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Greek genocide

The Greek genocide[4][5][6][7][8][9][A 1] (Greek: Γενοκτονία των Ελλήνων, Genoktonia ton Ellinon), which included the Pontic genocide, was the systematic killing of the Christian Ottoman Greek population of Anatolia which was carried out mainly during World War I and its aftermath (1914–1922) on the basis of their religion and ethnicity.[15] It was perpetrated by the government of the Ottoman Empire led by the Three Pashas and by the Government of the Grand National Assembly led by Mustafa Kemal Atatürk,[1] against the indigenous Greek population of the Empire. The genocide included massacres, forced deportations involving death marches through the Syrian Desert,[16] expulsions, summary executions, and the destruction of Eastern Orthodox cultural, historical, and religious monuments.[17] Several hundred thousand Ottoman Greeks died during this period.[18] Most of the refugees and survivors fled to Greece (adding over a quarter to the prior population of Greece).[19] Some, especially those in Eastern provinces, took refuge in the neighbouring Russian Empire.

Greek genocide
Part of World War I and the Aftermath of World War I
Greek civilians mourn their dead relatives, Great Fire of Smyrna, 1922
LocationOttoman Empire
Date1913–1923[1]
TargetGreek population, particularly from Pontus, Cappadocia, Ionia and Eastern Thrace
Attack type
Deportation, mass murder, death march, others
Deaths300,000–900,000[2][3] (see casualties section below)
PerpetratorsOttoman Empire, Turkish National Movement
MotiveAnti-Greek sentiment, Turkification, Anti-Eastern Orthodox sentiment
Greek genocide
Background
Young Turk Revolution · Ottoman Greeks · Pontic Greeks · Ottoman Empire
The genocide
Labour Battalions · Death march · Massacre of Phocaea
Evacuation of Ayvalik · İzmit massacres · Samsun deportations · Amasya trials · Burning of Smyrna
Foreign aid and relief
Relief Committee for Greeks of Asia Minor · American Committee for Relief in the Near East
Responsible parties
Young Turks or Committee of Union and Progress · Three Pashas: Talat, Enver, Djemal · Bahaeddin Şakir · Teskilati Mahsusa or Special Organization · Nureddin Pasha · Topal Osman · Mustafa Kemal Atatürk
See also
Greco-Turkish War (1919–1922) · Greeks in Turkey · Population Exchange · Greek refugees · Armenian genocide · Sayfo · Istanbul trials of 1919–1920 · Malta Tribunals

By late 1922, most of the Greeks of Asia Minor had either fled or had been killed.[20] Those remaining were transferred to Greece under the terms of the later 1923 population exchange between Greece and Turkey, which formalized the exodus and barred the return of the refugees. Other ethnic groups were similarly attacked by the Ottoman Empire during this period, including Assyrians and Armenians, and some scholars and organizations have recognized these events as part of the same genocidal policy.[21][9][22][8][23]

The Allies of World War I condemned the Ottoman government–sponsored massacres. In 2007, the International Association of Genocide Scholars passed a resolution recognising the Ottoman campaign against its Christian minorities, including the Greeks, as genocide.[9] Some other organisations have also passed resolutions recognising the Ottoman campaign against these Christian minorities as genocide, as have the national legislatures of Greece,[24][25][7] Cyprus,[26] the United States,[27][28][29][30] Sweden,[31][32] Armenia,[6] the Netherlands,[33][5] Germany,[34][35] Austria[4][36] and the Czech Republic.[37][38][39]

Background

At the outbreak of World War I, Asia Minor was ethnically diverse, its population included Turks and Azeris, as well as groups that had inhabited the region prior to the Ottoman conquest, including Pontic Greeks, Caucasus Greeks, Cappadocian Greeks, Armenians, Kurds, Zazas, Georgians, Circassians, Assyrians, Jews, and Laz people.

Among the causes of the Turkish campaign against the Greek-speaking Christian population was a fear that they would welcome liberation by the Ottoman Empire's enemies, and a belief among some Turks that to form a modern country in the era of nationalism it was necessary to purge from their territories all minorities who could threaten the integrity of an ethnically-based Turkish nation.[40][41][page needed]

According to a German military attaché, the Ottoman minister of war Ismail Enver had declared in October 1915 that he wanted to "solve the Greek problem during the war … in the same way he believe[d] he solved the Armenian problem", referring to the Armenian genocide.[42] Germany and the Ottoman Empire were allies immediately before, and during, World War I. By 31 January 1917, the Chancellor of Germany Theobald von Bethmann-Hollweg reported that:

The indications are that the Turks plan to eliminate the Greek element as enemies of the state, as they did earlier with the Armenians. The strategy implemented by the Turks is of displacing people to the interior without taking measures for their survival by exposing them to death, hunger, and illness. The abandoned homes are then looted and burnt or destroyed. Whatever was done to the Armenians is being repeated with the Greeks.

— Chancellor of Germany in 1917, Theobald von Bethmann-Hollweg, The Killing Trap: Genocide in the Twentieth Century [43]

Origin of the Greek minority

 
Areas with Anatolian Greeks in 1910. Demotic Greek speakers in yellow. Pontic Greek in orange. Cappadocian Greek in green with individual towns indicated.[44] Shaded regions do not indicate that Greek-speakers were a majority.

The Greek presence in Asia Minor dates at least from the Late Bronze Age (1450 BC).[45] The Greek poet Homer lived in the region around 800 BC.[46] The geographer Strabo referred to Smyrna as the first Greek city in Asia Minor,[47] and numerous ancient Greek figures were natives of Anatolia, including the mathematician Thales of Miletus (7th century BC), the pre-Socratic philosopher Heraclitus of Ephesus (6th century BC), and the founder of Cynicism Diogenes of Sinope (4th century BC). Greeks referred to the Black Sea as the "Euxinos Pontos" or "hospitable sea" and starting in the eighth century BC they began navigating its shores and settling along its Anatolian coast.[47] The most notable Greek cities of the Black Sea were Trebizond, Sampsounta, Sinope and Heraclea Pontica.[47]

During the Hellenistic period (334 BC – 1st century BC), which followed the conquests of Alexander the Great, Greek culture and language began to dominate even the interior of Asia Minor. The Hellenization of the region accelerated under Roman and early Byzantine rule, and by the early centuries AD the local Indo-European Anatolian languages had become extinct, being replaced by the Koine Greek language.[48][49][50] From this point until the late Middle Ages all of the indigenous inhabitants of Asia Minor practiced Christianity (called Greek Orthodox Christianity after the East–West Schism with the Catholics in 1054) and spoke Greek as their first language.[citation needed]

The resultant Greek culture in Asia Minor flourished during a millennium of rule (4th century – 15th century AD) under the mainly Greek-speaking Eastern Roman Empire. Those from Asia Minor constituted the bulk of the empire's Greek-speaking Orthodox Christians; thus, many renowned Greek figures during late antiquity, the Middle Ages, and the Renaissance came from Asia Minor, including Saint Nicholas (270–343 AD), rhetorician John Chrysostomos (349–407 AD), Hagia Sophia architect Isidore of Miletus (6th century AD), several imperial dynasties, including the Phokas (10th century) and Komnenos (11th century), and Renaissance scholars George of Trebizond (1395–1472) and Basilios Bessarion (1403–1472).

Thus, when the Turkic peoples began their late medieval conquest of Asia Minor, Byzantine Greek citizens were the largest group of inhabitants there.[47] Even after the Turkic conquests of the interior, the mountainous Black Sea coast of Asia Minor remained the heart of a populous Greek Christian state, the Empire of Trebizond, until its eventual conquest by the Ottoman Turks in 1461, a year after the Ottomans conquered the area of Europe which is now the Greek mainland. Over the next four centuries the Greek natives of Asia Minor gradually became a minority in these lands under the now dominant Turkish culture.[51]

Events

Post-Balkan Wars

Total population figures for the Ottoman Greeks of Anatolia[52]
Greek census (1910–1912) Ottoman census (1914) Soteriades (1918)[53]
Hüdavendigâr (Prousa) 262,319 184,424 278,421
Konya (Ikonio) 74,539 65,054 66,895
Trabzon (Trebizond) 298,183 260,313 353,533
Ankara (Angora) 85,242 77,530 66,194
Aydin 495,936 319,079 622,810
Kastamonu 24,349 26,104 24,937
Sivas 74,632 75,324 99,376
İzmit (Nicomedia) 52,742 40,048 73,134
Biga (Dardanelles) 31,165 8,541 32,830
Total 1,399,107 1,056,357 1,618,130

Beginning in the spring of 1913, the Ottomans implemented a programme of expulsions and forcible migrations, focusing on Greeks of the Aegean region and eastern Thrace, whose presence in these areas was deemed a threat to national security.[54] The Ottoman government adopted a "dual-track mechanism"[clarification needed] allowing it to deny responsibility for and prior knowledge of this campaign of intimidation, emptying Christian villages.[55] The involvement in certain cases of local military and civil functionaries in planning and executing anti-Greek violence and looting led ambassadors of Greece and the Great Powers and the Patriarchate to address complaints to the Sublime Porte.[56] In protest to government inaction in the face of these attacks and to the so-called "Muslim boycott" of Greek products that had begun in 1913, the Patriarchate closed Greek churches and schools in June 1914.[56] Responding to international and domestic pressure, Talat Pasha headed a visit in Thrace in April 1914 and later in the Aegean to investigate reports and try to soothe bilateral tension with Greece. While claiming that he had no involvement or knowledge of these events, Talat met with Kuşçubaşı Eşref, head of the "cleansing" operation in the Aegean littoral, during his tour and advised him to be cautious not to be "visible".[57] Also, after 1913 there were organized boycotts against the Greeks, initiated by the Ottoman Interior Ministry who asked the empire's provinces to start them.[58]

One of the worst attacks of this campaign attack took place in Phocaea (Greek: Φώκαια), on the night of 12 June 1914, a town in western Anatolia next to Smyrna, where Turkish irregular troops destroyed the city, killing 50[59] or 100[60] civilians and causing its population to flee to Greece.[61] French eyewitness Charles Manciet states that the atrocities he had witnessed at Phocaea were of an organized nature that aimed at circling[62] Christian peasant populations of the region.[62] In another attack against Serenkieuy, in Menemen district, the villagers formed armed resistance groups but only a few managed to survive being outnumbered by the attacking Muslim irregular bands.[63] During the summer of the same year the Special Organization (Teşkilat-ı Mahsusa), assisted by government and army officials, conscripted Greek men of military age from Thrace and western Anatolia into Labour Battalions in which hundreds of thousands died.[64] These conscripts, after being sent hundreds of miles into the interior of Anatolia, were employed in road-making, building, tunnel excavating and other field work; but their numbers were heavily reduced through privations and ill-treatment and through outright massacre by their Ottoman guards.[65]

 
Phocaea in flames, during the massacre perpetrated by Turkish irregulars in June 1914

Following similar accords made with Bulgaria and Serbia, the Ottoman Empire signed a small voluntary population exchange agreement with Greece on 14 November 1913.[66] Another such agreement was signed 1 July 1914 for the exchange of some "Turks" (that is, Muslims) of Greece for some Greeks of Aydin and Western Thrace, after the Ottomans had forced these Greeks from their homes in response to the Greek annexation of several islands.[67][68] The swap was never completed due to the eruption of World War I.[67] While discussions for population exchanges were still conducted, Special Organization units attacked Greek villages forcing their inhabitants to abandon their homes for Greece, being replaced with Muslim refugees.[69]

The forceful expulsion of Christians of western Anatolia, especially Ottoman Greeks, has many similarities with policy towards the Armenians, as observed by US ambassador Henry Morgenthau and historian Arnold Toynbee. In both cases, certain Ottoman officials, such as Şükrü Kaya, Nazım Bey and Mehmed Reshid, played a role; Special Organization units and labour battalions were involved; and a dual plan was implemented combining unofficial violence and the cover of state population policy.[70] This policy of persecution and ethnic cleansing was expanded to other parts of the Ottoman Empire, including Greek communities in Pontus, Cappadocia, and Cilicia.[71]

World War I

 
Hellenism in Near East during and after World War I, showing some of the areas (Western Anatolia and Eastern Thrace) where the Greek population was concentrated. The Pontic region is not shown.

According to a newspaper of the time, in November 1914, Turkish troops destroyed Christian properties and murdered several Christians at Trabzon.[72] After November 1914 Ottoman policy towards the Greek population shifted; state policy was restricted to the forceful migration to the Anatolian hinterland of Greeks living in coastal areas, particularly the Black Sea region, close to the Turkish-Russian front.[73] This change of policy was due to a German demand for the persecution of Ottoman Greeks to stop, after Eleftherios Venizelos had made this a condition of Greece's neutrality when speaking to the German ambassador in Athens. Venizelos also threatened to undertake a similar campaign against Muslims that were living in Greece if Ottoman policy did not change.[74] While the Ottoman government tried to implement this change in policy, it was unsuccessful and attacks, even murders, continued to occur unpunished by local officials in the provinces, despite repeated instructions in cables sent from the central administration.[75] Arbitrary violence and extortion of money intensified later, providing ammunition for the Venizelists arguing that Greece should join the Entente.[76]

In July 1915 the Greek chargé d'affaires claimed that the deportations "can not be any other issue than an annihilation war against the Greek nation in Turkey and as measures hereof they have been implementing forced conversions to Islam, in obvious aim to, that if after the end of the war there again would be a question of European intervention for the protection of the Christians, there will be as few of them left as possible."[77] According to George W. Rendel of the British Foreign Office, by 1918 "over 500,000 Greeks were deported of whom comparatively few survived".[78] In his memoirs, the United States ambassador to the Ottoman Empire between 1913 and 1916 wrote "Everywhere the Greeks were gathered in groups and, under the so-called protection of Turkish gendarmes, they were transported, the larger part on foot, into the interior. Just how many were scattered in this fashion is not definitely known, the estimates varying anywhere from 200,000 up to 1,000,000."[79]

Despite the shift of policy, the practice of evacuating Greek settlements and relocating the inhabitants was continued, albeit on a limited scale. Relocation was targeted at specific regions that were considered militarily vulnerable, not the whole of the Greek population. As a 1919 Patriarchate account records, the evacuation of many villages was accompanied with looting and murders, while many died as a result of not having been given the time to make the necessary provisions or of being relocated to uninhabitable places.[80]

 
"Turks Slaughter Christian Greeks", Lincoln Daily Star, 19 October 1917

State policy towards Ottoman Greeks changed again in the fall of 1916. With Entente forces occupying Lesbos, Chios and Samos since spring, the Russians advancing in Anatolia and Greece expected to enter the war siding with the Allies, preparations were made for the deportation of Greeks living in border areas.[81] In January 1917 Talat Pasha sent a cable for the deportation of Greeks from the Samsun district "thirty to fifty kilometres inland" taking care for "no assaults on any persons or property".[82] However, the execution of government decrees, which took a systematic form from December 1916, when Behaeddin Shakir came to the region, was not conducted as ordered: men were taken in labour battalions, women and children were attacked, villages were looted by Muslim neighbours.[83] As such in March 1917 the population of Ayvalık, a town of c. 30,000 inhabitants on the Aegean coast was forcibly deported to the interior of Anatolia under order by German General Liman von Sanders. The operation included death marches, looting, torture and massacre against the civilian population.[84] Germanos Karavangelis, the bishop of Samsun, reported to the Patriarchate that thirty thousands had been deported to the Ankara region and the convoys of the deportees had been attacked, with many being killed. Talat Pasha ordered an investigation for the looting and destruction of Greek villages by bandits.[85] Later in 1917 instructions were sent to authorize military officials with the control of the operation and to broaden its scope, now including persons from cities in the coastal region. However, in certain areas Greek populations remained undeported.[86]

Greek deportees were sent to live in Greek villages in the inner provinces or, in some case, villages where Armenians were living before being deported. Greek villages evacuated during the war due to military concerns were then resettled with Muslim immigrants and refugees.[87] According to cables sent to the provinces during this time, abandoned movable and non-movable Greek property was not to be liquidated, as that of the Armenians, but "preserved".[88]

On 14 January 1917 Cossva Anckarsvärd, Sweden's Ambassador to Constantinople, sent a dispatch regarding the decision to deport the Ottoman Greeks:

What above all appears as an unnecessary cruelty is that the deportation is not limited to the men alone, but is extended likewise to women and children. This is supposedly done in order to much easier be able to confiscate the property of the deported.[89]

According to Rendel, atrocities such as deportations involving death marches, starvation in labour camps etc. were referred to as "white massacres".[78] Ottoman official Rafet Bey was active in the genocide of the Greeks and in November 1916, Austrian consul in Samsun, Kwiatkowski, reported that he said to him "We must finish off the Greeks as we did with the Armenians ... today I sent squads to the interior to kill every Greek on sight".[90]

Pontic Greeks responded by forming insurgent groups, which carried weapons salvaged from the battlefields of the Caucasus Campaign of World War I or directly supplied by the Russian army. In 1920, the insurgents reached their peak in regard to manpower numbering 18,000 men.[91] On 15 November 1917, Ozakom delegates agreed to create a unified army composed of ethnically homogeneous units, Greeks were allotted a division consisting of three regiments. The Greek Caucasus Division was thus formed out of ethnic Greeks serving in Russian units stationed in the Caucasus and raw recruits from among the local population including former insurgents.[92] The division took part in numerous engagements against the Ottoman army as well as Muslim and Armenian irregulars, safeguarding the withdrawal of Greek refugees into the Russian held Caucasus, before being disbanded in the aftermath of the Treaty of Poti.[93]

