Education

"Western education" redirects here. For other uses, see Western education (disambiguation) and education (disambiguation).

"Educating" redirects here. For the British TV program, see Educating...

Education is the transmission of knowledge, skills, and character traits. Its precise definition is disputed and there are disagreements about what the aims of education are and to what extent education is different from indoctrination by fostering critical thinking. These disagreements affect how to identify, measure, and improve forms of education. The term "education" can also refer to the mental states and qualities of educated people and the academic field studying educational phenomena.

Education is a wide phenomenon that applies to all age groups and covers formal education (top row) as well as non-formal and informal education (bottom row).

There are many types of education. Formal education happens in a complex institutional framework, like public schools. Non-formal education is also structured but takes place outside the formal schooling system. Informal education is unstructured learning through daily experiences. Formal and non-formal education are divided into levels. They include early childhood education, primary education, secondary education, and tertiary education. Other classifications focus on the teaching method, like teacher-centered and student-centered education. Forms of education can also be distinguished by subject, like science education, language education, and physical education.

Education socializes children into society by teaching cultural values and norms. It equips them with the skills needed to become productive members of society. This way, it stimulates economic growth and raises awareness of local and global problems. Organized institutions affect many aspects of education. For example, governments set education policies to determine when school classes happen, what is taught, and who can or must attend. International organizations, like UNESCO, have been influential in promoting primary education for all children.

Many factors influence whether education is successful. Psychological factors include motivation, intelligence, and personality. Social factors, like socioeconomic status, ethnicity, and gender, are often linked to discrimination. Further factors include access to educational technology, teacher quality, and parent involvement.

The main field investigating education is called education studies. It examines what education is, what aims and effects it has, and how to improve it. Education studies has many subfields, like philosophy of education, psychology of education, sociology of education, economics of education, and comparative education. It also discusses the history of education. In prehistory, education happened informally through oral communication and imitation. With the rise of ancient civilizations, writing was invented, and the amount of knowledge grew. This caused a shift from informal to formal education. Initially, formal education was mainly available to elites and religious groups. The invention of the printing press in the 15th century made books more widely available. This increased general literacy. Beginning in the 18th and 19th centuries, public education became more important. It led to the worldwide process of making primary education available to all, free of charge, and compulsory up to a certain age.

Definitions

Main article: Definitions of education

The definition of education has been explored by theorists from various fields.^[1] Many agree that education is a purposeful activity aimed at achieving goals like the transmission of knowledge, skills, and character traits.^[2] However, there is extensive debate regarding its exact nature beyond these general features. One approach is to view education as a process that occurs during educational events such as schooling, teaching, and learning.^[3] Another outlook understands education not as a process but as the product resulting from this process. It emphasizes the mental states and dispositions of educated persons.^[4] Additionally, the term may also refer to the academic field that studies the methods, processes, and social institutions involved in teaching and learning.^[5] Having a clear idea of what the term means is important to correctly identify educational phenomena. It also matters when trying to measure or improve them.^[6] The term "education" is derived from the Latin words educare, meaning "to bring up, rear, educate" in relation to the mind, and educere, meaning "to bring out, lead forth" in reference to the bodily level.^[7][8]

Some theorists provide precise definitions by identifying the specific features that are exclusive to all forms of education. Education theorist R. S. Peters, for instance, outlines three essential features of education:^[9]

• It is concerned with the transmission of knowledge and understanding.
• This transmission is worthwhile.
• It is done in a morally appropriate manner in tune with the student's interests.^[10]

Such precise definitions often succeed at characterizing the most typical forms of education. But they are criticized because there are counterexamples.^[11] This problem can be avoided by offering less precise definitions based on family resemblance. This means that all the forms of education are similar to each other. But they need not share a set of essential features that all of them have in common.^[12] According to one view, the term "education" is context-dependent. This implies that its meaning varies depending on the situation in which it is used.^[13]

There is disagreement in the academic literature on whether education is an evaluative concept. Thick definitions of education affirm this. They state that it is part of the nature of education that it is beneficial to the student or leads to some kind of improvement. Different thick definitions disagree about what kind of improvement is involved. They contrast with thin definitions, which provide a value-neutral explanation of education.^[14] A closely related distinction is between descriptive and prescriptive conceptions of education. Descriptive conceptions discuss how the term is actually used by regular speakers. Prescriptive conceptions express what good education is or how education should be practiced.^[15] Many thick and prescriptive conceptions hold that education is an activity that tries to achieve certain aims.^[16] Some concentrate on epistemic aims, like knowledge and understanding. Others give more emphasis to the development of skills, like rationality and critical thinking, and character traits, like kindness and honesty.^[17]

One approach is to focus on a single overarching purpose of education and see the more specific aims as means to this end.^[18] According to one suggestion, socialization is the aim of education. It is realized by transmitting accumulated knowledge from one generation to the next. This process helps the student to function in society as a regular citizen.^[19] More person-centered definitions focus on the well-being of the student instead. For them, education is a process that helps them lead a good life or the life they wish to lead.^[20] Various scholars stress the role of critical thinking to distinguish education from indoctrination.^[21] They state that mere indoctrination is only interested in instilling beliefs in the student, independent of whether they are rational.^[22] Education, by contrast, also fosters the rational ability to critically reflect on and question those beliefs, according to this position.^[23] However, it is not universally accepted that these two phenomena can be clearly distinguished. One reason for this view is that some forms of indoctrination may be necessary in the early stages of education while the child's mind is not yet sufficiently developed.^[24]

Education can be characterized from the teacher's or the student's perspective. Teacher-centered definitions focus on the perspective and role of the teacher. They tend to see education as the transmission of knowledge and skills in a morally appropriate way.^[25] Student-centered definitions analyze education from the student's involvement in the learning process. They may define it as a process that transforms and enriches their subsequent experience.^[26] Definitions taking both perspectives into account are also possible. This can take the form of describing the process as the shared experience of a common world. In the shared experience, different aspects of the world are discovered and problems are posed and solved.^[27]

Types

There are many classifications of education. It depends on the institutional framework whether education is formal, non-formal, or informal. Levels of education are distinguished based on factors like the student's age and the complexity of the content. Some classifications focus on the learner or the topic. Others rely on the teaching method, the medium used, or the funding.^[28]

Formal, non-formal, and informal

 

 

Tutoring is an example of non-formal education, while learning how to cook from one's parents belongs to informal education.

The most common division is between formal, non-formal, and informal education.^[29][a] Formal education happens in a complex institutional framework. Such frameworks have a chronological and hierarchical order: the modern schooling system has classes based on the student's age and progress, extending all the way from primary school to university. Formal education is usually controlled and guided by the government. It tends to be compulsory up to a certain age.^[31]

Non-formal and informal education take place outside the formal schooling system. Non-formal education is a middle ground. Like formal education, it is organized, systematic, and carried out with a clear purpose in mind. Examples are tutoring, fitness classes, and the scouting movement.^[32] Informal education happens in an unsystematic way through daily experiences and exposure to the environment. Unlike formal and non-formal education, there is usually no designated authority figure responsible for teaching.^[33] Informal education is present in many settings. It happens throughout one's life, mostly in a spontaneous way. This is how children learn their mother tongue from their parents or how people learn to prepare a dish by cooking together.^[34]

Some theorists distinguish the three types based on the location of learning. Formal education takes place in school. Informal education occurs in places of everyday routines. Non-formal education happens in places that are occasionally visited.^[33] There are also differences in the source of motivation. Formal education tends to be driven by extrinsic motivation for external rewards. Non-formal and informal education are closely linked to intrinsic motivation because the learning itself is enjoyed.^[35] The distinction between the three types is normally clear for the typical cases. However, some forms of education do not easily fall into one category.^[36]

Formal education plays a central role in modern civilization. But in primitive cultures, most of the education happened on the informal level.^[37] This usually meant that there is no distinction between activities focused on education and other activities. Instead, the whole environment acted as a form of school and most adults acted as teachers. However, informal education is often not efficient enough to pass on large quantities of knowledge. To do so, a formal setting and well-trained teachers are usually required. This was one of the reasons why in the course of history, formal education became more and more important. In this process, the experience of education became more abstract and removed from daily life. More emphasis was put on grasping general patterns instead of observing and imitating particular forms of behavior.^[38]

Levels

 

Young children in a kindergarten in Japan

Types of education are often divided into levels or stages. The most influential framework is the International Standard Classification of Education. It is maintained by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). It covers both formal and non-formal education. It distinguishes levels based on the student's age, the duration of learning, and the complexity of the discussed content. Further criteria include entry requirements, teacher qualifications, and the intended outcome of successful completion. The levels are grouped into early childhood education (level 0), primary education (level 1), secondary education (levels 2–3), post-secondary non-tertiary education (level 4), and tertiary education (levels 5–8).^[39]

Early childhood education is also known as preschool education or nursery education. It is the stage of education that begins with birth and lasts until the start of primary school. It follows the holistic aim of fostering early child development at the physical, mental, and social levels. It plays a key role in socialization and personality development. It includes various basic skills in the areas of communication, learning, and problem-solving. This way, it prepares children for their entry into primary education.^[40]

 

Primary school children sitting in the shade of an orchard in Bamozai, Afghanistan

Primary (or elementary) education usually starts at the age of five to seven and lasts for four to seven years. It does not have any further entry requirements. Its main goal is to teach the basic skills in the fields of reading, writing, and mathematics. But it also covers the core knowledge in other fields, like history, geography, the sciences, music, and art. A further aim is to foster personal development.^[41] Today, primary education is compulsory in almost all countries. Over 90% of all primary-school-age children worldwide attend primary school.^[42]

Secondary education is the stage of education following primary education. It usually covers the ages of 12 to 18 years. It is commonly divided into lower secondary education (middle school or junior high school) and upper secondary education (high school, senior high school, or college depending on the country). Lower secondary education normally has the completion of primary school as its entry requirement. It aims to extend and deepen the learning outcomes. It is more focused on subject-specific curricula and teachers are specialized in only one or a few specific subjects. One of its aims is to familiarize students with the basic theoretical concepts in the different subjects. This helps create a solid basis for lifelong learning. In some cases, it also includes basic forms of vocational training.^[43] In many countries, it is the last stage of compulsory education.^[44]

 

A high-school senior (twelfth grade) classroom in Calhan, Colorado, United States

Upper secondary education aims to provide students with the skills and knowledge needed for employment or tertiary education. Its requirement is usually the completion of lower secondary education. Its subjects are more varied and complex. The students can often choose between a few subjects. Its successful completion is commonly tied to a formal qualification in the form of a high school diploma.^[45] There are some types of education after secondary education that do not belong to tertiary education. They are categorized as post-secondary non-tertiary education and are similar in complexity to secondary education. However, they tend to focus more on vocational training to prepare students for the job market.^[46]

 

Students in a laboratory, Saint Petersburg State Polytechnical University

In some countries, tertiary education is used as a synonym of higher education while in others, tertiary education is the wider term.^[47] It expands upon the foundations of secondary education but has a more narrow and in-depth focus on a specific field or subject. Its completion leads to an academic degree. It can be divided into four levels: short-cycle tertiary, Bachelor's, Master's, and doctoral level education. They often form a hierarchical structure with later levels depending on the completion of previous levels.^[48]

Short-cycle tertiary education focuses on practical matters. It includes advanced vocational and professional training to prepare students for the job market in specialized professions.^[49] Bachelor's level education is also referred to as undergraduate education. It tends to be longer than short-cycle tertiary education. It is usually offered by universities and results in an intermediary academic certification in the form of a bachelor's degree.^[50] Master's level education is more specialized than undergraduate education. Many programs require independent research in the form of a master's thesis as a requirement for successful completion.^[51] Doctoral level education leads to an advanced research qualification, normally in the form of a doctor's degree. It usually requires the submission of a substantial academic work, such as a dissertation.^[52]

Others

Many other types of education are discussed in the academic literature, like the distinction between traditional and alternative education. Traditional education concerns long-established and mainstream schooling practices. It uses teacher-centered education and takes place in a well-regulated school environment. Regulations cover many aspects of education, such as the curriculum and the timeframe when classes start and end.^[53]

 

Homeschooling is one form of alternative education.

Alternative education is an umbrella term for forms of schooling that differ from the mainstream traditional approach. They may use a different learning environment, teach different subjects, or promote a different teacher-student relationship. Alternative schooling is characterized by voluntary participation, relatively small class and school sizes, and personalized instruction. This often results in a more welcoming and emotionally safe atmosphere. Alternative education encompasses many types like charter schools and special programs for problematic or gifted children. It also includes homeschooling and unschooling. There are many alternative schooling traditions, like Montessori schools, Waldorf schools, Round Square schools, Escuela Nueva schools, free schools, and democratic schools.^[54] Alternative education also includes indigenous education. It focuses on the transmission of knowledge and skills from an indigenous heritage. Its methods give more emphasis to narration and storytelling.^[55]

Other distinctions between types of education are based on who receives education. Categories by the age of the learner are childhood education, adolescent education, adult education, and elderly education.^[56] Special education is education that is specifically adapted to meet the unique needs of students with disabilities. It covers various forms of impairments on the intellectual, social, communicative, and physical levels. It aims to overcome the challenges posed by these impairments. This way, it provides the affected students with access to an appropriate education. When understood in the broadest sense, special education also includes education for very gifted children who need adjusted curricula to reach their fullest potential.^[57]

Some classifications focus on the teaching method. In teacher-centered education, the teacher takes center stage in providing students with information. It contrasts with student-centered education, in which students take on a more active and responsible role in shaping classroom activities.^[58] For conscious education, learning and teaching happen with a clear purpose in mind. Unconscious education occurs on its own without being consciously planned or guided.^[59] This may happen in part through the personality of teachers and adults, which can have indirect effects on the development of the student's personality.^[60]

Autodidacticism or self-education is self-directed learning. It happens without the guidance of teachers and institutions. It mainly occurs in adult education. It is characterized by the freedom to choose what and when to study. For this reason, it can be a more fulfilling learning experience. However, the lack of structure and guidance can result in aimless learning. Due to the absence of external feedback, autodidacts may develop false ideas and inaccurately assess their learning progress.^[61] Autodidacticism is closely related to lifelong education, which is an ongoing learning process throughout a person's entire life.^[62]

Forms of education can also be categorized by the subject and the medium used. Types based on the subject include science education, language education, art education, religious education, and physical education.^[63] Special mediums, such as radio or websites, are used in distance education. Examples include e-learning (use of computers), m-learning (use of mobile devices), and online education. They often take the form of open education, in which the courses and materials are made available with a minimal amount of barriers. They contrast with regular classroom or onsite education.^[64]

