetypal diaspora people 56 57 Origins Further information Proto Greek language List of Ancient Greek tribes and Ancient Greek religion The Proto Greeks probably arrived at the area now called Greece in the southern tip of the Balkan peninsula at the end of the 3rd millennium BC between 2200 and 1900 BC 58 59 a The sequence of migrations into the Greek mainland during the 2nd millennium BC has to be reconstructed on the basis of the ancient Greek dialects as they presented themselves centuries later and are therefore subject to some uncertainties There were at least two migrations the first being the Ionians and Achaeans which resulted in Mycenaean Greece by the 16th century BC 63 64 and the second the Dorian invasion around the 11th century BC displacing the Arcadocypriot dialects which descended from the Mycenaean period Both migrations occur at incisive periods the Mycenaean at the transition to the Late Bronze Age and the Doric at the Bronze Age collapse Mycenaean Main article Mycenaean Greece In c 1600 BC the Mycenaean Greeks borrowed from the Minoan civilization its syllabic writing system Linear A and developed their own syllabic script known as Linear B 65 providing the first and oldest written evidence of Greek 65 66 The Mycenaeans quickly penetrated the Aegean Sea and by the 15th century BC had reached Rhodes Crete Cyprus and the shores of Asia Minor 48 67 Around 1200 BC the Dorians another Greek speaking people followed from Epirus 68 Older historical research often proposed Dorian invasion caused the collapse of the Mycenaean civilization but this narrative has been abandoned in all contemporary research It is likely that one of the factors which contributed to the Mycenaean palatial collapse was linked to raids by groups known in historiography as the Sea Peoples who sailed into the eastern Mediterranean around 1180 BC 69 The Dorian invasion was followed by a poorly attested period of migrations appropriately called the Greek Dark Ages but by 800 BC the landscape of Archaic and Classical Greece was discernible 70 The Greeks of classical antiquity idealized their Mycenaean ancestors and the Mycenaean period as a glorious era of heroes closeness of the gods and material wealth 71 The Homeric Epics i e Iliad and Odyssey were especially and generally accepted as part of the Greek past and it was not until the time of Euhemerism that scholars began to question Homer s historicity 70 As part of the Mycenaean heritage that survived the names of the gods and goddesses of Mycenaean Greece e g Zeus Poseidon and Hades became major figures of the Olympian Pantheon of later antiquity 72 Classical Main article Classical Greece nbsp nbsp nbsp The three great philosophers of the classical era Socrates Plato and Aristotle The ethnogenesis of the Greek nation is linked to the development of Pan Hellenism in the 8th century BC 73 According to some scholars the foundational event was the Olympic Games in 776 BC when the idea of a common Hellenism among the Greek tribes was first translated into a shared cultural experience and Hellenism was primarily a matter of common culture 46 The works of Homer i e Iliad and Odyssey and Hesiod i e Theogony were written in the 8th century BC becoming the basis of the national religion ethos history and mythology 74 The Oracle of Apollo at Delphi was established in this period 75 The classical period of Greek civilization covers a time spanning from the early 5th century BC to the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BC some authors prefer to split this period into Classical from the end of the Greco Persian Wars to the end of the Peloponnesian War and Fourth Century up to the death of Alexander It is so named because it set the standards by which Greek civilization would be judged in later eras 76 The Classical period is also described as the Golden Age of Greek civilization and its art philosophy architecture and literature would be instrumental in the formation and development of Western culture While the Greeks of the classical era understood themselves to belong to a common Hellenic genos 77 their first loyalty was to their city and they saw nothing incongruous about warring often brutally with other Greek city states 78 The Peloponnesian War the large scale civil war between the two most powerful Greek city states Athens and Sparta and their allies left both greatly weakened 79 nbsp Alexander the Great whose conquests led to the Hellenistic Age Most of the feuding Greek city states were in some scholars opinions united by force under the banner of Philip s and Alexander the Great s Pan Hellenic ideals though others might generally opt rather for an explanation of Macedonian conquest for the sake of conquest or at least conquest for the sake of riches glory and power and view the ideal as useful propaganda directed towards the city states 80 In any case Alexander s toppling of the Achaemenid Empire after his victories at the battles of the Granicus Issus and Gaugamela and his advance as far as modern day Pakistan and Tajikistan 81 provided an important outlet for Greek culture via the creation of colonies and trade routes along the way 82 While the Alexandrian empire did not survive its creator s death intact the cultural implications of the spread of Hellenism across much of the Middle East and Asia were to prove long lived as Greek became the lingua franca a position it retained even in Roman times 83 Many Greeks settled in Hellenistic cities like Alexandria Antioch and Seleucia 84 Hellenistic Main articles Hellenistic period and Hellenistic Greece nbsp The Hellenistic realms c 300 BC as divided by the Diadochi the Macedonian Kingdom of Cassander green the Ptolemaic Kingdom dark blue the Seleucid Empire yellow the areas controlled by Lysimachus orange and Epirus red nbsp Bust of Cleopatra VII Altes Museum Berlin the last ruler of a Hellenistic kingdom apart from the Indo Greek Kingdom The Hellenistic civilization was the next period of Greek civilization the beginnings of which are usually placed at Alexander s death 85 This Hellenistic age so called because it saw the partial Hellenization of many non Greek cultures extending all the way into India and Bactria both of which maintained Greek cultures and governments for centuries 86 The end is often placed around conquest of Egypt by Rome in 30 BC 85 although the Indo Greek kingdoms lasted for a few more decades This age saw the Greeks move towards larger cities and a reduction in the importance of the city state These larger cities were parts of the still larger Kingdoms of the Diadochi 87 88 Greeks however remained aware of their past chiefly through the study of the works of Homer and the classical authors 89 An important factor in maintaining Greek identity was contact with barbarian non Greek peoples which was deepened in the new cosmopolitan environment of the multi ethnic Hellenistic kingdoms 89 This led to a strong desire among Greeks to organize the transmission of the Hellenic paideia to the next generation 89 Greek science technology and mathematics are generally considered to have reached their peak during the Hellenistic period 90 In the Indo Greek and Greco Bactrian kingdoms Greco Buddhism was spreading and Greek missionaries would play an important role in propagating it to China 91 Further east the Greeks of Alexandria Eschate became known to the Chinese people as the Dayuan 92 Roman Empire Further information Roman Greece and Greco Roman world Between 168 BC and 30 BC the entire Greek world was conquered by Rome and almost all of the world s Greek speakers lived as citizens or subjects of the Roman Empire Despite their military superiority the Romans admired and became heavily influenced by the achievements of Greek culture hence Horace s famous statement Graecia capta ferum victorem cepit Greece although captured took its wild conqueror captive 93 In the centuries following the Roman conquest of the Greek world the Greek and Roman cultures merged into a single Greco Roman culture In the religious sphere this was a period of profound change The spiritual revolution that took place saw a waning of the old Greek religion whose decline beginning in the 3rd century BC continued with the introduction of new religious movements from the East 46 The cults of deities like Isis and Mithra were introduced into the Greek world 88 94 Greek speaking communities of the Hellenized East were instrumental in the spread of early Christianity in the 2nd and 3rd centuries 95 and Christianity s early leaders and writers notably Saint Paul were generally Greek speaking 96 though none were from Greece proper However Greece itself had a tendency to cling to paganism and was not one of the influential centers of early Christianity in fact some ancient Greek religious practices remained in vogue until the end of the 4th century 97 with some areas such as the southeastern Peloponnese remaining pagan until well into the mid Byzantine 10th century AD 98 The region of Tsakonia remained pagan until the ninth century and as such its inhabitants were referred to as Hellenes in the sense of being pagan by their Christianized Greek brethren in mainstream Byzantine society 99 While ethnic distinctions still existed in the Roman Empire they became secondary to religious considerations and the renewed empire used Christianity as a tool to support its cohesion and promote a robust Roman national identity 100 From the early centuries of the Common Era the Greeks self identified as Romans Greek Ῥwmaῖoi Rhōmaioi 101 By that time the name Hellenes denoted pagans but was revived as an ethnonym in the 11th century 102 Middle Ages See also Byzantine empire Byzantine Greece Byzantine Greeks Fourth Crusade and Frankokratia nbsp Scenes of marriage and family life in Constantinople nbsp Emperor Basil II 11th century is credited with reviving the Byzantine Empire nbsp Gemistos Plethon one of the most renowned philosophers of the late Byzantine era a chief pioneer of the revival of Greek scholarship in Western Europe During most of the Middle Ages the Byzantine Greeks self identified as Rhōmaioi Ῥwmaῖoi Romans meaning citizens of the Roman Empire a term which in the Greek language had become synonymous with Christian Greeks 103 104 The Latinizing term Graikoi Graikoi Greeks was also used 105 though its use was less common and nonexistent in official Byzantine political correspondence prior to the Fourth Crusade of 1204 106 The Eastern Roman Empire today conventionally named the Byzantine Empire a name not used during its own time 107 became increasingly influenced by Greek culture after the 7th century when Emperor Heraclius r 610 641 AD decided to make Greek the empire s official language 108 109 Although the Catholic Church recognized the Eastern Empire s claim to the Roman legacy for several centuries after Pope Leo III crowned Charlemagne king of the Franks as the Roman Emperor on 25 December 800 an act which eventually led to the formation of the Holy Roman Empire the Latin West started to favour the Franks and began to refer to the Eastern Roman Empire largely as the Empire of the Greeks Imperium Graecorum 110 111 While this Latin term for the ancient Hellenes could be used neutrally its use by Westerners from the 9th century onwards in order to challenge Byzantine claims to ancient Roman heritage rendered it a derogatory exonym for the Byzantines who barely used it mostly in contexts relating to the West such as texts relating to the Council of Florence to present the Western viewpoint 112 113 Additionally among the Germanic and the Slavic peoples the Rhōmaioi were just called Greeks 114 115 There are three schools of thought regarding this Byzantine Roman identity in contemporary Byzantine scholarship The first considers Romanity the mode of self identification of the subjects of a multi ethnic empire at least up to the 12th century where the average subject identified as Roman a perennialist approach which views Romanity as the medieval expression of a continuously existing Greek nation while a third view considers the eastern Roman identity as a pre modern national identity 116 The Byzantine Greeks essential values were drawn from both Christianity and the Homeric tradition of ancient Greece 117 118 A distinct Greek identity re emerged in the 11th century in educated circles and became more forceful after the fall of Constantinople to the Crusaders of the Fourth Crusade in 1204 119 In the Empire of Nicaea a small circle of the elite used the term Hellene as a term of self identification 120 For example in a letter to Pope Gregory IX the Nicaean emperor John III Doukas Vatatzes r 1221 1254 claimed to have received the gift of royalty from Constantine the Great and put emphasis on his Hellenic descent exalting the wisdom of the Greek people 121 After the Byzantines recaptured Constantinople however in 1261 Rhomaioi became again dominant as a term for self description and there are few traces of Hellene Ellhnas such as in the writings of George Gemistos Plethon 122 who abandoned Christianity and in whose writings culminated the secular tendency in the interest in the classical past 119 However it was the combination of Orthodox Christianity with a specifically Greek identity that shaped the Greeks notion of themselves in the empire s twilight years 119 In the twilight years of the Byzantine Empire prominent Byzantine personalities proposed referring to the Byzantine Emperor as the Emperor of the Hellenes 123 124 These largely rhetorical expressions of Hellenic identity were confined within intellectual circles but were continued by Byzantine intellectuals who participated in the Italian Renaissance 125 The interest in the Classical Greek heritage was complemented by a renewed emphasis on Greek Orthodox identity which was reinforced in the late Medieval and Ottoman Greeks links with their fellow Orthodox Christians in the Russian Empire These were further strengthened following the fall of the Empire of Trebizond in 1461 after which and until the second Russo Turkish War of 1828 29 hundreds of thousands of Pontic Greeks fled or migrated from the Pontic Alps and Armenian Highlands to southern Russia and the Russian South Caucasus see also Greeks in Russia Greeks in Armenia Greeks in Georgia and Caucasian Greeks 126 These Byzantine Greeks were largely responsible for the preservation of the literature of the classical era 118 127 128 Byzantine grammarians were those principally responsible for carrying in person and in writing ancient Greek grammatical and literary studies to the West during the 15th century giving the Italian Renaissance a major boost 129 130 The