Greco-Turkish War

 
Ghost town of Kayakoy (Livisi), southwestern Anatolia, once a Greek-inhabited settlement.[94] According to local tradition, Muslims refused to repopulate the place because "it was infested with the ghosts of Livisians massacred in 1915".[95]

After the Ottoman Empire capitulated on 30 October 1918, it came under the de jure control of the victorious Entente Powers. However, the latter failed to bring the perpetrators of the genocide to justice,[96] although in the Turkish Courts-Martial of 1919–20 a number of leading Ottoman officials were accused of ordering massacres against both Greeks and Armenians.[97] Thus, killings, massacres and deportations continued under the pretext of the national movement of Mustafa Kemal (later Atatürk).[96]

In an October 1920 report a British officer describes the aftermath of the massacres at İznik in north-western Anatolia in which he estimated that at least 100 decomposed mutilated bodies of men, women and children were present in and around a large cave about 300 yards outside the city walls.[78]

The systematic massacre and deportation of Greeks in Asia Minor, a program which had come into effect in 1914, was a precursor to the atrocities perpetrated by both the Greek and Turkish armies during the Greco-Turkish War, a conflict which followed the Greek landing at Smyrna[98][99] in May 1919 and continued until the retaking of Smyrna by the Turks and the Great Fire of Smyrna in September 1922.[100] Rudolph Rummel estimated the death toll of the fire at 100,000[101] Greeks and Armenians, who perished in the fire and accompanying massacres. According to Norman M. Naimark "more realistic estimates range between 10,000 to 15,000" for the casualties of the Great Fire of Smyrna. Some 150,000 to 200,000 Greeks were expelled after the fire, while about 30,000 able-bodied Greek and Armenian men were deported to the interior of Asia Minor, most of whom were executed on the way or died under brutal conditions.[102] George W. Rendel of the British Foreign Office noted the massacres and deportations of Greeks during the Greco-Turkish War.[78] According to estimates by Rudolph Rummel, between 213,000 and 368,000 Anatolian Greeks were killed between 1919 and 1922.[99] There were also massacres of Turks carried out by the Hellenic troops during the occupation of western Anatolia from May 1919 to September 1922.[100]

For the massacres that occurred during the Greco-Turkish War of 1919–1922, British historian Arnold J. Toynbee wrote that it was the Greek landings that created the Turkish National Movement led by Mustafa Kemal:[103] "The Greeks of 'Pontus' and the Turks of the Greek occupied territories, were in some degree victims of Mr. Venizelos's and Mr. Lloyd George's original miscalculations at Paris."

Relief efforts

 
Photo taken after the Smyrna fire. The text inside indicates that the photo had been taken by representatives of the Red Cross in Smyrna. Translation: "Elderly and children were not spared".

In 1917 a relief organization by the name of the Relief Committee for Greeks of Asia Minor was formed in response to the deportations and massacres of Greeks in the Ottoman Empire. The committee worked in cooperation with the Near East Relief in distributing aid to Ottoman Greeks in Thrace and Asia Minor. The organisation disbanded in the summer of 1921 but Greek relief work was continued by other aid organisations.[104]

Contemporary accounts

German and Austro-Hungarian diplomats, as well as the 1922 memorandum compiled by British diplomat George W. Rendel on "Turkish Massacres and Persecutions", provided evidence for series of systematic massacres and ethnic cleansing of the Greeks in Asia Minor.[78][105] The quotes[clarification needed] have been attributed to various diplomats, including the German ambassadors Hans Freiherr von Wangenheim and Richard von Kühlmann, the German vice-consul in Samsun Kuchhoff, Austria's ambassador Pallavicini and Samsun consul Ernst von Kwiatkowski, and the Italian unofficial agent in Angora Signor Tuozzi. Other quotes are from clergymen and activists, including the German missionary Johannes Lepsius, and Stanley Hopkins of the Near East Relief. Germany and Austria-Hungary were allied to the Ottoman Empire in World War I.[clarification needed]

 
Smyrna, 1922. Translation: "No children were allowed to live".

The accounts describe systematic massacres, rapes and burnings of Greek villages, and attribute intent to Ottoman officials, including the Ottoman Prime Minister Mahmud Sevket Pasha, Rafet Bey, Talat Pasha and Enver Pasha.[78][105]

Additionally, The New York Times and its correspondents made extensive references to the events, recording massacres, deportations, individual killings, rapes, burning of entire Greek villages, destruction of Greek Orthodox churches and monasteries, drafts for "Labor Brigades", looting, terrorism and other "atrocities" for Greek, Armenian and also for British and American citizens and government officials.[106][107] Australian press also had some coverage of the events.[108]

Henry Morgenthau, the United States ambassador to the Ottoman Empire from 1913 to 1916, accused the "Turkish government" of a campaign of "outrageous terrorizing, cruel torturing, driving of women into harems, debauchery of innocent girls, the sale of many of them at 80 cents each, the murdering of hundreds of thousands and the deportation to and starvation in the desert of other hundreds of thousands, [and] the destruction of hundreds of villages and many cities", all part of "the willful execution" of a "scheme to annihilate the Armenian, Greek and Syrian Christians of Turkey".[109] However, months prior to the First World War, 100,000 Greeks were deported to Greek islands or the interior which Morgenthau stated, "for the larger part these were bona-fide deportations; that is, the Greek inhabitants were actually removed to new places and were not subjected to wholesale massacre. It was probably the reason that the civilized world did not protest against these deportations".[110]

US Consul-General George Horton, whose account has been criticised by scholars as anti-Turkish,[111][112][113] claimed, "One of the cleverest statements circulated by the Turkish propagandists is to the effect that the massacred Christians were as bad as their executioners, that it was '50–50'." On this issue he comments: "Had the Greeks, after the massacres in the Pontus and at Smyrna, massacred all the Turks in Greece, the record would have been 50–50—almost." As an eye-witness, he also praises Greeks for their "conduct ... toward the thousands of Turks residing in Greece, while the ferocious massacres were going on", which, according to his opinion, was "one of the most inspiring and beautiful chapters in all that country's history".[114][115]

Casualties

 
Smyrna burning during the Fire of Smyrna. According to different estimates some 10.000,[116] to 100,000[101] Greeks and Armenians were killed in the fire and accompanying massacres.
 
Smyrna citizens trying to reach the Allied ships during the Smyrna fire, 1922. The photo had been taken from the launch boat of a US battleship.

According to Benny Morris and Dror Ze'evi in The Thirty-Year Genocide, as a result of Ottoman and Turkish state policy, "several hundred thousand Ottoman Greeks had died. Either they were murdered outright or were the intentional victims of hunger, disease, and exposure."[117]

For the whole of the period between 1914 and 1922 and for the whole of Anatolia, there are academic estimates of death toll ranging from 289,000 to 750,000. The figure of 750,000 is suggested by political scientist Adam Jones.[118] Scholar Rudolph Rummel compiled various figures from several studies to estimate lower and higher bounds for the death toll between 1914 and 1923. He estimates that 84,000 Greeks were exterminated from 1914 to 1918, and 264,000 from 1919 to 1922. The total number reaching 347,000.[119] Historian Constantine G. Hatzidimitriou writes that "loss of life among Anatolian Greeks during the WWI period and its aftermath was approximately 735,370".[120] Erik Sjöberg states that "[a]ctivists tend to inflate the overall total of Ottoman Greek deaths" over what he considers "the cautious estimates between 300,000 to 700,000".[2]

Some contemporary sources claimed different death tolls. The Greek government collected figures together with the Patriarchate to claim that a total of one million people were massacred.[121] A team of American researchers found in the early postwar period that the total number of Greeks killed may approach 900,000 people.[3] Edward Hale Bierstadt, writing in 1924, stated that "According to official testimony, the Turks since 1914 have slaughtered in cold blood 1,500,000 Armenians, and 500,000 Greeks, men women and children, without the slightest provocation."[122] On 4 November 1918, Emanuel Efendi, an Ottoman deputy of Aydin, criticised the ethnic cleansing of the previous government and reported that 550,000 Greeks had been killed in the coastal regions of Anatolia (including the Black Sea coast) and Aegean Islands during the deportations.[123]

According to various sources the Greek death toll in the Pontus region of Anatolia ranges from 300,000 to 360,000.[124] Merrill D. Peterson cites the death toll of 360,000 for the Greeks of Pontus.[125] According to George K. Valavanis, "The loss of human life among the Pontian Greeks, since the Great War (World War I) until March 1924, can be estimated at 353,000, as a result of murders, hangings, and from punishment, disease, and other hardships."[126] Valavanis derived this figure from the 1922 record of the Central Pontian Council in Athens based on the Black Book of the Ecumenical Patriarchate, to which he adds "50,000 new martyrs", which "came to be included in the register by spring 1924".[127]

Aftermath

Article 142 of the 1920 Treaty of Sèvres, prepared after the first World War, called the Turkish regime "terrorist" and contained provisions "to repair so far as possible the wrongs inflicted on individuals in the course of the massacres perpetrated in Turkey during the war."[128] The Treaty of Sèvres was never ratified by the Turkish government and ultimately was replaced by the Treaty of Lausanne. That treaty was accompanied by a "Declaration of Amnesty", without containing any provision in respect to punishment of war crimes.[129]

In 1923, a population exchange between Greece and Turkey resulted in a near-complete ending of the Greek ethnic presence in Turkey and a similar ending of the Turkish ethnic presence in much of Greece. According to the Greek census of 1928, 1,104,216 Ottoman Greeks had reached Greece.[130] It is impossible to know exactly how many Greek inhabitants of Turkey died between 1914 and 1923, and how many ethnic Greeks of Anatolia were expelled to Greece or fled to the Soviet Union.[131] Some of the survivors and expelled took refuge in the neighboring Russian Empire (later, Soviet Union).[citation needed] Similar plans for a population exchange had been negotiated earlier, in 1913–1914, between Ottoman and Greek officials during the first stage of the Greek genocide but had been interrupted by the onset of World War I.[20][132]

In December 1924, The New York Times reported that 400 tonnes of human bones consigned to manufacturers were transported from Mudania to Marseille, which might be the remains of massacred victims in Asia Minor.[133]

In 1955, the Istanbul Pogrom caused most of the remaining Greek inhabitants of Istanbul to flee the country. Historian Alfred-Maurice de Zayas identifies the pogrom as a crime against humanity and he states that the flight and migration of Greeks afterwards corresponds to the "intent to destroy in whole or in part" criteria of the Genocide Convention.[134]

Genocide recognition

Terminology

 
 
 
 
Among the victims of the atrocities committed by the Turkish nationalist Army (1922–23) were hundreds of Christian clergy in Anatolia,[135] including metropolitan bishops (from left): Chrysostomos of Smyrna (lynched), Prokopios of Iconium (imprisoned and poisoned, not pictured), Gregory of Kydonies (executed), Euthymios of Zelon (died in prison and posthumously hanged), Ambrosios of Moschonisia (buried alive).

The word genocide was coined in the early 1940s, the era of the Holocaust, by Raphael Lemkin, a Polish lawyer of Jewish descent. In his writings on genocide, Lemkin is known to have detailed the fate of Greeks in Turkey.[136] In August 1946 the New York Times reported:

Genocide is no new phenomenon, nor has it been utterly ignored in the past. ... The massacres of Greeks and Armenians by the Turks prompted diplomatic action without punishment. If Professor Lemkin has his way genocide will be established as an international crime...[137]

The 1948 Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (CPPCG) was adopted by the United Nations General Assembly in December 1948 and came into force in January 1951. It includes a legal definition of genocide. Before the creation of the term "genocide", the destruction of the Ottoman Greeks was known by Greeks as "the Massacre" (in Greek: η Σφαγή), "the Great Catastrophe" (η Μεγάλη Καταστροφή), or "the Great Tragedy" (η Μεγάλη Τραγωδία).[138] The Ottoman and Kemalist nationalist massacres of the Greeks in Anatolia, constituted genocide under the initial definition and international criminal application of the term, as in the international criminal tribunals authorized by the United Nations.[139]

Academic discussion

 
Matthaios Kofidis, former member of the Ottoman Parliament, was among the several notables of Pontus, hanged by an "Ad hoc Court of Turkish Independence" in Amasya, in 1921.[140]

In December 2007 the International Association of Genocide Scholars (IAGS) passed a resolution affirming that the 1914–23 campaign against Ottoman Greeks constituted genocide "qualitatively similar" to the Armenian genocide.[9] IAGS President Gregory Stanton urged the Turkish government to finally acknowledge the three genocides: "The history of these genocides is clear, and there is no more excuse for the current Turkish government, which did not itself commit the crimes, to deny the facts."[141] Drafted by Canadian scholar Adam Jones, the resolution was adopted on 1 December 2007 with the support of 83% of all voting IAGS members.[142] Several scholars researching the Armenian genocide, such as Peter Balakian, Taner Akçam, Richard Hovannisian and Robert Melson, however stated that "the issue had to be further researched before a resolution was passed."[143]

Manus Midlarsky notes a disjunction between statements of genocidal intent against the Greeks by Ottoman officials and their actions, pointing to the containment of massacres in selected "sensitive" areas and the large numbers of Greek survivors at the end of the war. Because of cultural and political ties of the Ottoman Greeks with European powers, Midlarsky argues, genocide was "not a viable option for the Ottomans in their case."[43] Taner Akçam refers to contemporary accounts noting the difference in government treatment of Ottoman Greeks and Armenians during WW I and concludes that "despite the increasingly severe wartime policies, in particular for the period between late 1916 and the first months of 1917, the government's treatment of the Greeks – although comparable in some ways to the measures against the Armenians – differed in scope, intent, and motivation."[144]

Some historians, including Boris Barth [de], Michael Schwartz [de], and Andrekos Varnava argue that the persecution of Greeks was ethnic cleansing or deportation, but not genocide.[145][12] This is also a position of some Greek mainstream historians;[146][147] according to Aristide Caratzas this is due to a number of factors, "which range from governmental reticence to criticize Turkey to spilling over into the academic world, to ideological currents promoting a diffuse internationalism cultivated by a network of NGOs, often supported by western governments and western interests".[147] Others, such as Dominik J. Schaller and Jürgen Zimmerer, argue that the "genocidal quality of the murderous campaigns against Greeks" was "obvious".[8] The historians Samuel Totten and Paul R. Bartrop, who specialize on the history of genocides, also call it a genocide; so is Alexander Kitroeff.[147][148] Another scholar who considers it a genocide is Hannibal Travis; he also adds that the widespread attacks by the successive governments of Turkey, on the homes, places of worship, and heritage of minority communities since the 1930s, constitute cultural genocide as well.[139]

Dror Ze'evi and Benny Morris, authors of The Thirty-Year Genocide,[149] write that "the story about what happened in Turkey is much broader and deeper [than just the Armenian genocide]. It's deeper because it isn't just about World War I, but about a series of homicidal ethno-religious cleansings that took place from the late 1890s to the 1920s and beyond. It is wider because the victims weren't only Armenians. Alongside hundreds of thousands of Armenians... Greeks and Assyrians... were massacred in similar numbers... We estimate that during the 30 year period that we studied between a million and a half and two and a half million Christians from all three religious groups were murdered or intentionally left for dead of starvation and sickness, and millions of others were deported and lost everything. In addition, tens of thousands of Christians were forced to convert, and many thousands of girls and women were raped by their Muslim neighbors and the security forces. The Turks even set up markets where Christian girls were sold as sex slaves. These horrendous acts were committed by three entirely different regimes: the authoritarian-Islamist regime of Sultan Abdul Hamid II, the wartime regime of the Committee of Union and Progress ("The Young Turks") led by Talaat and Enver, and the nationalist-secular post-war regime of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk."[150][excessive quote]

Political recognition

Following an initiative of MPs of the so-called "patriotic" wing of the ruling PASOK party's parliamentary group and like-minded MPs of conservative New Democracy,[151] the Greek Parliament passed two laws on the fate of the Ottoman Greeks; the first in 1994 and the second in 1998. The decrees were published in the Greek Government Gazette on 8 March 1994 and 13 October 1998 respectively. The 1994 decree, created by Georgios Daskalakis, affirmed the genocide in the Pontus region of Asia Minor and designated 19 May (the day Mustafa Kemal landed in Samsun in 1919) a day of commemoration,[24][152] (called Pontian Greek Genocide Remembrance Day[25]) while the 1998 decree affirmed the genocide of Greeks in Asia Minor as a whole and designated 14 September a day of commemoration.[7] These laws were signed by the President of Greece but were not immediately ratified after political interventions. After leftist newspaper I Avgi initiated a campaign against the application of this law, the subject became subject of a political debate. The president of the left-ecologist Synaspismos party Nikos Konstantopoulos and historian Angelos Elefantis,[153] known for his books on the history of Greek communism, were two of the major figures of the political left who expressed their opposition to the decree. However, the non-parliamentary left-wing nationalist[154] intellectual and author George Karabelias bitterly criticized Elefantis and others opposing the recognition of genocide and called them "revisionist historians", accusing the Greek mainstream left of a "distorted ideological evolution". He said that for the Greek left 19 May is a "day of amnesia".[155]

In the late 2000s the Communist Party of Greece adopted the term "Genocide of the Pontic (Greeks)" (Γενοκτονία Ποντίων) in its official newspaper Rizospastis and participates in memorial events.[156][157][158]

The Republic of Cyprus has also officially called the events "Greek Genocide in Pontus of Asia Minor".[26]

In response to the 1998 law, the Turkish government released a statement which claimed that describing the events as genocide was "without any historical basis". "We condemn and protest this resolution" a Turkish Foreign Ministry statement said. "With this resolution the Greek Parliament, which in fact has to apologize to the Turkish people for the large-scale destruction and massacres Greece perpetrated in Anatolia, not only sustains the traditional Greek policy of distorting history, but it also displays that the expansionist Greek mentality is still alive," the statement added.[159]

On 11 March 2010, Sweden's Riksdag passed a motion recognising "as an act of genocide the killing of Armenians, Assyrians/Syriacs/Chaldeans and Pontic Greeks in 1915".[160]

On 14 May 2013, the government of New South Wales was submitted a genocide recognition motion by Fred Nile of the Christian Democratic Party, which was later passed making it the fourth political entity to recognise the genocide.[161]

In March 2015, the National Assembly of Armenia unanimously adopted a resolution recognizing both the Greek and Assyrian genocides.[162]

In April 2015, the States General of the Netherlands and the Austrian Parliament passed resolutions recognizing the Greek and Assyrian genocides.[163][164]


Reasons for limited recognition

 
Desecrated graves in the cemetery of Saint John Prodromos during the Smyrna massacres, September 1922

The United Nations, the European Parliament, and the Council of Europe have not made any related statements. According to Constantine Fotiadis, professor of Modern Greek History at the Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, some of the reasons for the lack of wider recognition and delay in seeking acknowledgement of these events are as follows:[165][166]

  • In contrast to the Treaty of Sèvres, the superseding Treaty of Lausanne in 1923 dealt with these events by making no reference or mention, and thus sealed the end of the Asia Minor Catastrophe.
  • A subsequent peace treaty (Greco-Turkish Treaty of Friendship in June 1930) between Greece and Turkey. Greece made several concessions to settle all open issues between the two countries in return for peace in the region.
  • The Second World War, the Civil War, the Military junta and the political turmoil in Greece that followed, forced Greece to focus on its survival and other problems rather than seek recognition of these events.
  • The political environment of the Cold War, in which Turkey and Greece were supposed to be allies – facing one common Communist enemy – not adversaries or competitors.