A further distinction is based on the type of funding. Public education is also referred to as state education. It is education funded and controlled by the government. It is available to the general public. It normally does not require tuition fees and is thus a form of free education. It contrasts with private education, which is funded and managed by private institutions. Private schools often have a more selective admission process. Many offer paid education by charging tuition fees.^[65] A more detailed classification focuses on the social institution responsible for education. It includes categories for institutions like family, school, civil society, state, and church.^[66]

Compulsory education is education that people are legally required to receive. It concerns mainly children who need to visit school up to a certain age. It contrasts with voluntary education, which people pursue by personal choice without a legal requirement.^[67]

Evidence-based education uses well-designed scientific studies to determine which methods of education work best. Its goal is to maximize the effectiveness of educational practices and policies. This is achieved by ensuring that they are informed by the best available empirical evidence. It includes evidence-based teaching, evidence-based learning, and school effectiveness research.^[68]

Role in society

Education plays various roles in society, including in social, economic, and personal fields. On a social level, education makes it possible to establish and sustain a stable society. It helps people acquire the basic skills needed to interact with their environment and fulfill their needs and desires. In modern society, this involves a wide range of skills like being able to speak, read, and write as well as to solve problems and to perform basic arithmetic tasks. It also includes the ability to handle information and communications technology. Children are socialized into society by acquiring these skills. Another key part of socialization is to learn how to live in social groups and interact with others by coming to understand social and cultural norms and expectations. This requires an understanding of what kinds of behavior are considered appropriate in different contexts. This way, new members are introduced to the culture, norms, and values that are dominant in their society. Socialization happens throughout life but is of special relevance to early childhood education. It enables a form of social cohesion, stability, and peace needed for people to productively engage in their daily business. Education plays a key role in democracies by increasing civic participation in the form of voting and organizing and through its tendency to promote equal opportunity for all.^[69]

A further issue is to enable people to become productive members of society by learning how to contribute to it. Through education, individuals acquire the technical and analytical skills needed to pursue their profession, produce goods, and provide services to others. In early societies, there was little specialization and each child would generally learn most of the skills that the community required to function. Modern societies are increasingly complex and many professions are only mastered by relatively few people who receive specialized training in addition to general education. Some of the skills and tendencies learned to function in society may conflict with each other and their value depends on the context of their usage. For example, fostering a questioning mind is necessary to develop the ability of critical thinking but in some cases, obedience to an authority is required to ensure social stability.^[70]

By helping people become productive members of society, education stimulates economic growth and reduces poverty. It helps workers become more skilled and thereby increases the quality of the produced goods and services, which in turn leads to prosperity and increased competitiveness.^[71] Public education is often understood as a long-term investment to benefit society as a whole. The rate of return is especially high for investments in primary education.^[72] Besides increasing economic prosperity, it can also lead to technological and scientific advances as well as decrease unemployment while promoting social equity.^[73]

Education can prepare a country to adapt to changes and successfully face new challenges. It can help raise awareness and contribute to the solution of contemporary global problems. Examples are climate change and sustainability as well as the widening inequalities between the rich and the poor.^[74] By making students aware of how their lives and actions affect others, it may inspire some to work toward realizing a more sustainable and fair world.^[75] This way, education serves not just the purpose of reproducing society as it is but can also be an instrument of development by realizing social transformation to improve society.^[76] This applies also to changing circumstances in the economic sector, where technological advances and increased automation may cause many jobs to be lost in the coming decades.^[77] This may render currently taught skills and knowledge redundant while shifting the importance to other areas. Education can be used to prepare people for such changes by adjusting the curriculum. This way, subjects involving digital literacy and skills in handling new technologies can be promoted.^[78] Another example is online education in the form of massive open online courses.^[79]

On a more individual level, education promotes personal development. This can include factors such as learning new skills, developing talents, fostering creativity, and increasing self-knowledge as well as improving problem-solving and decision-making abilities.^[80] Education also has positive effects on health and well-being.^[81] While education is of high relevance in childhood, it does not end with adulthood and continues throughout life. This form of lifelong learning is of specific significance in contemporary society due to the rapid changes on many levels and the need for people to adjust to them.^[82]

The social importance of education is recognized in the annual International Day of Education on January 24. The year 1970 was declared International Education Year.^[83]

Role of institutions

 

Governmental institutions, like the Chinese Ministry of Education, affect many aspects of public education.

Organized institutions play a key role in various aspects of education. Institutions like schools, universities, teacher training institutions, and ministries of education make up the education sector. They interact both with each other and with other stakeholders, such as parents, local communities, and religious groups. Further stakeholders are NGOs, professionals in healthcare, law enforcement, media platforms, and political leaders. Many people are directly involved in the education sector. They include students, teachers, and school principals as well as school nurses and curriculum developers.^[84]

Various aspects of formal education are regulated by the policies of governmental institutions. They determine at what age children need to attend school and at what times classes are held as well as issues pertaining to the school environment, like infrastructure. Regulations also cover the exact requirements for teachers and how they are trained. An important aspect of education policy concerns the curriculum used for teaching at schools, colleges, and universities. A curriculum is a planned sequence of instructions or a program of learning that intends to guide the experience of learners to achieve the aims of education. The topics are usually selected based on their importance and depend on the type of school. The goals of public school curricula are usually to offer a comprehensive and well-rounded education while vocational training focuses more on specific practical skills within a field. The curricula also cover various aspects besides the topic to be discussed, such as the teaching method, the objectives to be reached, and the standards for assessing progress. By determining the curricula, governmental institutions have a strong impact on what knowledge and skills are transmitted to the students.^[85]

 

International organizations, like UNESCO, have been influential in shaping educational standards and policies worldwide.

International organizations also play a key role in education. For instance, UNESCO is an intergovernmental organization that promotes education in many ways. One of its activities is to advocate education policies, like the treaty UNCRC, which states that education is a human right of all children and young people. Another was the Education for All initiative. It aimed to offer basic education to all children, adolescents, and adults by the year 2015. It was later replaced by the initiative Sustainable Development Goals as goal 4.^[86] Related policies include the Convention against Discrimination in Education and the Futures of Education initiative.^[87]

Some influential organizations are not intergovernmental but non-governmental. For example, the International Association of Universities promotes the exchange of colleges and universities around the world while the International Baccalaureate offers international diploma programs.^[88] Various institutions, like the Erasmus Programme, facilitate student exchanges between countries.^[89]

Factors of educational success

Several factors influence educational achievement. They include psychological factors, which concern the student as an individual, and sociological factors, which pertain to the student's social environment. Further factors are access to educational technology, teacher quality, and parent involvement. Many of these factors overlap and influence each other.^[90]

Psychological

On a psychological level, relevant factors include motivation, intelligence, and personality.^[91] Motivation is the internal force propelling people to engage in learning.^[92] Motivated students are more likely to interact with the content to be learned by participating in classroom activities like discussions. This often results in a deeper understanding of the subject. Motivation can also help students overcome difficulties and setbacks. An important distinction is between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. Intrinsically motivated students are driven by an interest in the subject and the learning experience itself. Extrinsically motivated students seek external rewards. They may strive for good grades and recognition from their peers. Intrinsic motivation tends to be more beneficial by leading to increased creativity and engagement as well as long-term commitment.^[93] Educational psychologists try to discover how to increase motivation. This can be achieved by encouraging some competition among students while ensuring a balance of positive and negative feedback in the form of praise and criticism.^[94]

Intelligence is another important factor in how people respond to education. It is a mental quality linked to the ability to learn from experience, to understand, and to employ knowledge and skills to solve problems. Those who have higher scores in intelligence metrics tend to perform better at school and go on to higher levels of education.^[95] Intelligence is often primarily associated with the so-called IQ, a standardized numerical metric for assessing intelligence. However, it has been argued that there different types of intelligences pertaining to distinct areas. According to psychologist Howard Gardner, they can be distinguished into areas like mathematics, logic, spatial cognition, language, and music. Further types affect how a person interacts with other people and with themselves. These forms are largely independent of each other, meaning that someone may excel at one type while scoring low on another.^[96]

A closely related factor concerns learning styles. A learning style is a preferred form of acquiring knowledge and skills. According to proponents of learning style theory, students with an auditory learning style find it easy to follow spoken lectures and discussions while visual learners benefit if information is presented visually in diagrams and videos. For efficient learning, it may be beneficial to include a wide variety of learning modalities.^[97] The learner's personality may also affect educational achievement. For example, the features of conscientiousness and openness to experience from the Big Five personality traits are linked to academic success.^[98] Further mental factors include self-efficacy, self-esteem, and metacognitive abilities.^[99]

Sociological

Sociological factors focus not on psychological attributes of learners but on their environment and position in society. They include socioeconomic status, ethnicity, and cultural background as well as gender. They are of interest to researchers since they are associated with inequality and discrimination. For this reason, they play a key role in policy-making in attempts to mitigate their effects.^[100]

Socioeconomic status depends on income but includes other factors as well, such as financial security, social status, and social class as well as quality of life attributes. Low socioeconomic status affects educational success in various ways. It is linked to slower cognitive developments in language and memory and higher dropout rates. Poor families may not have enough money to invest in educational resources like stimulating toys, books, and computers. Additionally, they may be unable to afford tuition at prestigious schools and are more likely to attend schools in poorer areas. Such schools tend to offer lower standards of teaching because of teacher shortages or because they lack educational materials and facilities, like libraries. Poor parents may also be unable to afford private lessons if their children fall behind. Students from an economically disadvantaged background often have less access to information on higher education and may face additional difficulties in securing and repaying student loans. Low socioeconomic status also has many indirect negative effects by being linked to lower physical and mental health. Due to these factors, social inequalities on the level of the parents are often reproduced in the children.^[101]

Ethnic background is linked to cultural differences and language barriers, which make it more difficult for students to adapt to the school environment and follow classes. Additional factors are explicit and implicit biases and discrimination toward ethnic minorities. This may affect the students' self-esteem and motivation as well as their access to educational opportunities. For example, teachers may hold stereotypical views even if they are not overtly racist, which can lead them to grade comparable performances differently based on the child's ethnicity.^[102]

Historically, gender has been a central factor in education since the roles of males and females were defined differently in many societies. Education tended to strongly favor males, who were expected to provide for the family. Females, by contrast, were expected to manage the household and rear children, which severely hampered the educational opportunities available to them. And while these inequalities have improved in most modern societies, there are still gender differences in education. Among other things, this concerns biases and stereotypes linked to the role of gender in education. They affect subjects like science, technology, engineering, and mathematics, which are often presented as male fields. This discourages female students from following them.^[103]

One aspect of many social factors is given by the expectations associated with stereotypes. They work both on an external level, based on how other people react to a person belonging to a certain group, and on an internal level, based on how the person internalizes them and acts accordingly. In this sense, the expectations may turn into self-fulfilling prophecies by causing the educational outcomes they anticipate. This can happen both for positive and negative stereotypes.^[104]

Technology and others

Technology plays another significant role in educational success. Educational technology is commonly associated with the use of modern digital devices, like computers. But understood in the broadest sense, it involves a wide range of resources and tools for learning, including basic aids that do not involve the use of machines, like regular books and worksheets.^[105]

 

A One Laptop per Child device being introduced to children in Haiti

Educational technology can benefit learning in various ways. In the form of media, it often takes the role of the primary supplier of information in the classroom. This means that the teacher can focus their time and energy on other tasks, like planning the lesson and guiding students as well as assessing educational performance.^[106] Educational technology can also make information easier to understand by presenting it using graphics and videos rather than through mere text. In this regard, interactive elements may be used to make the learning experience more engaging in the form of educational games. Technology can be employed to make educational materials accessible to many people, like when using online resources. It additionally facilitates collaboration between students and communication with teachers.^[107] Lack of educational technology affects developing countries in particular. Many efforts are made to address it, such as the One Laptop per Child initiative.^[108]

A closely related issue concerns the effects of school infrastructure. It includes physical aspects of the school, like its location and size as well as the available school facilities and equipment. A healthy and safe environment, well-maintained classrooms, and suitable classroom furniture as well as the availability of a library and a canteen tend to contribute to educational success.^[109] The quality of the teacher also has an important impact on student achievement. Skilled teachers know how to motivate and inspire students and are able to adjust their instructions to the students' abilities and needs. Important in this regard are the teacher's own education and training as well as their past teaching experience.^[110] A meta-analysis by Engin Karadağ et al. concludes that, compared to other influences, factors related to the school and the teacher have the biggest impact on educational success.^[111]

An additional factor to boost student achievement is parent involvement. It can make children more motivated and invested if they are aware that their parents care about their educational efforts. This tends to lead to increased self-esteem, better attendance rates, and more constructive behavior at school. Parent involvement also includes communication with teachers and other school staff to make other parties aware of current issues and how they may be resolved.^[112] Further relevant factors sometimes discussed in the academic literature include historical, political, demographic, religious, and legal aspects.^[113]

Education studies

Main article: Education sciences

 

John Locke's book Some Thoughts Concerning Education from 1693 is one of the foundational works of education studies.^[114]

The main discipline investigating education is called education studies, also referred to as education sciences. It tries to determine how people transmit and acquire knowledge by studying the methods and forms of education. It is interested in its aims, effects, and value as well as the cultural, societal, governmental, and historical contexts that shape education.^[115] Education theorists integrate insights from many other fields of inquiry, including philosophy, psychology, sociology, economics, history, politics, and international relations. Because of these influences, some theorists claim that education studies is not an independent academic discipline like physics or history since its method and subject are not as clearly defined.^[116] Education studies differs from regular training programs, such as teacher training, since its focus on academic analysis and critical reflection goes beyond the skills needed to be a good teacher. It is not restricted to the topic of formal education but examines all forms and aspects of education.^[117]

Various research methods are used to study educational phenomena. They can roughly be divided into quantitative, qualitative, and mixed-methods approaches. Quantitative research emulates the methods found in the natural sciences by using precise numerical measurements to gather data from many observations and employs statistical tools to analyze it. It aims to arrive at an objective and impersonal understanding. Qualitative research usually has a much smaller sample size and tries to get an in-depth insight into more subjective and personal factors, like how different actors experience the process of education. Mixed-methods research aims to combine data gathered from both approaches to arrive at a balanced and comprehensive understanding. Data can be collected in various ways, like using direct observation or test scores as well as interviews and questionnaires.^[118] Some research projects study basic factors affecting all forms of education while others concentrate on one specific application. Some investigations look for solutions to concrete problems while others examine the effectiveness of educational projects and policies.^[119]