Aristotelian philosophical tradition was nearly unbroken in the Greek world for almost two thousand years until the Fall of Constantinople in 1453 131 To the Slavic world the Byzantine Greeks contributed by the dissemination of literacy and Christianity The most notable example of the later was the work of the two Byzantine Greek brothers the monks Saints Cyril and Methodius from the port city of Thessalonica capital of the theme of Thessalonica who are credited today with formalizing the first Slavic alphabet 132 Ottoman Empire Main articles Ottoman Greeks and Phanariotes nbsp The Byzantine scholar and cardinal Basilios Bessarion 1395 1403 1472 played a key role in transmitting classical knowledge to Western Europe contributing to the Renaissance Following the Fall of Constantinople on 29 May 1453 many Greeks sought better employment and education opportunities by leaving for the West particularly Italy Central Europe Germany and Russia 129 Greeks are greatly credited for the European cultural revolution later called the Renaissance In Greek inhabited territory itself Greeks came to play a leading role in the Ottoman Empire due in part to the fact that the central hub of the empire politically culturally and socially was based on Western Thrace and Greek Macedonia both in Northern Greece and of course was centred on the mainly Greek populated former Byzantine capital Constantinople As a direct consequence of this situation Greek speakers came to play a hugely important role in the Ottoman trading and diplomatic establishment as well as in the church Added to this in the first half of the Ottoman period men of Greek origin made up a significant proportion of the Ottoman army navy and state bureaucracy having been levied as adolescents along with especially Albanians and Serbs into Ottoman service through the devshirme Many Ottomans of Greek or Albanian or Serb origin were therefore to be found within the Ottoman forces which governed the provinces from Ottoman Egypt to Ottomans occupied Yemen and Algeria frequently as provincial governors For those that remained under the Ottoman Empire s millet system religion was the defining characteristic of national groups milletler so the exonym Greeks Rumlar from the name Rhomaioi was applied by the Ottomans to all members of the Orthodox Church regardless of their language or ethnic origin 133 The Greek speakers were the only ethnic group to actually call themselves Romioi 134 as opposed to being so named by others and at least those educated considered their ethnicity genos to be Hellenic 135 There were however many Greeks who escaped the second class status of Christians inherent in the Ottoman millet system according to which Muslims were explicitly awarded senior status and preferential treatment These Greeks either emigrated particularly to their fellow Orthodox Christian protector the Russian Empire or simply converted to Islam often only very superficially and whilst remaining crypto Christian The most notable examples of large scale conversion to Turkish Islam among those today defined as Greek Muslims excluding those who had to convert as a matter of course on being recruited through the devshirme were to be found in Crete Cretan Turks Greek Macedonia for example among the Vallahades of western Macedonia and among Pontic Greeks in the Pontic Alps and Armenian Highlands Several Ottoman sultans and princes were also of part Greek origin with mothers who were either Greek concubines or princesses from Byzantine noble families one famous example being sultan Selim the Grim r 1517 1520 whose mother Gulbahar Hatun was a Pontic Greek 136 137 nbsp Adamantios Korais leading figure of the Modern Greek Enlightenment The roots of Greek success in the Ottoman Empire can be traced to the Greek tradition of education and commerce exemplified in the Phanariotes 138 It was the wealth of the extensive merchant class that provided the material basis for the intellectual revival that was the prominent feature of Greek life in the half century and more leading to the outbreak of the Greek War of Independence in 1821 139 Not coincidentally on the eve of 1821 the three most important centres of Greek learning were situated in Chios Smyrna and Aivali all three major centres of Greek commerce 139 Greek success was also favoured by Greek domination in the leadership of the Eastern Orthodox church Modern See also Modern Greek Enlightenment and Greek War of Independence The movement of the Greek enlightenment the Greek expression of the Age of Enlightenment contributed not only in the promotion of education culture and printing among the Greeks but also in the case of independence from the Ottomans and the restoration of the term Hellene Adamantios Korais probably the most important intellectual of the movement advocated the use of the term Hellene Ellhnas or Graikos Graikos in the place of Romios that was seen negatively by him The relationship between ethnic Greek identity and Greek Orthodox religion continued after the creation of the modern Greek nation state in 1830 According to the second article of the first Greek constitution of 1822 a Greek was defined as any native Christian resident of the Kingdom of Greece a clause removed by 1840 140 A century later when the Treaty of Lausanne was signed between Greece and Turkey in 1923 the two countries agreed to use religion as the determinant for ethnic identity for the purposes of population exchange although most of the Greeks displaced over a million of the total 1 5 million had already been driven out by the time the agreement was signed b 141 The Greek genocide in particular the harsh removal of Pontian Greeks from the southern shore area of the Black Sea contemporaneous with and following the failed Greek Asia Minor Campaign was part of this process of Turkification of the Ottoman Empire and the placement of its economy and trade then largely in Greek hands under ethnic Turkish control 142 Identity nbsp The cover of Hermes o Logios a Greek literary publication of the late 18th and early 19th centuries in Vienna with major contribution to the Modern Greek Enlightenment The terms used to define Greekness have varied throughout history but were never limited or completely identified with membership to a Greek state 143 Herodotus gave a famous account of what defined Greek Hellenic ethnic identity in his day enumerating shared descent ὅmaimon homaimon of the same blood 144 shared language ὁmoglwsson homoglōsson speaking the same tongue 145 shared sanctuaries and sacrifices 8eῶn ἱdrymata te koinὰ kaὶ 8ysiai theon hidrumata te koina kai thusiai common foundations common sacrifices to gods 146 147 shared customs ἤ8ea ὁmotropa ḗthea homotropa customs of like fashion 148 149 150 By Western standards the term Greeks has traditionally referred to any native speakers of the Greek language whether Mycenaean Byzantine or modern Greek 133 151 Byzantine Greeks self identified as Romaioi Romans Graikoi Greeks and Christianoi Christians since they were the political heirs of imperial Rome the descendants of their classical Greek forebears and followers of the Apostles 152 during the mid to late Byzantine period 11th 13th century a growing number of Byzantine Greek intellectuals deemed themselves Hellenes although for most Greek speakers Hellene still meant pagan 102 153 On the eve of the Fall of Constantinople the Last Emperor urged his soldiers to remember that they were the descendants of Greeks and Romans 154 Before the establishment of the modern Greek nation state the link between ancient and modern Greeks was emphasized by the scholars of Greek Enlightenment especially by Rigas Feraios In his Political Constitution he addresses to the nation as the people descendant of the Greeks 155 The modern Greek state was created in 1829 when the Greeks liberated a part of their historic homelands Peloponnese from the Ottoman Empire 156 The large Greek diaspora and merchant class were instrumental in transmitting the ideas of western romantic nationalism and philhellenism 139 which together with the conception of Hellenism formulated during the last centuries of the Byzantine Empire formed the basis of the Diafotismos and the current conception of Hellenism 119 133 157 The Greeks today are a nation in the meaning of an ethnos defined by possessing Greek culture and having a Greek mother tongue not by citizenship race and religion or by being subjects of any particular state 158 In ancient and medieval times and to some extent today the Greek term was genos which also indicates a common ancestry 159 160 Names Main articles Achaeans Homer and Names of the Greeks nbsp Map showing the major regions of mainland ancient Greece and adjacent barbarian lands Greeks and Greek speakers have used different names to refer to themselves collectively The term Achaeans Ἀxaioi is one of the collective names for the Greeks in Homer s Iliad and Odyssey the Homeric long haired Achaeans would have been a part of the Mycenaean civilization that dominated Greece from c 1600 BC until 1100 BC The other common names are Danaans Danaoi and Argives Ἀrgeῖoi while Panhellenes Panellhnes and Hellenes Ἕllhnes both appear only once in the Iliad 161 all of these terms were used synonymously to denote a common Greek identity 162 163 In the historical period Herodotus identified the Achaeans of the northern Peloponnese as descendants of the earlier Homeric Achaeans 164 Homer refers to the Hellenes ˈ h ɛ l iː n z as a relatively small tribe settled in Thessalic Phthia with its warriors under the command of Achilleus 165 The Parian Chronicle says that Phthia was the homeland of the Hellenes and that this name was given to those previously called Greeks Graikoi 166 In Greek mythology Hellen the patriarch of the Hellenes who ruled around Phthia was the son of Pyrrha and Deucalion the only survivors after the Great Deluge 167 The Greek philosopher Aristotle names ancient Hellas as an area in Epirus between Dodona and the Achelous river the location of the Great Deluge of Deucalion a land occupied by the Selloi and the Greeks who later came to be known as Hellenes 168 In the Homeric tradition the Selloi were the priests of Dodonian Zeus 169 In the Hesiodic Catalogue of Women Graecus is presented as the son of Zeus and Pandora II sister of Hellen the patriarch of the Hellenes 170 According to the Parian Chronicle when Deucalion became king of Phthia the Graikoi Graikoi were named Hellenes 166 Aristotle notes in his Meteorologica that the Hellenes were related to the Graikoi 168 Etymology The English names Greece and Greek are derived via the Latin Graecia and Graecus from the name of the Graeci Graikoi Graikoi singular Graikos Graikos who were among the first ancient Greek tribes to settle southern Italy the so called Magna Graecia The term is possibly derived from the Proto Indo European root ǵerh to grow old 171 172 more specifically from Graea ancient city said by Aristotle to be the oldest in Greece and the source of colonists for the Naples area 173 Continuity nbsp Alexander the Great in Byzantine Emperor s clothes by a manuscript depicting scenes from his life between 1204 and 1453 The most obvious link between modern and ancient Greeks is their language which has a documented tradition from at least the 14th century BC to the present day albeit with a break during the Greek Dark Ages from which written records are absent 11th 8th cent BC though the Cypriot syllabary was in use during this period 174 Scholars compare its continuity of tradition to Chinese alone 174 175 Since its inception Hellenism was primarily a matter of common culture and the national continuity of the Greek world is a lot more certain than its demographic 46 176 Yet Hellenism also embodied an ancestral dimension through aspects of Athenian literature that developed and influenced ideas of descent based on autochthony 177 During the later years of the Eastern Roman Empire areas such as Ionia and Constantinople experienced a Hellenic revival in language philosophy and literature and on classical models of thought and scholarship 176 This revival provided a powerful impetus to the sense of cultural affinity with ancient Greece and its classical heritage 176 Throughout their history the Greeks have retained their language and alphabet certain values and cultural traditions customs a sense of religious and cultural difference and exclusion the word barbarian was used by 12th century historian Anna Komnene to describe non Greek speakers 178 a sense of Greek identity and common sense of ethnicity despite the undeniable socio political changes of the past two millennia 176 In recent anthropological studies both ancient and modern Greek osteological samples were analyzed demonstrating a bio genetic affinity and continuity shared between both groups 179 180 There is also a direct genetic link between ancient Greeks and modern Greeks 181 182 Demographics Main articles Demographics of Greece and Demographics of Cyprus Today Greeks are the majority ethnic group in the Hellenic Republic 183 where they constitute 93 of the country s population 184 and the Republic of Cyprus where they make up 78 of the island s population excluding Turkish settlers in the occupied part of the country 185 Greek populations have not traditionally exhibited high rates of growth a large percentage of Greek population growth since Greece s foundation in 1832 was attributed to annexation of new territories as well as the influx of 1 5 million Greek refugees after the 1923 population exchange between Greece and Turkey 186 About 80 of the population of Greece is urban with 28 concentrated in the city of Athens 187 Greeks from Cyprus have a similar history of emigration usually to the English speaking world because of the island s colonization by the British Empire Waves of emigration followed the Turkish invasion of Cyprus in 1974 while the population decreased between mid 1974 and 1977 as a result of emigration war losses and a temporary decline in fertility 188 After the ethnic cleansing of a third of the Greek population of the island in 1974 189 190 there was also an increase in the number of Greek Cypriots leaving especially for the Middle East which contributed to a decrease in population that tapered off in the 1990s 188 Today more than two thirds of the Greek population in Cyprus is urban 188 Around 1990 most Western estimates of the number of ethnic Greeks in Albania were around 200 000 but in the 1990s a majority of them migrated to Greece 15 191 The Greek minority of Turkey which numbered upwards of 200 000 people after the 1923 exchange has now dwindled to a few thousand after