In his book With Intent to Destroy: Reflections on Genocide, Colin Tatz argues that Turkey denies the genocide so as not to jeopardize "its ninety-five-year-old dream of becoming the beacon of democracy in the Near East".[167]

In their book Negotiating the Sacred: Blasphemy and Sacrilege in a Multicultural Society, Elizabeth Burns Coleman and Kevin White present a list of reasons explaining Turkey's inability to admit the genocides committed by the Young Turks, writing:[168]

Turkish denialism of the genocide of 1.5 million Armenians is official, riven, driven, constant, rampant, and increasing each year since the events of 1915 to 1922. It is state-funded, with special departments and units in overseas missions whose sole purpose is to dilute, counter, minimise, trivialise and relativise every reference to the events which encompassed a genocide of Armenians, Pontian Greeks and Assyrian Christians in Asia Minor.

They propose the following reasons for the denial of the genocides by Turkey:[168]

  • A suppression of guilt and shame that a warrior nation, a "beacon of democracy" as it saw itself in 1908 (and since), slaughtered several ethnic populations. Democracies, it is said, don't commit genocide; ergo, Turkey couldn't and didn't do so.
  • A cultural and social ethos of honour, a compelling and compulsive need to remove any blots on the national escutcheon.
  • A chronic fear that admission will lead to massive claims for reparation and restitution.
  • To overcome fears of social fragmentation in a society that is still very much a state in transition.
  • A "logical" belief that because the genocide was committed with impunity, so denial will also meet with neither opposition nor obloquy.
  • An inner knowledge that the juggernaut denial industry has a momentum of its own and can't be stopped even if they wanted it to stop.

Genocide as a model for future crimes

 
From the early 1920s Nazi Party publications in Germany tended to present Kemal Atatürk as role model under the title "The Führer" (advertisement of their official newspaper pictured)[169]

According to Stefan Ihrig, Kemal's "model" remained active for the Nazi movement in Weimar Germany and the Third Reich until the end of World War II. Adolf Hitler had declared that he considered himself a "student" of Kemal, whom he referred to as his "star in the darkness", while the latter's contribution to the formation of National Socialist ideology is intensely apparent in Nazi literature.[170][171] Kemal and his new Turkey of 1923 constituted the archetype of the "perfect Führer" and of "good national practices" for Nazism.[172] The news media of the Third Reich emphasised the "Turkish model" and continuously praised the "benefits" of ethnic cleansing and genocide.[173] Hitler referred to Kemal as being of Germanic descent.[174]

Hitler's National Socialist Party, from its first steps, had used the methods of the Turkish state as a standard to draw inspiration from. The official Nazi newspaper Völkischer Beobachter ("Völkisch Observer"), on its February 1921 issue, stressed with admiration in an article titled "The Role Model": "The German nation will one day have no other choice but to resort to Turkish methods as well."[175]

A Nazi publication of 1925 exalted the new Turkish state for its "cleansing" policy, which "threw the Greek element to the sea". The majority of writers of the Third Reich stressed that the double genocide (against Greeks and Armenians) was a prerequisite for the success of the new Turkey, the NSDAP claimed: "Only through the annihilation of the Greek and the Armenian tribes in Anatolia was the creation of a Turkish national state and the formation of an unflawed Turkish body of society within one state possible."[176]

Memorials

 
Wreaths after a commemoration ceremony in Stuttgart, Germany

Memorials commemorating the plight of Ottoman Greeks have been erected throughout Greece, as well as in a number of other countries including Australia, Canada, Germany, Sweden, and the United States.[177][178]

Literature

The Greek genocide is remembered in a number of modern works.

  • Not Even My Name by Thea Halo is the story of the survival, at age ten, of her mother Sano (Themia) Halo (original name Euthemia "Themia" Barytimidou, Pontic Greek: Ευθυμία Βαρυτιμίδου),[179][180] along the death march during the Greek genocide that annihilated her family. The title refers to Themia being renamed to Sano by an Arabic-speaking family who could not pronounce her Greek name, after they took her in as a servant during the Greek genocide.[181]
  • Number 31328 is an autobiography by the Greek novelist Elias Venezis that tells of his experiences during the Greek genocide on a death march into the interior from his native home in Ayvali (Greek: Kydonies, Κυδωνίες), Turkey. Of the 3000 "conscripted" into his "labour brigade" (otherwise known as Amele Taburlari or Amele Taburu) only 23 survived. The title refers to the number assigned to Elias by the Turkish army during the death march. The book was made into a movie called 1922 by Nikos Koundouros in 1978, but was banned in Greece until 1982 because of pressure from the Turkish Foreign Ministry who complained that the film would ruin Greek-Turkish relations.[182][unreliable source?]

See also

References

Citations

  1. ^ a b Meichanetsidis, Vasileios (2015). "The Genocide of the Greeks of the Ottoman Empire, 1913–1923: A Comprehensive Overview". Genocide Studies International. 9 (1): 104–173. doi:10.3138/gsi.9.1.06. ISSN 2291-1847. S2CID 154870709. The genocide was committed by two subsequent and chronologically, ideologically, and organically interrelated and interconnected dictatorial and chauvinist regimes: (1) the regime of the CUP, under the notorious triumvirate of the three pashas (Üç Paşalar), Talât, Enver, and Cemal, and (2) the rebel government at Samsun and Ankara, under the authority of the Grand National Assembly (Türkiye Büyük Millet Meclisi) and Kemal. Although the process had begun before the Balkan Wars, the final and most decisive period started immediately after WWI and ended with the almost total destruction of the Pontic Greeks
  2. ^ a b Sjöberg, Erik (2016). The Making of the Greek Genocide: Contested Memories of the Ottoman Greek Catastrophe. Berghahn Books. p. 234. ISBN 978-1-78533-326-2. Activists tend to inflate the overall total of Ottoman Greek deaths, from the cautious estimates between 300,000 to 700,000...
  3. ^ a b Jones 2010, p. 166: "An estimate of the Pontian Greek death toll at all stages of the anti-Christian genocide is about 350,000; for all the Greeks of the Ottoman realm taken together, the toll surely exceeded half a million, and may approach the 900,000 killed that a team of US researchers found in the early postwar period. Most surviving Greeks were expelled to Greece as part of the tumultuous 'population exchanges' that set the seal on a heavily 'Turkified' state."
  4. ^ a b "Austrian Parliament Recognizes Armenian, Assyrian, Greek Genocide". aina.org. 2015. Retrieved 21 April 2017.
  5. ^ a b "Dutch Parliament Recognizes Assyrian, Greek and Armenian Genocide". aina.org. 2015. Retrieved 21 April 2017.
  6. ^ a b "Adoption of declaration to certify that Armenia recognizes Greek and Assyrian genocide: Eduard Sharmazanov". Armenpress. 2015. Retrieved 21 April 2017.
  7. ^ a b c "Καθιέρωση της 14 Σεπτεμβρίου ως ημέρας εθνικής μνήμης της Γενοκτονίας των Ελλήνων της Μικράς Ασίας απο το Τουρκικό Κράτος". (in Greek). Government Gazette of the Hellenic Republic. Archived from the original on 24 February 2016..
  8. ^ a b c Schaller, Dominik J; Zimmerer, Jürgen (2008). "Late Ottoman genocides: the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire and Young Turkish population and extermination policies—Introduction". Journal of Genocide Research. 10 (1): 7–14. doi:10.1080/14623520801950820. S2CID 71515470.
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  13. ^ Schwartz, Michael (2013). Ethnische "Säuberungen" in der Moderne. Globale Wechselwirkungen nationalistischer und rassistischer Gewaltpolitik im 19. und 20. Jahrhundert. Oldenbourg, München. ISBN 978-3-486-70425-9.
  14. ^ Barth, Boris (2006). Genozid. Völkermord im 20. Jahrhundert. Geschichte, Theorien, Kontroversen. München. ISBN 978-3-40652-865-1.
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  16. ^ Weisband, Edward (2017). The Macabresque: Human Violation and Hate in Genocide, Mass Atrocity and Enemy-Making. Oxford University Press. p. 262. ISBN 978-0-19-067789-3.
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    "Not only did the Turks murder Armenians, but Greeks as well. Estimates of this are far fewer (lines 201 to 203), but we do have assessments of those deported (lines 193 to 197) from which to calculate the possible toll (line 198). The actual percentages from which I make this calculation reflect the relevant historical bits and pieces in the sources. Combining this calculation and the sum of the estimates (line 204) suggest a likely genocide of 84,000 Greeks."

    "In the table I next list partial estimates (lines 367 to 374) for the genocide of the Greek. There is one calculation of Turkey's Anatolian (Asia Minor) Greek population deficit during 1912 to 1922, taking into account emigration and deportation from Turkey (line 378). Subtracting from this the WWI Greek genocide I calculated from previous totals (line 379), I get the range of post-WWI losses shown (line 380). This then provides an alternative to the sum of the specific mortality estimates (line 381). From these alternative ranges I calculated a final Greek genocide for this period in the usual way (line 382). Most probably, the Nationalists Turks murdered 264,000 Greeks;"

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Notes

  1. ^ also known as ethnic cleansing of Ottoman Greeks[10][11][12][13][14]

Bibliography

Contemporary accounts

  • Horton, George (1926), The Blight of Asia, Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill
  • King, William C (1922), Complete History of the World War: Visualizing the Great Conflict in all Theaters of Action 1914–1918, MA, US: The History Associates, archived from the original on 1 August 2012.
  • Morgenthau, Henry sr (1918), (PDF), Garden City, NY: Doubleday, Page & Co, archived from the original (PDF) on 24 January 2013, retrieved 13 September 2006.
  • ——— (1919) [1918], Ambassador Morgenthau's Story, Garden City, NY: Doubleday, Page & Co.
  • Patriarchate of Constantinople (1919), , Istanbul, Turkey: Greek Patriarchate, archived from the original on 21 November 2017, retrieved 3 August 2020 Alt URL
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  • Toynbee, Arnold J (1922), The Western question in Greece and Turkey: a study in the contact of civilisations, Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
  • Valavanis, G. K. (1925), [Contemporary General History of Pontus] (in Greek), Athens, archived from the original on 8 November 2015.

Secondary sources

  • Agtzidis, Vlasis (1992). "Το κίνημα ανεξαρτησίας του Πόντου και οι αυτόνομες Ελληνικές περιοχές στη Σοβιετική Ένωση του μεσοπολέμου" [The movement for the independence of Pontus and the autonomous Greek regions in the Soviet Union during the interwar period]. Bulletin of the Asia Minor Studies Center (in Greek). 9 (1): 157–196. doi:10.12681/deltiokms.135.
  • Akçam, Taner (2006). A Shameful Act.
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  • Georganopoulos, Evripidis (2010). "Η προσπάθεια σύστασης ελληνικής μεραρχίας Καυκάσου το 1917 και οι λόγοι της αποτυχίας της" [The attempt to raise the Greek Caucasus Division and the reasons for its failure] (PDF). 1st Panhellenic History Congress (in Greek). 1 (1): 227–251. Retrieved 8 May 2018.
  • Alexandris, Alexis (1999). "The Greek census of Anatolia and Thrace (1910–1912): a contribution to Ottoman Historical Demography". In Gondicas, Dimitri; Issawi, Charles (eds.). Ottoman Greeks in the age of nationalism: Politics, Economy and Society in the Nineteenth Century. Princeton, N.J.: Darwin. pp. 45–76.
  • Ascherson, Neal (1995), Black Sea, New York: Hill and Wang, ISBN 0-8090-3043-8.
  • Avedian, Vahagn (2009), The Armenian Genocide 1915: From a Neutral Small State's Perspective: Sweden (PDF) (unpublished master thesis paper), Uppsala University.
  • Bassiouni, M. Cherif (1999), Crimes Against Humanity in International Criminal Law, The Hague: Kluwer.
  • Bierstadt, Edward Hale (1924), The Great Betrayal; A Survey of the Near East Problem, New York: RM McBride & Co.
  • Bloxham, Donald (2005), The Great Game of Genocide: Imperialism, Nationalism, and the Destruction of the Ottoman Armenians, Oxford: Oxford University Press.
  • Ferguson, Niall (2006), The War of the World: Twentieth-century Conflict And the Descent of the West, New York: Penguin, ISBN 978-1-59420-100-4.
  • Fotiadis, Constantinos Emm (2004), The Genocide of the Pontus Greeks by the Turks, Volumes 13, 14, Thessaloniki: Herodotus, ISBN 978-6180012729.
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  • Hulse, Carl (26 October 2007), "U.S. and Turkey Thwart Armenian Genocide Bill", The New York Times.
  • Hull, Isabel V (2005), Absolute Destruction: Military Culture and the Practices of War in Imperial Germany, Ithaca: Cornell University Press.
  • Jones, Adam (2006), Genocide: A Comprehensive Introduction, Routledge.
  • ——— (2010) [2006], Genocide: A Comprehensive Introduction, Taylor & Francis, ISBN 978-0-415-48618-7.
  • ——— (2010a) [2006]. Genocide: A Comprehensive Introduction (revised ed.). London: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-203-84696-4. OCLC 672333335.
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  • Naimark, Norman M. (2001). Fires of Hatred: Ethnic Cleansing in Twentieth-Century Europe, Cambridge and London: Harvard University Press.
  • Peterson, Merrill D. (2004), Starving Armenians: America and the Armenian Genocide, 1915–1930 and After, Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press.
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Further reading

Books

  • Akçam, Tanner (2004). From Empire to Republic: Turkish Nationalism and the Armenian Genocide. Zed Books.
  • Andreadis, George, Tamama: The Missing Girl of Pontos, Athens: Gordios, 1993.
  • Barton, James L (1943), The Near East Relief, 1915–1930, New York: Russell Sage Foundation.
  • ———; Sarafian, Ara (December 1998), "Turkish Atrocities": Statements of American Missionaries on the Destruction of Christian Communities in Ottoman Turkey, 1915–1917.
  • Compton, Carl C. The Morning Cometh, New Rochelle, NY: Aristide D. Caratzas, 1986.
  • The Inter-Allied Commission of Inquiry into the Greek Occupation of Smyrna and Adjoining Territories, (PDF), archived from the original (PDF) on 5 October 2018, retrieved 21 May 2012.
  • Fotiadis, Konstantinos (2002–2004), Η γενοκτονία των Ελλήνων του Πόντου [The Genocide of the Greeks of Pontus] (in Greek), Thessaloniki: Herodotos. In fourteen volumes, including eleven volumes of materials (vols. 4–14).
  • Karayinnides, Ioannis (1978), Ο γολγοθάς του Πόντου [The Golgotha of Pontus] (in Greek), Salonica.
  • King, Charles (2005). The Black Sea: A History, Oxford: Oxford University Press
  • Koromila, Marianna (2002). The Greeks and the Black Sea, Panorama Cultural Society.
  • Morgenthau, Henry sr (1974) [1918], The Murder of a Nation, New York: Armenian General Benevolent Union of America.
  • ——— (1929), I Was Sent to Athens, Garden City, NY: Doubleday, Doran & Co.
  • ——— (1930), An International Drama, London: Jarrolds.
  • Hofmann, Tessa, ed. (2004), Verfolgung, Vertreibung und Vernichtung der Christen im Osmanischen Reich 1912–1922 (in German), Münster: LIT, pp. 177–221, ISBN 978-3-8258-7823-8.
  • Housepian Dobkin, Marjorie. Smyrna 1922: the Destruction of a City, New York, NY: Newmark Press, 1998.
  • Lieberman, Benjamin (2006). Terrible Fate: Ethnic Cleansing in the Making of Modern Europe, Ivan R. Dee.
  • de Murat, Jean. The Great Extirpation of Hellenism and Christianity in Asia Minor: the historic and systematic deception of world opinion concerning the hideous Christianity's uprooting of 1922, Miami, FL (Athens, GR: A. Triantafillis) 1999.
  • Papadopoulos, Alexander. Persecutions of the Greeks in Turkey before the European War: on the basis of official documents, New York: Oxford University Press, American branch, 1919.
  • Pavlides, Ioannis. Pages of History of Pontus and Asia Minor, Salonica, GR, 1980.
  • Shaw, Stanford J; Shaw, Ezel Kural, History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey, Cambridge University.
  • Sjöberg, Erik. THE MAKING OF THE GREEK GENOCIDE Contested Memories of the Ottoman Greek Catastrophe, ISBN 978-1-78533-325-5, 2016.
  • Shenk, Robert. "America's Black Sea Fleet - The U.S. Navy Amid War and Revolution,1919-1923", Naval Institute Press, Annapolis Maryland, 2012
  • Totten, Samuel; Jacobs, Steven L (2002). Pioneers of Genocide Studies (Clt). New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers. ISBN 978-0-7658-0151-7.
  • Tsirkinidis, Harry. At last we uprooted them... The Genocide of Greeks of Pontos, Thrace, and Asia Minor, through the French archives, Thessaloniki: Kyriakidis Bros, 1999.
  • Ward, Mark H. The Deportations in Asia Minor 1921–1922, London: Anglo-Hellenic League, 1922.