Subfields

Education studies encompasses various subfields like philosophy of education, pedagogy, psychology of education, sociology of education, economics of education, comparative education, and history of education.^[120] The philosophy of education is the branch of applied philosophy that examines many of the basic assumptions underlying the theory and practice of education. It studies education both as a process and as a discipline while trying to provide exact definitions of its nature and how it differs from other phenomena. It further examines the purpose of education, its different types, and how to conceptualize teachers, students, and their relation.^[121] It includes educational ethics, which investigates the moral implications of education, for example, what ethical principles underlie it and how teachers should apply them to specific cases. The philosophy of education has a long history and was already discussed in ancient Greek philosophy.^[122]

The term "pedagogy" is sometimes used as a synonym for education studies but when understood in a more restricted sense, it refers to the subfield interested in teaching methods.^[123] It studies how the aims of education, like the transmission of knowledge or fostering skills and character traits, can be realized.^[124] It is interested in the methods and practices used for teaching in regular schools and some definitions restrict it to this domain. But in a wider sense, it covers all types of education, including forms of teaching outside schools.^[125] In this general sense, it explores how teachers can bring about experiences in learners to advance their understanding of the studied topic and how the learning itself takes place.^[126]

The psychology of education studies how education happens on the mental level, specifically how new knowledge and skills are acquired as well as how personal growth takes place. It examines the factors responsible for successful education and how these factors may differ from person to person. Important factors include intelligence, motivation, and personality. A central topic in this field is the interplay between nature and nurture and how it affects educational success. Influential psychological theories of education are behaviorism, cognitivism, and constructivism.^[127] Closely related fields are the neurology of education and educational neuroscience, which are interested in the neuropsychological processes and changes brought about through learning.^[128]

The sociology of education is concerned with how social factors influence education and how it leads to socialization. Often-discussed factors are socioeconomic status, ethnicity, and gender. The sociology of education studies how these factors, together with the dominant ideology in society, affect what kind of education is available to a person and how successful they are. Closely related questions include how education affects different groups in society and how educational experiences can form someone's personal identity. The sociology of education is specifically interested in aspects that result in inequalities. Its insights are relevant to education policy for trying to identify and mitigate factors that cause inequality.^[129] Two influential schools of thought are consensus theory and conflict theory. Consensus theorists hold that education benefits society as a whole by preparing people for their roles. Conflict theories have a more negative outlook on the resulting inequalities and see education as a force used by the ruling class to promote their own agenda.^[130]

The economics of education is the field of inquiry studying how education is produced, distributed, and consumed. It tries to determine how resources should be used to improve education. An example is the question to what extent the quality of teachers is increased by raising their salary. Other questions are how smaller class sizes affect educational success and how to invest in new educational technologies. This way, the economics of education helps policy-makers decide how to distribute the limited resources most efficiently to benefit society as a whole. It also tries to understand what long-term role education plays for the economy of a country by providing a highly skilled labor force and increasing its competitiveness. A closely related issue concerns the economic advantages and disadvantages of different systems of education.^[131]

Comparative education is the discipline that examines and contrasts systems of education. Comparisons can happen from a general perspective or focus on specific factors, like social, political, or economic aspects. Comparative education is often applied to different countries to assess the similarities and differences of their educational institutions and practices as well as to evaluate the consequences of the distinct approaches. It can be used to learn from other countries which education policies work and how one's own system of education may be improved.^[132] This practice is known as policy borrowing. It comes with many difficulties since the success of policies can depend to a large degree on the social and cultural context of students and teachers. A closely related and controversial topic concerns the question of whether the educational systems of developed countries are superior and should be exported to less developed countries.^[133] Other key topics are the internationalization of education and the role of education in transitioning from an authoritarian regime to a democracy.^[134]

The history of education examines the evolution of educational practices, systems, and institutions. It discusses various key processes, their possible causes and effects, and their relations to each other.^[135]

Aims and ideologies

A central topic in education studies concerns questions like why people should be educated and what goals should guide this process. Many aims of education have been suggested. On a basic level, education is about the acquisition of knowledge and skills but may also include personal development and fostering of character traits. Common suggestions encompass features like curiosity, creativity, rationality, and critical thinking as well as the tendency to think, feel, and act morally. Some scholars focus on liberal values linked to freedom, autonomy, and open-mindedness. But others prioritize qualities like obedience to authority, ideological purity, piety, and religious faith. An important discussion in this regard is about the role of critical thinking and the extent to which indoctrination forms part of education. On a social level, it is often stressed that education should socialize people. This way, it turns them into productive members of society while promoting good citizenship and preserving cultural values.^[136] A controversial issue concerns who primarily benefits from education: the educated person, society as a whole, or dominant groups within society.^[137]

Educational ideologies are systems of basic philosophical assumptions and principles. They cover various additional issues besides the aims of education, like what topics are learned and how the learning activity is structured. Other themes include the role of the teacher and how educational progress should be assessed. They also include claims on how to structure the institutional framework and policies. There are many ideologies and they often overlap in various ways. Teacher-centered ideologies place the main emphasis on the teacher's role in transmitting knowledge to students while student-centered ideologies give a more active role to the students in the process. Process-based ideologies focus on what the processes of teaching and learning should be like. They contrast with product-based ideologies, which discuss education from the perspective of the result to be achieved. Another classification contrasts progressivism with more traditional and conservative ideologies. Further categories are humanism, romanticism, essentialism, encyclopaedism, and pragmatism. There are also distinct types for authoritarian and democratic ideologies.^[138]

Learning theories and teaching

Learning theories try to explain how learning happens. Influential theories are behaviorism, cognitivism, and constructivism. Behaviorism understands learning as a change in behavior in response to environmental stimuli. This happens by presenting the learner with a stimulus, associating this stimulus with the desired response, and solidifying this stimulus-response pair. Cognitivism sees learning as a change in cognitive structures and focuses on the mental processes involved in storing, retrieving, and processing information. According to constructivism, learning is based on the personal experience of each individual. It puts more emphasis on social interactions and how they are interpreted by the learner. These theories have important implications for how to teach. For example, behaviorists tend to focus on drills while cognitivists may advocate the use of mnemonics and constructivists tend to employ collaborative learning strategies.^[139]

Various theories suggest that learning is more efficient when it is based on personal experience. An additional factor is to aim at a deeper understanding by connecting new to pre-existing knowledge rather than merely memorizing a list of unrelated facts.^[140] An influential developmental theory of learning is proposed by psychologist Jean Piaget. He outlines four stages of learning through which children pass on their way to adulthood. They are the sensorimotor, the pre-operational, the concrete operational, and the formal operational stage. They correspond to different levels of abstraction. Early stages focus more on simple sensory and motor activities. Later stages include more complex internal representations and information processing in the form of logical reasoning.^[141]

The teaching method concerns the way the content is presented by the teacher, for example, whether group work is used instead of a focus on individual learning. There are many teaching methods available. Which one is most efficient in a case depends on various factors, like the subject matter as well as the learner's age and competence level.^[142] This is reflected in the fact that modern school systems organize students by age, competence, specialization, and native language into different classes to ensure a productive learning process. Different subjects frequently use very different approaches. Language education often focuses on verbal learning while mathematical education is about abstract and symbolic thinking together with deductive reasoning.^[143] One central requirement for teaching methodologies is to ensure that the learner remains motivated because of interest and curiosity or through external rewards.^[144]

Further aspects of teaching methods include the instructional media used, such as books, worksheets, and audio-visual recordings, and having some form of test or assessment to evaluate the learning progress. An important pedagogical aspect in many forms of modern education is that each lesson is part of a larger educational enterprise governed by a syllabus. It often covers several months or years.^[145] According to Herbartianism, teaching is divided into phases. The initial phase consists of preparing the student's mind for new information. Next, new ideas are first presented to the learner and then associated with ideas with which the learner is already familiar. In later phases, the understanding shifts to a more general level behind the specific instances and the ideas are then put into concrete practice.^[146]

History

Main article: History of education

The history of education studies the processes, methods, and institutions involved in teaching and learning. It tries to explain how they have interacted with each other and shaped educational practice until the present day.^[147] Education began in prehistory, as adults trained the young in the knowledge and skills deemed necessary in their society. For the most part, there were no specialized teachers and most adults taught the youth, usually informally during everyday activities. Education was achieved through oral communication and imitation. It could take the form of storytelling and singing to pass knowledge, values, and skills from one generation to the next.^[148]

The earliest ancient civilizations developed in the period from 3000 to 1500 BCE in Egypt, Mesopotamia, and North China. Ancient education was characterized by the invention of writing and the development of formal education.^[149] The invention of writing had a significant influence on the history of education as a whole. Through writing, it was possible to store and preserve information and make it accessible to more people. This enabled various subsequent developments, for example, the creation of educational tools, like textbooks, and institutions, like schools.^[150]

 

Plato's Academy is often seen as the first school of higher learning. (Mosaic from Pompeii).

Another key aspect of ancient education was the establishment of formal education. This became necessary since the amount of knowledge grew as civilizations evolved and informal education proved insufficient to transmit all knowledge from one generation to the next. Teachers would act as specialists to impart knowledge and education became more abstract and further removed from daily life. Formal education was still quite rare in ancient societies and was restricted to the intellectual elites. It happened in the form of training scribes and priests and covered various subjects besides reading and writing, including the humanities, science, medicine, mathematics, law, and astrology.^[151] Two often-discussed achievements of ancient education are the establishment of Plato's Academy in Ancient Greece, which is sometimes considered the first institute of higher learning,^[152] and the creation of the Great Library of Alexandria in Ancient Egypt as one of the most prestigious libraries of the ancient world.^[153]

In the medieval period, religious authorities had a lot of influence over formal education. This applied specifically to the role of the Catholic Church in Europe. But it is also seen in the Muslim world. Education there focused on the study of the Quran and its interpretations but also included knowledge of the sciences and the arts. Additionally, this period saw the establishment of universities as concentrated centers of higher education and research. The first universities were the University of Bologna, the University of Paris, and Oxford University.^[154] Another key development was the creation of guilds. Guilds were associations of skilled craftsmen and merchants who controlled the practice of their trades. They were responsible for vocational education and new members had to pass through different stages on their way to masterhood.^[155]

 

The invention of the printing press made written media widely available and led to a significant increase in general literacy.

The invention and popularization of the printing press in the middle of the 15th century by Johann Gutenberg had a profound impact on general education. It significantly reduced the cost of producing books, which were hand-written before, and thereby augmented the dissemination of written documents, including new forms like newspapers and pamphlets. The increased availability of written media had a significant influence on the general literacy of the population.^[156]

These changes prepared the rise of public education in the 18th and 19th centuries. This period saw the establishment of publicly funded schools with the aim of providing education for all. This contrasts with earlier periods when formal education was primarily provided by private schools, religious institutions, and individual tutors.^[157] Aztec civilization was an exception in this regard since formal education was mandatory for the youth regardless of social class as early as the 14th century.^[158] Closely related changes were to make education compulsory and free of charge for all children up to a certain age.^[159] Initiatives to promote public education and universal access to education made significant progress in the 20th and the 21st centuries and were promoted by intergovernmental organizations like the UN. Examples include the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the Convention on the Rights of the Child, the Education for All initiative, the Millennium Development Goals, and the Sustainable Development Goals.^[160] These efforts resulted in a steady rise of all forms of education but affected primary education in particular. In 1970, 28% of all primary-school-age children worldwide did not attend school while by 2015, this number dropped to 9%.^[42]

A side effect of the establishment of public education was the introduction of standardized curricula for public schools as well as standardized tests to assess the students' progress. It also affects teachers by setting in place institutions and norms to guide and oversee teacher training, like certification requirements for teaching at public schools.^[161]

A further influence on contemporary education was the emergence of new educational technologies. The widespread availability of computers and the internet dramatically increased access to educational resources and made new types of education possible, such as online education. This was of particular relevance during the COVID-19 pandemic when schools all around the world had to close for extended periods and many offered remote learning through video conferencing or pre-recorded video lessons to continue instruction.^[162] A further contemporary factor is the increased globalization and internationalization of education.^[163]

See also

• Bildung – German tradition of self-cultivation
• Criticism of schooling
• Educational institution – Institution that provides education
• Glossary of education terms
• Index of education articles
• List of education articles by country
• Mixed-sex education – System of education where males and females are educated together
• Outline of education – Overview of and topical guide to education
• School – Institution for the education of students by teachers