the 1955 Constantinople Pogrom and other state sponsored violence and discrimination 192 This effectively ended though not entirely the three thousand year old presence of Hellenism in Asia Minor 193 194 There are smaller Greek minorities in the rest of the Balkan countries the Levant and the Black Sea states remnants of the Old Greek Diaspora pre 19th century 195 Diaspora Main article Greek diaspora nbsp Greek diaspora 20th century The total number of Greeks living outside Greece and Cyprus today is a contentious issue Where census figures are available they show around three million Greeks outside Greece and Cyprus Estimates provided by the SAE World Council of Hellenes Abroad put the figure at around seven million worldwide 196 According to George Prevelakis of Sorbonne University the number is closer to just below five million 195 Integration intermarriage and loss of the Greek language influence the self identification of the Greek diaspora omogenia Important centres include New York Melbourne London and Toronto 195 In 2010 the Hellenic Parliament introduced a law that allowed members of the diaspora to vote in Greek elections 197 this law was repealed in early 2014 198 Ancient See also Colonies in antiquity nbsp Greek colonization in antiquity In ancient times the trading and colonizing activities of the Greek tribes and city states spread the Greek culture religion and language around the Mediterranean and Black Sea basins especially in Southern Italy the so called Magna Graecia Spain the south of France and the Black sea coasts 199 Under Alexander the Great s empire and successor states Greek and Hellenizing ruling classes were established in the Middle East India and in Egypt 199 The Hellenistic period is characterized by a new wave of Greek colonization that established Greek cities and kingdoms in Asia and Africa 200 Under the Roman Empire easier movement of people spread Greeks across the Empire and in the eastern territories Greek became the lingua franca rather than Latin 108 The modern day Griko community of southern Italy numbering about 60 000 19 20 may represent a living remnant of the ancient Greek populations of Italy Modern nbsp Distribution of ethnic groups in 1918 National Geographic nbsp Poet Constantine P Cavafy a native of Alexandria Egypt During and after the Greek War of Independence Greeks of the diaspora were important in establishing the fledgling state raising funds and awareness abroad 201 Greek merchant families already had contacts in other countries and during the disturbances many set up home around the Mediterranean notably Marseilles in France Livorno in Italy Alexandria in Egypt Russia Odesa and Saint Petersburg and Britain London and Liverpool from where they traded typically in textiles and grain 202 Businesses frequently comprised the extended family and with them they brought schools teaching Greek and the Greek Orthodox Church 202 As markets changed and they became more established some families grew their operations to become shippers financed through the local Greek community notably with the aid of the Ralli or Vagliano Brothers 203 With economic success the Diaspora expanded further across the Levant North Africa India and the USA 203 204 In the 20th century many Greeks left their traditional homelands for economic reasons resulting in large migrations from Greece and Cyprus to the United States Great Britain Australia Canada Germany and South Africa especially after the Second World War 1939 1945 the Greek Civil War 1946 1949 and the Turkish Invasion of Cyprus in 1974 205 While official figures remain scarce polls and anecdotal evidence point to renewed Greek emigration as a result of the Greek financial crisis 206 According to data published by the Federal Statistical Office of Germany in 2011 23 800 Greeks emigrated to Germany a significant increase over the previous year By comparison about 9 000 Greeks emigrated to Germany in 2009 and 12 000 in 2010 207 208 CultureMain article Culture of Greece Greek culture has evolved over thousands of years with its beginning in the Mycenaean civilization continuing through the classical era the Hellenistic period the Roman and Byzantine periods and was profoundly affected by Christianity which it in turn influenced and shaped 209 Ottoman Greeks had to endure through several centuries of adversity that culminated in genocide in the 20th century 210 211 The Diafotismos is credited with revitalizing Greek culture and giving birth to the synthesis of ancient and medieval elements that characterize it today 119 133 Language Main articles Greek language and Greek language question nbsp Early Greek alphabet c 8th century BC source source source source source source source source A Greek speaker Most Greeks speak the Greek language an independent branch of the Indo European languages with its closest relations possibly being Armenian see Graeco Armenian or the Indo Iranian languages see Graeco Aryan 174 It has the longest documented history of any living language and Greek literature has a continuous history of over 2 500 years 212 The oldest inscriptions in Greek are in the Linear B script dated as far back as 1450 BC 213 Following the Greek Dark Ages from which written records are absent the Greek alphabet appears in the 9th 8th century BC The Greek alphabet derived from the Phoenician alphabet and in turn became the parent alphabet of the Latin Cyrillic and several other alphabets The earliest Greek literary works are the Homeric epics variously dated from the 8th to the 6th century BC Notable scientific and mathematical works include Euclid s Elements Ptolemy s Almagest and others The New Testament was originally written in Koine Greek 214 Greek demonstrates several linguistic features that are shared with other Balkan languages such as Albanian Bulgarian and Eastern Romance languages see Balkan sprachbund and has absorbed many foreign words primarily of Western European and Turkish origin 215 Because of the movements of Philhellenism and the Diafotismos in the 19th century which emphasized the modern Greeks ancient heritage these foreign influences were excluded from official use via the creation of Katharevousa a somewhat artificial form of Greek purged of all foreign influence and words as the official language of the Greek state In 1976 however the Hellenic Parliament voted to make the spoken Dimotiki the official language making Katharevousa obsolete 216 Modern Greek has in addition to Standard Modern Greek or Dimotiki a wide variety of dialects of varying levels of mutual intelligibility including Cypriot Pontic Cappadocian Griko and Tsakonian the only surviving representative of ancient Doric Greek 217 Yevanic is the language of the Romaniotes and survives in small communities in Greece New York and Israel In addition to Greek many Greek citizens in Greece and the diaspora are bilingual in other languages such as English Arvanitika Albanian Aromanian Megleno Romanian Macedonian Slavic Russian and Turkish 174 218 Religion Main articles Religion in ancient Greece and Greek Orthodox Church nbsp Christ Pantocrator mosaic in Hagia Sophia Istanbul Most Greeks are Christians belonging to the Greek Orthodox Church 219 During the first centuries after Jesus Christ the New Testament was originally written in Koine Greek which remains the liturgical language of the Greek Orthodox Church and most of the early Christians and Church Fathers were Greek speaking 209 There are small groups of ethnic Greeks adhering to other Christian denominations like Roman Catholics Greek Catholics Greek Evangelicals Pentecostals Mormons and groups adhering to other religions including Romaniot and Sephardic Jews Greek Muslims and Jehovah s Witnesses About 2 000 Greeks are members of Hellenic Polytheistic Reconstructionism congregations 220 221 222 Greek speaking Muslims live mainly outside Greece in the contemporary era There are both Christian and Muslim Greek speaking communities in Lebanon and Syria while in the Pontus region of Turkey there is a large community of indeterminate size who were spared from the population exchange because of their religious affiliation 223 Arts Further information Greek art Music of Greece Ancient Greek architecture Ancient Greek theatre Modern Greek theatre Cinema of Greece Modern Greek architecture and Modern Greek literature See also Greco Buddhist art nbsp Renowned Greek soprano Maria Callas Greek art has a long and varied history Greeks have contributed to the visual literary and performing arts 224 In the West classical Greek art was influential in shaping the Roman and later the modern Western artistic heritage Following the Renaissance in Europe the humanist aesthetic and the high technical standards of Greek art inspired generations of European artists 224 Well into the 19th century the classical tradition derived from Greece played an important role in the art of the Western world 225 In the East Alexander the Great s conquests initiated several centuries of exchange between Greek Central Asian and Indian cultures resulting in Indo Greek and Greco Buddhist art whose influence reached as far as Japan 226 Byzantine Greek art which grew from the Hellenistic classical art and adapted the pagan motifs in the service of Christianity provided a stimulus to the art of many nations 227 Its influences can be traced from Venice in the West to Kazakhstan in the East 227 228 In turn Greek art was influenced by eastern civilizations i e Egypt Persia etc during various periods of its history 229 Notable modern Greek artists include the major Renaissance painter Dominikos Theotokopoulos El Greco Nikolaos Gyzis Nikiphoros Lytras Konstantinos Volanakis Theodoros Vryzakis Georgios Jakobides Thalia Flora Karavia Yannis Tsarouchis Nikos Engonopoulos Pericles Pantazis Theophilos Kostas Andreou Jannis Kounellis sculptors such as Leonidas Drosis Georgios Bonanos Yannoulis Chalepas Athanasios Apartis Konstantinos Dimitriadis and Joannis Avramidis conductor Dimitri Mitropoulos soprano Maria Callas composers such as Mikis Theodorakis Nikos Skalkottas Nikolaos Mantzaros Spyridon Samaras Manolis Kalomiris Iannis Xenakis Manos Hatzidakis Manos Loizos Yanni and Vangelis the masters of rebetiko Markos Vamvakaris and Vassilis Tsitsanis and singers such as Giorgos Dalaras Haris Alexiou Sotiria Bellou Nana Mouskouri Vicky Leandros and Demis Roussos Poets such as Andreas Kalvos Athanasios Christopoulos Kostis Palamas the writer of Hymn to Liberty Dionysios Solomos Angelos Sikelianos Kostas Karyotakis Maria Polydouri Yannis Ritsos Kostas Varnalis Nikos Kavvadias Andreas Embirikos and Kiki Dimoula Constantine P Cavafy and Nobel laureates Giorgos Seferis and Odysseas Elytis are among the most important poets of the 20th century Novel is also represented by Alexandros Papadiamantis Emmanuel Rhoides Ion Dragoumis Nikos Kazantzakis Penelope Delta Stratis Myrivilis Vassilis Vassilikos and Petros Markaris while notable playwrights include the Cretan Renaissance poets Georgios Chortatzis and Vincenzos Cornaros such as Gregorios Xenopoulos and Iakovos Kambanellis nbsp Eleftherios Venizelos was the leading political figure of 20th century Greece Notable cinema or theatre actors include Marika Kotopouli Melina Mercouri Ellie Lambeti Academy Award winner Katina Paxinou Alexis Minotis Dimitris Horn Thanasis Veggos Manos Katrakis and Irene Papas Alekos Sakellarios Karolos Koun Vasilis Georgiadis Kostas Gavras Michael Cacoyannis Giannis Dalianidis Nikos Koundouros and Theo Angelopoulos are among the most important directors Among the most significant modern era architects are Stamatios Kleanthis Lysandros Kaftanzoglou Anastasios Metaxas Panagis Kalkos Anastasios Orlandos the naturalized Greek Ernst Ziller Dimitris Pikionis and urban planners Stamatis Voulgaris and George Candilis Science See also Ancient Greek philosophy Greek mathematics Ancient Greek medicine Byzantine science Greek scholars in the Renaissance and List of Greek inventions and discoveries nbsp Aristarchus of Samos was the first known individual to propose a heliocentric system in the 3rd century BC The Greeks of the Classical and Hellenistic eras made seminal contributions to science and philosophy laying the foundations of several western scientific traditions such as astronomy geography historiography mathematics medicine philosophy and political science The scholarly tradition of the Greek academies was maintained during Roman times with several academic institutions in Constantinople Antioch Alexandria and other centers of Greek learning while Byzantine science was essentially a continuation of classical science 230 Greeks have a long tradition of valuing and investing in paideia education 89 Paideia was one of the highest societal values in the Greek and Hellenistic world while the first European institution described as a university was founded in 5th century Constantinople and operated in various incarnations until the city s fall to the Ottomans in 1453 231 The University of Constantinople was Christian Europe s first secular institution of higher learning since no theological subjects were taught 232 and considering the original meaning of the world university as a corporation of students the world s first university as well 231 As of 2007 Greece had the eighth highest percentage of tertiary enrollment in the world with the percentages for female students being higher than for male while Greeks of the Diaspora are equally active in the field of education 187 Hundreds of thousands of Greek students attend western universities every year while the faculty lists of leading Western universities contain a striking number of Greek names 233 Notable Greek scientists of modern times include physician Georgios Papanicolaou pioneer in cytopathology inventor of the Pap test mathematician Constantin Caratheodory acclaimed contributor to real and complex analysis and the calculus of variations archaeologists Manolis Andronikos unearthed the tomb of Philip II Valerios Stais recognised the Antikythera mechanism Spyridon Marinatos specialised in Mycenaean sites and Ioannis Svoronos chemists Leonidas Zervas of Bergmann Zervas synthesis and Z group discovery fame K C Nicolaou first total synthesis of taxol and Panayotis Katsoyannis first chemical synthesis of insulin computer scientists Michael Dertouzos and Nicholas Negroponte known for their early work with the World Wide Web John Argyris co creator of the FEM Joseph Sifakis 2007 Turing Award Christos Papadimitriou 2002 Knuth Prize and Mihalis Yannakakis 2005 Knuth Prize physicist mathematician Demetrios Christodoulou renowned for work on Minkowski spacetime and