Articles

  • Bjornlund, Matthias (March 2008). "The 1914 cleansing of Aegean Greeks as a case of violent Turkification". Journal of Genocide Research. 10 (1): 41–58. doi:10.1080/14623520701850286. S2CID 72975930.
  • Hlamides, Nikolaos (December 2008). "The Greek Relief Committee: America's Response to the Greek Genocide". Genocide Studies and Prevention. 3 (3): 375–183. doi:10.3138/gsp.3.3.375. S2CID 146310206. Archived from the original on 3 January 2013. Retrieved 5 January 2020.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link)
  • Klapsis, Antonis (2014). "Violent Uprooting and Forced Migration: A Demographic Analysis of the Greek Populations of Asia Minor, Pontus and Eastern Thrace". Middle Eastern Studies. 50 (4): 622–639. doi:10.1080/00263206.2014.901218. S2CID 145325597.
  • Mourelos, Yannis (1985). "The 1914 Persecutions and the first Attempt at an Exchange of Minorities between Greece and Turkey". Balkan Studies. 26 (2): 389–413.
  • Vryonis, Speros (2007). "Greek Labor Battalions in Asia Minor". In Hovannisian, Richard (ed.). The Armenian Genocide: Cultural and Ethical Legacies. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers. pp. 275–290.
  • Taner, Akcam (7 November 2009). The Greek 'Deportations' and Massacres of 1913–1914, A Trial Run for the Armenian Genocide. The Academic Conference on the Asia Minor Catastrophe. Rosemont, IL.
  • Sait, Çetinoğlu (17–19 September 2010). . Three Genocides, One Strategy. Athens. Archived from the original on 9 March 2017.

External links

  • Bibliography at Greek Genocide Resource Center
  • "Massacre of Greeks Charged to the Turks",The Atlanta Constitution. 17 June 1914.
  • "Reports Massacres of Greeks in Pontus; Central Council Says They Attend Execution of Prominent Natives for Alleged Rebellion." The New York Times. Sunday 6 November 1921.