References

Notes

1. Some theorists only distinguish between formal and informal education.^[30]

Citations

1. • Marshall 2006, pp. 33–37
   • Sewell & Newman 2013, pp. 3–4, 6–7, 9–10, 1. What Is Education?
   • Matheson 2014, pp. 1–3, What Is Education?
2. • Chazan 2022, pp. 15–16, What Is "Education"?
   • Marshall 2006, pp. 33–37
   • UNESCO 2018
3. • Peters 2009, p. 1, What Is an Educational Process?
   • HarperCollins staff 2023
   • Sewell & Newman 2013, p. 4, 1. What Is Education?
4. • Peters 2009, pp. 4–6, What Is an Educational Process?
   • HarperCollins staff 2023
   • Sewell & Newman 2013, p. 4, 1. What Is Education?
5. HarperCollins staff 2023.
6. • Wilson 2003, pp. 101–108
   • Watson 2016, p. 148
   • Biesta 2015, pp. 75–78
7. Hoad 1993, p. 142.
8. Vico 1999, p. 327.
9. • Peters 2015, p. 45
   • Beckett 2011, p. 241
   • Marshall 2006, pp. 33–37
10. • Peters 2015, p. 45
    • Beckett 2011, p. 241
    • Marshall 2006, pp. 33–37
11. • Beckett 2011, pp. 242–243
    • Peters, Woods & Dray 1973, Aims of Education: A Conceptual Inquiry
    • Sewell & Newman 2013, pp. 3–5, 1. What Is Education?
12. • Marshall 2006, pp. 33–37
    • Biletzki & Matar 2021
    • Sluga 2006, pp. 1–2
13. Sewell & Newman 2013, pp. 6–7, 1. What Is Education?.
14. • Watson 2016, pp. 148–149
    • Kotzee 2011, pp. 549–550
15. • Chazan 2022, pp. 13–14, What Is "Education"?
    • Smith 2020, pp. 781–783
16. • Siegel 2023
    • Siegel, Phillips & Callan 2018, 2. Analytic Philosophy of Education and Its Influence
    • Siegel 2010, pp. 3–9, Introduction: Philosophy of Education and Philosophy
17. Watson 2016, pp. 152–155.
18. • Haack 1981, pp. 289–290, 293
    • Siegel, Phillips & Callan 2018, 3.3 Social Epistemology, Virtue Epistemology, and the Epistemology of Education
19. • Chazan 2022, pp. 15–16, What Is "Education"?
    • Bowen, Gelpi & Anweiler 2023, Introduction
    • Sewell & Newman 2013, pp. 3–4, 7, 1. What Is Education?
20. • Chazan 2022, pp. 15–16, What Is "Education"?
    • Haack 1981, pp. 289–291
    • Sewell & Newman 2013, pp. 3–4, 1. What Is Education?
21. • Siegel, Phillips & Callan 2018, 2. Analytic Philosophy of Education and Its Influence
    • Siegel 2010, pp. 3–9, Introduction: Philosophy of Education and Philosophy
    • Curren 1996, 1 Philosophical Analysis and Theory
22. • Siegel, Phillips & Callan 2018, 2. Analytic Philosophy of Education and Its Influence
    • Siegel 2023
23. Davies & Barnett 2015, pp. 1–2, Introduction.
24. Siegel, Phillips & Callan 2018, 2. Analytic Philosophy of Education and Its Influence.
25. • Beckett 2018, pp. 380–381
    • Sewell & Newman 2013, pp. 3–4, 1. What Is Education?
    • Peters 2015, pp. 35–37, 45, 1. Criteria of Education
26. • Dewey 2004, 6. Education as Conservative and Progressive
    • Beckett 2011, pp. 250–251, 254–255
27. • Beckett 2011, p. 245
    • Beckett 2018, pp. 383–384
    • Freire 1970, p. 80, Chapter 2
28. • La Belle 1982, pp. 159, 161–162
    • UNESCO 2012, pp. 6, 25, 73–75
    • Emaliana 2017, pp. 59–60
    • Cobb & Glass 2021, p. 11
29. • La Belle 1982, pp. 159, 161–162
    • Eshach 2007, p. 171
    • Sewell & Newman 2013, p. 7, 1. What Is Education?
    • Singh 2015, pp. 1–2, Introduction
30. Strauss 1984, p. 195.
31. • La Belle 1982, pp. 159–162
    • Tudor 2013, pp. 821–826
32. • La Belle 1982, pp. 159–162, 167
    • Tudor 2013, pp. 821–826
    • Sewell & Newman 2013, p. 7, 1. What Is Education?
    • Pazmiño 2002, pp. 62–63
33. Eshach 2007, pp. 171–174.
34. • La Belle 1982, pp. 161–164
    • Tudor 2013, pp. 821–826
    • Sewell & Newman 2013, p. 7, 1. What Is Education?
35. Eshach 2007, pp. 173–174.
36. • La Belle 1982, p. 162
    • Eshach 2007, pp. 172–173
37. • Bowen, Gelpi & Anweiler 2023, Introduction
    • Scribner & Cole 1973, pp. 553–559
    • Mead 1943, pp. 633–639
38. • Bowen, Gelpi & Anweiler 2023, Introduction
    • Scribner & Cole 1973, pp. 553–559
39. • OECD 2018, pp. 80–85
    • Salganik, Matheson & Phelps 1997, p. 19
    • UNESCO 2012, pp. 6, 11–12, 25
40. • New & Cochran 2007, p. 1046
    • OECD 2018, pp. 80–85
    • Salganik, Matheson & Phelps 1997, p. 19
    • UNESCO 2012, pp. 26–29
41. • UNESCO 2012, pp. 30–32
    • OECD 2018, pp. 80–85
    • OECD 2015, pp. 29–32
42. Roser & Ortiz-Ospina 2013.
43. • OECD 2018, pp. 80–85
    • OECD 2015, pp. 39–43
    • UNESCO 2012, pp. 33–37
44. • Claire et al. 2011, p. 137
    • Close 2014, p. 76
45. • OECD 2018, pp. 80–85
    • OECD 2015, pp. 47–52
    • UNESCO 2012, pp. 38–42
46. • OECD 2015, pp. 59–63
    • UNESCO 2012, pp. 43–45
47. OECD 2012, p. 30.
48. • OECD 2015, pp. 69–71
    • OECD 2018, pp. 80–85
    • UNESCO 2012, pp. 46–47
49. • OECD 2015, pp. 73–76
    • OECD 2018, pp. 80–85
    • UNESCO 2012, pp. 48–50
50. • OECD 2015, pp. 81–84
    • OECD 2018, pp. 80–85
    • UNESCO 2012, pp. 51–54
51. • OECD 2015, pp. 89–92
    • OECD 2018, pp. 80–85
    • UNESCO 2012, pp. 55–58
52. • OECD 2015, pp. 97–100
    • OECD 2018, pp. 80–85
    • UNESCO 2012, pp. 59–61
53. • Liu 2023, p. 1642
    • The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica 2023
    • Bryant 2001, p. 12, Make the Curriculum
54. • OECD 2013, p. 20
    • Barr & Parrett 2003b, pp. 82–86
    • The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica 2023
    • Aron 2006, pp. 3–4
    • Sliwka 2008, pp. 93–96, The Contribution of Alternative Education
55. • Jacob, Cheng & Porter 2015, p. 3
    • Iseke 2013, pp. 559–560
    • Reyhner & Singh 2021
56. • Bullard & Hitz 1997, pp. 15–22
    • DeVitis & Irwin-DeVitis 2010, pp. xi–xiii, Preface
    • Lee 2021, pp. 714–715
57. • Mazurek & Winzer 1994, p. xvii
    • Tomlinson 2012, p. 73
    • HarperCollins staff 2023a
58. Emaliana 2017, pp. 59–61.
59. Jackson 2011, pp. 73–76, 6. In Pursuit of Perfection.
60. Main 2012, pp. 82–83.
61. • Jarvis 2012, p. 44
    • Morgan, Trofimova & Kliucharev 2018, pp. 75–76
    • Tiem, Moseley & Dessinger 2012, pp. 261–262
    • Chou & Zou 2020, pp. 1–3
62. • Giuseffi 2019, p. 169
    • Charungkaittikul 2021, pp. 567–568
63. • UNESCO 2012, pp. 73–75
    • Berry 2016, pp. 459–460
    • Li 2006, p. 6
64. • Adarkwah 2021, p. 258
    • Sewell & Newman 2013, pp. 7–9, 1. What Is Education?
    • Bowen, Gelpi & Anweiler 2023, Global Trends in Education
    • Zawacki-Richter et al. 2020, pp. 319–321
65. • Hill, Pierce & Guthrie 2009, p. 30
    • OUP staff
    • Cobb & Glass 2021, p. 11
    • Collins staff
    • Smith & Meier 2016, p. 70
66. • Rosenkranz & Brackett 1872, pp. 95
    • Harris 1881, pp. 215–216
67. • Monds 2022, p. 111
    • National Education League 1875, p. 52
    • Quinn 2013, p. 27
68. • Wagner, Deindl & Schmölzer 2023, p. 99
    • Brown & Williams 2005, pp. 3–4
    • Cook, Tankersley & Landrum 2013, pp. 9–10
    • Bearman 2005, p. 27
69. • Bartlett & Burton 2007, pp. 14–15, 20, 212–216
    • Murphy, Mufti & Kassem 2009, pp. 37–38
    • Glaeser, Ponzetto & Shleifer 2007, pp. 77–78
    • Kantzara 2016, pp. 1–3, Education, Social Functions of
70. • Bartlett & Burton 2007, pp. 15–16
    • Johnes, Portela & Thanassoulis 2017, pp. 331–332
    • Paechter 2001, pp. 9–10
71. • Bartlett & Burton 2007, pp. 6–8, 212–216
    • Allen 2011, pp. 88–89
    • Krueger & Lindahl 2001, pp. 1101–1103
72. • Allen 2011, pp. 85–89
    • Johnes, Portela & Thanassoulis 2017, pp. 331–332
73. Chimombo 2005, pp. 129–130.
74. • Hicks 2004, pp. 19–22
    • International Commission on the Futures of Education 2022, pp. iii, 7–8
    • Reimers 2020, p. ix
    • Hicks 2004a, pp. 36–37
75. Hicks 2004a, pp. 41–42.
76. Bartlett & Burton 2007, p. 20.
77. • Srinivasan 2019
    • The economist data team 2018
    • Manyika et al.
    • Vincent 2017
78. • Jong-Wha 2018
    • Krishnan 2020
    • Staats
79. Waks 2019, pp. 183–184.
80. • Taylor 1999, pp. 531–532
    • Burman et al. 2005, pp. 42–43
81. Raghupathi & Raghupathi 2020, p. 20.
82. • Murphy, Mufti & Kassem 2009, pp. 89–91
    • Warren 2009, pp. 8–9
    • Illanes et al.
    • Hankin 2009, pp. 147–149
83. • UN 2023
    • UN 2023a
84. • UNESCO 2016, p. 54
    • Gary & Crime 2017, p. 7
85. • Bartlett & Burton 2007, pp. 74–77, 81–85
    • Hand 2014, pp. 48–49
    • Murphy, Mufti & Kassem 2009, p. 7
86. • UNESCO 2021, pp. 8–10
    • Francois 2015, pp. 30–32
    • Warren 2009, p. 2
    • Yamada 2016, pp. 68–69
    • Warren & Waltham 2009, p. 42
87. • UNESCO
    • International Commission on the Futures of Education 2022, Short Summary