physicists Achilles Papapetrou known for solutions of general relativity Dimitri Nanopoulos extensive work on particle physics and cosmology and John Iliopoulos 2007 Dirac Prize for work on the charm quark astronomer Eugenios Antoniadis biologist Fotis Kafatos contributor to cDNA cloning technology botanist Theodoros Orphanides economist Xenophon Zolotas held various senior posts in international organisations such as the IMF Indologist Dimitrios Galanos linguist Yiannis Psycharis promoter of Demotic Greek historians Constantine Paparrigopoulos founder of modern Greek historiography and Helene Glykatzi Ahrweiler excelled in Byzantine studies and political scientists Nicos Poulantzas a leading Structural Marxist and Cornelius Castoriadis philosopher of history and ontologist social critic economist psychoanalyst Significant engineers and automobile designers include Nikolas Tombazis Alec Issigonis and Andreas Zapatinas Symbols See also Flag of Greece nbsp The national flag of Greece is commonly used as a symbol for Greeks worldwide nbsp The flag of the Greek Orthodox Church is based on the coat of arms of the Palaiologoi the last dynasty of the Byzantine Empire The most widely used symbol is the flag of Greece which features nine equal horizontal stripes of blue alternating with white representing the nine syllables of the Greek national motto Eleftheria i Thanatos Freedom or Death which was the motto of the Greek War of Independence 234 The blue square in the upper hoist side corner bears a white cross which represents Greek Orthodoxy The Greek flag is widely used by the Greek Cypriots although Cyprus has officially adopted a neutral flag to ease ethnic tensions with the Turkish Cypriot minority see flag of Cyprus 235 The pre 1978 and first flag of Greece which features a Greek cross crux immissa quadrata on a blue background is widely used as an alternative to the official flag and they are often flown together The national emblem of Greece features a blue escutcheon with a white cross surrounded by two laurel branches A common design involves the current flag of Greece and the pre 1978 flag of Greece with crossed flagpoles and the national emblem placed in front 236 Another highly recognizable and popular Greek symbol is the double headed eagle the imperial emblem of the last dynasty of the Eastern Roman Empire and a common symbol in Asia Minor and later Eastern Europe 237 It is not part of the modern Greek flag or coat of arms although it is officially the insignia of the Greek Army and the flag of the Church of Greece It had been incorporated in the Greek coat of arms between 1925 and 1926 238 Politics See also Politics in Greece Classical Athens is considered the birthplace of Democracy The term appeared in the 5th century BC to denote the political systems then existing in Greek city states notably Athens to mean rule of the people in contrast to aristocracy ἀristokratia aristokratia meaning rule by an excellent elite and to oligarchy While theoretically these definitions are in opposition in practice the distinction has been blurred historically 239 Led by Cleisthenes Athenians established what is generally held as the first democracy in 508 507 BC 240 which took gradually the form of a direct democracy The democratic form of government declined during the Hellenistic and Roman eras only to be revived as an interest in Western Europe during the early modern period The European enlightenment and the democratic liberal and nationalistic ideas of the French Revolution was a crucial factor to the outbreak of the Greek War of Independence and the establishment of the modern Greek state 241 242 Notable modern Greek politicians include Ioannis Kapodistrias founder of the First Hellenic Republic reformist Charilaos Trikoupis Eleftherios Venizelos who marked the shape of modern Greece social democrats Georgios Papandreou and Alexandros Papanastasiou Konstantinos Karamanlis founder of the Third Hellenic Republic and socialist Andreas Papandreou Surnames and personal names See also Greek name and Ancient Greek personal names Greek surnames began to appear in the 9th and 10th century at first among ruling families eventually supplanting the ancient tradition of using the father s name as disambiguator 243 244 Nevertheless Greek surnames are most commonly patronymics 243 such those ending in the suffix opoulos or ides while others derive from trade professions physical characteristics or a location such as a town village or monastery 244 Commonly Greek male surnames end in s which is the common ending for Greek masculine proper nouns in the nominative case Occasionally especially in Cyprus some surnames end in ou indicating the genitive case of a patronymic name 245 Many surnames end in suffixes that are associated with a particular region such as akis Crete eas or akos Mani Peninsula atos island of Cephalonia ellis island of Lesbos and so forth 244 In addition to a Greek origin some surnames have Turkish or Latin Italian origin especially among Greeks from Asia Minor and the Ionian Islands respectively 246 Female surnames end in a vowel and are usually the genitive form of the corresponding males surname although this usage is not followed in the diaspora where the male version of the surname is generally used With respect to personal names the two main influences are Christianity and classical Hellenism ancient Greek nomenclatures were never forgotten but have become more widely bestowed from the 18th century onwards 244 As in antiquity children are customarily named after their grandparents with the first born male child named after the paternal grandfather the second male child after the maternal grandfather and similarly for female children 247 Personal names are often familiarized by a diminutive suffix such as akis for male names and itsa or oula for female names 244 Greeks generally do not use middle names instead using the genitive of the father s first name as a middle name This usage has been passed on to the Russians and other East Slavs otchestvo Sea exploring and commerce Main article Greek shipping nbsp Aristotle Onassis the best known Greek shipping magnate worldwide The traditional Greek homelands have been the Greek peninsula and the Aegean Sea Southern Italy the so called Magna Graecia the Black Sea the Ionian coasts of Asia Minor and the islands of Cyprus and Sicily In Plato s Phaidon Socrates remarks we Greeks live around a sea like frogs around a pond when describing to his friends the Greek cities of the Aegean 248 249 This image is attested by the map of the Old Greek Diaspora which corresponded to the Greek world until the creation of the Greek state in 1832 The sea and trade were natural outlets for Greeks since the Greek peninsula is mostly rocky and does not offer good prospects for agriculture 46 Notable Greek seafarers include people such as Pytheas of Massalia who sailed to Great Britain Euthymenes who sailed to Africa Scylax of Caryanda who sailed to India the navarch of Alexander the Great Nearchus Megasthenes explorer of India later the 6th century merchant and monk Cosmas Indicopleustes Cosmas who sailed to India and the explorer of the Northwestern Passage Ioannis Fokas also known as Juan de Fuca 250 In later times the Byzantine Greeks plied the sea lanes of the Mediterranean and controlled trade until an embargo imposed by the Byzantine emperor on trade with the Caliphate opened the door for the later Italian pre eminence in trade 251 Panayotis Potagos was another explorer of modern times who was the first to reach Mbomu and Uele River from the north The Greek shipping tradition recovered during the late Ottoman rule especially after the Treaty of Kucuk Kaynarca and during the Napoleonic Wars when a substantial merchant middle class developed which played an important part in the Greek War of Independence 119 Today Greek shipping continues to prosper to the extent that Greece has one of the largest merchant fleets in the world while many more ships under Greek ownership fly flags of convenience 187 The most notable shipping magnate of the 20th century was Aristotle Onassis others being Yiannis Latsis Stavros G Livanos and Stavros Niarchos 252 253 GeneticsFurther information Mycenaean Greece Genetic and anthropometric studies See also Genetic history of Europe and Roopkund Human skeletons nbsp Admixture analysis of autosomal SNPs of the Balkan region in a global context on the resolution level of 7 assumed ancestral populations African brown South West European light blue Asian yellow Middle Eastern orange South Asian green North East European dark blue and Caucasian Anatolian component beige nbsp Factor correspondence analysis comparing different individuals from European ancestry groups In their archaeogenetic study Lazaridis et al 2017 found that Minoans and Mycenaean Greeks were genetically highly similar but not identical modern Greeks resembled the Mycenaeans but with some additional dilution of the early Neolithic ancestry The results of the study support the idea of genetic continuity between these civilizations and modern Greeks but not isolation in the history of populations of the Aegean before and after the time of its earliest civilizations Furthermore proposed migrations by Egyptian or Phoenician colonists was not discernible in their data thus rejecting the hypothesis that the cultures of the Aegean were seeded by migrants from the old civilizations of these regions The FST between the sampled Bronze Age populations and present day West Eurasians was estimated finding that Mycenaean Greeks and Minoans were least differentiated from the populations of modern Greece Cyprus Albania and Italy 181 182 In a subsequent study Lazaridis et al 2022 concluded that around 58 4 65 8 of the ancestry of the Mycenaeans came from Anatolian Neolithic Farmers ANF while the remainder mainly came from ancient populations related to the Caucasus Hunter Gatherers CHG 20 1 22 7 and the Pre Pottery Neolithic PPN culture in the Levant 7 14 The Mycenaeans had also inherited 3 3 5 5 ancestry from a source related to the Eastern European Hunter Gatherers EHG introduced via a proximal source related to the inhabitants of the Eurasian steppe who are hypothesized to be the Proto Indo Europeans and 0 9 2 3 from the Iron Gates Hunter Gatherers in the Balkans Mycenaean elites were genetically the same as Mycenaean commoners in terms of their steppe ancestry while some Mycenaeans lacked it altogether 254 255 A genetic study by Clemente et al 2021 found that in the Early Bronze Age the populations of the Minoan Helladic and Cycladic civilizations in the Aegean were genetically homogeneous In contrast the Aegean population during the Middle Bronze Age was more differentiated probably due to gene flow from a Yamnaya related population from the Pontic Caspian steppe This is corroborated by sequenced genomes of Middle Bronze Age individuals from northern Greece who had a much higher proportion of steppe related ancestry the timing of this gene flow was estimated at 2 300 BCE and is consistent with the dominant linguistic theories explaining the emergence of the Proto Greek language Present day Greeks share 90 of their ancestry with them suggesting continuity between the two time periods In the case of Mycenaean Greeks however this steppe related ancestry was diluted The ancestry of the Mycenaeans could be explained via a 2 way admixture model of such MBA individuals in northern Greece and either an EBA Aegean or MBA Minoan population the difference between the two time periods could be explained by the general decline of the Mycenaean civilization 256 Genetic studies using multiple autosomal Y DNA and mtDNA markers show that Greeks share similar backgrounds as the rest of the Europeans and especially Southern Europeans Italians and Balkan populations such as Albanians Slavic Macedonians and Romanians A study in 2008 showed that Greeks are genetically closest to Italians and Romanians 257 and another 2008 study showed that they are close to Italians Albanians Romanians and southern Balkan Slavs such as Slavic Macedonians and Bulgarians 258 A 2003 study showed that Greeks cluster with other South European mainly Italians and North European populations and are close to the Basques 259 and FST distances showed that they group with other European and Mediterranean populations 260 261 especially with Italians 0 0001 and Tuscans 0 0005 262 A study in 2008 showed that Greek regional samples from the mainland cluster with those from the Balkans principally Albanians while Cretan Greeks cluster with the central Mediterranean and Eastern Mediterranean samples 263 Studies using mitochondrial DNA gene markers mtDNA showed that Greeks group with other Mediterranean European populations 264 265 266 and principal component analysis PCA confirmed the low genetic distance between Greeks and Italians 267 and also revealed a cline of genes with highest frequencies in the Balkans and Southern Italy spreading to lowest levels in Britain and the Basque country which Cavalli Sforza associates it with the Greek expansion which reached its peak in historical times around 1000 and 500 BC but which certainly began earlier 268 Physical appearance nbsp nbsp nbsp Greek warriors details from painted sarcophagus found in Italy 350 325 BC A study from 2013 for prediction of hair and eye colour from DNA of the Greek people showed that the self reported phenotype frequencies according to hair and eye colour categories was as follows 119 individuals hair colour 11 blond 45 dark blond light brown 49 dark brown 3 brown red auburn and 11 had black hair eye colour 13 with blue 15 with intermediate green heterochromia and 91 had brown eye colour 269 Another study from 2012 included 150 dental school students from the University of Athens and the results of the study showed that light hair colour blonde light ash brown was predominant in 10 7 of the students 36 had medium hair colour light brown medium darkest brown 32 had darkest brown and 21 black 15 3 off black 6 midnight black In conclusion the hair colour of young Greeks are mostly brown ranging from light to dark brown with significant minorities having black and blonde hair The same study also showed that the eye colour of the students was 14 6 blue green 28 medium light brown and 57 4 dark brown 270 TimelineThe history of the Greek people is closely associated with the history of Greece Cyprus Southern Italy Constantinople Asia Minor and the Black Sea During the Ottoman rule of Greece a number of Greek enclaves around the Mediterranean were cut off from the core notably in Southern Italy the Caucasus Syria and Egypt By