greek, genocide, confused, with, greek, operation, nkvd, greek, Γενοκτονία, των, Ελλήνων, genoktonia, ellinon, which, included, pontic, genocide, systematic, killing, christian, ottoman, greek, population, anatolia, which, carried, mainly, during, world, after. Not to be confused with Greek Operation of the NKVD The Greek genocide 4 5 6 7 8 9 A 1 Greek Genoktonia twn Ellhnwn Genoktonia ton Ellinon which included the Pontic genocide was the systematic killing of the Christian Ottoman Greek population of Anatolia which was carried out mainly during World War I and its aftermath 1914 1922 on the basis of their religion and ethnicity 15 It was perpetrated by the government of the Ottoman Empire led by the Three Pashas and by the Government of the Grand National Assembly led by Mustafa Kemal Ataturk 1 against the indigenous Greek population of the Empire The genocide included massacres forced deportations involving death marches through the Syrian Desert 16 expulsions summary executions and the destruction of Eastern Orthodox cultural historical and religious monuments 17 Several hundred thousand Ottoman Greeks died during this period 18 Most of the refugees and survivors fled to Greece adding over a quarter to the prior population of Greece 19 Some especially those in Eastern provinces took refuge in the neighbouring Russian Empire Greek genocidePart of World War I and the Aftermath of World War IGreek civilians mourn their dead relatives Great Fire of Smyrna 1922LocationOttoman EmpireDate1913 1923 1 TargetGreek population particularly from Pontus Cappadocia Ionia and Eastern ThraceAttack typeDeportation mass murder death march othersDeaths300 000 900 000 2 3 see casualties section below PerpetratorsOttoman Empire Turkish National MovementMotiveAnti Greek sentiment Turkification Anti Eastern Orthodox sentimentGreek genocideBackgroundYoung Turk Revolution Ottoman Greeks Pontic Greeks Ottoman EmpireThe genocideLabour Battalions Death march Massacre of Phocaea Evacuation of Ayvalik Izmit massacres Samsun deportations Amasya trials Burning of SmyrnaForeign aid and reliefRelief Committee for Greeks of Asia Minor American Committee for Relief in the Near EastResponsible partiesYoung Turks or Committee of Union and Progress Three Pashas Talat Enver Djemal Bahaeddin Sakir Teskilati Mahsusa or Special Organization Nureddin Pasha Topal Osman Mustafa Kemal AtaturkSee alsoGreco Turkish War 1919 1922 Greeks in Turkey Population Exchange Greek refugees Armenian genocide Sayfo Istanbul trials of 1919 1920 Malta TribunalsvteBy late 1922 most of the Greeks of Asia Minor had either fled or had been killed 20 Those remaining were transferred to Greece under the terms of the later 1923 population exchange between Greece and Turkey which formalized the exodus and barred the return of the refugees Other ethnic groups were similarly attacked by the Ottoman Empire during this period including Assyrians and Armenians and some scholars and organizations have recognized these events as part of the same genocidal policy 21 9 22 8 23 The Allies of World War I condemned the Ottoman government sponsored massacres In 2007 the International Association of Genocide Scholars passed a resolution recognising the Ottoman campaign against its Christian minorities including the Greeks as genocide 9 Some other organisations have also passed resolutions recognising the Ottoman campaign against these Christian minorities as genocide as have the national legislatures of Greece 24 25 7 Cyprus 26 the United States 27 28 29 30 Sweden 31 32 Armenia 6 the Netherlands 33 5 Germany 34 35 Austria 4 36 and the Czech Republic 37 38 39 Contents 1 Background 2 Origin of the Greek minority 3 Events 3 1 Post Balkan Wars 3 2 World War I 3 3 Greco Turkish War 3 4 Relief efforts 3 5 Contemporary accounts 3 6 Casualties 4 Aftermath 5 Genocide recognition 5 1 Terminology 5 2 Academic discussion 5 3 Political recognition 5 4 Reasons for limited recognition 6 Genocide as a model for future crimes 7 Memorials 8 Literature 9 See also 10 References 10 1 Citations 10 2 Notes 11 Bibliography 11 1 Contemporary accounts 11 2 Secondary sources 12 Further reading 12 1 Books 12 2 Articles 13 External linksBackgroundAt the outbreak of World War I Asia Minor was ethnically diverse its population included Turks and Azeris as well as groups that had inhabited the region prior to the Ottoman conquest including Pontic Greeks Caucasus Greeks Cappadocian Greeks Armenians Kurds Zazas Georgians Circassians Assyrians Jews and Laz people Among the causes of the Turkish campaign against the Greek speaking Christian population was a fear that they would welcome liberation by the Ottoman Empire s enemies and a belief among some Turks that to form a modern country in the era of nationalism it was necessary to purge from their territories all minorities who could threaten the integrity of an ethnically based Turkish nation 40 41 page needed According to a German military attache the Ottoman minister of war Ismail Enver had declared in October 1915 that he wanted to solve the Greek problem during the war in the same way he believe d he solved the Armenian problem referring to the Armenian genocide 42 Germany and the Ottoman Empire were allies immediately before and during World War I By 31 January 1917 the Chancellor of Germany Theobald von Bethmann Hollweg reported that The indications are that the Turks plan to eliminate the Greek element as enemies of the state as they did earlier with the Armenians The strategy implemented by the Turks is of displacing people to the interior without taking measures for their survival by exposing them to death hunger and illness The abandoned homes are then looted and burnt or destroyed Whatever was done to the Armenians is being repeated with the Greeks Chancellor of Germany in 1917 Theobald von Bethmann Hollweg The Killing Trap Genocide in the Twentieth Century 43 Origin of the Greek minoritySee also Ottoman Greeks Cappadocian Greeks and Pontic Greeks Areas with Anatolian Greeks in 1910 Demotic Greek speakers in yellow Pontic Greek in orange Cappadocian Greek in green with individual towns indicated 44 Shaded regions do not indicate that Greek speakers were a majority The Greek presence in Asia Minor dates at least from the Late Bronze Age 1450 BC 45 The Greek poet Homer lived in the region around 800 BC 46 The geographer Strabo referred to Smyrna as the first Greek city in Asia Minor 47 and numerous ancient Greek figures were natives of Anatolia including the mathematician Thales of Miletus 7th century BC the pre Socratic philosopher Heraclitus of Ephesus 6th century BC and the founder of Cynicism Diogenes of Sinope 4th century BC Greeks referred to the Black Sea as the Euxinos Pontos or hospitable sea and starting in the eighth century BC they began navigating its shores and settling along its Anatolian coast 47 The most notable Greek cities of the Black Sea were Trebizond Sampsounta Sinope and Heraclea Pontica 47 During the Hellenistic period 334 BC 1st century BC which followed the conquests of Alexander the Great Greek culture and language began to dominate even the interior of Asia Minor The Hellenization of the region accelerated under Roman and early Byzantine rule and by the early centuries AD the local Indo European Anatolian languages had become extinct being replaced by the Koine Greek language 48 49 50 From this point until the late Middle Ages all of the indigenous inhabitants of Asia Minor practiced Christianity called Greek Orthodox Christianity after the East West Schism with the Catholics in 1054 and spoke Greek as their first language citation needed The resultant Greek culture in Asia Minor flourished during a millennium of rule 4th century 15th century AD under the mainly Greek speaking Eastern Roman Empire Those from Asia Minor constituted the bulk of the empire s Greek speaking Orthodox Christians thus many renowned Greek figures during late antiquity the Middle Ages and the Renaissance came from Asia Minor including Saint Nicholas 270 343 AD rhetorician John Chrysostomos 349 407 AD Hagia Sophia architect Isidore of Miletus 6th century AD several imperial dynasties including the Phokas 10th century and Komnenos 11th century and Renaissance scholars George of Trebizond 1395 1472 and Basilios Bessarion 1403 1472 Thus when the Turkic peoples began their late medieval conquest of Asia Minor Byzantine Greek citizens were the largest group of inhabitants there 47 Even after the Turkic conquests of the interior the mountainous Black Sea coast of Asia Minor remained the heart of a populous Greek Christian state the Empire of Trebizond until its eventual conquest by the Ottoman Turks in 1461 a year after the Ottomans conquered the area of Europe which is now the Greek mainland Over the next four centuries the Greek natives of Asia Minor gradually became a minority in these lands under the now dominant Turkish culture 51 EventsPost Balkan Wars Total population figures for the Ottoman Greeks of Anatolia 52 Greek census 1910 1912 Ottoman census 1914 Soteriades 1918 53 Hudavendigar Prousa 262 319 184 424 278 421Konya Ikonio 74 539 65 054 66 895Trabzon Trebizond 298 183 260 313 353 533Ankara Angora 85 242 77 530 66 194Aydin 495 936 319 079 622 810Kastamonu 24 349 26 104 24 937Sivas 74 632 75 324 99 376Izmit Nicomedia 52 742 40 048 73 134Biga Dardanelles 31 165 8 541 32 830Total 1 399 107 1 056 357 1 618 130Beginning in the spring of 1913 the Ottomans implemented a programme of expulsions and forcible migrations focusing on Greeks of the Aegean region and eastern Thrace whose presence in these areas was deemed a threat to national security 54 The Ottoman government adopted a dual track mechanism clarification needed allowing it to deny responsibility for and prior knowledge of this campaign of intimidation emptying Christian villages 55 The involvement in certain cases of local military and civil functionaries in planning and executing anti Greek violence and looting led ambassadors of Greece and the Great Powers and the Patriarchate to address complaints to the Sublime Porte 56 In protest to government inaction in the face of these attacks and to the so called Muslim boycott of Greek products that had begun in 1913 the Patriarchate closed Greek churches and schools in June 1914 56 Responding to international and domestic pressure Talat Pasha headed a visit in Thrace in April 1914 and later in the Aegean to investigate reports and try to soothe bilateral tension with Greece While claiming that he had no involvement or knowledge of these events Talat met with Kuscubasi Esref head of the cleansing operation in the Aegean littoral during his tour and advised him to be cautious not to be visible 57 Also after 1913 there were organized boycotts against the Greeks initiated by the Ottoman Interior Ministry who asked the empire s provinces to start them 58 One of the worst attacks of this campaign attack took place in Phocaea Greek Fwkaia on the night of 12 June 1914 a town in western Anatolia next to Smyrna where Turkish irregular troops destroyed the city killing 50 59 or 100 60 civilians and causing its population to flee to Greece 61 French eyewitness Charles Manciet states that the atrocities he had witnessed at Phocaea were of an organized nature that aimed at circling 62 Christian peasant populations of the region 62 In another attack against Serenkieuy in Menemen district the villagers formed armed resistance groups but only a few managed to survive being outnumbered by the attacking Muslim irregular bands 63 During the summer of the same year the Special Organization Teskilat i Mahsusa assisted by government and army officials conscripted Greek men of military age from Thrace and western Anatolia into Labour Battalions in which hundreds of thousands died 64 These conscripts after being sent hundreds of miles into the interior of Anatolia were employed in road making building tunnel excavating and other field work but their numbers were heavily reduced through privations and ill treatment and through outright massacre by their Ottoman guards 65 Phocaea in flames during the massacre perpetrated by Turkish irregulars in June 1914 Following similar accords made with Bulgaria and Serbia the Ottoman Empire signed a small voluntary population exchange agreement with Greece on 14 November 1913 66 Another such agreement was signed 1 July 1914 for the exchange of some Turks that is Muslims of Greece for some Greeks of Aydin and Western Thrace after the Ottomans had forced these Greeks from their homes in response to the Greek annexation of several islands 67 68 The swap was never completed due to the eruption of World War I 67 While discussions for population exchanges were still conducted Special Organization units attacked Greek villages forcing their inhabitants to abandon their homes for Greece being replaced with Muslim refugees 69 The forceful expulsion of Christians of western Anatolia especially Ottoman Greeks has many similarities with policy towards the Armenians as observed by US ambassador Henry Morgenthau and historian Arnold Toynbee In both cases certain Ottoman officials such as Sukru Kaya Nazim Bey and Mehmed Reshid played a role Special Organization units and labour battalions were involved and a dual plan was implemented combining unofficial violence and the cover of state population policy 70 This policy of persecution and ethnic cleansing was expanded to other parts of the Ottoman Empire including Greek communities in Pontus Cappadocia and Cilicia 71 World War I Hellenism in Near East during and after World War I showing some of the areas Western Anatolia and Eastern Thrace where the Greek population was concentrated The Pontic region is not shown According to a newspaper of the time in November 1914 Turkish troops destroyed Christian properties and murdered several Christians at Trabzon 72 After November 1914 Ottoman policy towards the Greek population shifted state policy was restricted to the forceful migration to the Anatolian hinterland of Greeks living in coastal areas particularly the Black Sea region close to the Turkish Russian front 73 This change of policy was due to a German demand for the persecution of Ottoman Greeks to stop after Eleftherios Venizelos had made this a condition of Greece s neutrality when speaking to the German ambassador in Athens Venizelos also threatened to undertake a similar campaign against Muslims that were living in Greece if Ottoman policy did not change 74 While the Ottoman government tried to implement this change in policy it was unsuccessful and attacks even murders continued to occur unpunished by local officials in the provinces despite repeated instructions in cables sent from the central administration 75 Arbitrary violence and extortion of money intensified later providing ammunition for the Venizelists arguing that Greece should join the Entente 76 In July 1915 the Greek charge d affaires claimed that the deportations can not be any other issue than an annihilation war against the Greek nation in Turkey and as measures hereof they have been implementing forced conversions to Islam in obvious aim to that if after the end of the war there again would be a question of European intervention for the protection of the Christians there will be as few of them left as possible 77 According to George W Rendel of the British Foreign Office by 1918 over 500 000 Greeks were deported of whom comparatively few survived 78 In his memoirs the United States ambassador to the Ottoman Empire between 1913 and 1916 wrote Everywhere the Greeks were gathered in groups and under the so called protection of Turkish gendarmes they were transported the larger part on foot into the interior Just how many were scattered in this fashion is not definitely known the estimates varying anywhere from 200 000 up to 1 000 000 79 Despite the shift of policy the practice of evacuating Greek settlements and relocating the inhabitants was continued albeit on a limited scale Relocation was targeted at specific regions that were considered militarily vulnerable not the whole of the Greek population As a 1919 Patriarchate account records the evacuation of many villages was accompanied with looting and murders while many died as a result of not having been given the time to make the necessary provisions or of being relocated to uninhabitable places 80 Turks Slaughter Christian Greeks Lincoln Daily Star 19 October 1917 State policy towards Ottoman Greeks changed again in the fall of 1916 With Entente forces occupying Lesbos Chios and Samos since spring the Russians advancing in Anatolia and Greece expected to enter the war siding with the Allies preparations were made for the deportation of Greeks living in border areas 81 In January 1917 Talat Pasha sent a cable for the deportation of Greeks from the Samsun district thirty to fifty kilometres inland taking care for no assaults on any persons or property 82 However the execution of government decrees which took a systematic form from December 1916 when Behaeddin Shakir came to the region was not conducted as ordered men were taken in labour battalions women and children were attacked villages were looted by Muslim neighbours 83 As such in March 1917 the population of Ayvalik a town of c 30 000 inhabitants on the Aegean coast was forcibly deported to the interior of Anatolia under order by German General Liman von Sanders The operation included death marches looting torture and massacre against the civilian population 84 Germanos Karavangelis the bishop of Samsun reported to the Patriarchate that thirty thousands had been deported to the Ankara region and the convoys of the deportees had been attacked with many being killed Talat Pasha ordered an investigation for the looting and destruction of Greek villages by bandits 85 Later in 1917 instructions were sent to authorize military officials with the control of the operation and to broaden its scope now including persons from cities in the coastal region However in certain areas Greek populations remained undeported 86 Greek deportees were sent to live in Greek villages in the inner provinces or in some case villages where Armenians were living before being deported Greek villages evacuated during the war due to military concerns were then resettled with Muslim immigrants and refugees 87 According to cables sent to the provinces during this time abandoned movable and non movable Greek property was not to be liquidated as that of the Armenians but preserved 88 On 14 January 1917 Cossva Anckarsvard Sweden s Ambassador to Constantinople sent a dispatch regarding the decision to deport the Ottoman Greeks What above all appears as an unnecessary cruelty is that the deportation is not limited to the men alone but is extended likewise to women and children This is supposedly done in order to much easier be able to confiscate the property of the deported 89 According to Rendel atrocities such as deportations involving death marches starvation in labour camps etc were referred to as white massacres 78 Ottoman official Rafet Bey was active in the genocide of the Greeks and in November 1916 Austrian consul in Samsun Kwiatkowski reported that he said to him We must finish off the Greeks as we did with the Armenians today I sent squads to the interior to kill every Greek on sight 90 Pontic Greeks responded by forming insurgent groups which carried weapons salvaged from the battlefields of the Caucasus Campaign of World War I or directly supplied by the Russian army In 1920 the insurgents reached their peak in regard to manpower numbering 18 000 men 91 On 15 November 1917 Ozakom delegates agreed to create a unified army composed of ethnically homogeneous units Greeks were allotted a division consisting of three regiments The Greek Caucasus Division was thus formed out of ethnic Greeks serving in Russian units stationed in the Caucasus and raw recruits from among the local population including former insurgents 92 The division took part in numerous engagements against the Ottoman army as well as Muslim and Armenian irregulars safeguarding the withdrawal of Greek refugees into the Russian held Caucasus before being disbanded in the aftermath of the Treaty of Poti 93 Greco Turkish War Ghost town of Kayakoy Livisi southwestern Anatolia once a Greek inhabited settlement 94 According to local tradition Muslims refused to repopulate the place because it was infested with the ghosts of Livisians massacred in 1915 95 After the Ottoman Empire capitulated on 30 October 1918 it came under the de jure control of the victorious Entente Powers However the latter failed to bring the perpetrators of the genocide to justice 96 although in the Turkish Courts Martial of 1919 20 a number of leading Ottoman officials were accused of ordering massacres against both Greeks and Armenians 97 Thus killings massacres and deportations continued under the pretext of the national movement of Mustafa Kemal later Ataturk 96 In an October 1920 report a British officer describes the aftermath of the massacres at Iznik in north western Anatolia in which he estimated that at least 100 decomposed mutilated bodies of men women and children were present in and around a large cave about 300 yards outside the city walls 78 The systematic massacre and deportation of Greeks in Asia Minor a program which had come into effect in 1914 was a precursor to the atrocities perpetrated by both the Greek and Turkish armies during the Greco Turkish War a conflict which followed the Greek landing at Smyrna 98 99 in May 1919 and continued until the retaking of Smyrna by the Turks and the Great Fire of Smyrna in September 1922 100 Rudolph Rummel estimated the death toll of the fire at 100 000 101 Greeks and Armenians who perished in the fire and accompanying massacres According to Norman M Naimark more realistic estimates range between 10 000 to 15 000 for the casualties of the Great Fire of Smyrna Some 150 000 to 200 000 Greeks were expelled after the fire while about 30 000 able bodied Greek and Armenian men were deported to the interior of Asia Minor most of whom were executed on the way or died under brutal conditions 102 George W Rendel of the British Foreign