88. • Francois 2015, pp. 30–32
    • Curran, Rujas & Castejón 2022, pp. 1–2
    • Bartlett & Burton 2003, pp. 239–241, 245–246
89. Yeravdekar & Tiwari 2016, p. 182.
90. • Portes 1999, pp. 489–491
    • Bartlett & Burton 2007, pp. 5–6
    • Waller 2011, pp. 106–107, 132–133
    • Karadağ 2017, pp. 271–272
    • Haleem et al. 2022, pp. 275–276
    • Hughes 2009, p. 90
91. Bartlett & Burton 2007, pp. 96–97.
92. • Bartlett & Burton 2007, p. 107
    • Weiner 2000, pp. 314–316, Motivation: An Overview
    • Helms 2006, Motivation and Motivation Theory
93. • Meece, Blumenfeld & Hoyle 1988, pp. 514–515
    • McInerney 2019, pp. 427–429
    • Honeybourne 2005, p. 80
    • Dhiman 2017, p. 39
94. • Bartlett & Burton 2007, p. 107
    • Gallard & Garden 2011, pp. 132–133
95. • Butler, Marsh & Sheppard 1985, pp. 349–351
    • Sternberg 2022
    • Bartlett & Burton 2007, p. 109
    • Gallard & Garden 2011, pp. 145–147
96. • Fogarty & Stoehr 2008, pp. 6–7
    • Grigorenko 2008, Multiple Intelligences Theory
97. • Bartlett & Burton 2007, pp. 130–131
    • Page & Page 2010, pp. 36–37
    • Skowron 2015, p. 137
    • Willingham, Hughes & Dobolyi 2015, pp. 266–267
    • Pashler et al. 2008, pp. 105–106
98. Verbree et al. 2021, p. 1.
99. • Bartlett & Burton 2007, pp. 96–97
    • Lane, Lane & Kyprianou 2004, pp. 247–248
100. • Bartlett & Burton 2007, p. 17
     • Bécares & Priest 2015, pp. 1–2
     • Hart 2019, pp. 582–583
     • Warren 2009, pp. 4–5
101. • Bartlett & Burton 2007, pp. 146–149
     • Murphy, Mufti & Kassem 2009, p. 123
     • APA staff
102. • Murphy, Mufti & Kassem 2009, p. 122
     • Archer & Francis 2006, pp. 11–12
     • Isik et al. 2018, pp. 1–2
     • Bartlett & Burton 2007, p. 166
103. • Bartlett & Burton 2007, pp. 157–161
     • Murphy, Mufti & Kassem 2009, p. 119
     • Sullivan 2019, pp. 3–7
104. Murphy, Mufti & Kassem 2009, pp. 116, 126–127.
105. • Sampath 1981, pp. 30–32
     • Technology 1973, pp. 120–122
106. Sampath 1981, pp. 30–32.
107. • Williams et al. 2003a, Technology in Education
     • Kimmons 2015, p. 664
     • Haleem et al. 2022, pp. 275–276
108. • Selwyn 2013, p. 128
     • Robertson 2018
     • Rodriguez-Segura 2022, pp. 171–173
109. • Figueroa, Lim & Lee 2016, pp. 273–276
     • Barrett et al. 2019, pp. 1–2
110. • Lareau & Ferguson 2018, p. 114
     • Moore 2004, p. 52
     • Winters 2012, pp. 16–18
     • Burroughs et al. 2019, pp. 7–9, A Review of the Literature on Teacher Effectiveness and Student Outcomes
111. Karadağ 2017, pp. 325–330.
112. • Karadağ 2017, pp. 271–272
     • Schmid & Garrels 2021, pp. 456–458
     • Shute et al. 2011, pp. 1–3
113. • Hughes 2009, p. 90
     • Horwitz 2021, pp. 107–109
114. Aitchison 2022, p. 7.
115. • Frankena, Burbules & Raybeck 2003, p. 1877
     • Kassem, Mufti & Robinson 2006, p. xv
     • Murphy, Mufti & Kassem 2009, pp. 8–10
     • Bartlett & Burton 2007, pp. 3–4
116. • Ward 2004, p. 2
     • Bartlett & Burton 2007, pp. 3–4
117. • Bartlett & Burton 2007, p. 4
     • Ward 2004, p. 1
     • Warren 2009, p. 5
118. • Cohen, Manion & Morrison 2018, pp. 1, 31–33
     • Bartlett & Burton 2007, pp. 29–30, 40–44, 57
119. Bartlett & Burton 2007, p. 37.
120. • Warren 2009, pp. 1–2
     • Noddings 1995, pp. 1–6
121. • Bartlett & Burton 2007, p. 5
     • Frankena, Burbules & Raybeck 2003, Philosophy of Education
     • Curtis 2011, pp. 59–60
122. • Curtis 2011, pp. 59–60
     • Coombs 1998, pp. 555–556
     • Warren & Waltham 2009, pp. 39–40
123. • Watkins & Mortimore 1999, pp. 1–2, 1: Pedagogy: What Do We Know?
     • Murphy 2003, pp. 9–10, 1. Defining Pedagogy
     • Salvatori 2003, p. 264
124. • Peel 2023
     • Murphy 2003, pp. 9–10, 1. Defining Pedagogy
     • Gabriel 2022, p. 16
125. • Anderson 2005, pp. 53–54, 3. The Meaning of Pedagogy
     • Kraftl 2014, p. 169
     • McHugh 2016, p. 167
126. • Peel 2023
     • Murphy 2003, pp. 9–10, 15–16, 1. Defining Pedagogy
127. • Bartlett & Burton 2007, pp. 6, 96–97, 118
     • Gallard & Garden 2011, pp. 132–133
     • Oliveira & Bittencourt 2019, p. 9
128. • Murphy, Mufti & Kassem 2009, pp. 89–90
     • Marquis 1942, pp. 153–154
     • Ansari & Coch 2006, pp. 146–151
     • Goswami 2006, pp. 406–411
129. • Bartlett & Burton 2007, pp. 5, 145
     • Waller 2011, pp. 106–107
130. • Murphy, Mufti & Kassem 2009, pp. 103–107, 114
     • Browne 2011, pp. 39–40
131. • Bartlett & Burton 2007, pp. 6, 8
     • Blaug 2014, pp. xii–xiii
     • Allen 2011, pp. 85–86
132. • Bartram 2009, pp. 25–27
     • Bartlett & Burton 2007, p. 7
     • Le Play 2011, pp. 159–162
133. • Bartlett & Burton 2007, p. 8
     • Le Play 2011, pp. 163–164, 171–172
     • Bartram 2009, pp. 27–28, 33–35
134. • Le Play 2011, p. 166
     • Buckner 2019, pp. 315–316
135. Bartlett & Burton 2007, p. 6.
136. • Siegel, Phillips & Callan 2018, 3.1 The Content of the Curriculum and the Aims and Functions of Schooling
     • Siegel 2010, pp. 3–9, Introduction: Philosophy of Education and Philosophy
     • Gingell & Winch 2002, pp. 10–13
     • Brighouse 2009, pp. 35–36, 42, Moral and Political Aims of Education
     • Curren 1996, Lead Section, 1 Philosophical Analysis and Theory
     • Van Hiel et al. 2018, pp. 1–2
137. • Bartlett & Burton 2007, pp. 17–18
     • Reid 2018, p. 190
     • Kiracofe, Hirth & Hutton 2022, p. 19
138. • Murphy, Mufti & Kassem 2009, pp. 26–31
     • Bartram 2009, p. 28
     • Bartlett & Burton 2007, pp. 22–25
139. • Atienza 2010, p. 130, 8. Strategies in Teaching Large Groups
     • Dreeben 2010, pp. 178–179
     • Murphy, Mufti & Kassem 2009, p. 92
     • Kimble 2023
140. • Murphy, Mufti & Kassem 2009, pp. 91–92
     • Smith & Ragan 2004, pp. 152–154
141. • Murphy, Mufti & Kassem 2009, pp. 90–91
     • Bartlett & Burton 2007, pp. 96–97
142. • Bartlett & Burton 2007, pp. 81–5
     • Peel 2023
     • Murphy 2003, pp. 5, 19–20, 1. Defining Pedagogy
143. • Peel 2023
     • Salganik, Matheson & Phelps 1997, p. 19
144. • Peel 2023
     • Turuthi, Njagi & Chemwei 2017, p. 365
145. • Peel 2023
     • Bukoye 2019, p. 1395, Utilization of Instruction Materials as Tools for Effective Academic Performance of Students: Implications for Counselling
146. • The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica 2014
     • Cordasco 1976, p. 102
147. • Ramsay 2008, pp. 283–287
     • Cyclopædia of Education staff 1877, pp. 244–245
148. • Bowen, Gelpi & Anweiler 2023, Introduction, Prehistoric and Primitive Cultures
     • Bartlett & Burton 2007, p. 15
149. • Bowen, Gelpi & Anweiler 2023, Introduction, Education in the Earliest Civilizations
     • Johnson & Stearns 2022, pp. 23–26
     • Dator 2008, p. 92
150. • Hoskin 2021, pp. 27–28, Technologies of Learning and Alphabetic Culture: The History of Writing as the History of Education
     • Friesen 2017, pp. 17–18
     • Kuskis & Logan 2014, p. 34
     • Sampath 1981, p. 30
151. • Bowen, Gelpi & Anweiler 2023, Introduction, Education in the Earliest Civilizations
     • Sampath 1981, pp. 30–32
152. • Hughes & Gosney 2016, p. 43
     • Lynch 1972, p. 47
153. El-Abbadi 2023, Lead Section.
154. • Young 2019, pp. 109–111
     • Bowen, Gelpi & Anweiler 2023, Aims and Purposes of Muslim Education, Europe in the Middle Ages
     • Kemmis & Edwards-Groves 2017, pp. 50
     • Sanz & Bergan 2006, p. 136
155. • Power 1970, pp. 243–244
     • Nicholas 2014, p. 129
156. • Ornstein et al. 2016, p. 78
     • Danesi 2013, pp. 169–170
     • Poe 2011, pp. 104–105, 112
     • Sampath 1981, p. 30
157. • Scott & Vare 2020, pp. 54–56
     • Schuknecht 2020, pp. 40–41
     • Bowen, Gelpi & Anweiler 2023, Western Education in the 19th Century
     • Gross 2018, pp. 1–3, 9–11
     • Archer 2013, p. 326
158. • Reagan 2005, p. 108
     • Murphy 2014, p. 80
     • Kte'pi 2013, p. 63
159. • Beatty 2019, pp. 436–437
     • Beiter 2005, pp. 609–610
     • Beiter 2005, pp. 95–97
160. • Urata, Kuroda & Tonegawa 2022, pp. 40–41
     • Warren 2009, p. 2
     • United Nations
     • Shelley 2022, p. 2
     • Warren & Waltham 2009, p. 42
161. • Bartlett & Burton 2007, pp. 74–7, 81–5
     • Murphy, Mufti & Kassem 2009, p. 7
     • Neem 2017, p. 213
162. • St. George et al. 2021
     • Haleem et al. 2022, pp. 275–277
     • Williams et al. 2003a, Educational Technology
     • UN 2020, pp. 2–3
     • Sampath 1981, p. 30
163. • Bartlett & Burton 2003, pp. 239–241, 245–246
     • Ge (Rochelle) (葛贇) 2022, pp. 229–231