the early 20th century over half of the overall Greek speaking population was settled in Asia Minor now Turkey while later that century a huge wave of migration to the United States Australia Canada and elsewhere created the modern Greek diaspora Time Events c 3rd millennium BC Proto Greek tribes from around the Southern Balkans Aegean are generally thought to have arrived in the Greek mainland 16th century BC Emergence of the Achaeans and formation of the Mycenaean civilization which produced the earliest textual evidence of the Greek language 15th century BC Knossos ruled by a Mycenaean elite who formed a hybrid Mycenaean Minoan culture on Crete 271 14th century BC Mycenaean involvement in Asia Minor begins 272 11th century BC The Mycenaean civilization ends with destructions of palaces and internal displacements The Greek Dark Ages begin Dorians move into peninsular Greece 9th century BC Major colonization of Asia Minor and Cyprus by the Greek tribes 8th century BC First major colonies established in Sicily and Southern Italy The first Pan Hellenic festival the Olympic games is held in 776 BC The emergence of Pan Hellenism marks the ethnogenesis of the Greek nation 6th century BC Colonies established across the Mediterranean Sea and the Black Sea 5th century BC Defeat of the Persians and emergence of the Delian League in Ionia the Black Sea and Aegean perimeter culminates in Athenian Empire and the Classical Age of Greece ends with Athens defeat by Sparta at the close of the Peloponnesian War 4th century BC Rise of Theban power and defeat of the Spartans Rise of Macedon Campaign of Alexander the Great Greek colonies established in newly founded cities of Ptolemaic Egypt and Asia 2nd century BC Conquest of Greece by the Roman Empire Migrations of Greeks to Rome 4th century AD Eastern Roman Empire Migrations of Greeks throughout the Empire mainly towards Constantinople 7th century Slavic conquest of several parts of Greece Greek migrations to Southern Italy Roman emperors capture main Slavic bodies and transfer them to Cappadocia The Bosporus is re populated by Macedonian and Cypriot Greeks 8th century Roman dissolution of surviving Slavic settlements in Greece and full recovery of the Greek peninsula 9th century Retro migrations of Greeks from all parts of the Empire mainly from Southern Italy and Sicily into parts of Greece that were depopulated by the Slavic Invasions mainly western Peloponnesus and Thessaly 13th century Roman Empire dissolves Constantinople taken by the Fourth Crusade becoming the capital of the Latin Empire Liberated after a long struggle by the Empire of Nicaea but fragments remain separated Migrations between Asia Minor Constantinople and mainland Greece take place 15th century 19th century Conquest of Constantinople by the Ottoman Empire Greek diaspora into Europe begins Ottoman settlements in Greece Phanariot Greeks occupy high posts in Eastern European millets Time Events 1830s Creation of the modern Greek state Emigration to the New World begins Large scale migrations from Constantinople and Asia Minor to Greece take place 1913 European Ottoman lands partitioned unorganized migrations of Greeks Bulgarians and Turks towards their respective states 1914 1923 Greek genocide hundreds of thousands of Ottoman Greeks are estimated to have died during this period 273 1919 Treaty of Neuilly Greece and Bulgaria exchange populations with some exceptions 1922 The Destruction of Smyrna modern day Izmir more than 40 thousand Greeks killed end of significant Greek presence in Asia Minor 1923 Treaty of Lausanne Greece and Turkey agree to exchange populations with limited exceptions of the Greeks in Constantinople Imbros Tenedos and the Muslim minority of Western Thrace 1 5 million of Asia Minor and Pontic Greeks settle in Greece and some 450 thousands of Muslims settle in Turkey 1940s Hundreds of thousands of Greeks die of starvation during the Great Famine caused by the Axis occupation 1947 Communist Romania begins evictions of the Greek community approx 75 000 migrate 1948 Greek Civil War tens of thousands of communists and their families flee to Eastern Bloc nations Thousands settle in Tashkent 1950s Massive emigration of Greeks to West Germany the United States Australia Canada and other countries 1955 Istanbul pogrom against the city s Greeks Exodus of Greeks accelerates fewer than 2 000 remain today 1958 Large Greek community in Alexandria flees Nasser s Arab socialist regime in Egypt 1960s Republic of Cyprus created as a sovereign state under Greek Turkish and British protection Economic emigration continues 1974 Turkish invasion of Cyprus Almost all Greeks living in northern Cyprus flee to the south or the United Kingdom 1980s Many civil war refugees allowed to return to Greece Retro migration of Greeks from Germany begins 1990s Dissolution of the Soviet Union Approximately 340 000 ethnic Greeks migrate from Georgia Armenia southern Russia and Albania to Greece early 2000s Some statistics show the beginning of a trend of reverse migration of Greeks from the United States and Australia 2010s Over 200 000 people 274 particularly young skilled individuals 275 emigrate to other EU states due to high unemployment see also Greek government debt crisis 276 See also nbsp Ancient Greece portal nbsp Greece portal Antiochian Greeks Arvanites Cappadocian Greeks Caucasian Greeks Greek Cypriots Greek Diaspora Griko people Karamanlides Macedonians Greeks Maniots Greek Muslims Cretan Muslims Northern Epirotes Pelasgians Pontic Greeks Romaniotes Sarakatsani Tsakones Urums Lists List of ancient Greeks List of Greeks List of Greek AmericansNotes There is a range of interpretations Carl Blegen dates the arrival of the Greeks around 1900 BC John Caskey believes that there were two waves of immigrants and Robert Drews places the event as late as 1600 BC 60 61 Numerous other theories have also been supported 62 but there is a general consensus that the Greek tribes arrived around 2100 BC While Greek authorities signed the agreement legalizing the population exchange this was done on the insistence of Mustafa Kemal Ataturk and after a million Greeks had already been expelled from Asia Minor Gilbar 1997 p 8 Citations Maratou Alipranti 2013 p 196 The Greek diaspora remains large consisting of up to 4 million people globally Clogg 2013 p 228 Greeks of the diaspora settled in some 141 countries were held to number 7 million although it is not clear how this figure was arrived at or what criteria were used to define Greek ethnicity while the population of the homeland according to the 1991 census amounted to some 10 25 million 2011 Population and Housing Census Hellenic Statistical Authority 12 September 2014 Archived from the original on 16 July 2016 Retrieved 18 May 2016 The Resident Population of Greece is 10 816 286 of which 5 303 223 male 49 0 and 5 513 063 female 51 0 The total number of permanent residents of Greece with foreign citizenship during the Census was 912 000 See Graph 6 Resident Population by Citizenship Statistical Data on Immigrants in Greece An Analytic Study of Available Data and Recommendations for Conformity with European Union Standards PDF Archive of European Integration AEI University of Pittsburgh 15 November 2004 Archived PDF from the original on 9 October 2022 Retrieved 18 May 2016 p 5 The Census recorded 762 191 persons normally resident in Greece and without Greek citizenship constituting around 7 of total population Of these 48 560 are EU or EFTA nationals there are also 17 426 Cypriots with privileged status Population Country of Birth Citizenship Category Country of Citizenship Language Religion Ethnic Religious Group 2011 Archived from the original on 12 June 2018 Retrieved 12 May 2018 Cole 2011 Yiannis Papadakis Cypriots Greek pp 92 95 Where are the Greek communities of the world themanews com Protothemanews com 2013 Archived from the original on 4 March 2016 Retrieved 14 August 2015 Statistical Service Population and Social Conditions Population Census Announcements Preliminary Results of the Census of Population 2011 Cystat gov cy Archived from the original on 15 January 2013 Retrieved 6 August 2023 Total ancestry categories tallied for people with one or more ancestry categories reported 2011 2013 American Community Survey 3 Year Estimates American FactFinder U S Department of Commerce United States Census Bureau 2013 Archived from the original on 14 February 2020 Retrieved 23 May 2016 U S Relations with Greece United States Department of State 10 March 2016 Archived from the original on 21 January 2017 Retrieved 18 May 2016 Today an estimated three million Americans resident in the United States claim Greek descent This large well organized community cultivates close political and cultural ties with Greece Population in private households 2021 by migration background Archived from the original on 20 April 2019 Retrieved 6 August 2023 2021 Census of Population and Housing General Community Profile Australian Bureau of Statistics Archived from the original on 28 June 2022 Retrieved 30 December 2022 United Kingdom Cultural Relations and Greek Community Hellenic Republic Ministry of Foreign Affairs 4 February 2011 Archived from the original on 11 September 2018 Retrieved 19 April 2016 Immigration and Ethnocultural Diversity Highlight Tables statcan gc ca a b Bideleux Robert Jeffries Ian 2007 The Balkans a post communist history London Routledge p 49 ISBN 978 0 203 96911 3 OCLC 85373407 Archived from the original on 29 May 2020 Retrieved 17 December 2022 It is difficult to know how many ethnic Greeks there were in Albania before the exodus of refugees during the early to mid 1990s The Albanian government claimed there were only 60 000 based on the biased 1989 census whereas the Greek government claimed there were upwards of 300 000 Most Western estimates were around the 200 000 mark Greeks Around the Globe AusGreekNet Archived from the original on 19 June 2006 South Africa Cultural Relations and Greek Community Hellenic Republic Ministry of Foreign Affairs 4 February 2011 Archived from the original on 19 June 2006 Italy Cultural Relations and Greek Community Hellenic Republic Ministry of Foreign Affairs 9 July 2013 Archived from the original on 14 May 2016 Retrieved 4 May 2016 The Greek Italian community numbers some 30 000 and is concentrated mainly in central Italy The age old presence in Italy of Italians of Greek descent dating back to Byzantine and Classical times is attested to by the Griko dialect which is still spoken in the Magna Graecia region This historically Greek speaking villages are Condofuri Galliciano Roccaforte del Greco Roghudi Bova and Bova Marina which are in the Calabria region the capital of which is Reggio The Grecanic region including Reggio has a population of some 200 000 while speakers of the Griko dialect number fewer that 1 000 persons a b Grecia Salentina in Italian Unione dei Comuni della Grecia Salentina 2016 Archived from the original on 19 August 2014 Retrieved 4 May 2016 La popolazione complessiva dell Unione e di 54278 residenti cosi distribuiti Dati Istat al 31 dicembre 2005 Comune Popolazione Calimera 7351 Carpignano Salentino 3868 Castrignano dei Greci 4164 Corigliano d Otranto 5762 Cutrofiano 9250 Martano 9588 Martignano 1784 Melpignano 2234 Soleto 5551 Sternatia 2583 Zollino 2143 Totale 54278 a b Bellinello 1998 p 53 Le attuali colonie Greche calabresi La Grecia calabrese si inscrive nel massiccio aspromontano e si concentra nell ampia e frastagliata valle dell Amendolea e nelle balze piu a oriente dove sorgono le fiumare dette di S Pasquale di Palizzi e Sideroni e che costituiscono la Bovesia vera e propria Compresa nei territori di cinque comuni Bova Superiore Bova Marina Roccaforte del Greco Roghudi Condofuri la Grecia si estende per circa 233 km 145 mi q La popolazione anagrafica complessiva e di circa 14 000 unita English version of Greek Ministry of Foreign Affairs reports a few thousand and Greek version 3 800 MFA gr Archived from the original on 4 January 2015 Retrieved 21 August 2019 Rippin Andrew 2008 World Islam Critical Concepts in Islamic Studies Routledge p 77 ISBN 978 0415456531 Parvex R 2014 Le Chili et les mouvements migratoires Archived 1 August 2020 at the Wayback Machine Hommes amp migrations Nº 1305 2014 doi 10 4000 hommesmigrations 2720 Archived 27 September 2023 at the Wayback Machine Ukraine Cultural Relations and Greek Community Hellenic Republic Ministry of Foreign Affairs 4 February 2011 Archived from the original on 21 October 2016 Retrieved 19 April 2016 There is a significant Greek presence in southern and eastern Ukraine which can be traced back to ancient Greek and Byzantine settlers Ukrainian citizens of Greek descent amount to 91 000 people although their number is estimated to be much higher by the Federation of Greek communities of Mariupol Itogi Vserossijskoj perepisi naseleniya 2010 goda v otnoshenii demograficheskih i socialno ekonomicheskih harakteristik otdelnyh nacionalnostej Archived from the original on 13 May 2020 Retrieved 4 February 2016 The Greek Community Archived from the original on 13 June 2007 France Cultural Relations and Greek Community Hellenic Republic Ministry of Foreign Affairs 9 July 2013 Archived from the original on 21 October 2016 Retrieved 19 April 2016 Some 15 000 Greeks reside in the wider region of Paris Lille and Lyon In the region of Southern France the Greek community numbers some 20 000 Belgium Cultural Relations and Greek Community Hellenic Republic Ministry of Foreign Affairs 28 January 2011 Archived from the original on 11 September 2018 Retrieved 19 April 2016 Some 35 000 Greeks reside in Belgium Official Belgian data numbers Greeks in the country at 17 000 but does not take into account Greeks who have taken Belgian citizenship or work for international organizations and enterprises Argentina Cultural Relations and Greek Community Hellenic Republic Ministry of Foreign Affairs 9 July 2013 Archived from the original on 11 September 2018 Retrieved 15 April 2016 It is estimated that some 20 000 to 30 000 persons of Greek origin currently reside in Argentina and there are Greek communities in the wider region of Buenos Aires CBS Statline Archived from the original on 28 May 2019 Retrieved 18 January 2020 Bevolking geslacht leeftijd generatie en migratieachtergrond 1 januari in Dutch Central Bureau of Statistics CBS 22 July 2021 Archived from the original on 28 May 2019 Retrieved 16 January 2022 Naselenie po mestozhiveene vzrast i etnicheska grupa censusresults nsi bg Archived from the original on 19 May 2023 Retrieved 15 October 2020 Bulgaria Cultural Relations and Greek Community Hellenic Republic