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Renewable energy

January 01, 1970

For the journal, see Renewable Energy (journal).

Renewable energy (or green energy, low-carbon energy) is energy from renewable natural resources that are replenished on a human timescale. Mainstream renewable energy options include solar energy, wind power, hydropower, bioenergy and geothermal power. Renewable energy installations can be large or small. They are suited for urban as well as rural areas. Renewable energy is often deployed together with further electrification. This has several benefits: electricity can move heat or objects efficiently, and is clean at the point of consumption.[1][2] Variable renewable energy sources are those that are not dispatchable due to their fluctuating nature, such as wind power and solar power. In contrast, controllable renewable energy sources include dammed hydroelectricity, bioenergy, or geothermal power. Using renewable energy and energy efficiency technologies is resulting in more energy security, climate change mitigation, and economic benefits.[3]

Examples of renewable energy options: concentrated solar power with molten salt heat storage in Spain; wind energy in South Africa; the Three Gorges Dam on the Yangtze River in China; biomass energy plant in Scotland.

From 2011 to 2021, renewable energy grew from 20% to 28% of global electricity supply. Use of fossil energy shrank from 68% to 62%, and nuclear from 12% to 10%. The share of hydropower decreased from 16% to 15% while power from sun and wind increased from 2% to 10%. Biomass and geothermal energy grew from 2% to 3%.[4][5]

Renewable energy systems are rapidly becoming more efficient and cheaper. As a result, their share of the global energy consumption is increasing.[6] A large majority of worldwide newly installed electricity capacity is now renewable.[7] In most countries, photovoltaic solar or onshore wind are the cheapest new-build electricity.[8] Renewable energy can help reduce energy poverty in rural and remote areas of developing countries, where lack of energy access is often hindering economic development.

Many countries around the world already have renewable energy contributing more than 20% of their total energy supply. Some countries generate over half their electricity from renewables.[9] A few countries generate all their electricity from renewable energy.[10] National renewable energy markets are projected to continue to grow strongly in the 2020s and beyond.[11] According to the IEA, to achieve net zero emissions by 2050, 90% of global electricity generation will need to be produced from renewable sources.[12]

Renewable energy resources exist all over the world. This is in contrast to fossil fuels resources which are concentrated in a limited number of countries. However, the deployment of renewable energy is being hindered by massive fossil fuel subsidies.[13] In 2022 the International Energy Agency requested all countries to reduce their policy, regulatory, permitting and financing obstacles for renewables.[14] This would increase the chances of the world reaching net zero carbon emissions by 2050.[14]

There are ongoing debates around the renewable energy topic. For example, whether nuclear power should be grouped under the renewable energy category or not. There are also debates around geopolitics, the metal and mineral extraction needed for solar panels and batteries, possible installations in conservation areas and the need to recycle solar panels. Although most renewable energy sources are sustainable, some are not. For example, some biomass sources are unsustainable at current rates of exploitation.[15]

There are also other renewable energy technologies that are still under development, for example enhanced geothermal systems, concentrated solar power, cellulosic ethanol, and marine energy.[16][17]

Overview edit

 
Renewable energy sources, especially solar photovoltaic and wind, are generating an increasing share of electricity.[18]
See also: Lists of renewable energy topics
 
Coal, oil, and natural gas remain the primary global energy sources even as renewables have begun rapidly increasing.[19]

Definition edit

Renewable energy is usually understood as energy harnessed from continuously occurring natural phenomena. The International Energy Agency defines it as "energy derived from natural processes that are replenished at a faster rate than they are consumed.” Solar power, wind power, hydroelectricity, geothermal energy, and biomass are widely agreed to be the main types of renewable energy.[20] Renewable energy often displaces conventional fuels in four areas: electricity generation, hot water/space heating, transportation, and rural (off-grid) energy services.[21]

Although almost all forms of renewable energy cause much fewer carbon emissions than fossil fuels, the term is not synonymous with low-carbon energy. Some non-renewable sources of energy, such as nuclear power, generate almost no emissions, while some renewable energy sources can be very carbon-intensive, such as the burning of biomass if it is not offset by planting new plants.[22] Renewable energy is also distinct from sustainable energy, a more abstract concept that seeks to group energy sources based on their overall permanent impact on future generations of humans. For example, biomass is often associated with unsustainable deforestation.[23]

Role in addressing climate change edit

 
Deaths caused as a result of fossil fuel use (areas of rectangles in chart) greatly exceed those resulting from production of renewable energy (rectangles barely visible in chart).[24]

As part of the global effort to address climate change, most of the world's countries have committed substantially reducing their greenhouse gas emissions. In practice, this means phasing out fossil fuels and replacing them with low-emissions energy sources.[22] At the 2023 United Nations Climate Change Conference, around three-quarters of the world's countries set a goal of tripling renewable energy capacity by 2030.[25] The European Union aims to generate 40% of its electricity from renewables by the same year.[26]

Renewable energy is also more evenly distributed around the world than fossil fuels, which are concentrated in a limited number of countries.[27] It also brings health benefits by reducing air pollution caused by the burning of fossil fuels. The potential worldwide savings in health care costs have been estimated at trillions of dollars annually.[28]

Other benefits edit

Main article: Climate change mitigation § Co-benefits

Moving to modern renewable energy has very large health benefits due to reducing air pollution from fossil fuels.[29][30][31]

History edit

New government spending, regulation and policies helped the renewables industry weather the global financial crisis better than many other sectors.[32] In 2022, renewables accounted for 30% of global electricity generation, up from 21% in 1985.[33]

Mainstream technologies edit

 
Renewable energy capacity has steadily grown, led by solar photovoltaic power.[34]