Office noted the massacres and deportations of Greeks during the Greco Turkish War 78 According to estimates by Rudolph Rummel between 213 000 and 368 000 Anatolian Greeks were killed between 1919 and 1922 99 There were also massacres of Turks carried out by the Hellenic troops during the occupation of western Anatolia from May 1919 to September 1922 100 For the massacres that occurred during the Greco Turkish War of 1919 1922 British historian Arnold J Toynbee wrote that it was the Greek landings that created the Turkish National Movement led by Mustafa Kemal 103 The Greeks of Pontus and the Turks of the Greek occupied territories were in some degree victims of Mr Venizelos s and Mr Lloyd George s original miscalculations at Paris Relief efforts Photo taken after the Smyrna fire The text inside indicates that the photo had been taken by representatives of the Red Cross in Smyrna Translation Elderly and children were not spared In 1917 a relief organization by the name of the Relief Committee for Greeks of Asia Minor was formed in response to the deportations and massacres of Greeks in the Ottoman Empire The committee worked in cooperation with the Near East Relief in distributing aid to Ottoman Greeks in Thrace and Asia Minor The organisation disbanded in the summer of 1921 but Greek relief work was continued by other aid organisations 104 Contemporary accounts German and Austro Hungarian diplomats as well as the 1922 memorandum compiled by British diplomat George W Rendel on Turkish Massacres and Persecutions provided evidence for series of systematic massacres and ethnic cleansing of the Greeks in Asia Minor 78 105 The quotes clarification needed have been attributed to various diplomats including the German ambassadors Hans Freiherr von Wangenheim and Richard von Kuhlmann the German vice consul in Samsun Kuchhoff Austria s ambassador Pallavicini and Samsun consul Ernst von Kwiatkowski and the Italian unofficial agent in Angora Signor Tuozzi Other quotes are from clergymen and activists including the German missionary Johannes Lepsius and Stanley Hopkins of the Near East Relief Germany and Austria Hungary were allied to the Ottoman Empire in World War I clarification needed Smyrna 1922 Translation No children were allowed to live The accounts describe systematic massacres rapes and burnings of Greek villages and attribute intent to Ottoman officials including the Ottoman Prime Minister Mahmud Sevket Pasha Rafet Bey Talat Pasha and Enver Pasha 78 105 Additionally The New York Times and its correspondents made extensive references to the events recording massacres deportations individual killings rapes burning of entire Greek villages destruction of Greek Orthodox churches and monasteries drafts for Labor Brigades looting terrorism and other atrocities for Greek Armenian and also for British and American citizens and government officials 106 107 Australian press also had some coverage of the events 108 Henry Morgenthau the United States ambassador to the Ottoman Empire from 1913 to 1916 accused the Turkish government of a campaign of outrageous terrorizing cruel torturing driving of women into harems debauchery of innocent girls the sale of many of them at 80 cents each the murdering of hundreds of thousands and the deportation to and starvation in the desert of other hundreds of thousands and the destruction of hundreds of villages and many cities all part of the willful execution of a scheme to annihilate the Armenian Greek and Syrian Christians of Turkey 109 However months prior to the First World War 100 000 Greeks were deported to Greek islands or the interior which Morgenthau stated for the larger part these were bona fide deportations that is the Greek inhabitants were actually removed to new places and were not subjected to wholesale massacre It was probably the reason that the civilized world did not protest against these deportations 110 US Consul General George Horton whose account has been criticised by scholars as anti Turkish 111 112 113 claimed One of the cleverest statements circulated by the Turkish propagandists is to the effect that the massacred Christians were as bad as their executioners that it was 50 50 On this issue he comments Had the Greeks after the massacres in the Pontus and at Smyrna massacred all the Turks in Greece the record would have been 50 50 almost As an eye witness he also praises Greeks for their conduct toward the thousands of Turks residing in Greece while the ferocious massacres were going on which according to his opinion was one of the most inspiring and beautiful chapters in all that country s history 114 115 Casualties Smyrna burning during the Fire of Smyrna According to different estimates some 10 000 116 to 100 000 101 Greeks and Armenians were killed in the fire and accompanying massacres Smyrna citizens trying to reach the Allied ships during the Smyrna fire 1922 The photo had been taken from the launch boat of a US battleship According to Benny Morris and Dror Ze evi in The Thirty Year Genocide as a result of Ottoman and Turkish state policy several hundred thousand Ottoman Greeks had died Either they were murdered outright or were the intentional victims of hunger disease and exposure 117 For the whole of the period between 1914 and 1922 and for the whole of Anatolia there are academic estimates of death toll ranging from 289 000 to 750 000 The figure of 750 000 is suggested by political scientist Adam Jones 118 Scholar Rudolph Rummel compiled various figures from several studies to estimate lower and higher bounds for the death toll between 1914 and 1923 He estimates that 84 000 Greeks were exterminated from 1914 to 1918 and 264 000 from 1919 to 1922 The total number reaching 347 000 119 Historian Constantine G Hatzidimitriou writes that loss of life among Anatolian Greeks during the WWI period and its aftermath was approximately 735 370 120 Erik Sjoberg states that a ctivists tend to inflate the overall total of Ottoman Greek deaths over what he considers the cautious estimates between 300 000 to 700 000 2 Some contemporary sources claimed different death tolls The Greek government collected figures together with the Patriarchate to claim that a total of one million people were massacred 121 A team of American researchers found in the early postwar period that the total number of Greeks killed may approach 900 000 people 3 Edward Hale Bierstadt writing in 1924 stated that According to official testimony the Turks since 1914 have slaughtered in cold blood 1 500 000 Armenians and 500 000 Greeks men women and children without the slightest provocation 122 On 4 November 1918 Emanuel Efendi an Ottoman deputy of Aydin criticised the ethnic cleansing of the previous government and reported that 550 000 Greeks had been killed in the coastal regions of Anatolia including the Black Sea coast and Aegean Islands during the deportations 123 According to various sources the Greek death toll in the Pontus region of Anatolia ranges from 300 000 to 360 000 124 Merrill D Peterson cites the death toll of 360 000 for the Greeks of Pontus 125 According to George K Valavanis The loss of human life among the Pontian Greeks since the Great War World War I until March 1924 can be estimated at 353 000 as a result of murders hangings and from punishment disease and other hardships 126 Valavanis derived this figure from the 1922 record of the Central Pontian Council in Athens based on the Black Book of the Ecumenical Patriarchate to which he adds 50 000 new martyrs which came to be included in the register by spring 1924 127 AftermathArticle 142 of the 1920 Treaty of Sevres prepared after the first World War called the Turkish regime terrorist and contained provisions to repair so far as possible the wrongs inflicted on individuals in the course of the massacres perpetrated in Turkey during the war 128 The Treaty of Sevres was never ratified by the Turkish government and ultimately was replaced by the Treaty of Lausanne That treaty was accompanied by a Declaration of Amnesty without containing any provision in respect to punishment of war crimes 129 In 1923 a population exchange between Greece and Turkey resulted in a near complete ending of the Greek ethnic presence in Turkey and a similar ending of the Turkish ethnic presence in much of Greece According to the Greek census of 1928 1 104 216 Ottoman Greeks had reached Greece 130 It is impossible to know exactly how many Greek inhabitants of Turkey died between 1914 and 1923 and how many ethnic Greeks of Anatolia were expelled to Greece or fled to the Soviet Union 131 Some of the survivors and expelled took refuge in the neighboring Russian Empire later Soviet Union citation needed Similar plans for a population exchange had been negotiated earlier in 1913 1914 between Ottoman and Greek officials during the first stage of the Greek genocide but had been interrupted by the onset of World War I 20 132 In December 1924 The New York Times reported that 400 tonnes of human bones consigned to manufacturers were transported from Mudania to Marseille which might be the remains of massacred victims in Asia Minor 133 In 1955 the Istanbul Pogrom caused most of the remaining Greek inhabitants of Istanbul to flee the country Historian Alfred Maurice de Zayas identifies the pogrom as a crime against humanity and he states that the flight and migration of Greeks afterwards corresponds to the intent to destroy in whole or in part criteria of the Genocide Convention 134 Genocide recognitionTerminology Among the victims of the atrocities committed by the Turkish nationalist Army 1922 23 were hundreds of Christian clergy in Anatolia 135 including metropolitan bishops from left Chrysostomos of Smyrna lynched Prokopios of Iconium imprisoned and poisoned not pictured Gregory of Kydonies executed Euthymios of Zelon died in prison and posthumously hanged Ambrosios of Moschonisia buried alive The word genocide was coined in the early 1940s the era of the Holocaust by Raphael Lemkin a Polish lawyer of Jewish descent In his writings on genocide Lemkin is known to have detailed the fate of Greeks in Turkey 136 In August 1946 the New York Times reported Genocide is no new phenomenon nor has it been utterly ignored in the past The massacres of Greeks and Armenians by the Turks prompted diplomatic action without punishment If Professor Lemkin has his way genocide will be established as an international crime 137 The 1948 Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide CPPCG was adopted by the United Nations General Assembly in December 1948 and came into force in January 1951 It includes a legal definition of genocide Before the creation of the term genocide the destruction of the Ottoman Greeks was known by Greeks as the Massacre in Greek h Sfagh the Great Catastrophe h Megalh Katastrofh or the Great Tragedy h Megalh Tragwdia 138 The Ottoman and Kemalist nationalist massacres of the Greeks in Anatolia constituted genocide under the initial definition and international criminal application of the term as in the international criminal tribunals authorized by the United Nations 139 Academic discussion Matthaios Kofidis former member of the Ottoman Parliament was among the several notables of Pontus hanged by an Ad hoc Court of Turkish Independence in Amasya in 1921 140 In December 2007 the International Association of Genocide Scholars IAGS passed a resolution affirming that the 1914 23 campaign against Ottoman Greeks constituted genocide qualitatively similar to the Armenian genocide 9 IAGS President Gregory Stanton urged the Turkish government to finally acknowledge the three genocides The history of these genocides is clear and there is no more excuse for the current Turkish government which did not itself commit the crimes to deny the facts 141 Drafted by Canadian scholar Adam Jones the resolution was adopted on 1 December 2007 with the support of 83 of all voting IAGS members 142 Several scholars researching the Armenian genocide such as Peter Balakian Taner Akcam Richard Hovannisian and Robert Melson however stated that the issue had to be further researched before a resolution was passed 143 Manus Midlarsky notes a disjunction between statements of genocidal intent against the Greeks by Ottoman officials and their actions pointing to the containment of massacres in selected sensitive areas and the large numbers of Greek survivors at the end of the war Because of cultural and political ties of the Ottoman Greeks with European powers Midlarsky argues genocide was not a viable option for the Ottomans in their case 43 Taner Akcam refers to contemporary accounts noting the difference in government treatment of Ottoman Greeks and Armenians during WW I and concludes that despite the increasingly severe wartime policies in particular for the period between late 1916 and the first months of 1917 the government s treatment of the Greeks although comparable in some ways to the measures against the Armenians differed in scope intent and motivation 144 Some historians including Boris Barth de Michael Schwartz de and Andrekos Varnava argue that the persecution of Greeks was ethnic cleansing or deportation but not genocide 145 12 This is also a position of some Greek mainstream historians 146 147 according to Aristide Caratzas this is due to a number of factors which range from governmental reticence to criticize Turkey to spilling over into the academic world to ideological currents promoting a diffuse internationalism cultivated by a network of NGOs often supported by western governments and western interests 147 Others such as Dominik J Schaller and Jurgen Zimmerer argue that the genocidal quality of the murderous campaigns against Greeks was obvious 8 The historians Samuel Totten and Paul R Bartrop who specialize on the history of genocides also call it a genocide so is Alexander Kitroeff 147 148 Another scholar who considers it a genocide is Hannibal Travis he also adds that the widespread attacks by the successive governments of Turkey on the homes places of worship and heritage of minority communities since the 1930s constitute cultural genocide as well 139 Dror Ze evi and Benny Morris authors of The Thirty Year Genocide 149 write that the story about what happened in Turkey is much broader and deeper than just the Armenian genocide It s deeper because it isn t just about World War I but about a series of homicidal ethno religious cleansings that took place from the late 1890s to the 1920s and beyond It is wider because the victims weren t only Armenians Alongside hundreds of thousands of Armenians Greeks and Assyrians were massacred in similar numbers We estimate that during the 30 year period that we studied between a million and a half and two and a half million Christians from all three religious groups were murdered or intentionally left for dead of starvation and sickness and millions of others were deported and lost everything In addition tens of thousands of Christians were forced to convert and many thousands of girls and women were raped by their Muslim neighbors and the security forces The Turks even set up markets where Christian girls were sold as sex slaves These horrendous acts were committed by three entirely different regimes the authoritarian Islamist regime of Sultan Abdul Hamid II the wartime regime of the Committee of Union and Progress The Young Turks led by Talaat and Enver and the nationalist secular post war regime of Mustafa Kemal Ataturk 150 excessive quote Political recognition Following an initiative of MPs of the so called patriotic wing of the ruling PASOK party s parliamentary group and like minded MPs of conservative New Democracy 151 the Greek Parliament passed two laws on the fate of the Ottoman Greeks the first in 1994 and the second in 1998 The decrees were published in the Greek Government Gazette on 8 March 1994 and 13 October 1998 respectively The 1994 decree created by Georgios Daskalakis affirmed the genocide in the Pontus region of Asia Minor and designated 19 May the day Mustafa Kemal landed in Samsun in 1919 a day of commemoration 24 152 called Pontian Greek Genocide Remembrance Day 25 while the 1998 decree affirmed the genocide of Greeks in Asia Minor as a whole and designated 14 September a day of commemoration 7 These laws were signed by the President of Greece but were not immediately ratified after political interventions After leftist newspaper I Avgi initiated a campaign against the application of this law the subject became subject of a political debate The president of the left ecologist Synaspismos party Nikos Konstantopoulos and historian Angelos Elefantis 153 known for his books on the history of Greek communism were two of the major figures of the political left who expressed their opposition to the decree However the non parliamentary left wing nationalist 154 intellectual and author George Karabelias bitterly criticized Elefantis and others opposing the recognition of genocide and called them revisionist historians accusing the Greek mainstream left of a distorted ideological evolution He said that for the Greek left 19 May is a day of amnesia 155 In the late 2000s the Communist Party of Greece adopted the term Genocide of the Pontic Greeks Genoktonia Pontiwn in its official newspaper Rizospastis and participates in memorial events 156 157 158 The Republic of Cyprus has also officially called the events Greek Genocide in Pontus of Asia Minor 26 In response to the 1998 law the Turkish government released a statement which claimed that describing the events as genocide was without any historical basis We condemn and protest this resolution a Turkish Foreign Ministry statement said With this resolution the Greek Parliament which in fact has to apologize to the Turkish people for the large scale destruction and massacres Greece perpetrated in Anatolia not only sustains the traditional Greek policy of distorting history but it also displays that the expansionist Greek mentality is still alive the statement added 159 On 11 March 2010 Sweden s Riksdag passed a motion recognising as an act of genocide the killing of Armenians Assyrians Syriacs Chaldeans and Pontic Greeks in 1915 160 On 14 May 2013 the government of New South Wales was submitted a genocide recognition motion by Fred Nile of the Christian Democratic Party which was later passed making it the fourth political entity to recognise the genocide 161 In March 2015 the National Assembly of Armenia unanimously adopted a resolution recognizing both the Greek and Assyrian genocides 162 In April 2015 the States General of the Netherlands and the Austrian Parliament passed resolutions recognizing the Greek and Assyrian genocides 163 164 Reasons for limited recognition Desecrated graves in the cemetery of Saint John Prodromos during the Smyrna massacres September 1922 The United Nations the European Parliament and the Council of Europe have not made any related statements According to Constantine Fotiadis professor of Modern Greek History at the Aristotle University of Thessaloniki some of the reasons for the lack of wider recognition and delay in seeking acknowledgement of these events are as follows 165 166 In contrast to the Treaty of Sevres the superseding Treaty of Lausanne in 1923 dealt with these events by making no reference or mention and thus sealed the end of the Asia Minor Catastrophe A subsequent peace treaty Greco Turkish Treaty of Friendship in June 1930 between Greece and Turkey Greece made several concessions to settle all open issues between the two countries in return for peace in the region The Second World War the Civil War the Military junta and the political turmoil in Greece that followed forced Greece to focus on its survival and other problems rather than seek recognition of these events The political environment of the Cold War in which Turkey and Greece were supposed to be allies facing one common Communist enemy not adversaries or competitors In his book With Intent to Destroy Reflections on Genocide Colin Tatz argues that Turkey denies the genocide so as not to jeopardize its ninety five year old dream of becoming the beacon of democracy in the Near East 167 In their book Negotiating the Sacred Blasphemy and Sacrilege in a Multicultural Society Elizabeth Burns Coleman and Kevin White present a list of reasons explaining Turkey s inability to admit the genocides committed by the Young Turks writing 168 Turkish denialism of the genocide of 1 5 million Armenians is official riven driven constant rampant and increasing each year since the events of 1915 to 1922 It is state funded with special departments and units in overseas missions whose sole purpose is to dilute counter minimise trivialise and relativise every reference to the events which encompassed a genocide of Armenians Pontian Greeks and Assyrian Christians in Asia Minor They propose the following reasons for the denial of the genocides by Turkey 168 A suppression of guilt and shame that a warrior nation a beacon of democracy as it saw itself in 1908 and since slaughtered several ethnic populations Democracies it is said don t commit genocide ergo Turkey couldn t and didn t do so A cultural and social ethos of honour a compelling and compulsive need to remove any blots on the national escutcheon A chronic fear that admission will lead to massive claims for reparation and restitution To overcome fears of social fragmentation in a society that is still very much a state in transition A logical belief that because the genocide was committed with impunity so denial will also meet with neither opposition nor obloquy An inner knowledge that the juggernaut denial industry has a momentum of its own and can t be stopped even if they wanted it to stop Genocide as a model for future crimesThis section relies largely or entirely on a single source Relevant discussion may be found on the talk page Please help improve this article by introducing citations to additional sources Find sources Greek genocide news newspapers books scholar JSTOR September 2022 From the early 1920s Nazi Party publications in Germany tended to present Kemal Ataturk as role model under the title The Fuhrer advertisement of their official newspaper pictured 