Sources

• Adarkwah, Michael Agyemang (2021). "A Strategic Approach to Onsite Learning in the Era of SARS-Cov-2". SN Computer Science. 2 (4): 258. doi:10.1007/s42979-021-00664-y. ISSN 2661-8907. PMC 8103427. PMID 33977278.
• Aitchison, David (2022). The School Story: Young Adult Narratives in the Age of Neoliberalism. University Press of Mississippi. ISBN 978-1-4968-3764-6. from the original on 16 May 2023. Retrieved 16 May 2023.
• Allen, Rebecca (2011). "The Economics of Education". In Dufour, Barry; Will, Curtis (eds.). Studying Education: An Introduction to the Key Disciplines in Education Studies. Open University Press. ISBN 978-0-335-24107-1.
• Anderson, Philip M. (2005). "3. The Meaning of Pedagogy". In Kincheloe, Joe L. (ed.). Classroom Teaching: An Introduction. Peter Lang. ISBN 978-0-8204-7858-6.
• Ansari, D; Coch, D (2006). "Bridges Over Troubled Waters: Education and Cognitive Neuroscience". Trends in Cognitive Sciences. 10 (4): 146–151. doi:10.1016/j.tics.2006.02.007. PMID 16530462. S2CID 8328331.
• APA staff. "Education and Socioeconomic Status". American Psychological Association. from the original on 30 May 2016. Retrieved 28 April 2023.
• Archer, Louise; Francis, Becky (2006). Understanding Minority Ethnic Achievement: Race, Gender, Class and 'Success'. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-134-19246-5. from the original on 26 April 2023. Retrieved 30 April 2023.
• Archer, R. L. (2013). Contributions to the History of Education: Volume 5, Secondary Education in the Nineteenth Century. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-107-62232-6. from the original on 1 May 2023. Retrieved 3 May 2023.
• Aron, Laudan Y. (2006). An Overview of Alternative Education. Urban Institute. OCLC 137744041. from the original on 7 May 2023. Retrieved 9 May 2023.
• Atienza, Melflor (2010). "8. Strategies in Teaching Large Groups". In Sana, Erlyn (ed.). Teaching and Learning in the Health Sciences. UP Press. ISBN 978-971-542-573-5. from the original on 24 April 2023. Retrieved 30 April 2023.
• Barr, Robert D.; Parrett, William H. (2003b). "Alternative Schooling". In Guthrie, James W. (ed.). Encyclopedia of Education. Macmillan Reference USA. ISBN 978-0-02-865594-9. from the original on 9 May 2023. Retrieved 9 May 2023.
• Barrett, Peter; Treves, Alberto; Shmis, Tigran; Ambasz, Diego (2019). The Impact of School Infrastructure on Learning: A Synthesis of the Evidence. World Bank Publications. ISBN 978-1-4648-1378-8. from the original on 27 April 2023. Retrieved 30 April 2023.
• Bartlett, Steve; Burton, Diana (2003). Education Studies: Essential Issues. Sage. ISBN 978-0-7619-4049-4.
• Bartlett, Steve; Burton, Diana (2007). Introduction to Education Studies (2nd ed.). Sage Publications. ISBN 978-1-4129-2193-0.
• Bartram, Brendan (2009). "Comparative Education". In Warren, Sue (ed.). An Introduction to Education Studies: The Student Guide to Themes and Contexts. Bloomsbury Academic. ISBN 978-0-8264-9920-2. from the original on 16 April 2023. Retrieved 30 April 2023.
• Bearman, Margaret (2005). "Factors Affecting Health Professional Education". In Brown, Ted; Williams, Brett (eds.). Evidence-Based Education in the Health Professions: Promoting Best Practice in the Learning and Teaching of Students. Radcliffe Publishing. ISBN 978-1-910227-70-1. from the original on 9 May 2023. Retrieved 9 May 2023.
• Beatty, Barbara (2019). "Conflicting Constructions of Childhood and Children in Education History". In Rury, John L.; Tamura, Eileen H. (eds.). The Oxford Handbook of the History of Education. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-934003-3. from the original on 2 May 2023. Retrieved 3 May 2023.
• Bécares, Laia; Priest, Naomi (2015). "Understanding the Influence of Race/Ethnicity, Gender, and Class on Inequalities in Academic and Non-Academic Outcomes Among Eighth-Grade Students: Findings From an Intersectionality Approach". PLOS ONE. 10 (10): e0141363. Bibcode:2015PLoSO..1041363B. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0141363. PMC 4624767. PMID 26505623.
• Beckett, Kelvin (2018). "John Dewey's Conception of Education: Finding Common Ground With R. S. Peters and Paulo Freire". Educational Philosophy and Theory. 50 (4): 380–389. doi:10.1080/00131857.2017.1365705. ISSN 0013-1857. S2CID 148998580.
• Beckett, Kelvin Stewart (2011). "R. S. Peters and the Concept of Education". Educational Theory. 61 (3): 239–255. doi:10.1111/j.1741-5446.2011.00402.x.
• Beiter, Klaus Dieter (2005). The Protection of the Right to Education by International Law: Including a Systematic Analysis of Article 13 of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights. Brill. ISBN 978-90-474-1754-5. from the original on 2 May 2023. Retrieved 3 May 2023.
• Berry, Billingsley (2016). "How Students View the Boundaries Between Their Science and Religious Education Concerning the Origins of Life and the Universe". Science Education. 100 (3): 459–482. Bibcode:2016SciEd.100..459B. doi:10.1002/sce.21213. PMC 5067621. PMID 27812226.
• Biesta, Gert (2015). "What Is Education For? On Good Education, Teacher Judgement, and Educational Professionalism". European Journal of Education. 50 (1): 75–87. doi:10.1111/ejed.12109. from the original on 3 March 2021. Retrieved 13 May 2022.
• Biletzki, Anat; Matar, Anat (2021). "Ludwig Wittgenstein: 3.4 Language-games and Family Resemblance". The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. from the original on 8 September 2018. Retrieved 11 February 2022.
• Blaug, M. (2014). Economics of Education: A Selected Annotated Bibliography. Elsevier. ISBN 978-1-4831-8788-4. from the original on 12 May 2023. Retrieved 30 April 2023.
• Bowen, James; Gelpi, Ettore; Anweiler, Oskar (2023). "Education". Encyclopedia Britannica. from the original on 12 December 2007. Retrieved 30 April 2023.
• Brighouse, Harry (2009). "Moral and Political Aims of Education". The Oxford Handbook of Philosophy of Education. OUP. pp. 35–51. doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195312881.003.0003. ISBN 978-0-19-531288-1. from the original on 27 December 2021. Retrieved 30 April 2023.
• Brown, Ted; Williams, Brett (2005). "Introduction". In Brown, Ted; Williams, Brett (eds.). Evidence-Based Education in the Health Professions: Promoting Best Practice in the Learning and Teaching of Students. Radcliffe Publishing. ISBN 978-1-910227-70-1. from the original on 9 May 2023. Retrieved 9 May 2023.
• Browne, Ken (2011). An Introduction to Sociology. Polity. ISBN 978-0-7456-5008-1. from the original on 30 April 2023. Retrieved 30 April 2023.
• Bryant, Napoleon A. (2001). "Make the Curriculum". Science Learning for All: Celebrating Cultural Diversity. NSTA Press. ISBN 978-0-87355-194-6.
• Buckner, Elizabeth (2019). "The Internationalization of Higher Education: National Interpretations of a Global Model". Comparative Education Review. 63 (3): 315–336. doi:10.1086/703794. S2CID 198608127.
• Bukoye, Roseline Olufunke (2019). "Utilization of Instruction Materials as Tools for Effective Academic Performance of Students: Implications for Counselling". The 2nd Innovative and Creative Education and Teaching International Conference. Vol. 2. MDPI. p. 1395. doi:10.3390/proceedings2211395.
• Bullard, Julie; Hitz, Randy (1997). "Early Childhood Education and Adult Education: Bridging the Cultures". Journal of Early Childhood Teacher Education. 18 (1): 15–22. doi:10.1080/10901029708549133. ISSN 1090-1027. from the original on 15 May 2022. Retrieved 15 May 2022.
• Burman, Eva; Cooper, Maxine; Ling, Lorraine; Stephenson, Joan (2005). Values in Education. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-134-72831-2. from the original on 1 May 2023. Retrieved 30 April 2023.
• Burroughs, Nathan; Gardner, Jacqueline; Lee, Youngjun; Guo, Siwen; Touitou, Israel; Jansen, Kimberly; Schmidt, William (2019). "A Review of the Literature on Teacher Effectiveness and Student Outcomes". Teaching for Excellence and Equity. IEA Research for Education. Vol. 6. Springer International Publishing. pp. 7–17. doi:10.1007/978-3-030-16151-4_2. ISBN 978-3-030-16151-4. S2CID 187326800. from the original on 1 May 2023. Retrieved 30 April 2023.
• Butler, S.; Marsh, H.; Sheppard, J. (1985). "Seven Year Longitudinal Study of the Early Prediction of Reading Achievement". Journal of Educational Psychology. 77 (3): 349–361. doi:10.1037/0022-0663.77.3.349.
• Charungkaittikul, Suwithida (2021). "Guidelines for Lifelong Education Management to Mogilize Learning Community". In Information Resources Management Association (ed.). Research Anthology on Adult Education and the Development of Lifelong Learners. IGI Global. ISBN 978-1-7998-8734-8. from the original on 13 May 2023. Retrieved 9 May 2023.
• Chazan, Barry (2022). "What Is "Education"?". Principles and Pedagogies in Jewish Education. Springer International Publishing. pp. 13–21. doi:10.1007/978-3-030-83925-3_3. ISBN 978-3-030-83925-3. S2CID 239896844. from the original on 12 May 2022. Retrieved 13 May 2022.
• Chimombo, Joseph (2005). (PDF). Journal of International Cooperation in Education. 8 (1). doi:10.15027/34225. Archived from the original (PDF) on 11 April 2019. Retrieved 15 December 2018.
• Chou, Chih-Yueh; Zou, Nian-Bao (2020). "An Analysis of Internal and External Feedback in Self-Regulated Learning Activities Mediated by Self-Regulated Learning Tools and Open Learner Models". International Journal of Educational Technology in Higher Education. 17 (1). doi:10.1186/s41239-020-00233-y. S2CID 229550927.
• Claire, Shewbridge; Marian, Hulshof; Deborah, Nusche; Louise, Stoll (2011). OECD Reviews of Evaluation and Assessment in Education: School Evaluation in the Flemish Community of Belgium 2011. OECD Publishing. ISBN 978-92-64-11672-6. from the original on 5 May 2023. Retrieved 6 May 2023.
• Close, Paul (2014). Child Labour in Global Society. Emerald Group Publishing. ISBN 978-1-78350-780-1. from the original on 5 May 2023. Retrieved 6 May 2023.
• Cobb, Casey D.; Glass, Gene V. (2021). Public and Private Education in America: Examining the Facts. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-1-4408-6375-2. from the original on 8 May 2023. Retrieved 9 May 2023.
• Cohen, Louis; Manion, Lawrence; Morrison, Keith (2018). Research Methods in Education (8th ed.). Routledge. ISBN 978-1-315-45652-2. from the original on 26 April 2023. Retrieved 30 April 2023.
• Collins staff. "Private Education". Collin's English Dictionary. from the original on 3 April 2015. Retrieved 7 May 2023.
• Cook, Bryan G.; Tankersley, Melody; Landrum, Timothy J. (2013). Evidence-Based Practices. Emerald Group Publishing. ISBN 978-1-78190-430-5. from the original on 7 May 2023. Retrieved 9 May 2023.
• Coombs, Jerrold R. (1998). "Educational Ethics: Are We on the Right Track?". Educational Theory. 48 (4): 555–569. doi:10.1111/j.1741-5446.1998.00555.x.
• Cordasco, Francesco (1976). A Brief History of Education: A Handbook of Information on Greek, Roman, Medieval, Renaissance, and Modern Educational Practice. Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 978-0-8226-0067-1. from the original on 30 April 2023. Retrieved 30 April 2023.
• Curran, Marta; Rujas, Javier; Castejón, Alba (2022). "The Silent Expansion of Internationalisation: Exploring the Adoption of the International Baccalaureate in Madrid". Compare: A Journal of Comparative and International Education. 53 (7): 1244–1262. doi:10.1080/03057925.2021.2022456. S2CID 245816054.
• Curren, Randall (1996). "Education, Philosophy of". In Craig, Edward (ed.). Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-18710-7. from the original on 16 January 2021. Retrieved 13 May 2022.
• Curtis, Will (2011). "The Philosophy of Education". In Dufour, Barry; Will, Curtis (eds.). Studying Education: An Introduction to the Key Disciplines in Education Studies. Open University Press. ISBN 978-0-335-24107-1.
• Cyclopædia of Education staff (1877). Kiddle, Henry; Schem, Alexander Jacob (eds.). Cyclopædia of Education: A Dictionary of Information for the Use of Teachers, School Officers, Parents and Others. Steiger. OCLC 837647436. from the original on 1 May 2023. Retrieved 3 May 2023.
• Danesi, Marcel (2013). Encyclopedia of Media and Communication. University of Toronto Press. ISBN 978-1-4426-9553-5.
• Dator, James (2008). "Universities Without 'Quality' and Quality Without 'Universities'". In Bussey, Marcus; Inayatullah, Sohail; Milojević, Ivana (eds.). Alternative Educational Futures: Pedagogies for Emergent Worlds. BRILL. ISBN 978-90-8790-513-2.
• Davies, Martin; Barnett, Ronald (2015). "Introduction". The Palgrave Handbook of Critical Thinking in Higher Education. Palgrave Macmillan US. doi:10.1057/9781137378057_1. ISBN 978-1-137-37805-7. from the original on 30 July 2022. Retrieved 13 May 2022.
• DeVitis, Joseph L.; Irwin-DeVitis, Linda (2010). "Preface". Adolescent Education: A Reader. Peter Lang. ISBN 978-1-4331-0504-3. from the original on 15 May 2022. Retrieved 15 May 2022.
• Dewey, John (2004). "6. Education as Conservative and Progressive". Democracy and Education. Courier Corporation. ISBN 978-0-486-43399-8. from the original on 19 May 2022. Retrieved 13 May 2022.
• Dhiman, Satinder (2017). Holistic Leadership: A New Paradigm for Today's Leaders. Springer. ISBN 978-1-137-55571-7. from the original on 28 April 2023. Retrieved 30 April 2023.
• Dreeben, Olga (2010). Patient Education in Rehabilitation. Jones & Bartlett Learning. ISBN 978-0-7637-5544-7. from the original on 12 May 2023. Retrieved 30 April 2023.
• El-Abbadi, Mostafa (2023). "Library of Alexandria". Encyclopedia Britannica. from the original on 14 May 2023. Retrieved 3 May 2023.
• Emaliana, Ive (2017). "Teacher-Centered or Student-Centered Learning Approach To Promote Learning?". Jurnal Sosial Humaniora. 10 (2): 59. doi:10.12962/j24433527.v10i2.2161. S2CID 148796695.
• Eshach, Haim (2007). "Bridging In-School and Out-of-School Learning: Formal, Non-Formal, and Informal Education". Journal of Science Education and Technology. 16 (2): 171–190. Bibcode:2007JSEdT..16..171E. doi:10.1007/s10956-006-9027-1. ISSN 1573-1839. S2CID 55089324. from the original on 12 May 2022. Retrieved 15 May 2022.
• Figueroa, Ligaya Leah; Lim, Samsung; Lee, Jihyun (2016). "Investigating the Relationship Between School Facilities and Academic Achievements Through Geographically Weighted Regression". Annals of GIS. 22 (4): 273–285. Bibcode:2016AnGIS..22..273F. doi:10.1080/19475683.2016.1231717. S2CID 46709454.
• Fogarty, Robin J.; Stoehr, Judy (2008). Integrating Curricula With Multiple Intelligences: Teams, Themes, and Threads. Corwin Press. ISBN 978-1-4129-5553-9. from the original on 12 May 2023. Retrieved 30 April 2023.
• Francois, Emmanuel Jean (2015). Building Global Education With a Local Perspective: An Introduction to Glocal Higher Education. Springer. ISBN 978-1-137-38677-9. from the original on 26 April 2023. Retrieved 30 April 2023.
• Frankena, William K.; Burbules, Nicholas C.; Raybeck, Nathan (2003). "Philosophy of Education". In Guthrie, James W. (ed.). Encyclopedia of Education (2nd ed.). Macmillan Reference US. ISBN 978-0-02-865594-9.
• Freire, Paulo (1970). "Chapter 2". Pedagogy of the Oppressed (PDF). Herder and Herder. ISBN 978-0-14-080331-0. (PDF) from the original on 5 April 2022. Retrieved 13 May 2022.
• Friesen, Norm (2017). The Textbook and the Lecture: Education in the Age of New Media. JHU Press. ISBN 978-1-4214-2434-7. from the original on 13 May 2023. Retrieved 3 May 2023.
• Gabriel, Cle-Anne (2022). Why Teach with Cases?: Reflections on Philosophy and Practice. Emerald Group Publishing. ISBN 978-1-80382-399-7.
• Gallard, Diahann; Garden, Angie (2011). "The Psychology of Education". In Dufour, Barry; Will, Curtis (eds.). Studying Education: An Introduction to the Key Disciplines in Education Studies. Open University Press. ISBN 978-0-335-24107-1.