Ministry of Foreign Affairs 28 January 2011 Archived from the original on 11 September 2018 Retrieved 19 April 2016 There are some 28 500 persons of Greek origin and citizenship residing in Bulgaria This number includes approximately 15 000 Sarakatsani 2 500 former political refugees 8 000 old Greeks 2 000 university students and 1 000 professionals and their families Immigration to Uruguay PDF in Spanish INE Archived from the original PDF on 16 August 2013 Retrieved 6 March 2013 Sweden Cultural Relations and Greek Community Hellenic Republic Ministry of Foreign Affairs 4 February 2011 Archived from the original on 5 April 2013 Retrieved 5 October 2019 The Greek community in Sweden consists of approximately 24 000 Greeks who are permanent inhabitants included in Swedish society and active in various sectors science arts literature culture media education business and politics Georgia Cultural Relations and Greek Community Hellenic Republic Ministry of Foreign Affairs 31 January 2011 Archived from the original on 23 April 2016 Retrieved 15 April 2016 The Greek community of Georgia is currently estimated at 15 000 people mostly elderly people living in the Tsalkas area Migranti z Recka v Cesku Migrants from Greece in the Czech Republic PDF Hellenic Republic Ministry of Foreign Affairs in Czech 9 March 2011 Archived PDF from the original on 9 October 2022 Retrieved 25 April 2019 Kazakhstan Cultural Relations and Greek Community Hellenic Republic Ministry of Foreign Affairs 3 February 2011 Archived from the original on 23 April 2016 Retrieved 15 April 2016 There are between 10 000 and 12 000 ethnic Greeks living in Kazakhstan organized in several communities Switzerland Cultural Relations and Greek Community Hellenic Republic Ministry of Foreign Affairs 10 December 2015 Archived from the original on 21 October 2016 Retrieved 19 April 2016 The Greek community in Switzerland is estimated to number some 11 000 persons of a total of 1 5 million foreigners residing in the country Romania Cultural Relations and Greek Community Hellenic Republic Ministry of Foreign Affairs 6 December 2013 Archived from the original on 8 August 2016 Retrieved 19 April 2016 The Greek Romanian community numbers some 10 000 and there are many Greeks working in established Greek enterprises in Romania Greeks in Uzbekistan Central Asia Caucasus Analyst The Central Asia Caucasus Institute 21 June 2000 Archived from the original on 13 June 2010 Retrieved 24 December 2008 Currently there are about 9 500 Greeks living in Uzbekistan with 6 500 living in Tashkent Bevolkerung nach Staatsangehorigkeit und Geburtsland Archived from the original on 13 November 2019 Retrieved 31 July 2015 Vukovich Gabriella 2018 Mikrocenzus 2016 12 Nemzetisegi adatok 2016 microcensus 12 Ethnic data PDF in Hungarian Budapest ISBN 978 963 235 542 9 Archived PDF from the original on 9 October 2022 Retrieved 9 January 2019 a href Template Cite book html title Template Cite book cite book a work ignored help CS1 maint location missing publisher link World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples Turkey Rum Orthodox Christians Minority Rights Group MRG 2005 Archived from the original on 29 March 2014 Retrieved 1 March 2014 Pontic Ethnologue Languages of the World SIL International 2016 Archived from the original on 6 June 2019 Retrieved 13 May 2016 a b c d e Roberts 2007 pp 171 172 222 Latacz 2004 pp 159 165 166 a b c d Sutton 1996 Beaton 1996 pp 1 25 CIA World Factbook on Greece Greek Orthodox 98 Greek Muslim 1 3 other 0 7 Thomas Heath 1981 A History of Greek Mathematics Courier Dover Publications p 1 ISBN 978 0 486 24073 2 Archived from the original on 16 February 2023 Retrieved 19 August 2013 Tulloch A 2017 Understanding English Homonyms Their Origins and Usage Hong Kong University Press p 153 ISBN 978 988 8390 64 9 Retrieved 30 November 2023 Greek is the world s oldest recorded living language Kurt Aland Barbara Aland The text of the New Testament an introduction to the critical 1995 p 52 Archibald Macbride Hunter Introducing the New Testament 1972 p 9 Bubenik V 2007 The rise of Koine In A F Christidis ed A History of Ancient Greek From the Beginnings to Late Antiquity Cambridge University Press pp 342 345 Guibernau amp Hutchinson 2004 p 23 Indeed Smith emphasizes that the myth of divine election sustains the continuity of cultural identity and in that regard has enabled certain pre modern communities such as the Jews Armenians and Greeks to survive and persist over centuries and millennia Smith 1993 15 20 Smith 1999 p 21 It emphasizes the role of myths memories and symbols of ethnic chosenness trauma and the golden age of saints sages and heroes in the rise of modern nationalism among the Jews Armenians and Greeks the archetypal diaspora peoples Bryce 2006 p 91 Cadogan 1986 p 125 Bryce 2006 p 92 Drews 1994 p 21 Mallory amp Adams 1997 p 243 The Greeks Encyclopaedia Britannica US Encyclopaedia Britannica Inc 2008 Online Edition Chadwick 1976 p 2 a b Linear A and Linear B Encyclopaedia Britannica Encyclopaedia Britannica Inc Archived from the original on 6 April 2019 Retrieved 3 March 2016 Castleden 2005 p 228 Tartaron 2013 p 28 Schofield 2006 pp 71 72 Panayotou 2007 pp 417 426 Hall 2014 p 43 Chadwick 1976 p 176 a b Castleden 2005 p 2 Hansen 2004 p 7 Podzuweit 1982 pp 65 88 Castleden 2005 p 235 Dietrich 1974 p 156 Burckhardt 1999 p 168 The establishment of these Panhellenic sites which yet remained exclusively Hellenic was a very important element in the growth and self consciousness of Hellenic nationalism it was uniquely decisive in breaking down enmity between tribes and remained the most powerful obstacle to fragmentation into mutually hostile poleis Zuwiyya 2011 pp 142 143 Budin 2009 pp 66 67 Morgan 1990 pp 1 25 148 190 Ancient Greek Civilization Encyclopaedia Britannica United States Encyclopaedia Britannica Inc 18 February 2016 Online Edition Archived from the original on 17 November 2019 Retrieved 21 June 2022 Konstan 2001 pp 29 50 Steinberger 2000 p 17 Burger 2008 pp 57 58 Burger 2008 pp 57 58 Poleis continued to go to war with each other The Peloponnesian War 431 404 BC made this painfully clear The war really two wars punctuated by a peace was a duel between Greece s two leading cities Athens and Sparta Most other poleis however got sucked into the conflict as allies of one side or the other The fact that Greeks were willing to fight for their cities against other Greeks in conflicts like the Peloponnesian War showed the limits of the pull of Hellas compared with that of the polis Fox Robin Lane 2004 Riding with Alexander Archaeology The Archaeological Institute of America Archived from the original on 2 November 2012 Retrieved 27 December 2008 Alexander inherited the idea of an invasion of the Persian Empire from his father Philip whose advance force was already out in Asia in 336 BC Philips campaign had the slogan of freeing the Greeks in Asia and punishing the Persians for their past sacrileges during their own invasion a century and a half earlier of Greece No doubt Philip wanted glory and plunder Brice 2012 pp 281 286 Alexander the Great Columbia Encyclopedia United States Columbia University Press 2008 Online Edition Green 2008 p xiii Morris Ian December 2005 Growth of the Greek Colonies in the First Millennium BC PDF Princeton Stanford Working Papers in Classics Princeton Stanford University Archived PDF from the original on 9 October 2022 a b Boardman Griffin amp Murray 1991 p 364 Arun Neil 7 August 2007 Alexander s Gulf outpost uncovered BBC News Archived from the original on 2 January 2016 Retrieved 15 June 2009 Grant 1990 Introduction a b Hellenistic age Encyclopaedia Britannica United States Encyclopaedia Britannica Inc 27 May 2015 Online Edition Archived from the original on 14 April 2020 Retrieved 21 June 2022 a b c d Harris 1991 pp 137 138 Lucore 2009 p 51 The Hellenistic period is commonly portrayed as the great age of Greek scientific discovery above all in mathematics and astronomy Foltz 2010 pp 43 46 Burton 1993 pp 244 245 Zoch 2000 p 136 Hellenistic religion Encyclopaedia Britannica United States Encyclopaedia Britannica Inc 13 May 2015 Online Edition Archived from the original on 27 June 2019 Retrieved 21 June 2022 Ferguson 2003 pp 617 618 Dunstan 2011 p 500 Milburn 1988 p 158 Makrides 2009 p 206 Nicholas Nick 2019 A critical lexicostatistical examination of Ancient and Modern Greek and Tsakonian Journal of Applied Linguistics and Lexicography 1 1 19 doi 10 33910 2687 0215 2019 1 1 18 68 Kaldellis 2007 pp 35 40 Howatson 1989 p 264 From the fourth century AD onwards the Greeks of the eastern Roman empire called themselves Rhomaioi Romans a b Cameron 2009 p 7 Harrison 2002 p 268 Roman Greek if not used in its sense of pagan and Christian became synonymous terms counterposed to foreigner barbarian infidel The citizens of the Empire now predominantly of Greek ethnicity and language were often called simply o xristwnymos laos the people who bear Christ s name Earl 1968 p 148 Paul the Silentiary Descriptio S Sophiae et Ambonis 425 Line 12 xῶros ὅde Graikoῖsi Theodore the Studite Epistulae 419 Line 30 ἐn Graikoῖs Angelov 2007 p 96 Makrides 2009 Chapter 2 Christian Monotheism Orthodox Christianity Greek Orthodoxy p 74 Magdalino 1991 Chapter XIV Hellenism and Nationalism in Byzantium p 10 Byzantine Empire Encyclopaedia Britannica United States Encyclopaedia Britannica Inc 23 December 2015 Online Edition Archived from the original on 4 September 2019 Retrieved 21 June 2022 a b Haldon 1997 p 50 Shahid 1972 pp 295 296 305 Klein 2004 p 290 Note 39 Annales Fuldenses 389 Mense lanuario c epiphaniam Basilii Graecorum imperatoris legati cum muneribus et epistolis ad Hludowicum regem Radasbonam venerunt Fouracre amp Gerberding 1996 p 345 The Frankish court no longer regarded the Byzantine Empire as holding valid claims of universality instead it was now termed the Empire of the Greeks Page 2008 pp 66 87 256 Kaplanis 2014 pp 86 7 Jakobsson Sverrir 1 January 2016 The Varangian legend testimony from the Old Norse sources Academia edu Archived from the original on 11 April 2022 Retrieved 1 December 2021 Herrin Judith Saint Guillain Guillaume 2011 Identities and Allegiances in the Eastern Mediterranean After 1204 Ashgate Publishing Ltd p 111 ISBN 9781409410980 Archived from the original on 27 September 2023 Retrieved 1 December 2021 Stouraitis 2014 pp 176 177 Finkelberg 2012 p 20 a b Burstein 1988 pp 47 49 a b c d e f Greece during the Byzantine period c AD 300 c 1453 Population and languages Emerging Greek identity Encyclopaedia Britannica United States Encyclopaedia Britannica Inc 2008 Online Edition Angold 1975 p 65 Page 2008 p 127 Byzantium 1220 To 1330 PDF Byzantine Empire Constantinople Scribd 5 August 2021 Archived from the original on 11 August 2016 Retrieved 1 December 2021 Kaplanis 2014 p 92 Vasiliev Alexander A 1964 History of the Byzantine Empire 324 1453 University of Wisconsin Press p 582 ISBN 9780299809256 Jane Perry Clark Carey Andrew Galbraith Carey 1968 The Web of Modern Greek Politics Columbia University Press p 33 ISBN 9780231031707 Archived from the original on 27 September 2023 Retrieved 11 September 2018 By the end of the fourteenth century the Byzantine emperor was often called Emperor of the Hellenes Mango 1965 p 33 See for example Anthony Bryer The Empire of Trebizond and the Pontus Variourum 1980 and his Migration and Settlement in the Caucasus and Anatolia Variourum 1988 and other works listed in Caucasian Greeks and Pontic Greeks Norwich 1998 p xxi Harris 1999 Part II Medieval Libraries Chapter 6 Byzantine and Moslem Libraries pp 71 88 a b Renaissance Encyclopaedia Britannica United States Encyclopaedia Britannica Inc 30 March 2016 Online Edition Archived from the original on 16 June 2015 Retrieved 21 June 2022 Robins 1993 p 8 Aristotelianism Encyclopaedia Britannica United States Encyclopaedia Britannica Inc 2016 Online Edition Archived from the original on 21 October 2019 Retrieved 21 June 2022 Cyril and Methodius Saints The Columbia Encyclopedia United States Columbia University Press 2016 Online Edition Archived from the original on 5 June 2016 Retrieved 10 May 2016 a b c d Mazower 2000 pp 105 107 History of Europe The Romans Encyclopaedia Britannica United States Encyclopaedia Britannica Inc 2008 Online Edition Mavrocordatos Nicholaos 1800 Philotheou Parerga Gregorios Kōnstantas Original from Harvard University Library Genos men hmin twn agan Ellhnwn Manastirlar www macka gov tr in Turkish Archived from the original on 9 June 2023 Retrieved 24 June 2021 Bahadiroglu Yavuz 2007 Resimli Osmanli tarihi 10 baski Eylul 2007 ed Istanbul Nesil yayinlari p 157 ISBN 978 975 269 299 2 OCLC 235010971 Phanariote Encyclopaedia Britannica United States Encyclopaedia Britannica Inc 2016 Online Edition Archived from the original on 23 October 2019 Retrieved 21 June 2022 a b c History of Greece Ottoman Empire The merchant middle class Encyclopaedia Britannica United States Encyclopaedia Britannica Inc 2008 Online Edition Greek Constitution of 1822 Epidaurus PDF in Greek 1822 Archived PDF from the original on 9 October 2022 Barutciski 2003 p 28 Clark 2006 pp xi xv Hershlag 1980 p 177 Ozkirimli amp Sofos 2008 pp 116 117 Ungor 2008 pp 15 39 Broome 1996 Greek Identity pp 22 27 ὅmaimos Archived 25 February 2021 at the Wayback Machine Henry George Liddell Robert Scott A Greek English Lexicon on Perseus ὁmoglwssos Archived 25 February 2021 at the Wayback Machine Henry George Liddell Robert Scott A Greek English Lexicon on Perseus I Polinskaya Shared sanctuaries and the gods of others On the meaning Of common in Herodotus 8 144 in R Rosen amp I Sluiter eds Valuing others in Classical Antiquity LEiden Brill 2010 43 70 Macan Reginald Walter 1908 8 144 Herodotus The Seventh Eighth amp Ninth Books with Introduction and Commentary Macmillan amp Co Ltd Archived from the original on 13 September 2023 Retrieved 7 October 2023 via Perseus ὁmotropos Archived 25 February 2021 at the Wayback Machine Henry George Liddell Robert Scott A Greek English Lexicon on Perseus Herodotus 8 144 2 The kinship of all Greeks in blood and speech and the shrines of gods and the sacrifices that we have in common and the likeness of our way of life Athena S Leoussi Steven Grosby Nationalism and Ethnosymbolism History Culture and Ethnicity in the Formation of Nations Edinburgh University Press 2006 p 115 Adrados 2005 p xii Finkelberg 2012 p 20 Harrison 2002 p 268 Kazhdan amp Constable 1982 p 12 Runciman 1970 p 14 Sevcenko 2002 p 284 Sphrantzes George 1477 The Chronicle of the Fall Feraios Rigas New Political Constitution of the Inhabitants of Rumeli Asia Minor the Islands of the Aegean and the Principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia Koliopoulos amp Veremis 2002 p 277 Smith 2003 p 98 After the Ottoman conquest in 1453 recognition by the Turks of the Greek millet under its Patriarch and Church helped to ensure the persistence of a separate ethnic identity which even if it did not produce a precocious nationalism among the Greeks provided the later Greek enlighteners and nationalists with a cultural constituency fed by political dreams and apocalyptic prophecies of the recapture of Constantinople and the restoration of Greek Byzantium and its Orthodox emperor in all his glory Tonkin Chapman amp McDonald 1989 Patterson 1998 pp 18 19 Psellos Michael 1994 Michaelis Pselli Orationes Panegyricae Stuttgart Leipzig Walter de Gruyter p 33 ISBN 978 0 297 82057 4 See Iliad II 2 530 for Panhellenes and Iliad II 2 653 for Hellenes Cartledge 2011 Chapter 4 Argos p 23 The Late Bronze Age in Greece is also called conventionally Mycenaean as we saw in the last chapter But it might in principle have been called Argive Achaean or Danaan since the three names that Homer does apply to Greeks collectively were Argives Achaeans and Danaans Nagy 2014 Texts and Commentaries Introduction 2 Panhellenism is the least common denominator of ancient Greek civilization The impulse of Panhellenism is already at work in Homeric and Hesiodic poetry In the Iliad the names Achaeans and Danaans and Argives are used synonymously in the sense of Panhellenes all Hellenes all Greeks Herodotus Histories 7 94 and 8 73 Homer Iliad 2 681 685 a b The Parian Marble Entry 6 Archived 23 August 2017 at the Wayback Machine From when Hellen son of Deuc alion became king of Phthi otis and those previously called Graekoi were named Hellenes Pseudo Apollodorus Bibliotheca a b Aristotle Meteorologica 1 14 Archived 29 June 2011 at the Wayback Machine The deluge in the time of Deucalion for instance took place chiefly in the Greek world and in it especially about ancient Hellas the country about Dodona and the Achelous Homer Iliad 16 233 16 235 King Zeus lord of Dodona you who hold wintry Dodona in your sway where your prophets the Selloi dwell around you Hesiod Catalogue of Women Fragment 5 Starostin Sergei 1998 The Tower of Babel An Etymological Database Project Watkins Calvert 2000 The American Heritage Dictionary of Indo European Roots Boston New York Houghton Mifflin Company ISBN 0618082506 Aristotle Meteorologica I xiv a b c d Adrados 2005 pp xii 3 5 Browning 1983 p vii The Homeric poems were first written down in more or less their present form in the seventh century B C Since then Greek has enjoyed a continuous tradition down to the present day Change there has certainly been But there has been no break like that between Latin and Romance languages Ancient Greek is not a foreign language to the Greek of today as Anglo Saxon is to the modern Englishman The only other language which enjoys comparable continuity of tradition is Chinese a b c d Smith 1991 pp 29 32 Isaac 2004 p 504 Autochthony being an Athenian idea and represented in many Athenian texts is likely to have influenced a broad public of readers wherever Greek literature was read Anna Comnena Alexiad Books 1 15 Papagrigorakis Kousoulis amp Synodinos 2014 p 237 Interpreted with caution the craniofacial morphology in modern and ancient Greeks indicates elements of ethnic group continuation within the unavoidable multicultural mixtures Argyropoulos Sassouni amp Xeniotou 1989 p 200 An overall view of the finding obtained from these cephalometric analyses indicates that the Greek ethnic group has remained genetically stable in its cephalic and facial morphology for the last 4 000 years a b Gibbons Ann 2 August 2017 The Greeks really do have near mythical origins ancient DNA reveals Science doi 10 1126 science aan7200 a b Lazaridis et al 2017 Pinakas 9 Plh8ysmos kata yphkoothta kai fylo PDF in Greek Hellenic Statistical Authority 2001 Archived from the original PDF on 6 February 2009 Retrieved 7 January 2009 CIA Factbook Central Intelligence Agency United States Government 2007 Archived from the original on 9 January 2021 Retrieved 19 December 2008 Census of Population 2001 Grafeio Typoy kai Plhroforiwn Ypoyrgeio Eswterikwn Kypriakh Dhmokratia Archived from the original on 3 February 2017 Retrieved 11 June 2016 Greece Demographic trends Encyclopaedia Britannica Encyclopaedia Britannica Inc 2016 Online Edition Archived from the original on 17 July 2019 Retrieved 21 June 2022 a b c Merchant Marine Tertiary enrollment by age group Pocket World in Figures Economist London Economist Books 2006 p 150 ISBN 978 1 86197 825 7 a b c Cyprus Demographic trends Encyclopaedia Britannica Encyclopaedia Britannica Inc 2016 Online Edition Archived from the original on 22 June 2008 Retrieved 21 June 2022 Papadakis Peristianis amp Welz 2006 pp 2 3 Borowiec 2000 p 2 Rezun 2001 p 6 Brown 2004 p 48 Yotopoulos Marangopoulos 2001 p 24 In occupied Cyprus on the other hand where heavy ethnic cleansing took place only 300 Greek Cypriots remain from the original 200 000 Georgiou Myria 2004 Mapping Minorities and their Media The National Context Greece PDF London School of Economics Archived PDF from the original on 14 December 2022 Retrieved 17 December 2022 The long and adventurous 20th century history of migration in Greece can be drawn by period 1990 s The vast majority of the 200 000 ethnic Greeks from Albania Gilson George 24 June 2005 Destroying a minority Turkey s attack on the Greeks Athens News Archived from the original on 17 June 2008 Retrieved 19 December 2008 Vryonis 2005 pp 1 10 Birand Mehm et al 7 September 2005 The shame of Sept 6 7 is always with us Hurriyet Daily News Archived from the original on 9 December 2012 Retrieved 19 December 2008 a b c Prevelakis George 2003 Finis Greciae or the Return of the Greeks State and Diaspora in the Context of Globalisation PDF Oxford Transnational Communities Programme Working Paper Series Archived PDF from the original on 9 October 2022 Retrieved 16 May 2016 Speech by Vasilis Magdalinos SAE 29 December 2006 Archived from the original on 21 July 2011 Retrieved 19 December 2008 Meeting on the exercise of voting rights by foreigners of Greek origin Greek Ministry of Foreign Affairs 15 July 2008 Archived from the original on 16 February 2012 Retrieved 19 December 2008 Non Greeks and diaspora lose out on voting rights Ekathimerini com 8 February 2014 Archived from the original on 13 January 2015 Retrieved 13 January 2015 a b Boardman 1984 pp 199 289 Horden amp Purcell 2000 pp 111 128 Calotychos 2003 p 16 a b McCabe amp Harlaftis 2005 pp 147 149 a b Kardasis 2001 pp xvii xxi Clogg 2000 The Greeks in America Laliotou 2004 pp 85 92 Seiradaki Emmanouela 11 April 2012 As Crisis Deepens Astoria Finds Its Greek Essence Again Greek Reporter GreekReporter com Archived from the original on 25 February 2019 Retrieved 21 May 2016 Papachristou Harry Elgood Giles 20 May 2012 Greece Already Close to Breaking Point The Fiscal Times Reuters Archived from the original on 30 July 2013 Retrieved 22 May 2012 Hannon Paul 27 June 2012 OECD Says Euro Zone Crisis Has Led to Some Emigration The Wall Street Journal Archived from the original on 24 February 2019 Retrieved 21 May 2016 a b van der Horst 1998 pp 9 11 Voegelin amp Moulakis 1997 pp 175 179 Genocide Scholars Association Officially Recognizes Assyrian Greek Genocides PDF Press release International Association of Genocide Scholars 16 December 2007 Archived from the original PDF on 27 February 2008 Bjornlund 2008 pp 41 58 Schaller amp Zimmerer 2008 pp 7 14 Levene 1998 p 393 Tatz 2003 pp xiii 178 Greek literature Encyclopaedia Britannica United States Encyclopaedia Britannica Inc 27 August 2014 Online Edition Archived from the original on 21 June 2020 Retrieved 21 June 2022 New Linear B tablet found at Iklaina Comite International Permanent des Etudes Myceniennes UNESCO Archived from the original on 15 October 2013 Retrieved 29 April 2012 Aland K Aland B 1995 The Text of the New Testament Wm B Eerdmans Publishing ISBN 978 0 8028 4098 1 Winford 2003 p 71 Mackridge 1990 p 25 Tomic 2006 p 703 Fasold 1984 p 160 Greece PewForum 4 April 2014 Archived from the original on 23 October 2018 Retrieved 4 April 2014 Head James 20 March 2007 The ancient gods of Greece are not extinct New Statesman p The Faith Column Archived from the original on 12 June 2018 Retrieved 12 May 2016 de Quetteville Harry 8 May 2004 Modern Athenians fight for the right to worship the ancient Greek gods The Telegraph Archived from the original on 11 January 2022 Retrieved 12 May 2016 Freedom of Religion in Greece International Religious Freedom Report United States Department of State 2006 Archived from the original on 9 February 2020 Retrieved 12 May 2016 Tsokalidou Roula 2002 Greek Speaking Enclaves of Lebanon and Syria PDF Actas Proceedings II Simposio Internacional Bilinguismo Roula Tsokalidou Primary School Education Department University of Thessaly Greece pp 1245 1255 Archived PDF from the original on 9 October 2022 a b Osborne 1998 pp 1 3 Pollitt 1972 pp xii xv Puri 1987 pp 28 29 a b Mango 1986 pp ix xiv 183 The Byzantine empire The lasting glory of its art The Economist 4 October 2007 Archived from the original on 21 February 2010 Retrieved 10 May 2016 Stansbury O Donnell 2015 Tarbell 1907 Byzantine Medicine Vienna Dioscurides Antiqua Medicina University of Virginia 2007 Archived from the original on 10 October 2018 Retrieved 10 May 2016 a b Bump Jerome The Origin of Universities University of Magnaura in Constantinople The Origin of Universities University of Texas at Austin Archived from the original on 20 February 2009 Retrieved 19 December 2008 Tatakes amp Moutafakis 2003 p 189 University reforms in Greece face student protests The Economist 6 July 2006 Archived from the original on 7 December 2008 Retrieved 19 December 2008 Papadakis 1995 p 55 The Flag Law 851 Gov Gazette 233 issue A dated 21 22 12 1978 Presidency of the Hellenic Republic Archived from the original on 15 October 2008 Retrieved 19 December 2008 Older Flags 19 December 2008 Flags of the Greeks Skafidas Zacharias Archived from the original on 14 May 2010 Retrieved 23 December 2008 Note Website contains image of the 1665 original for the current Greek flag Grierson amp Bellinger 1999 Eagles pp 85 86 Byzantine Flags Byzantine Heraldry Francois Velde 1997 Archived from the original on 6 January 2014 Retrieved 13 May 2016 Wilson N G 2006 Encyclopedia of ancient Greece New York Routledge p 511 ISBN 0 415 97334 1 R Po chia Hsia Lynn Hunt Thomas R Martin Barbara H Rosenwein and Bonnie G Smith The Making of the West Peoples and Cultures A Concise History Volume I To 1740 Boston and New York Bedford St Martin s 2007 44 Clogg A Concise History of Greece pp 25 26 Goldstein Wars and Peace Treaties p 20 a b Wickham 2005 p 237 a b c d e The Transition of Modern Greek Names Lexicon of Greek Personal Names Oxford University Archived from the original on 22 July 2018 Retrieved 10 May 2016 Fong 2004 p 39 Koliopoulos 1987 p xii Naming practices Lexicon of Greek Personal Names Oxford University Archived from the original on 16 August 2018 Retrieved 16 October 2016 Plato Phaidon 109c ὥsper perὶ telma myrmhkas ἢ batraxoys perὶ tὴn 8alattan oἰkoῦntas Harl 1996 p 260 Cities employed the coins of an empire that formed a community of cities encircling the Mediterranean Sea which Romans audaciously called Our Sea mare nostrum We live around a sea like frogs around a pond was how Socrates so Plato tells us described to his friends the Hellenic cities of the Aegean in the late fifth century B C Pletcher 2013 Casson 1991 p 124 Winstedt 1909 pp 1 3 Withey 1989 p 42 Brown 2001 pp 30 32 Postan Miller amp Postan 1987 pp 132 166 Blyth Myrna 12 August 2004 Greek Tragedy The life of Aristotle Onassis National Review Archived from the original on 7 December 2008 Retrieved 19 December 2008 Smith Helena 6 October 2006 Callas takes centre stage again as exhibition recalls Onassis s life The Guardian Archived from the original on 24 February 2019 Retrieved 13 May 2016 Lazaridis et al 2022 pp 1 13 Supplementary Materials pp 233 241 Archived 27 September 2023 at the Wayback Machine Lecture by Prof David Reich The Genetic History of the Southern Arc A Bridge between West Asia amp Europe iias huji ac il Archived from the original on 2 February 2023 Retrieved 21 June 2022 Clemente et al 2021 Lao Oscar et al 2008 Correlation between genetic and geographic structure in Europe Current Biology 18 16 1241 1248 Bibcode 2008CBio 18 1241L doi 10 1016 j cub 2008 07 049 PMID 18691889 S2CID 16945780 Novembre John et al 2008 Genes mirror geography within Europe Nature 456 7218 98 101 Bibcode 2008Natur 456 98N doi 10 1038 nature07331 PMC 2735096 PMID 18758442 Ayub Q 2003 Reconstruction of human evolutionary tree using polymorphic autosomal microsatellites American Journal of Physical Anthropology 122 3 259 268 doi 10 1002 ajpa 10234 PMID 14533184 S2CID 467540 Cavalli Sforza Luigi Luca Menozzi Paolo Piazza Alberto 1996 The History and Geography of Human Genes Princeton University Press pp 255 301 ISBN 978 0691029054 Bauchet M et al 2007 Measuring European population stratification with microarray genotype data Am J Hum Genet 80 5 948 956 doi 10 1086 513477 PMC 1852743 PMID 17436249 Tian Chao et al 2009 European Population Genetic Substructure Further Definition of Ancestry Informative Markers for Distinguishing Among Diverse European Ethnic Groups Molecular Medicine 15 11 12 371 383 doi 10 2119 molmed 2009 00094 PMC 2730349 PMID 19707526 King Roy J et al 2008 Differential Y chromosome Anatolian influences on the Greek and Cretan Neolithic Annals of Human Genetics 72 Pt 2 205 214 doi 10 1111 j 1469 1809 2007 00414 x PMID 18269686 S2CID 22406638 Richards Martin et al 2002 In search of geographical patterns in European mitochondrial DNA Am J Hum Genet 71 5 1168 1174 doi 10 1086 342930 PMC 385092 PMID 12355353 Richards Martin et al 2000 Tracing European founder Lineages in the Near Eastern mtDNA pool Am J Hum Genet 67 5 1251 1276 doi 10 1016 S0002 9297 07 62954 1 PMC 1288566 PMID 11032788 Achilli Alessandro et al 2007 Mitochondrial DNA variation of modern Tuscans supports the Near Eastern origin of Etruscans Am J Hum Genet 80 4 759 768 doi 10 1086 512822 PMC 1852723 PMID 17357081 Tian Chao et al 2008 Analysis and Application of European Genetic Substructure Using 300 K SNP Information PLOS Genetics 4 1 e4 doi 10 1371 journal pgen 0040004 PMC 2211544 PMID 18208329 Cavalli Sforza Luigi Luca Piazza Alberto 1993 Human genomic diversity in Europe a summary of recent research and prospects for the future Eur J Hum Genet 1 1 3 18 doi 10 1159 000472383 PMID 7520820 S2CID 25475102 