169 According to Stefan Ihrig Kemal s model remained active for the Nazi movement in Weimar Germany and the Third Reich until the end of World War II Adolf Hitler had declared that he considered himself a student of Kemal whom he referred to as his star in the darkness while the latter s contribution to the formation of National Socialist ideology is intensely apparent in Nazi literature 170 171 Kemal and his new Turkey of 1923 constituted the archetype of the perfect Fuhrer and of good national practices for Nazism 172 The news media of the Third Reich emphasised the Turkish model and continuously praised the benefits of ethnic cleansing and genocide 173 Hitler referred to Kemal as being of Germanic descent 174 Hitler s National Socialist Party from its first steps had used the methods of the Turkish state as a standard to draw inspiration from The official Nazi newspaper Volkischer Beobachter Volkisch Observer on its February 1921 issue stressed with admiration in an article titled The Role Model The German nation will one day have no other choice but to resort to Turkish methods as well 175 A Nazi publication of 1925 exalted the new Turkish state for its cleansing policy which threw the Greek element to the sea The majority of writers of the Third Reich stressed that the double genocide against Greeks and Armenians was a prerequisite for the success of the new Turkey the NSDAP claimed Only through the annihilation of the Greek and the Armenian tribes in Anatolia was the creation of a Turkish national state and the formation of an unflawed Turkish body of society within one state possible 176 Memorials Wreaths after a commemoration ceremony in Stuttgart Germany Memorials commemorating the plight of Ottoman Greeks have been erected throughout Greece as well as in a number of other countries including Australia Canada Germany Sweden and the United States 177 178 LiteratureThe Greek genocide is remembered in a number of modern works Not Even My Name by Thea Halo is the story of the survival at age ten of her mother Sano Themia Halo original name Euthemia Themia Barytimidou Pontic Greek Ey8ymia Barytimidoy 179 180 along the death march during the Greek genocide that annihilated her family The title refers to Themia being renamed to Sano by an Arabic speaking family who could not pronounce her Greek name after they took her in as a servant during the Greek genocide 181 Number 31328 is an autobiography by the Greek novelist Elias Venezis that tells of his experiences during the Greek genocide on a death march into the interior from his native home in Ayvali Greek Kydonies Kydwnies Turkey Of the 3000 conscripted into his labour brigade otherwise known as Amele Taburlari or Amele Taburu only 23 survived The title refers to the number assigned to Elias by the Turkish army during the death march The book was made into a movie called 1922 by Nikos Koundouros in 1978 but was banned in Greece until 1982 because of pressure from the Turkish Foreign Ministry who complained that the film would ruin Greek Turkish relations 182 unreliable source See alsoQuotes on the Greek genocide Genocide denial Great Famine of Mount Lebanon Great fire of Smyrna Greek refugees Human rights in Turkey Imbros Izmit massacres Constantinople pogrom Deportations of Kurds 1916 1934 Kayakoy Megali Idea National memory Republic of Pontus Tenedos The Twenty Classes Armenian genocide Assyrian genocide Tel Aviv and Jaffa deportation Varlik VergisiReferencesCitations a b Meichanetsidis Vasileios 2015 The Genocide of the Greeks of the Ottoman Empire 1913 1923 A Comprehensive Overview Genocide Studies International 9 1 104 173 doi 10 3138 gsi 9 1 06 ISSN 2291 1847 S2CID 154870709 The genocide was committed by two subsequent and chronologically ideologically and organically interrelated and interconnected dictatorial and chauvinist regimes 1 the regime of the CUP under the notorious triumvirate of the three pashas Uc Pasalar Talat Enver and Cemal and 2 the rebel government at Samsun and Ankara under the authority of the Grand National Assembly Turkiye Buyuk Millet Meclisi and Kemal Although the process had begun before the Balkan Wars the final and most decisive period started immediately after WWI and ended with the almost total destruction of the Pontic Greeks a b Sjoberg Erik 2016 The Making of the Greek Genocide Contested Memories of the Ottoman Greek Catastrophe Berghahn Books p 234 ISBN 978 1 78533 326 2 Activists tend to inflate the overall total of Ottoman Greek deaths from the cautious estimates between 300 000 to 700 000 a b Jones 2010 p 166 An estimate of the Pontian Greek death toll at all stages of the anti Christian genocide is about 350 000 for all the Greeks of the Ottoman realm taken together the toll surely exceeded half a million and may approach the 900 000 killed that a team of US researchers found in the early postwar period Most surviving Greeks were expelled to Greece as part of the tumultuous population exchanges that set the seal on a heavily Turkified state a b Austrian Parliament Recognizes Armenian Assyrian Greek Genocide aina org 2015 Retrieved 21 April 2017 a b Dutch Parliament Recognizes Assyrian Greek and Armenian Genocide aina org 2015 Retrieved 21 April 2017 a b Adoption of declaration to certify that Armenia recognizes Greek and Assyrian genocide Eduard Sharmazanov Armenpress 2015 Retrieved 21 April 2017 a b c Ka8ierwsh ths 14 Septembrioy ws hmeras e8nikhs mnhmhs ths Genoktonias twn Ellhnwn ths Mikras Asias apo to Toyrkiko Kratos Act No 2645 98 of 13 October 1998 in Greek Government Gazette of the Hellenic Republic Archived from the original on 24 February 2016 a b c Schaller Dominik J Zimmerer Jurgen 2008 Late Ottoman genocides the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire and Young Turkish population and extermination policies Introduction Journal of Genocide Research 10 1 7 14 doi 10 1080 14623520801950820 S2CID 71515470 a b c d Resolution PDF IAGS 16 December 2007 Archived PDF from the original on 28 April 2008 Retrieved 13 March 2015 Genoktonia h E8noka8arsh telika greek On Alert 4 Noembrioy 2015 Andrianopoylos Andreas Genoktonia kai E8noka8arsh greek News24 7 5 Noembrioy 2015 a b Varnava Andrekos 2016 Book Review Denial of Violence Ottoman Past Turkish Present and Collective Violence against the Armenians 1789 2009 Genocide Studies and Prevention 10 1 121 123 doi 10 5038 1911 9933 10 1 1403 ISSN 1911 0359 Schwartz Michael 2013 Ethnische Sauberungen in der Moderne Globale Wechselwirkungen nationalistischer und rassistischer Gewaltpolitik im 19 und 20 Jahrhundert Oldenbourg Munchen ISBN 978 3 486 70425 9 Barth Boris 2006 Genozid Volkermord im 20 Jahrhundert Geschichte Theorien Kontroversen Munchen ISBN 978 3 40652 865 1 Jones 2010a p 163 Weisband Edward 2017 The Macabresque Human Violation and Hate in Genocide Mass Atrocity and Enemy Making Oxford University Press p 262 ISBN 978 0 19 067789 3 Law I Jacobs A Kaj N Pagano S Koirala BS 20 October 2014 Mediterranean racisms connections and complexities in the racialization of the Mediterranean region Basingstoke Springer p 54 ISBN 978 1 137 26347 6 OCLC 893607294 Jones 2006 pp 154 55 Howland Charles P 11 October 2011 Greece and Her Refugees Foreign Affairs ISSN 0015 7120 Retrieved 4 September 2020 a b Gibney MJ Hansen R eds 2005 Immigration and Asylum from 1900 to the Present Vol 3 ABC CLIO p 377 ISBN 978 1 57607 796 2 OCLC 250711524 The total number of Christians who fled to Greece was probably in the region of I 2 million with the main wave occurring in 1922 before the signing of the convention According to the official records of the Mixed Commission set up to monitor the movements the Greeks who were transferred after 1923 numbered 189 916 and the number of Muslims expelled to Turkey was 355 635 Ladas I932 438 439 but using the same source Eddy 1931 201 states that the post 1923 exchange involved 192 356 Greeks from Turkey and 354 647 Muslims from Greece Jones 2010 pp 171 2 A resolution was placed before the IAGS membership to recognize the Greek and Assyrian Chaldean components of the Ottoman genocide against Christians alongside the Armenian strand of the genocide which the IAGS has already formally acknowledged The result passed emphatically in December 2007 despite not inconsiderable opposition was a resolution which I co drafted reading as follows Genocide Resolution approved by Swedish Parliament News full text AM containing both the IAGS and the Swedish resolutions Gaunt David 2006 Massacres Resistance Protectors Muslim Christian Relations in Eastern Anatolia during World War I Piscataway NJ Gorgias ISBN 9781593333010 a b H 19h Maioy ka8ierwnetai ws hmera mnhmhs ths genoktonias twn Ellhnwn toy Pontoy Act No 2193 94 of 11 March 1994 Government Gazette of the Hellenic Republic in Greek Archived from the original on 25 February 2016 a b Tsolakidou Stella 18 May 2013 May 19 Pontian Greek Genocide Remembrance Day Greek Reporter Retrieved 17 May 2018 a b Government Spokesman s written statement on the Greek Pontiac Genocide yesterday Republic of Cyprus Press and Information Office Archived from the original on 16 December 2019 Retrieved 16 May 2016 Text H Res 296 116th Congress 2019 2020 Affirming the United States record on the Armenian Genocide 29 October 2019 Text S Res 150 116th Congress 2019 2020 A resolution expressing the sense of the Senate that it is the policy of the United States to commemorate the Armenian Genocide through official recognition and remembrance 12 December 2019 House Passes Resolution Recognizing Armenian Genocide The New York Times 29 October 2021 Retrieved 12 February 2021 US House says Armenian mass killing was genocide BBC News 30 October 2019 Sweden to recognize Armenian genocide thelocal se 2010 Retrieved 21 April 2017 Sweden Parliament Approves Resolution on Armenian Genocide loc gov 2010 Retrieved 21 April 2017 Dutch Parliament Recognizes Greek Assyrian and Armenian Genocide greekreporter com 2015 Retrieved 21 April 2017 German Bundestag recognizes the Armenian Genocide armradio am 2016 Retrieved 21 April 2017 Bundestag calls Turkish crimes against Armenians genocide b92 net 2016 Retrieved 21 April 2017 Austrian Parliament Recognizes Armenian Genocide MassisPost 2015 Retrieved 21 April 2017 Czech Parliament Approves Armenian Genocide Resolution The Armenian Weekly 2017 Retrieved 27 April 2017 Czech Republic recognizes the Armenian Genocide Armenpress 2017 Retrieved 27 April 2017 Czech Republic Parliament recognizes the Armenian Genocide ArmRadio 2017 Retrieved 27 April 2017 Bloxham 2005 p 150 Levene 1998 Ferguson 2006 p 180 a b Midlarsky 2005 pp 342 343 Dawkins R M Modern Greek in Asia Minor A study of dialect of Silly Cappadocia and Pharasa Cambridge University Press Cambridge 1916 online version Kelder Jorrit 2004 2005 The Chariots of Ahhiyawa Dacia Revue d Archeologie et d Histoire Ancienne 48 49 151 160 The Madduwatta text represents the first textual evidence for Greek incursions on the Anatolian mainland Mycenaeans settled there already during LH IIB around 1450 BC Niemeier 1998 142 Eric Hobsbawm 1992 Nations and nationalism since 1780 programme myth reality Cambridge UK Cambridge University Press p 133 ISBN 978 0 521 43961 9 a b c d Travis 2009 p 637 David Noel Freedman Allen C Myers Astrid Biles Beck 2000 Eerdmans Dictionary of the Bible Wm B Eerdmans Publishing p 61 ISBN 978 0 8028 2400 4 Retrieved 24 March 2013 Theo van den Hout 27 October 2011 The Elements of Hittite Cambridge University Press p 1 ISBN 978 1 139 50178 1 Retrieved 24 March 2013 Swain Simon Adams J Maxwell Janse Mark 2002 Bilingualism in Ancient Society Language Contact and the Written Word Oxford Oxfordshire Oxford University Press pp 246 266 ISBN 978 0 19 924506 2 Hanioglu M Sukru 2010 A Brief History of the Late Ottoman Empire Princeton University Press p 36 ISBN 978 0 691 14617 1 The Ottoman state never sought to impose Turkish on subject peoples Some ethno religious groups when outnumbered by Turks did accept Turkish vernacular through a gradual process of acculturation While the Greeks of the Peloponnese Thessaly Epirus Macedonia Thrace and west Anatolian littoral continued to speak and write in Greek The Greeks of Cappadocia Karaman spoke Turkish and wrote Turkish in Greek script Similarly a large majority of Armenians in the empire adopted Turkish as their vernacular and wrote Turkish in Armenian characters all efforts to the contrary by the Mkhitarist order notwithstanding The first novels published in the Ottoman Empire in the mid nineteenth century were by Armenians and Cappadocian Greeks they wrote them in Turkish using the Armenian and Greek alphabets Alexandris 1999 p 54 Kwstopoylos 2007 pp 170 171 Karpat 1985 p page needed Alexandris 1999 pp 71 72 states that the 1918 Ethnological Map Illustrating Hellenism in the Balkan Peninsula and Asia Minor composed by Greek archaeologist Georgios Soteriades was an instance of the usual practice of inflating the numbers of ethnic groups living in disputed territories in the Paris Peace conference Akcam 2012 pp 68 f Akcam 2012 p 71 a b Akcam 2012 pp 80 82 Akcam 2012 pp 84 f Akcam Taner August 2013 The Young Turks Crime against Humanity The Armenian Genocide and Ethnic Cleansing in the Ottoman Empire Human Rights and Crimes against Humanity Princeton University Press pp 83 84 ISBN 978 0691159560 Akcam 2012 p 84 Turks Slay 100 Greeks The New York Times 17 June 1914 Matthias Bjornlund The 1914 Cleansing of Aegean Greeks as a Case of Violent Turkification In Schaller amp Zimmerer 2009 pp 34 ff a b A Multidimensional Analysis of the Events in Eski Foca Palaia Fwkaia on the period of Summer 1914 Emre Erol Matthias Bjornlund The 1914 Cleansing of Aegean Greeks as a Case of Violent Turkification In Schaller amp Zimmerer 2009 pp 41 ff Hull 2005 p 273 King 1922 p 437 Akcam 2012 p 65 a b Akcam 2012 pp 65 7 Howland Charles P Greece and Her Refugees Foreign Affairs The Council on Foreign Relations July 1926 Akcam 2012 p 69 Akcam 2012 pp 94 96 Speros Vryonis 2000 The Great Catastrophes Asia Minor Smyrna September 1922 Constantinople September 6 7 1955 Order of Saint Andrew the Apostle In effect this set off the beginning of the persecution of the Greek communities of Asia Minor an event gradually spread from the Aegean Turkish coast inland to Pontos and to Cappadocia and Cilicia in the south Turkey Massacre of Christians at Trebizond Maryborough Chronicle Wide Bay and Burnett Advertiser No 12 956 Queensland Australia 25 November 1914 p 4 Retrieved 15 February 2021 via National Library of Australia Akcam 2012 p 97 Akcam 2012 pp 99 f Akcam 2012 pp 100 f Akcam 2012 pp 102 4 Avedian 2009 p 40 a b c d e f Rendel 1922 Morgenthau 1919 p 326 Akcam 2012 pp 105 f Akcam 2012 pp 109 f Akcam 2012 pp 111 Akcam 2012 pp 111 f Akcam 2004 p 146 Akcam 2012 pp 112 Akcam 2012 pp 113 Akcam 2012 pp 113 116 Akcam 2012 pp 116 119 Avedian 2009 p 47 Midlarsky 2005 pp 342 343 Many Greeks however were massacred by the Turks especially at Smyrna today s Izmir as the Greek army withdrew at the end of their headlong retreat from central Anatolia at the end of the Greco Turkish War Especially poorly treated were the Pontic Greeks in eastern Anatolia on the Black Sea In 1920 as the Greek army advanced many were deported to the Mesopotamian desert as had been the Armenians before them Nevertheless approximately 1 200 000 Ottoman Greek refugees arrived in Greece at the end of the war When one adds to the total the Greeks of Constantinople who by agreement were not forced to flee then the total number comes closer to the 1 500 000 Greeks in Anatolia and Thrace Here a strong distinction between intention and action is found According to the Austrian consul at Amisos Kwiatkowski in his November 30 1916 report to foreign minister Baron Burian on 26 November Rafet Bey told me we must finish off the Greeks as we did with the Armenians on 28 November Rafet Bey told me today I sent squads to the interior to kill every Greek on sight I fear for the elimination of the entire Greek population and a repeat of what occurred last year Or according to a January 31 1917 report by Chancellor Hollweg of Austria the indications are that the Turks plan to eliminate the Greek element as enemies of the state as they did earlier with the Armenians The strategy implemented by the Turks is of displacing people to the interior without taking measures for their survival by exposing them to death hunger and illness The abandoned homes are then looted and burnt or destroyed Whatever was done to the Armenians is being repeated with the Greeks Massacres most likely did take place at Amisos and other villages in Pontus Yet given the large number of surviving Greeks especially relative to the small number of Armenian survivors the massacres apparently were restricted to Pontus Smyrna and selected other sensitive regions Agtzidis 1992 pp 164 165 Georganopoulos 2010 pp 227 232 Georganopoulos 2010 pp 245 247 Mariana Correia Letizia Dipasquale Saverio Mecca 2014 VERSUS Heritage for Tomorrow Firenze University Press p 69 ISBN 9788866557418 Doumanis Nicholas 2013 Before the Nation Muslim Christian Coexistence and Its Destruction in Late Ottoman Anatolia OUP Oxford p 99 ISBN 9780199547043 a b Hofmann Tessa Yalova Nicomedia 1920 1921 Massacres and Inter Ethnic Conflict in a Failing State Institut fur Diaspora und Genozidforschung 3 5 Retrieved 2 July 2016 Akcam Taner 1996 Armenien und der Volkermord Die Istanbuler Prozesse und die Turkische Nationalbewegung Hamburg Hamburger Edition p 185 Toynbee 1922 p 270 a b Rummel R J 1997 Chapter 5 Statistics of Turkey s Democide Estimates Calculations and Sources Statistics of Democide University of Hawai i Retrieved 4 October 2006 a b Taner Akcam A Shameful Act p 322 a b Rudolph J Rummel 1994 Turkey s Genocidal Purges Death by Government Transaction Publishers p 233 ISBN 978 1 56000 927 6 Naimark Norman 2002 Fires of hatred Ethnic cleansing in 20th century Europe Harvard University Press p 52 ISBN 978 0 674 00994 3 Retrieved 3 June 2011 Toynbee 1922 pp 312 313 Nikolaos Hlamides The Greek Relief Committee America s Response to the Greek Genocide Genocide Studies and Prevention 3 3 December 2008 375 383 a b The Genocide and Its Aftermath Archived from the original on 24 June 2009 The New York Times Advanced search engine for article and headline archives subscription necessary for viewing article content full citation needed Alexander Westwood and Darren O Brien Selected bylines and letters from The New York Times Archived 7 June 2007 at the Wayback Machine The Australian Institute for Holocaust and Genocide Studies 2006 Kateb Vahe Georges 2003 Australian Press Coverage of the Armenian Genocide 1915 1923 University of Wollongong Graduate School of Journalism Morgenthau Calls for Check on Turks The New York Times p 3 5 September 1922 Morgenthau 1918 p 201 Kirli Biray Kolluoglu 2005 Forgetting the Smyrna Fire PDF History Workshop Journal 60 60 25 44 doi 10 1093 hwj dbi005 S2CID 131159279 Retrieved 10 March 2016 Roessel David 2001 In Byron s Shadow Modern Greece in the English and American Imagination Modern Greece in the English and American Imagination Oxford University Press pp 327 328 ISBN 9780198032908 Buzanski Peter Michael 1960 Admiral Mark L Bristol and Turkish American Relations 1919 1922 University of California Berkeley p 176 Horton 1926 p 267 Marketos James L 2006 George Horton An American Witness in Smyrna PDF AHI World Archived from the original PDF on 9 July 2011 Retrieved 3 November 2009 Naimark Norman M Fires of hatred ethnic cleansing in twentieth century Europe 2002 Harvard University Press pp 47 52 Morris Benny Ze evi Dror 2019 The Thirty Year Genocide Turkey s Destruction of Its Christian Minorities 1894 1924 Harvard University Press p 467 ISBN 978 0 674 91645 6 Jones 2010 pp 150 51 By the beginning of the First World War a majority of the region s ethnic Greeks still lived in present day Turkey mostly in Thrace the only remaining Ottoman territory in Europe abutting the Greek border and along the Aegean and Black Sea coasts They would be targeted both prior to and alongside the Armenians of Anatolia and Assyrians of Anatolia and Mesopotamia The major populations of Anatolian Greeks include those along the Aegean coast and in Cappadocia central Anatolia but not the Greeks of the Thrace region west of the Bosphorus A Christian genocide framing acknowledges the historic claims of Assyrian and Greek peoples and the movements now stirring for recognition and restitution among Greek and Assyrian diasporas It also brings to light the quite staggering cumulative death toll among the various Christian groups targeted of the 1 5 million Greeks of Asia minor Ionians Pontians and Cappadocians approximately 750 000 were massacred and 750 000 exiled Pontian deaths alone totaled 353 000 Rummel R J 1997 Chapter 5 Statistics of Turkey s Democide Estimates Calculations and Sources Statistics of Democide University of Hawai i Table 5 1A Table 5 1B Table 10 2 Retrieved 15 April 2015 Not only did the Turks murder Armenians but Greeks as well Estimates of this are far fewer lines 201 to 203 but we do have assessments of those deported lines 193 to 197 from which to calculate the possible toll line 198 The actual percentages from which I make this calculation reflect the relevant historical bits and pieces in the sources Combining this calculation and the sum of the estimates line 204 suggest a likely genocide of 84 000 Greeks In the table I next list partial estimates lines 367 to 374 for the genocide of the Greek There is one calculation of Turkey s Anatolian Asia Minor Greek population deficit during 1912 to 1922 taking into account emigration and deportation from Turkey line 378 Subtracting from this the WWI Greek genocide I calculated from previous totals line 379 I get the range of post WWI losses shown line 380 This then provides an alternative to the sum of the specific mortality estimates line 381 From these alternative ranges I calculated a final Greek genocide for this period in the usual way line 382 Most probably the Nationalists Turks murdered 264 000 Greeks Hatzidimitriou 2005 p 2 Jones 2010 p 150 Bierstadt 1924 p 67 Taner Akcam 21 August 2007 A Shameful Act The Armenian