• Gary, Roberts; Crime, United Nations Office on Drugs and (2017). Education Sector Responses to the Use of Alcohol, Tobacco and Drugs. UNESCO Publishing. ISBN 978-92-3-100211-3. from the original on 13 May 2023. Retrieved 30 April 2023.
• Ge (Rochelle) (葛贇), Yun (2022). "Internationalisation of Higher Education: New Players in a Changing Scene". Educational Research and Evaluation. 27 (3–4): 229–238. doi:10.1080/13803611.2022.2041850. S2CID 248370676.
• Gingell, John; Winch, Christopher (2002). Philosophy of Education: The Key Concepts. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-134-69031-2. from the original on 23 April 2023. Retrieved 30 April 2023.
• Giuseffi, Francesco (2019). Self-Directed Learning Strategies in Adult Educational Contexts. IGI Global. ISBN 978-1-5225-8019-5. from the original on 13 May 2023. Retrieved 9 May 2023.
• Glaeser, Edward L.; Ponzetto, Giacomo A. M.; Shleifer, Andrei (2007). "Why Does Democracy Need Education?". Journal of Economic Growth. 12 (2): 77–99. doi:10.1007/s10887-007-9015-1.
• Goswami, U (2006). "Neuroscience and Education: From Research to Practice?". Nature Reviews Neuroscience. 7 (5): 406–413. doi:10.1038/nrn1907. PMID 16607400. S2CID 3113512.
• Grigorenko, Elena L. (2008). "Multiple Intelligences Theory". International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences. Macmillan Reference US. ISBN 978-0-02-865973-2. from the original on 1 May 2023. Retrieved 30 April 2023.
• Gross, Robert N. (2018). Public Vs. Private: The Early History of School Choice in America. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-064457-4. from the original on 2 May 2023. Retrieved 3 May 2023.
• Haack, Robin (1981). "Education and the Good Life". Philosophy. 56 (217): 289–302. doi:10.1017/S0031819100050282. ISSN 0031-8191. JSTOR 3750273. S2CID 144950876.
• Haleem, Abid; Javaid, Mohd; Qadri, Mohd Asim; Suman, Rajiv (2022). "Understanding the Role of Digital Technologies in Education: A Review". Sustainable Operations and Computers. 3: 275–285. doi:10.1016/j.susoc.2022.05.004. S2CID 249055862.
• Hand, Michael (2014). "What Should Go on the Curriculum". In Bailey, Richard (ed.). The Philosophy of Education: An Introduction. Bloomsbury Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4742-2899-2. from the original on 12 April 2023. Retrieved 30 April 2023.
• Hankin, Les (2009). "Education Beyond Schools". In Warren, Sue (ed.). An Introduction to Education Studies: The Student Guide to Themes and Contexts. Bloomsbury Academic. ISBN 978-0-8264-9920-2. from the original on 16 April 2023. Retrieved 30 April 2023.
• HarperCollins staff (2023). "The American Heritage Dictionary Entry: Education". www.ahdictionary.com. HarperCollins. from the original on 12 May 2022. Retrieved 9 May 2022.
• HarperCollins staff (2023a). "The American Heritage Dictionary Entry: Special Education". www.ahdictionary.com. HarperCollins. from the original on 6 May 2023. Retrieved 5 May 2023.
• Harris, William T. (1881). "The Church, the State, and the School". The North American Review. 133 (298): 215–227. ISSN 0029-2397. JSTOR 25100991.
• Hart, Caroline Sarojini (2019). "Education, Inequality and Social Justice: A Critical Analysis Applying the Sen-Bourdieu Analytical Framework". Policy Futures in Education. 17 (5): 582–598. doi:10.1177/1478210318809758. S2CID 149540574.
• Helms, Marilyn M. (2006). "Motivation and Motivation Theory". Encyclopedia of Management. Thomson Gale. ISBN 978-0-7876-6556-2. from the original on 29 April 2021. Retrieved 30 April 2023.
• Hicks, David (2004). "The Global Dimension in the Curriculum". In Ward, Stephen (ed.). Education Studies: A Student's Guide. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-134-35767-3. from the original on 19 April 2023. Retrieved 30 April 2023.
• Hicks, David (2004a). "Education and Environment". In Ward, Stephen (ed.). Education Studies: A Student's Guide. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-134-35767-3. from the original on 19 April 2023. Retrieved 30 April 2023.
• Hill, Paul; Pierce, Lawrence C.; Guthrie, James W. (2009). Reinventing Public Education: How Contracting Can Transform America's Schools. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-33653-4. from the original on 13 May 2023. Retrieved 9 May 2023.
• Hoad, T. F. (1993). The Concise Oxford Dictionary of English Etymology. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-283098-8.
• Honeybourne, John (2005). BTEC First Sport. Nelson Thornes. ISBN 978-0-7487-8553-7. from the original on 28 April 2023. Retrieved 30 April 2023.
• Horwitz, Ilana M. (2021). "Religion and Academic Achievement: A Research Review Spanning Secondary School and Higher Education". Review of Religious Research. 63 (1): 107–154. doi:10.1007/s13644-020-00433-y. S2CID 256247903.
• Hoskin, Keith (2021). "Technologies of Learning and Alphabetic Culture: The History of Writing as the History of Education". In Green, Bill (ed.). The Insistence of the Letter. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-429-84402-7. from the original on 13 May 2023. Retrieved 3 May 2023.
• Hughes, Claretha; Gosney, Matthew W. (2016). The History of Human Resource Development: Understanding the Unexplored Philosophies, Theories, and Methodologies. Springer. ISBN 978-1-137-52698-4. from the original on 13 May 2023. Retrieved 3 May 2023.
• Hughes, Pat (2009). "Breaking Barriers to Learning". In Warren, Sue (ed.). An Introduction to Education Studies: The Student Guide to Themes and Contexts. Bloomsbury Academic. ISBN 978-0-8264-9920-2. from the original on 16 April 2023. Retrieved 30 April 2023.
• Illanes, Pablo; Lund, Susan; Mourshed, Mona; Rutherford, Scott; Tyreman, Magnus. "Retraining and Reskilling Workers in the Age of Automation". www.mckinsey.com. from the original on 28 April 2023. Retrieved 27 April 2023.
• International Commission on the Futures of Education (2022). Reimagining Our Futures Together: A New Social Contract for Education. UN. ISBN 978-92-1-001210-2. from the original on 14 May 2023. Retrieved 14 May 2023.
• Iseke, Judy (2013). "Indigenous Storytelling as Research". International Review of Qualitative Research. 6 (4): 559–577. doi:10.1525/irqr.2013.6.4.559. ISSN 1940-8447. JSTOR 10.1525/irqr.2013.6.4.559. S2CID 144222653.
• Isik, Ulviye; Tahir, Omaima El; Meeter, Martijn; Heymans, Martijn W.; Jansma, Elise P.; Croiset, Gerda; Kusurkar, Rashmi A. (2018). "Factors Influencing Academic Motivation of Ethnic Minority Students: A Review". SAGE Open. 8 (2). doi:10.1177/2158244018785412. S2CID 149809331.
• Jackson, Philip W. (2011). "6. In Pursuit of Perfection". What Is Education?. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-38939-4. from the original on 12 May 2022. Retrieved 13 May 2022.
• Jacob, W. James; Cheng, Sheng Yao; Porter, Maureen K. (2015). Indigenous Education: Language, Culture and Identity. Springer. ISBN 978-94-017-9355-1. from the original on 13 May 2023. Retrieved 9 May 2023.
• Jarvis, Peter (2012). An International Dictionary of Adult and Continuing Education. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-134-97506-8. from the original on 7 May 2023. Retrieved 9 May 2023.
• Johnes, Jill; Portela, Maria; Thanassoulis, Emmanuel (2017). "Efficiency in Education". Journal of the Operational Research Society. 68 (4): 331–338. doi:10.1057/s41274-016-0109-z. S2CID 14220634.
• Johnson, Mark S.; Stearns, Peter N. (2022). Education in World History. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-1-317-81337-8. from the original on 2 May 2023. Retrieved 3 May 2023.
• Jong-Wha, Lee (2018). "Education in the Age of Automation". The Japan Times. from the original on 6 May 2021. Retrieved 6 May 2021.
• Kantzara, Vasiliki (2016). "Education, Social Functions of". The Blackwell Encyclopedia of Sociology. John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. pp. 1–3. doi:10.1002/9781405165518.wbeose097.pub3. ISBN 978-1-4051-2433-1. from the original on 28 April 2023. Retrieved 30 April 2023.
• Karadağ, Engin (2017). The Factors Effecting Student Achievement: Meta-Analysis of Empirical Studies. Springer. ISBN 978-3-319-56083-0. from the original on 27 April 2023. Retrieved 30 April 2023.
• Kassem, Derek; Mufti, Emmanuel; Robinson, John (2006). Education Studies: Issues and Critical Perspectives. McGraw-Hill Education. ISBN 978-0-335-21973-5.
• Kemmis, Stephen; Edwards-Groves, Christine (2017). Understanding Education: History, Politics and Practice. Springer. ISBN 978-981-10-6433-3. from the original on 13 May 2023. Retrieved 3 May 2023.
• Kimble, Gregory A. (2023). "Learning Theory". Encyclopedia Britannica. from the original on 12 July 2022. Retrieved 20 August 2022.
• Kimmons, Royce (2015). "Games and Transformational Play". In Spector, J. Michael (ed.). The Sage Encyclopedia of Educational Technology. Sage Publications. ISBN 978-1-5063-1129-6. from the original on 27 April 2023. Retrieved 30 April 2023.
• Kiracofe, Christine Rienstra; Hirth, Marilyn A.; Hutton, Tom (2022). Charter School Funding Considerations. IAP. ISBN 978-1-64802-835-9. from the original on 29 April 2023. Retrieved 30 April 2023.
• Kotzee, Ben (2011). "Education and 'Thick' Epistemology". Educational Theory. 61 (5): 549–564. doi:10.1111/j.1741-5446.2011.00420.x.
• Kraftl, Peter (2014). Informal Education, Childhood and Youth: Geographies, Histories, Practices. Springer. ISBN 978-1-137-02773-3.
• Krishnan, Karthik (2020). "Our Education System Is Losing Relevance. Here's How To Update It". World Economic Forum. from the original on 6 May 2021. Retrieved 6 May 2021.
• Krueger, Alan B; Lindahl, Mikael (2001). "Education for Growth: Why and for Whom?" (PDF). Journal of Economic Literature. 39 (4): 1101–1136. doi:10.1257/jel.39.4.1101.
• Kte'pi, Bill (2013). "Chronology". In Ainsworth, James (ed.). Sociology of Education: An A-to-Z Guide. Sage Publications. ISBN 978-1-5063-5473-6. from the original on 3 May 2023. Retrieved 3 May 2023.
• Kuskis, Alexander; Logan, Robert (2014). "A Historical View of Education from the Perspective of Marshall McLuhan and Media Ecology". In Ciastellardi, Matteo (ed.). International Journal of McLuhan Studies 2012–13: Education Overload. From Total Surround to Pattern Recognition (in Spanish). Universidad Oberta de Catalunya, Barcelona. ISBN 978-84-939995-9-9. from the original on 1 May 2023. Retrieved 3 May 2023.
• La Belle, Thomas J. (1982). "Formal, Nonformal and Informal Education: A Holistic Perspective on Lifelong Learning". International Review of Education. 28 (2): 159–175. doi:10.1007/BF00598444. ISSN 1573-0638. S2CID 144859947. from the original on 12 May 2022. Retrieved 15 May 2022.
• Lane, John; Lane, Andrew M.; Kyprianou, Anna (2004). "Self-Efficacy, Self-Esteem and Their Impact on Academic Performance". Social Behavior and Personality. 32 (3): 247–256. doi:10.2224/sbp.2004.32.3.247.
• Lareau, Annette; Ferguson, Sherelle (2018). "Education, Sociology of". In Ryan, J. Michael (ed.). Core Concepts in Sociology. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-1-119-16863-8. from the original on 11 May 2023. Retrieved 30 April 2023.
• Le Play, Debbie (2011). "Comparative Education". In Dufour, Barry; Will, Curtis (eds.). Studying Education: An Introduction to the Key Disciplines in Education Studies. Open University Press. ISBN 978-0-335-24107-1.
• Lee, Ya-Hui (2021). "From Older Adult Education to Social Service: The Transformation of Elderly Education Organizations". Journal of Social Service Research. 47 (5): 714–723. doi:10.1080/01488376.2021.1908483. ISSN 0148-8376. S2CID 234801525. from the original on 15 May 2022. Retrieved 15 May 2022.
• Li, Zijian (2006). Values Education for Citizens in the New Century. Chinese University Press. ISBN 978-962-996-153-4. from the original on 14 May 2023. Retrieved 14 May 2023.
• Liu, Ying (2023). "An Exploration of EFL Teachers' Assessment Literacy and Its Enhancement". In Hussain, Rosila Bee Binti Mohd; Parc, Jimmyn; Li, Jia (eds.). Proceedings of the 2023 9th International Conference on Humanities and Social Science Research (ICHSSR 2023). Springer Nature. ISBN 978-2-38476-092-3.
• Lynch, John Patrick (1972). Aristotle's School; a Study of a Greek Educational Institution. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-02194-5. from the original on 17 May 2023. Retrieved 17 May 2023.
• Main, Shiho (2012). "'The Other Half' of Education: Unconscious Education of Children". Educational Philosophy and Theory. 44 (1): 82–95. doi:10.1111/j.1469-5812.2010.00643.x. ISSN 0013-1857. S2CID 145281776. from the original on 15 May 2022. Retrieved 15 May 2022.
• Manyika, James; Lund, Susan; Chui, Michael; Bughin, Jacques; Woetzel, Jonathan; Batra, Parul; Ko, Ryan; Sanghvi, Saurabh. "What the Future of Work Will Mean for Jobs, Skills, and Wages: Jobs Lost, Jobs Gained McKinsey". www.mckinsey.com. from the original on 5 May 2021. Retrieved 6 May 2021.
• Marquis, Donald G. (1942). "The Neurology of Learning". Comparative Psychology (Rev. Ed.).: 153–177. doi:10.1037/11454-007.
• Marshall, James D. (2006). "The Meaning of the Concept of Education: Searching for the Lost Arc". Journal of Thought. 41 (3): 33–37. ISSN 0022-5231. JSTOR 42589880.
• Matheson, David (2014). "What Is Education?". An Introduction to the Study of Education (4th ed.). Routledge. pp. 15–32. doi:10.4324/9780203105450-8. ISBN 978-0-203-10545-0. from the original on 12 May 2022. Retrieved 13 May 2022.
• Mazurek, Kas; Winzer, Margret A. (1994). Comparative Studies in Special Education. Gallaudet University Press. ISBN 978-1-56368-027-4. from the original on 6 May 2023. Retrieved 6 May 2023.
• McInerney, Dennis M. (2019). "Motivation". Educational Psychology. 39 (4): 427–429. doi:10.1080/01443410.2019.1600774. S2CID 218508624.
• McHugh, Richard (2016). "Anarchism and Informal Informal Pedagogy: 'Gangs', Difference, Deference". In Springer, Simon; Souza, Marcelo Lopes de; White, Richard J. (eds.). The Radicalization of Pedagogy: Anarchism, Geography, and the Spirit of Revolt. Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 978-1-78348-671-7.
• Mead, Margaret (1943). "Our Educational Emphases in Primitive Perspective". American Journal of Sociology. 48 (6): 633–639. doi:10.1086/219260. ISSN 0002-9602. JSTOR 2770220. S2CID 145275269.
• Meece, J. L.; Blumenfeld, P. C.; Hoyle, R. H. (1988). "Students' Goal Orientations and Cognitive Engagement in Classroom Activities". Journal of Educational Psychology. 80 (4): 514–523. doi:10.1037/0022-0663.80.4.514.
• Monds, Kathaleena Edward (2022). "The Freedom to Homeschool: Community as Classroom". In Ali-Coleman, Khadijah; Fields-Smith, Cheryl (eds.). Homeschooling Black Children in the U.S.: Theory, Practice, and Popular Culture. IAP. ISBN 978-1-64802-784-0. from the original on 9 May 2023. Retrieved 9 May 2023.
• Moore, Alex (2004). The Good Teacher: Dominant Discourses in Teaching and Teacher Education. Psychology Press. ISBN 978-0-415-33564-5. from the original on 11 May 2023. Retrieved 30 April 2023.
• Morgan, W. John; Trofimova, Irina N.; Kliucharev, Grigori A. (2018). Civil Society, Social Change, and a New Popular Education in Russia. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-134-62568-0. from the original on 7 May 2023. Retrieved 9 May 2023.
• Murphy, John (2014). Gods & Goddesses of the Inca, Maya, and Aztec Civilizations. The Rosen Publishing Group, Inc. ISBN 978-1-62275-396-3. from the original on 13 May 2023. Retrieved 3 May 2023.
• Murphy, Lisa; Mufti, Emmanuel; Kassem, Derek (2009). Education Studies. McGraw-Hill Education (UK). ISBN 978-0-335-23763-0. from the original on 15 April 2023. Retrieved 30 April 2023.
• Murphy, Patricia (2003). "1. Defining Pedagogy". In Gipps, Caroline V. (ed.). Equity in the Classroom: Towards Effective Pedagogy for Girls and Boys. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-135-71682-0.