Walsh 2013 pp 98 115 Lagouvardos et al 2012 McEnroe John C 2010 Architecture of Minoan Crete Constructing Identity in the Aegean Bronze Age Web University of Texas Press pp 117 120 122 126 130 Beckman Gary Bryce Trevor Cline Eric 2012 The Ahhiyawa Texts Brill pp 268 270 ISBN 978 1589832688 The archaeological and textual evidence clearly demonstrates that there were well established connections between the Aegean and western Anatolia during the late fifteenth through the thirteenth centuries B C E R J Rummel Statistics of Democide Chapter 5 Statistics of Turkey s Democide Estimates Calculations And Sources Archived from the original on 25 August 2012 Retrieved 4 October 2006 Smith Helena 19 January 2015 Young gifted and Greek Generation G the world s biggest brain drain The Guardian Archived from the original on 11 March 2019 Retrieved 17 December 2016 Lowen Mark 29 May 2013 Greece s young Dreams on hold as fight for jobs looms BBC News Archived from the original on 25 February 2019 Retrieved 25 July 2013 The brain drain is quickening A recent study by the University of Thessaloniki found that more than 120 000 professionals including doctors engineers and scientists have left Greece since the start of the crisis in 2010 Melander Ingrid 28 October 2011 Greeks seek to escape debt crisis abroad Reuters Archived from the original on 2 January 2016 Retrieved 25 July 2013 ReferencesAdrados Francisco Rodriguez 2005 A History of the Greek Language From its Origins to the Present Leiden Brill Academic Publishers ISBN 978 90 04 12835 4 Archived from the original on 15 July 2023 Retrieved 4 May 2016 Angelov Dimiter 2007 Imperial Ideology and Political Thought in Byzantium 1204 1330 Cambridge Cambridge University Press ISBN 978 0 521 85703 1 Archived from the original on 27 September 2023 Retrieved 2 May 2016 Angold Michael 1975 Byzantine Nationalism and the Nicaean Empire Byzantine and Modern Greek Studies 1 1 49 70 doi 10 1179 030701375790158257 S2CID 161584160 Argyropoulos Evangelos Sassouni Viken Xeniotou Anna 1 September 1989 A comparative cephalometric investigation of the Greek craniofacial pattern through 4 000 years The Angle Orthodontist 59 3 195 204 PMID 2672905 Archived from the original on 1 August 2020 Retrieved 17 May 2020 Atkinson Quentin D Gray Russel D 2006 Chapter 8 How Old is the Indo European Language Family Illumination or More Moths to the Flame In Forster Peter Renfrew Colin eds Phylogenetic Methods and the Prehistory of Languages Cambridge McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research pp 91 109 ISBN 978 1 902937 33 5 Barutciski Michael 2003 3 Lausanne Revisited Population Exchanges in International Law and Policy In Hirschon Renee ed Crossing the Aegean The Consequences of the 1923 Greek Turkish Population Exchange Studies in Forced Migration New York Berghahn Books ISBN 978 1 57181 562 0 Beaton Roderick 1996 The Medieval Greek Romance 2nd ed New York Routledge ISBN 978 0 415 12032 6 Bellinello Pier Francesco 1998 Minoranze Etniche e Linguistiche in Italian Cosenza Editoriale Bios ISBN 978 88 7740 121 2 Bjornlund Matthias February 2008 The 1914 Cleansing of Aegean Greeks as a Case of Violent Turkification Journal of Genocide Research 10 1 41 58 doi 10 1080 14623520701850286 S2CID 72975930 Boardman John Griffin Jasper Murray Oswyn eds 1991 1986 The Oxford History of Greece and the Hellenistic World Oxford and New York Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 285247 2 Boardman John 1984 13 The Greek World In Boardman John ed The Cambridge Ancient History Plates to Volume III the Middle East the Greek World and the Balkans to the Sixth Century B C Cambridge Cambridge University Press pp 199 289 ISBN 978 0 521 24289 9 Borowiec Andrew 2000 Cyprus A Troubled Island London and Westport CT Praeger ISBN 978 0 275 96533 4 Brice Lee L 2012 Greek Warfare From the Battle of Marathon to the Conquests of Alexander the Great Santa Barbara CA ABC CLIO LLC ISBN 978 1 61069 069 0 Broome Benjamin J 1996 Exploring the Greek Mosaic A Guide to Intercultural Communication in Greece Yarmouth ME Intercultural Press ISBN 978 1 931930 39 0 Brown Neville 2004 Global Instability and Strategic Defence New York Routledge ISBN 978 0 415 30413 9 Bryce Trevor 2006 The Trojans and Their Neighbours Routledge ISBN 978 0415349550 Budin Stephanie Lynn 2009 2004 The Ancient Greeks An Introduction Oxford and New York Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 537984 6 Burckhardt Jacob 1999 1872 The Greeks and Greek Civilization New York St Martin s Press ISBN 978 0 312 24447 7 Burger Michael 2008 The Shaping of Western Civilization From Antiquity to the Enlightenment Ontario Broadview Press ISBN 978 1 55111 432 3 Burstein Stanley M 1988 The Greek Tradition from Alexander to the End of Antiquity In Thomas Carol G ed Paths from Ancient Greece Leiden BRILL pp 27 50 ISBN 978 90 04 08846 7 Brown Thomas 2001 The Transformation of the Roman Mediterranean 400 900 In Holmes George ed The Oxford History of Medieval Europe Oxford Oxford University Press pp 1 58 ISBN 978 0 19 280133 3 Browning Robert 1983 1969 Medieval and Modern Greek Cambridge UK Cambridge University Press ISBN 978 0 521 23488 7 Archived from the original on 27 September 2023 Retrieved 7 May 2016 Burton Watson 1993 Records of the Grand Historian by Sima Qian Han Dynasty II Revised ed New York Columbia University Press ISBN 978 0 231 08166 5 Cadogan Gerald ed 1986 The End of the Early Bronze Age in the Aegean Leiden E J Brill ISBN 90 04 07309 4 Calotychos Vangelis 2003 Modern Greece A Cultural Poetics Oxford and New York Berg ISBN 978 1 85973 716 3 Cameron Averil 2009 The Byzantines Oxford John Wiley and Sons ISBN 978 1 4051 9833 2 Archived from the original on 27 September 2023 Retrieved 2 May 2016 Cartledge Paul 2011 Ancient Greece A Very Short Introduction Oxford Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 960134 9 Archived from the original on 27 September 2023 Retrieved 4 May 2016 Castleden Rodney 2005 The Mycenaeans London and New York Routledge ISBN 978 0 415 36336 5 Archived from the original on 15 January 2023 Retrieved 22 April 2016 Casson Lionel 1991 The Ancient Mariners Seafarers and Sea Fighters of the Mediterranean in Ancient Times Princeton NJ Princeton University Press ISBN 978 0 691 01477 7 Chadwick John 1976 The Mycenaean World Cambridge UK Cambridge University Press ISBN 978 0 521 29037 1 Clark Bruce 2006 Twice A Stranger How Mass Expulsion Forged Modern Greece and Turkey London Granta Books ISBN 978 1 86207 752 2 Clemente Florian Unterlander Martina Dolgova Olga Amorim Carlos Eduardo G et al 13 May 2021 The genomic history of the Aegean palatial civilizations Cell 184 10 2565 2586 e21 doi 10 1016 j cell 2021 03 039 ISSN 0092 8674 PMC 8127963 PMID 33930288 Clogg Richard 2013 1992 A Concise History of Greece Cambridge and New York Cambridge University Press ISBN 978 1 107 65644 4 Archived from the original on 27 September 2023 Retrieved 16 May 2016 Clogg Richard 2000 The Greek Diaspora in the Twentieth Century Basingstoke Hampshire Palgrave Macmillan ISBN 978 0 333 60047 4 Cole Jeffrey ed 2011 Ethnic Groups of Europe An Encyclopedia Ethnic Groups of the World Series Santa Barbara and Oxford ABC CLIO Incorporated ISBN 978 1 59884 302 6 Archived from the original on 11 March 2023 Retrieved 13 May 2016 Dietrich Bernard Clive 1974 The Origins of Greek Religion Berlin Walter de Gruyter ISBN 978 3 11 003982 5 Archived from the original on 27 September 2023 Retrieved 22 April 2016 Drews Robert 1994 The Coming of the Greeks Indo European Conquests in the Aegean and the Near East Princeton NJ Princeton University Press ISBN 978 0 691 02951 1 Dunstan William 2011 Ancient Rome Lanham and New York Rowman amp Littlefield Publishers ISBN 978 0 7425 6834 1 Earl Donald C 1968 The Age of Augustus New York Exeter Books Paul Elek Productions Incorporated Archived from the original on 27 September 2023 Retrieved 21 June 2020 Fasold Ralph W 1984 The Sociolinguistics of Society Oxford and New York Blackwell Publishing ISBN 978 0 631 13462 6 Ferguson Everett 2003 Backgrounds of Early Christianity Grand Rapids MI William B Eerdmans Publishing Company ISBN 978 0 8028 2221 5 Finkelberg Margalit 2012 Canonising and Decanonising Homer Reception of the Homeric Poems in Antiquity and Modernity In Niehoff Maren R ed Homer and the Bible in the Eyes of Ancient Interpreters Leiden BRILL pp 15 28 ISBN 978 90 04 22134 5 Archived from the original on 15 July 2023 Retrieved 2 May 2016 Foltz Richard 2010 1999 Religions of the Silk Road Premodern Patterns of Globalization 2nd ed New York Palgrave Macmillan ISBN 978 0 230 62125 1 Fong Mary 2004 3 Ethnic and Cultural Identity Distinguishing Features In Fong Mary Chuang Rueyling eds Communicating Ethnic and Cultural Identity Lanham MD Rowman amp Littlefield Publishers pp 35 50 ISBN 978 0 7425 1739 4 Fouracre Paul Gerberding Richard A 1996 Late Merovingian France History and Hagiography 640 720 Manchester Manchester University Press ISBN 978 0 7190 4791 6 Georgiev Vladimir Ivanov 1981 Introduction to the History of the Indo European Languages Sofia Bulgarian Academy of Sciences ISBN 9789535172611 Archived from the original on 26 March 2023 Retrieved 15 April 2016 Gilbar Gad G 1997 Population Dilemmas in the Middle East Essays in Political Demography and Economy London and Portland Frank Cass ISBN 978 0 7146 4706 7 Grant Michael 1990 The Hellenistic Greeks From Alexander to Cleopatra London Weidenfeld amp Nicolson ISBN 978 0 297 82057 4 Gray Russel D Atkinson Quentin D 2003 Language tree Divergence Times Support the Anatolian Theory of Indo European Origin Nature 426 6965 435 439 Bibcode 2003Natur 426 435G doi 10 1038 nature02029 PMID 14647380 S2CID 42340 Archived from the original on 18 June 2021 Retrieved 1 September 2020 Green Peter 2008 Alexander the Great and the Hellenistic Age A Short History London Phoenix ISBN 978 0 7538 2413 9 Archived from the original on 27 September 2023 Retrieved 2 May 2016 Grierson Philip Bellinger Alfred Raymond 1999 Catalogue of the Byzantine Coins in the Dumbarton Oaks Collection and in the Whittemore Collection Volume Five Michael VIII to Constantine XI 1258 1453 Washington DC Dumbarton Oaks ISBN 978 0 88402 261 9 Guibernau Montserrat Hutchinson John eds 2004 History and National Destiny Ethnosymbolism and its Critics Oxford Wiley Blackwell ISBN 978 1 4051 2391 4 Haldon John F 1997 Byzantium in the Seventh Century The Transformation of a Culture Cambridge UK Cambridge University Press ISBN 978 0 521 31917 1 Archived from the original on 27 September 2023 Retrieved 17 May 2020 Hall Jonathan M 2014 2007 A History of the Archaic Greek World ca 1200 479 BCE Malden MA Wiley Blackwell ISBN 978 0 631 22667 3 Hansen William F 2004 Handbook of Classical Mythology Santa Barbara CA ABC CLIO ISBN 978 1 57607 226 4 Archived from the original on 27 September 2023 Retrieved 31 August 2017 Harl Kenneth W 1996 Coinage in the Roman Economy 300 B C to A D 700 Part 700 Baltimore and London The Johns Hopkins University Press ISBN 978 0 8018 5291 6 Archived from the original on 27 September 2023 Retrieved 10 May 2016 Harris William Vernon 1991 1989 Ancient Literacy Cambridge MA Harvard University Press ISBN 978 0 674 03837 0 Harris Michael H 1999 1995 History of Libraries in the Western World 4th ed Lanham MD The Scarecrow Press Incorporated ISBN 978 0 8108 7715 3 Harrison Thomas 2002 Greeks and Barbarians New York Routledge ISBN 978 0 415 93958 4 Archived from the original on 27 September 2023 Retrieved 7 May 2016 Hershlag Zvi Yehuda 1980 Introduction to the Modern Economic History of the Middle East Leiden E J Brill ISBN 978 90 04 06061 6 Horden Peregrine Purcell Nicholas 2000 The Corrupting Sea A Study of Mediterranean History Oxford and Malden Blackwell Publishing ISBN 978 0 631 21890 6 Howatson M C 1989 The Oxford Companion to Classical Literature Oxford Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 866121 4 Isaac Benjamin H 2004 The Invention of Racism in Classical Antiquity Princeton NJ Princeton University Press ISBN 978 0 691 12598 5 Archived from the original on 27 September 2023 Retrieved 4 May 2016 Jeffries Ian 2002 Eastern Europe at the Turn of the Twenty First Century A Guide to the Economies in Transition London and New York Routledge Taylor amp Francis ISBN 978 0 415 23671 3 Archived from the original on 27 September 2023 Retrieved 19 April 2016 Kaldellis Anthony 2007 Hellenism in Byzantium The Transformations of Greek Identity and the Reception of the Classical Tradition Cambridge Cambridge University Press ISBN 978 0 521 87688 9 Archived from the original on 27 September 2023 Retrieved 28 April 2016 Kaplanis Tassos 2014 Antique Names and Self Identification Hellenes Graikoi and Romaioi from Late Byzantium to the Greek Nation State In Tziovas Dimitris ed Re imagining the Past Antiquity and Modern Greek Culture Oxford Oxford University Press pp 81 97 Archived from the original on 12 March 2022 Retrieved 28 December 2017 Kardasis Vassilis 2001 Diaspora Merchants in the Black Sea The Greeks in Southern Russia 1775 1861 Lanham and Oxford Lexington Books ISBN 978 0 7391 0245 9 Kazhdan Alexander Petrovich Constable Giles 1982 People and Power in Byzantium An Introduction to Modern Byzantine Studies Washington DC Dumbarton Oaks ISBN 978 0 88402 103 2 Archived from the original on 15 July 2023 Retrieved 7 May 2016 Klein Holgen A 2004 Eastern Objects and Western Desires Relics and Reliquaries between Byzantium and the West Dumbarton Oaks Papers 58 283 314 doi 10 2307 3591389 JSTOR 3591389 S2CID 12649697 Koliopoulos John S Veremis Thanos M 2002 Greece The Modern Sequel From 1831 to the Present New York NY New York University Press ISBN 978 0 8147 4767 4 Koliopoulos Giannes 1987 Brigands with a Cause Brigandage and Irredentism in Modern Greece 1821 1912 Oxford Clarendon ISBN 9780198228639 Archived from the original on 27 September 2023 Retrieved 12 May 2016 Konstan David 2001 To Hellenikon Ethnos Ethnicity and the Construction of Ancient Greek Identity In Malkin Irad ed Ancient Perceptions of Greek Ethnicity Washington DC Center for Hellenic Studies Trustees for Harvard University pp 29 50 ISBN 978 0 674 00662 1 Archived from the original on 27 September 2023 Retrieved 30 April 2016 Lagouvardos Panagiotis E Tsamali Ioana Papadopoulou Christine Polyzois Gregory 2012 Tooth Skin Hair and Eye Colour Interrelationships in Greek Young Adults Odontology 101 1 75 83 doi 10 1007 s10266 012 0058 1 PMID 22349932 S2CID 11606304 span, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

article

, read, download, free, free download, mp3, video, mp4, 3gp, jpg, jpeg, gif, png, picture, music, song, movie, book, game, games.