Genocide and the Question of Turkish Responsibility Henry Holt and Company p 107 ISBN 978 1 4668 3212 1 Jones 2010 p 166 An estimate of the Pontian Greek death toll at all stages of the anti Christian genocide is about 350 000 for all the Greeks of the Ottoman realm taken together the toll surely exceeded half a million and may approach the 900 000 killed that a team of US researchers found in the early postwar period Most surviving Greeks were expelled to Greece as part of the tumultuous population exchanges that set the seal on a heavily Turkified state Peterson 2004 p 124 Valavanis 1925 p 24 Fotiadis Konstantinos 2015 The Genocide of the Pontian Greeks Thessaloniki K amp M Antonis Stamoulis Publications pp 61 62 Treaty of Sevres 1920 Retrieved 19 May 2016 Bassiouni 1999 pp M1 62 63 Geniki Statistiki Ypiresia tis Ellados Statistical Annual of Greece Statistia apotelesmata tis apografis sou plithysmou tis Ellados tis 15 16 Maiou 1928 pg 41 Athens National Printing Office 1930 Quoted in Kontogiorgi Elisabeth 17 August 2006 Population Exchange in Greek Macedonia The Forced Settlement of Refugees 1922 1930 Oxford University Press pp 96 footnote 56 ISBN 978 0 19 927896 1 Ascherson 1995 p 185 Sofos Spyros A Ozkirimli Umut 2008 Tormented by History Nationalism in Greece and Turkey C Hurst amp Co Publishers Ltd pp 116 117 ISBN 978 1 85065 899 3 Yarn of a Cargo of Human Bones The New York Times 23 December 1924 de Zayas Alfred 2007 The Istanbul Pogrom of 6 7 September 1955 in the Light of International Law Genocide Studies and Prevention International Association of Genocide Scholars 2 2 4 137 154 Vryonis Speros 2000 The great catastrophes Asia Minor Smyrna September 1922 Constantinople September 6 amp 7 1955 a lecture Order of Saint Andrew the Apostle p 5 It is remarkable to what degree the Orthodox hierarchs and clergy shared the fate of the people and were martyred According to statistics of the church of the 459 bishops metropolitans and clergy of the metropolitanate of Smyrna some 347 were murdered in an atrocious manner Mcdonnell MA Moses AD December 2005 Raphael Lemkin as historian of genocide in the Americas Journal of Genocide Research 7 4 501 529 CiteSeerX 10 1 1 496 7975 doi 10 1080 14623520500349951 S2CID 72663247 Genocide The New York Times 26 August 1946 Hatzidimitriou 2005 p 1 a b Travis 2009 pp 659 660 Bruce Clark 2006 Twice a Stranger The Mass Expulsion that Forged Modern Greece and Turkey Cambridge MA Harvard University Press pp 112 114 ISBN 9780674023680 International Genocide Scholars Association officially recognises Assyrian Greek Genocides PDF Press release IAGS 16 December 2007 Archived from the original PDF on 18 January 2012 International Genocide Scholars Association officially recognizes Assyrian Greek Genocides Assyrian International News Agency 15 December 2007 Retrieved 24 February 2016 Erik Sjoberg Battlefields of Memory The Macedonian Conflict and Greek Historical Culture Umea Studies in History and Education 6 Umea University series 2011 p 170 Akcam 2012 p 123 Hofmann Tessa 2015 The Genocide against the Ottoman Armenians German Diplomatic Correspondence and Eyewitness Testimonies Genocide Studies International 9 1 22 60 doi 10 3138 gsi 9 1 03 S2CID 152834321 Sjoberg Erik 2017 The Making of the Greek Genocide Contested Memories of the Ottoman Greek Catastrophe Berghahn Books p 4 ISBN 9781785333262 Meanwhile despite the predictable Turkish efforts to discredit it Greek mainstream historians educators and influential commentators oppose this claim as founded upon ahistorical and anti scientific opinion a b c Kitroeff Alexander 2014 The Genocide of the Ottoman Greeks The Historical Review La Revue Historique 11 201 2 doi 10 12681 hr 338 There is also an institutional split with those disputing the usefulness of the term genocide belonging to the mainstream of the historical profession in Greece As its title suggests this volume falls clearly on the side of those who wish to affirm that genocide was committed against the Greeks of the Ottoman Empire between 1912 and 1922 The publisher Aristide Caratzas summarizes the purpose of this book in a prefatory note The efforts to eliminate the Greeks the Armenians and the Assyrians peoples whose biological presence in that geographic space goes back millennia before recorded history are integral to the process that led to the creation of what became the modern Turkish Republic The predatory methods used and indeed what may be called a policy of effective physical elimination of populations as well as of the cultural traces of their presence in areas they inhabited bespeak of planning at the highest levels of government and its systematic implementation Further on he adds Greek scholars with some significant exceptions have been less active in researching the subject of the violent elimination of the Greek presence in Asia Minor and eastern Thrace which spanned three millennia The avoidance of the subject of the genocide by many mainline academics in Greece is a convergence of factors which range from governmental reticence to criticize Turkey to spilling over into the academic world to ideological currents promoting a diffuse internationalism cultivated by a network of NGOs often supported by western governments and western interests Then he concludes This volume represents a kind of scholarly opening statement to an international audience on the subject of the extermination or expulsion of Ottoman Greeks as part of the genocide of the Christians of Asia Minor pp ix x Thus this book has a dual purpose to present information that highlights the extent of the massacres suffered by the Greeks and to argue that the massacres qualify as a genocide and also to implicitly criticize those who do not agree with this perspective Totten Samuel Bartrop Paul Robert 2007 Dictionary of Genocide Greenwood Publishing Group p 337 ISBN 978 0 313 32967 8 Morris Benny Ze evi Dror 24 April 2019 The Thirty Year Genocide Harvard University Press doi 10 4159 9780674240070 ISBN 9780674240070 S2CID 198677776 זאבי דרור מוריס בני 27 October 2021 ואז הגיעה ההזדמנות שהטורקים חיכו לה להיפטר מהנוצרים אחת ולתמיד הארץ in Hebrew Retrieved 29 October 2021 Kwstopoylos 2007 pp 266 267 Kilkisiou Bartholomeos on the resignation of former Minister G Daskalakis Ekklisia Online in Greek 16 July 2022 Retrieved 17 July 2022 Robert Fisk 13 February 2001 Athens and Ankara at odds over genocide The Independent London Archived from the original on 1 July 2008 Tsibiridou Fotini 2009 Writing about Turks and Powerful Others Journalistic Heteroglossia in Western Thrace In Theodossopoulos Dimitrios ed When Greeks Think About Turks The View from Anthropology Routledge p 134 George Karabelias 2010 Ardin gr Katastrofh h Genoktonia Catastrophe or Genocide Ardhn Arden in Greek 38 39 Kai ean h Kybernhsh gia logoys politikhs skopimothtas 8a aposyrei to P D h Aristera 8a analabei opws panta na prosferei ta ideologika opla toy polemoy O Aggelos Elefanths 8a grapsei sto idio teyxos twn Newn pws den yparxei kanenas logos na anagoreysome thn 14 Septembrioy toy 1922 oyte kan se hmera e8nikhs mnhmhs And while the Government for the sake of political expediency withdraws the Presidential Decree the Left undertakes as always to offer the ideological weapons for this war Angelos Elefantis writes in the same page of the NEA newspaper Feb 24 2001 that there is no reason to proclaim the 14th of September of 1922 not even to a day of national memory Pontic Genocide Responsible is the imperialistic opportunism 20 May 2009 Day in Memory of the Pontic Greeks Genocide The poor in the center of powerful confrontations 20 May 2010 rizospastis gr Synchroni Epochi 20 May 2008 Oi laoi prepei na 8ymoyntai POLITIKH RIZOSPASTHS RIZOSPASTHS Retrieved 19 May 2016 Turkey Denounces Greek Genocide Resolution Office of the Prime Minister Directorate General of Press and Information 30 September 1998 archived from the original on 29 June 2008 retrieved 5 February 2007 Motion 2008 09 U332 Genocide of Armenians Assyrians Syriacs Chaldeans and Pontiac Greeks in 1915 Stockholm Riksdag 11 March 2010 Archived from the original on 9 July 2011 Retrieved 12 March 2010 Fred Nile Genocide motion not against modern State of Turkey PanARMENIAN Net Retrieved 19 May 2016 Adoption of declaration to certify Armenia recognizes Greek and Assyrian genocides Eduard Sharmanazov Armenpress 23 March 2015 Dutch Parliament Recognizes Greek Assyrian and Armenian Genocide Greek Reporter 11 April 2015 Austrian Parliament Recognizes Armenian Assyrian Greek Genocide Assyrian International News Agency 22 April 2015 Fotiadis 2004 As summarized by Theophanis Malkidis in his presentation of the 14th volume of Fodiadis work on the Greek Genocide Malkidis Theophanis Review of the book H Genoktonia twn Ellhnwn toy Pontoy The Genocide of the Pontic Greeks vol 14 Thessaloniki Herodotos Publishers 2002 2005 In Greek language Colin Martin Tatz 2003 With Intent to Destroy Reflections on Genocide Verso p 13 ISBN 978 1 85984 550 9 Retrieved 8 June 2013 Turkey still struggling to achieve its ninety five year old dream of becoming the beacon of democracy in the Near East does everything possible to deny its genocide of the Armenians Assyrians and Pontian Greeks a b Coleman Elizabeth Burns White Kevin 2006 Negotiating the Sacred Blasphemy and Sacrilege in a Multicultural Society PDF pp 82 83 ISBN 978 1920942472 Ihrig Stefan 2014 Ataturk in the Nazi Imagination Harvard University Press pp 153 155 ISBN 978 0 674 36837 8 Ataturk in the Nazi Imagination Stefan Ihrig Harvard University Press www hup harvard edu Retrieved 30 June 2019 Karaveli Halil Magnus 2018 Why Turkey is authoritarian from Ataturk to Erdogan Pluto Press p 63 doi 10 2307 j ctv1nth9s ISBN 978 1 78680 266 8 JSTOR j ctv1nth9s S2CID 158405214 Ihrig 2014 p 145 Ataturk and the New Turkey were constant reference points for the Nazis as part of their own biography as an example of the perfect Fuhrer story and as examples of volkisch good practice in a variety of aspects Ihrig 2014 p 207 The vast discussion of the Turkish role model and the New Turkey in the Third Reich media and publications means that the Third Reich had at least implicitly continually highlighted the benefits of ethnic cleansing and genocide Langbehn Volker Max Salama Mohammad 2011 German Colonialism Race the Holocaust and Postwar Germany Columbia University Press p 137 ISBN 978 0 231 14973 0 Ihrig 2014 p 71 Just a few days later on December 16 1920 the very day the paper was bought by the NSDAP the Volkischer Beobachter did a complete turnaround and admiringly called Ataturk s movement the Turkish nationalists Now that it had become the official Nazi party paper its general interpretation was to change fundamentally On January 1 1921 it featured the headline Heroic Turkey 21 Barely a month later the paper featured an article with the headline Turkey The Role Model or The Pioneer Der Vorkampfer The Volkischer Beobachter exclaimed Today the Turks are the most youthful nation The German nation will one day have no other choice but to resort to Turkish methods as well Ihrig 2014 p 183 184 The minority problem in Anatolia was solved in a very simple fashion Only through the annihilation of the Greek and the Armenian tribes in Anatolia was the creation of a Turkish national state and the formation of an unflawed Turkish body of society within one state possible Memorials Greek Genocide Memorials archived from the original on 6 October 2013 retrieved 18 September 2008 Greek Genocide Monuments Synentey3h H Sano Xalo h Giagia twn Pontiwn mesa apo ta matia ths 8ia Xalo Obituary Sano Themia Halo 1909 2014 4 May 2014 A Few Words in Greek Tell of a Homeland Lost Chris Hedges The New York Times 17 September 2000 https www nytimes com 2000 09 17 nyregion a few words in greek tell of a homeland lost html The Number 31328 The Book of Slavery Archived from the original on 24 September 2022 Notes also known as ethnic cleansing of Ottoman Greeks 10 11 12 13 14 BibliographyContemporary accounts Horton George 1926 The Blight of Asia Indianapolis Bobbs Merrill King William C 1922 Complete History of the World War Visualizing the Great Conflict in all Theaters of Action 1914 1918 MA US The History Associates archived from the original on 1 August 2012 Morgenthau Henry sr 1918 Ambassador Morgenthau s Story PDF Garden City NY Doubleday Page amp Co archived from the original PDF on 24 January 2013 retrieved 13 September 2006 1919 1918 Ambassador Morgenthau s Story Garden City NY Doubleday Page amp Co Patriarchate of Constantinople 1919 Persecution of the Greeks in Turkey Istanbul Turkey Greek Patriarchate archived from the original on 21 November 2017 retrieved 3 August 2020 Alt URL Rendel GW 20 March 1922 Memorandum by Mr Rendel on Turkish Massacres and Persecutions of Minorities since the Armistice memorandum British Foreign Office Toynbee Arnold J 1922 The Western question in Greece and Turkey a study in the contact of civilisations Boston Houghton Mifflin Valavanis G K 1925 Sygxronos Genikh Istoria toy Pontoy Contemporary General History of Pontus in Greek Athens archived from the original on 8 November 2015 Secondary sources Agtzidis Vlasis 1992 To kinhma ane3arthsias toy Pontoy kai oi aytonomes Ellhnikes perioxes sth Sobietikh Enwsh toy mesopolemoy The movement for the independence of Pontus and the autonomous Greek regions in the Soviet Union during the interwar period Bulletin of the Asia Minor Studies Center in Greek 9 1 157 196 doi 10 12681 deltiokms 135 Akcam Taner 2006 A Shameful Act Akcam Taner 2012 The Young Turks Crime Against Humanity The Armenian Genocide and Ethnic Cleansing in the Ottoman Empire Princeton Oxford Princeton University Press Georganopoulos Evripidis 2010 H prospa8eia systashs ellhnikhs merarxias Kaykasoy to 1917 kai oi logoi ths apotyxias ths The attempt to raise the Greek Caucasus Division and the reasons for its failure PDF 1st Panhellenic History Congress in Greek 1 1 227 251 Retrieved 8 May 2018 Alexandris Alexis 1999 The Greek census of Anatolia and Thrace 1910 1912 a contribution to Ottoman Historical Demography In Gondicas Dimitri Issawi Charles eds Ottoman Greeks in the age of nationalism Politics Economy and Society in the Nineteenth Century Princeton N J Darwin pp 45 76 Ascherson Neal 1995 Black Sea New York Hill and Wang ISBN 0 8090 3043 8 Avedian Vahagn 2009 The Armenian Genocide 1915 From a Neutral Small State s Perspective Sweden PDF unpublished master thesis paper Uppsala University Bassiouni M Cherif 1999 Crimes Against Humanity in International Criminal Law The Hague Kluwer Bierstadt Edward Hale 1924 The Great Betrayal A Survey of the Near East Problem New York RM McBride amp Co Bloxham Donald 2005 The Great Game of Genocide Imperialism Nationalism and the Destruction of the Ottoman Armenians Oxford Oxford University Press Ferguson Niall 2006 The War of the World Twentieth century Conflict And the Descent of the West New York Penguin ISBN 978 1 59420 100 4 Fotiadis Constantinos Emm 2004 The Genocide of the Pontus Greeks by the Turks Volumes 13 14 Thessaloniki Herodotus ISBN 978 6180012729 Hatzidimitriou Constantine G 2005 American Accounts Documenting the Destruction of Smyrna by the Kemalist Turkish Forces September 1922 New Rochelle NY Caratzas Hulse Carl 26 October 2007 U S and Turkey Thwart Armenian Genocide Bill The New York Times Hull Isabel V 2005 Absolute Destruction Military Culture and the Practices of War in Imperial Germany Ithaca Cornell University Press Jones Adam 2006 Genocide A Comprehensive Introduction Routledge 2010 2006 Genocide A Comprehensive Introduction Taylor amp Francis ISBN 978 0 415 48618 7 2010a 2006 Genocide A Comprehensive Introduction revised ed London Routledge ISBN 978 0 203 84696 4 OCLC 672333335 Karpat Kemal 1985 Ottoman Population 1830 1914 Demographic and Social Characteristics Madison Madison University Press Kwstopoylos Tasos 2007 Polemos kai E8noka8arsh H 3exasmenh pleyra mias dekaetoys e8nikhs e3ormhshs 1912 1922 Athens Bibliorama Levene Mark Winter 1998 Creating a Modern Zone of Genocide The Impact of Nation and State Formation on Eastern Anatolia 1878 1923 Holocaust and Genocide Studies 12 3 393 433 doi 10 1093 hgs 12 3 393 archived from the original on 3 October 2006 Midlarsky Manus I 2005 The Killing Trap Genocide in the Twentieth Century Cambridge University Press ISBN 978 0 521 81545 1 Naimark Norman M 2001 Fires of Hatred Ethnic Cleansing in Twentieth Century Europe Cambridge and London Harvard University Press Peterson Merrill D 2004 Starving Armenians America and the Armenian Genocide 1915 1930 and After Charlottesville University of Virginia Press Schaller Dominik J Zimmerer Jurgen eds 2009 Late Ottoman Genocides The Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire and Young Turkish Population and Extermination Policies Routledge ISBN 978 0 415 48012 3 Tatz Colin 2003 With Intent to Destroy Reflections on Genocide Essex Verso ISBN 978 1 85984 550 9 Travis Hannibal 2009 The Cultural and Intellectual Property Interests of the Indigenous Peoples of Turkey and Iraq Texas Weleyan Law Review 15 601 80 SSRN 1549804Further readingBooks Akcam Tanner 2004 From Empire to Republic Turkish Nationalism and the Armenian Genocide Zed Books Andreadis George Tamama The Missing Girl of Pontos Athens Gordios 1993 Barton James L 1943 The Near East Relief 1915 1930 New York Russell Sage Foundation Sarafian Ara December 1998 Turkish Atrocities Statements of American Missionaries on the Destruction of Christian Communities in Ottoman Turkey 1915 1917 Compton Carl C The Morning Cometh New Rochelle NY Aristide D Caratzas 1986 The Inter Allied Commission of Inquiry into the Greek Occupation of Smyrna and Adjoining Territories Documents of the Inter Allied Commission of Inquiry into the Greek Occupation of Smyrna and Adjoining Territories PDF archived from the original PDF on 5 October 2018 retrieved 21 May 2012 Fotiadis Konstantinos 2002 2004 H genoktonia twn Ellhnwn toy Pontoy The Genocide of the Greeks of Pontus in Greek Thessaloniki Herodotos In fourteen volumes including eleven volumes of materials vols 4 14 Karayinnides Ioannis 1978 O golgo8as toy Pontoy The Golgotha of Pontus in Greek Salonica King Charles 2005 The Black Sea A History Oxford Oxford University Press Koromila Marianna 2002 The Greeks and the Black Sea Panorama Cultural Society Morgenthau Henry sr 1974 1918 The Murder of a Nation New York Armenian General Benevolent Union of America 1929 I Was Sent to Athens Garden City NY Doubleday Doran amp Co 1930 An International Drama London Jarrolds Hofmann Tessa ed 2004 Verfolgung Vertreibung und Vernichtung der Christen im Osmanischen Reich 1912 1922 in German Munster LIT pp 177 221 ISBN 978 3 8258 7823 8 Housepian Dobkin Marjorie Smyrna 1922 the Destruction of a City New York NY Newmark Press 1998 Lieberman Benjamin 2006 Terrible Fate Ethnic Cleansing in the Making of Modern Europe Ivan R Dee de Murat Jean The Great Extirpation of Hellenism and Christianity in Asia Minor the historic and systematic deception of world opinion concerning the hideous Christianity s uprooting of 1922 Miami FL Athens GR A Triantafillis 1999 Papadopoulos Alexander Persecutions of the Greeks in Turkey before the European War on the basis of official documents New York Oxford University Press American branch 1919 Pavlides Ioannis Pages of History of Pontus and Asia Minor Salonica GR 1980 Shaw Stanford J Shaw Ezel Kural History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey Cambridge University Sjoberg Erik THE MAKING OF THE GREEK GENOCIDE Contested Memories of the Ottoman Greek Catastrophe ISBN 978 1 78533 325 5 2016 Shenk Robert America s Black Sea Fleet The U S Navy Amid War and Revolution 1919 1923 Naval Institute Press Annapolis Maryland 2012 Totten Samuel Jacobs Steven L 2002 Pioneers of Genocide Studies Clt New Brunswick NJ Transaction Publishers ISBN 978 0 7658 0151 7 Tsirkinidis Harry At last we uprooted them The Genocide of Greeks of Pontos Thrace and Asia Minor through the French archives Thessaloniki Kyriakidis Bros 1999 Ward Mark H The Deportations in Asia Minor 1921 1922 London Anglo Hellenic League 1922 Articles Bjornlund Matthias March 2008 The 1914 cleansing of Aegean Greeks as a case of violent Turkification Journal of Genocide Research 10 1 41 58 doi 10 1080 14623520701850286 S2CID 72975930 Hlamides Nikolaos December 2008 The Greek Relief Committee America s Response to the Greek Genocide Genocide Studies and Prevention 3 3 375 183 doi 10 3138 gsp 3 3 375 S2CID 146310206 Archived from the original on 3 January 2013 Retrieved 5 January 2020 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a CS1 maint bot original URL status unknown link Klapsis Antonis 2014 Violent Uprooting and Forced Migration A Demographic Analysis of the Greek Populations of Asia Minor Pontus and Eastern Thrace Middle Eastern Studies 50 4 622 639 doi 10 1080 00263206 2014 901218 S2CID 145325597 Mourelos Yannis 1985 The 1914 Persecutions and the first Attempt at an Exchange of Minorities between Greece and Turkey Balkan Studies 26 2 389 413 Vryonis Speros 2007 Greek Labor Battalions in Asia Minor In Hovannisian Richard ed The Armenian Genocide Cultural and Ethical Legacies New Brunswick NJ Transaction Publishers pp 275 290 Taner Akcam 7 November 2009 The Greek Deportations and Massacres of 1913 1914 A Trial Run for the Armenian Genocide The Academic Conference on the Asia Minor Catastrophe Rosemont IL Sait Cetinoglu 17 19 September 2010 The Pontus Independence Movement and the Greek Genocide Three Genocides One Strategy Athens Archived from the original on 9 March 2017 External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to Greek genocide Wikiquote has quotations related to Greek Genocide Bibliography at Greek Genocide Resource Center Massacre of Greeks Charged to the Turks The Atlanta Constitution 17 June 1914 Reports Massacres of Greeks in Pontus Central Council Says They Attend Execution of Prominent Natives for Alleged Rebellion The New York Times Sunday 6 November 1921 Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Greek genocide amp oldid 1129028135, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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