• National Education League (1875). "Compulsory Education". New England Journal of Education. 1 (5): 52. ISSN 2578-4145. JSTOR 44763565.
• Neem, Johann N. (2017). Democracy's Schools: The Rise of Public Education in America. JHU Press. ISBN 978-1-4214-2322-7. from the original on 3 May 2023. Retrieved 3 May 2023.
• New, Rebecca Staples; Cochran, Moncrieff (2007). Early Childhood Education: An International Encyclopedia. Greenwood Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-313-34143-4. from the original on 6 May 2023. Retrieved 6 May 2023.
• Nicholas, David M. (2014). The Growth of the Medieval City: From Late Antiquity to the Early Fourteenth Century. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-317-88550-4. from the original on 3 May 2023. Retrieved 3 May 2023.
• Noddings, Nel (1995). Philosophy of Education. Westview Press. ISBN 978-0-8133-8429-0.
• OECD (2015). ISCED 2011 Operational Manual Guidelines for Classifying National Education Programmes and Related Qualifications: Guidelines for Classifying National Education Programmes and Related Qualifications. OECD Publishing. ISBN 978-92-64-22836-8. from the original on 13 May 2023. Retrieved 6 May 2023.
• OECD (2018). OECD Handbook for Internationally Comparative Education Statistics 2018 Concepts, Standards, Definitions and Classifications: Concepts, Standards, Definitions and Classifications. OECD Publishing. ISBN 978-92-64-30444-4. from the original on 4 May 2023. Retrieved 6 May 2023.
• OECD (2012). Reviews of National Policies for Education: Higher Education in the Dominican Republic 2012. OECD Publishing. ISBN 978-92-64-17705-5.
• OECD (2013). Educational Research and Innovation Innovative Learning Environments. OECD Publishing. ISBN 978-92-64-20348-8.
• Oliveira, Wilk; Bittencourt, Ig Ibert (2019). Tailored Gamification to Educational Technologies. Springer Nature. ISBN 978-981-329-812-5. from the original on 29 April 2023. Retrieved 30 April 2023.
• Ornstein, Allan C.; Levine, Daniel U.; Gutek, Gerry; Vocke, David E. (2016). Foundations of Education. Cengage Learning. ISBN 978-1-305-85489-5. from the original on 13 May 2023. Retrieved 3 May 2023.
• OUP staff. "Public Education". Oxford Learner's Dictionary. Oxford University Press. Retrieved 7 May 2023.
• Paechter, Carrie (2001). Learning, Space and Identity. Sage Publications. ISBN 978-0-7619-6939-6. from the original on 13 May 2023. Retrieved 30 April 2023.
• Page, Randy; Page, Tana (2010). Promoting Health and Emotional Well-Being in Your Classroom. Jones & Bartlett Learning. ISBN 978-0-7637-7612-1. from the original on 13 April 2023. Retrieved 30 April 2023.
• Pashler, Harold; McDaniel, Mark; Rohrer, Doug; Bjork, Robert (2008). "Learning Styles: Concepts and Evidence". Psychological Science in the Public Interest. 9 (3): 105–119. doi:10.1111/j.1539-6053.2009.01038.x. ISSN 1529-1006. PMID 26162104. S2CID 2112166.
• Pazmiño, Robert W. (2002). Principles and Practices of Christian Education: An Evangelical Perspective. Wipf and Stock Publishers. ISBN 978-1-7252-0227-6. from the original on 14 May 2023. Retrieved 14 May 2023.
• Peel, Edwin A. (2023). "Pedagogy". Encyclopedia Britannica. from the original on 29 July 2022. Retrieved 15 August 2022.
• Peters, R. S. (2009) [1967]. "What Is an Educational Process?". In Peters, R.S (ed.). The Concept of Education. Routledge. doi:10.4324/9780203861073. ISBN 978-0-203-86107-3. from the original on 12 May 2022. Retrieved 13 May 2022.
• Peters, R. S. (2015). "1. Criteria of Education". Ethics and Education (Routledge Revivals). Routledge. ISBN 978-1-317-49478-2. from the original on 30 July 2022. Retrieved 13 May 2022.
• Peters, Richard S.; Woods, John; Dray, William H. (1973). "Aims of Education: A Conceptual Inquiry". The Philosophy of Education. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-875023-9. from the original on 12 May 2022. Retrieved 13 May 2022.
• Poe, Marshall (2011). A History of Communications: Media and Society From the Evolution of Speech to the Internet. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-511-97691-9.
• Portes, Pedro R. (1999). "Social and Psychological Factors in the Academic Achievement of Children of Immigrants: A Cultural History Puzzle". American Educational Research Journal. 36 (3): 489–507. doi:10.2307/1163548. JSTOR 1163548.
• Power, Edward J. (1970). Main Currents in the History of Education. McGraw-Hill. ISBN 978-0-07-050581-0. from the original on 3 May 2023. Retrieved 3 May 2023.
• Quinn, Francis M. (2013). "The Demise of Curriculum". In Humphreys, John; Quinn, Francis M. (eds.). Health Care Education: The Challenge of the Market. Springer. ISBN 978-1-4899-3232-7. from the original on 13 May 2023. Retrieved 9 May 2023.
• Raghupathi, Viju; Raghupathi, Wullianallur (2020). "The Influence of Education on Health: An Empirical Assessment of OECD Countries for the Period 1995–2015". Archives of Public Health. 78 (1): 20. doi:10.1186/s13690-020-00402-5. ISSN 2049-3258. PMC 7133023. PMID 32280462.
• Ramsay, John G. (2008). "Education, History of". In Provenzo, Eugene F. (ed.). Encyclopedia of the Social and Cultural Foundations of Education. Sage Publications. ISBN 978-1-4522-6597-1. from the original on 3 May 2023. Retrieved 3 May 2023.
• Reagan, Timothy (2005). Non-Western Educational Traditions: Alternative Approaches to Educational Thought and Practice. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers. ISBN 978-0-8058-4857-1. from the original on 17 May 2023. Retrieved 17 May 2023.
• Reid, Alan (2018). "Restoring the 'Publicness' of Public Education". In Wilkinson, Jane; Niesche, Richard; Eacott, Scott (eds.). Challenges for Public Education: Reconceptualising Educational Leadership, Policy and Social Justice as Resources for Hope. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-429-79193-2. from the original on 13 May 2023. Retrieved 30 April 2023.
• Reimers, Fernando M. (2020). Education and Climate Change: The Role of Universities. Springer Nature. ISBN 978-3-030-57927-2. from the original on 13 May 2023. Retrieved 9 May 2023.
• Reyhner, Jon; Singh, Navin Kumar (2021). "Indigenous Education in a Global Context". Oxford Bibliographies. from the original on 15 May 2022. Retrieved 14 May 2022.
• Robertson, Adi (2018). "OLPC's $100 Laptop Was Going To Change the World — Then It All Went Wrong". The Verge. from the original on 15 July 2021. Retrieved 26 January 2022.
• Rodriguez-Segura, Daniel (2022). "EdTech in Developing Countries: A Review of the Evidence". The World Bank Research Observer. 37 (2): 171–203. doi:10.1093/wbro/lkab011.
• Rosenkranz, Karl; Brackett, Anna Callender (1872). The Science of Education: A Paraphrase of Dr. Karl Rosenkranz's Paedagogik Als System. G.I. Jones. Retrieved 18 May 2022.
• Roser, Max; Ortiz-Ospina, Esteban (2013). "Primary and Secondary Education". Our World in Data. from the original on 18 May 2023. Retrieved 2 May 2023.
• Salganik, Laura Hersh; Matheson, Nancy; Phelps, Richard P. (1997). Education Indicators: An International Perspective. DIANE Publishing. ISBN 978-0-7881-4267-3. from the original on 6 May 2023. Retrieved 6 May 2023.
• Salvatori, Mariolina Rizzi (2003). Pedagogy: Disturbing History, 1820–1930. University of Pittsburgh Pre. ISBN 978-0-8229-7246-4. from the original on 23 April 2023. Retrieved 30 April 2023.
• Sampath, K. (1981). Introduction to Educational Technology. Sterling Publishers Pvt. Ltd. ISBN 978-81-207-3139-4. from the original on 13 May 2023. Retrieved 30 April 2023.
• Sanz, Nuria; Bergan, Sjur (2006). The Heritage of European Universities (2nd ed.). Council of Europe. ISBN 978-92-871-6121-5. from the original on 17 May 2023. Retrieved 17 May 2023.
• Schmid, Evi; Garrels, Veerle (2021). "Parental Involvement and Educational Success Among Vulnerable Students in Vocational Education and Training". Educational Research. 63 (4): 456–473. doi:10.1080/00131881.2021.1988672. S2CID 244163476.
• Schuknecht, Ludger (2020). Public Spending and the Role of the State: History, Performance, Risk and Remedies. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-108-49623-0. from the original on 2 May 2023. Retrieved 3 May 2023.
• Scott, William; Vare, Paul (2020). Learning, Environment and Sustainable Development: A History of Ideas. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-000-20802-3. from the original on 2 May 2023. Retrieved 3 May 2023.
• Scribner, Sylvia; Cole, Michael (1973). "Cognitive Consequences of Formal and Informal Education: New Accommodations Are Needed Between School-Based Learning and Learning Experiences of Everyday Life". Science. 182 (4112): 553–559. doi:10.1126/science.182.4112.553. PMID 17739714.
• Selwyn, Neil (2013). Education in a Digital World: Global Perspectives on Technology and Education. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-80844-6. from the original on 27 April 2023. Retrieved 30 April 2023.
• Sewell, Keira; Newman, Stephen (2013). "1. What Is Education?". In Curtis, Will; Ward, Stephen; Sharp, John; Hankin, Les (eds.). Education Studies: An Issue Based Approach. Learning Matters. ISBN 978-1-4462-9693-6. from the original on 12 May 2022. Retrieved 13 May 2022.
• Shelley, Fred M. (2022). Examining Education Around the World. Bloomsbury Publishing USA. ISBN 978-1-4408-6448-3.
• Shute, Valerie J.; Hansen, Eric G.; Underwood, Jody S.; Razzouk, Rim (2011). "A Review of the Relationship Between Parental Involvement and Secondary School Students' Academic Achievement". Education Research International. 2011: 1–10. doi:10.1155/2011/915326.
• Siegel, Harvey; Phillips, D.C.; Callan, Eamonn (2018). "Philosophy of Education". The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. from the original on 28 March 2019. Retrieved 25 March 2022.
• Siegel, Harvey (2023). "Philosophy of Education". Encyclopedia Britannica. from the original on 24 March 2022. Retrieved 23 March 2022.
• Siegel, Harvey (2010). "Introduction: Philosophy of Education and Philosophy". The Oxford Handbook of Philosophy of Education. OUP. pp. 3–9. doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195312881.003.0001. ISBN 978-0-19-531288-1. from the original on 19 March 2022. Retrieved 13 May 2022.
• Singh, M. (2015). "Introduction". . Technical and Vocational Education and Training: Issues, Concerns and Prospects. Vol. 21. Springer-UNESCO. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-15278-3. ISBN 978-3-319-15277-6. Archived from the original on 30 July 2022.
• Skowron, Janice (2015). Powerful Lesson Planning: Every Teacher's Guide to Effective Instruction. Simon and Schuster. ISBN 978-1-5107-0121-2. from the original on 25 April 2023. Retrieved 30 April 2023.
• Sliwka, Anne (2008). "The Contribution of Alternative Education". Innovating to Learn, Learning to Innovate. OECD Publishing. ISBN 978-92-64-04798-3. from the original on 9 May 2023. Retrieved 9 May 2023.
• Sluga, Hans (2006). "Family Resemblance". Grazer Philosophische Studien. 71 (1): 1–21. doi:10.1163/18756735-071001003. S2CID 90166164. from the original on 20 March 2022. Retrieved 13 May 2022.
• Smith, Kevin B.; Meier, Kenneth J. (2016). The Case Against School Choice: Politics, Markets and Fools. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-315-28655-6. from the original on 8 May 2023. Retrieved 9 May 2023.
• Smith, Patricia L.; Ragan, Tillman J. (2004). Instructional Design. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0-471-39353-5. from the original on 4 April 2023. Retrieved 30 April 2023.
• Smith, Sharon (2020). "Forms of Education: Rethinking Educational Experience Against and Outside the Humanist Legacy". British Journal of Educational Studies. 68 (6): 781–783. doi:10.1080/00071005.2020.1785788. ISSN 0007-1005. S2CID 225403522. from the original on 30 July 2022. Retrieved 13 May 2022.
• Srinivasan, Ramesh (2019). "Opinion: Automation Is Likely To Eliminate Nearly Half Our Jobs in the Next 25 Years. Here's What To Do". Los Angeles Times. from the original on 6 May 2021. Retrieved 6 May 2021.
• St. George, Donna; Strauss, Valerie; Meckler, Laura; Heim, Joe; Natanson, Hannah (2021). "How the Pandemic Is Reshaping Education". Washington Post. from the original on 31 March 2023. Retrieved 1 May 2023.
• Staats, Beth. . www.minitex.umn.edu. Archived from the original on 6 May 2021. Retrieved 6 May 2021.
• Sternberg, Robert J. (2022). "Human Intelligence". Encyclopedia Britannica. from the original on 25 April 2023. Retrieved 24 April 2023.
• Strauss, Claudia (1984). "Beyond 'Formal' versus 'Informal' Education: Uses of Psychological Theory in Anthropological Research". Ethos. 12 (3): 195–222. doi:10.1525/eth.1984.12.3.02a00010. ISSN 0091-2131. JSTOR 640180.
• Sullivan, Amanda Alzena (2019). Breaking the STEM Stereotype: Reaching Girls in Early Childhood. Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 978-1-4758-4205-0. from the original on 30 April 2023. Retrieved 30 April 2023.
• Taylor, C M. (1999). "Education and Personal Development: A Reflection". Archives of Disease in Childhood. 81 (6): 531–537. doi:10.1136/adc.81.6.531. PMC 1718155. PMID 10569977.
• Technology, Educational (1973). Introduction to Educational Technology. Educational Technology Publications. ISBN 978-0-87778-049-6. from the original on 27 April 2023. Retrieved 30 April 2023.
• The economist data team (2018). "A Study Finds Nearly Half of Jobs Are Vulnerable to Automation". The Economist. from the original on 30 July 2022. Retrieved 6 May 2021.
• The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica (2023). "Alternative Education". Encyclopedia Britannica. from the original on 23 April 2019. Retrieved 7 May 2023.
• The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica (2014). "Herbartianism". Encyclopedia Britannica. from the original on 4 August 2022. Retrieved 20 August 2022.
• Tiem, Darlene Van; Moseley, James L.; Dessinger, Joan C. (2012). Fundamentals of Performance Improvement: Optimizing Results Through People, Process, and Organizations. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-1-118-02524-6. from the original on 13 May 2023. Retrieved 9 May 2023.
• Tomlinson, Sally (2012). A Sociology of Special Education (RLE Edu M). Routledge. ISBN 978-1-136-45711-1. from the original on 6 May 2023. Retrieved 6 May 2023.
• Tudor, Sofia Loredana (2013). "Formal – Non-formal – Informal in Education". Procedia – Social and Behavioral Sciences. 76: 821–826. doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2013.04.213.
• Turuthi, David Gitau; Njagi, Kageni; Chemwei, Bernard (2017). "How Does Technology Influence Students'Motivation Towards Learning Kiswahili Proverbs?". In Jared, Keengwe (ed.). Handbook of Research on Pedagogical Models for Next-Generation Teaching and Learning. IGI Global. ISBN 978-1-5225-3874-5.
• UN (2023). "International Years". United Nations. from the original on 11 February 2023. Retrieved 9 February 2023.
• UN (2023a). "List of International Days and Weeks". United Nations. from the original on 17 June 2021. Retrieved 9 February 2023.
• UN (2020). "Policy Brief: Education During COVID-19 and Beyond" (PDF). United Nations. (PDF) from the original on 30 July 2022. Retrieved 11 December 2020.
• UNESCO (2012). "International Standard Classification of Education ISCED 2011" (PDF). uis.unesco.org. (PDF) from the original on 6 January 2017.
• UNESCO. "Convention Against Discrimination in Education". www.unesco.org. from the original on 12 April 2023. Retrieved 30 April 2023.
• UNESCO (2021). Guidelines To Strengthen the Right to Education in National Frameworks. UNESCO Publishing. ISBN 978-92-3-100428-5. from the original on 12 May 2023. Retrieved 30 April 2023.
• UNESCO (2018). . en.unesco.org. UNESCO. Archived from

November 23, 2023