Solar energy edit

Main articles: Solar energy, Solar power, and Outline of solar energy
Global electricity power generation capacity 1419.0 GW (2023)[35]
Global electricity power generation capacity annual growth rate 25% (2014-2023)[36]
Share of global electricity generation 4.5% (2022)[37]
Levelized cost per megawatt hour Utility-scale photovoltaics: USD 38.343 (2019)[38]
Primary technologies Photovoltaics, concentrated solar power, solar thermal collector
Other energy applications Water heating; heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC); cooking; process heat; water treatment
 
A small, roof-top mounted PV system in Bonn, Germany
 
Komekurayama photovoltaic power station in Kofu, Japan

Solar power produced around 1.3 terrawatt-hours (TWh) worldwide in 2022,[9] representing 4.6% of the world's electricity. Almost all of this growth has happened since 2010.[39] Solar energy can be harnessed anywhere that receives sunlight; however, the amount of solar energy that can be harnessed for electricity generation is influenced by weather conditions, geographic location and time of day.[40]

There are two mainstream ways of harnessing solar energy: solar thermal, which converts solar energy into heat; and photovoltaics (PV), which converts it into electricity.[22] PV is far more widespread, accounting for around two thirds of the global solar energy capacity as of 2022.[41] It is also growing at a much faster rate, with 170 GW newly installed capacity in 2021,[42] compared to 25 GW of solar thermal.[41]

Passive solar refers to a range of construction strategies and technologies that aim to optimize the distribution of solar heat in a building. Examples include solar chimneys,[22] orienting a building to the sun, using construction materials that can store heat, and designing spaces that naturally circulate air.[43]

Photovoltaic development edit

Main articles: Growth of photovoltaics, Solar power by country, and List of photovoltaic power stations
 
Swanson's law–stating that solar module prices have dropped about 20% for each doubling of installed capacity—defines the "learning rate" of solar photovoltaics.[44][45]

A photovoltaic system, consisting of solar cells assembled into panels, converts light into electrical direct current via the photoelectric effect.[46] Almost all commercial PV cells consist of crystalline silicon, with a market share of 95%. Cadmium telluride thin-film solar cells account for the remainder.[47] PV has several advantages that make it by far the fastest-growing renewable energy technology. It is cheap, low-maintenance and scalable; adding to an existing PV installation as demanded arises is simple. Its main disadvantage is its poor performance in cloudy weather.[22]

PV systems range from small, residential and commercial rooftop or building integrated installations, to large utility-scale photovoltaic power station. Building-integrated PV uses existing land and structures to generate power close to where it is consumed.[48] A household's solar panels, and batteries if they have them, can often either be used for just that household or if connected to an electrical grid can be aggregated with millions of others.[49] As of 2022, around 25 million households rely on rooftop solar power worldwide.[50] Australia has by far the most rooftop solar capacity per capita.[51]

The first utility-scale solar power plant was built in 1982 in Hesperia, California by ARCO.[52] The plant was not profitable and was sold eight years later.[53] However, over the following decades, PV technology significantly improved its electricity generating efficiency, reduced the installation cost per watt as well as its energy payback time, and reached grid parity.[54] As a result, PV adoption has grown exponentially since 2010.[55] Global capacity increased from 230 GW at the end of 2015 to 890 GW in 2021.[56] PV grew fastest in China between 2016 and 2021, adding 560 GW, more than all advanced economies combined.[57] Four of the ten biggest solar power stations are in China, including the biggest, Golmud Solar Park in China.[58] Many utility-scale PV systems use tracking systems that follow the sun's daily path across the sky to generate more electricity than fixed-mounted systems.[59]

Solar thermal edit

This section is an excerpt from Solar thermal energy.[edit]
 
Roof-mounted close-coupled thermosiphon solar water heater.

Solar thermal energy (STE) is a form of energy and a technology for harnessing solar energy to generate thermal energy for use in industry, and in the residential and commercial sectors.

Solar thermal collectors are classified by the United States Energy Information Administration as low-, medium-, or high-temperature collectors. Low-temperature collectors are generally unglazed and used to heat swimming pools or to heat ventilation air. Medium-temperature collectors are also usually flat plates but are used for heating water or air for residential and commercial use.

High-temperature collectors concentrate sunlight using mirrors or lenses and are generally used for fulfilling heat requirements up to 300 deg C / 20 bar pressure in industries, and for electric power production. Two categories include Concentrated Solar Thermal (CST) for fulfilling heat requirements in industries, and Concentrated Solar Power (CSP) when the heat collected is used for electric power generation. CST and CSP are not replaceable in terms of application.

Wind power edit

Main articles: Wind power and Wind power by country
 
Burbo, NW-England
 
Sunrise at the Fenton Wind Farm in Minnesota, United States
 
Wind energy generation by region over time[60]
Global electricity power generation capacity 1017.2 GW (2023)[61]
Global electricity power generation capacity annual growth rate 13% (2014-2023)[62]
Share of global electricity generation 7.6% (2022)[37]
Levelized cost per megawatt hour Land-based wind: USD 30.165 (2019)[63]
Primary technology Wind turbine
Other energy applications Windmill, windpump

Humans have harnessed wind energy since at least 3500 BC. Until the 20th century, it was primarily used to power ships, windmills and water pumps. Today, the vast majority of wind power is used to generate electricity using wind turbines.[22] Modern utility-scale wind turbines range from around 600 kW to 9 MW of rated power. The power available from the wind is a function of the cube of the wind speed, so as wind speed increases, power output increases up to the maximum output for the particular turbine.[64] Areas where winds are stronger and more constant, such as offshore and high-altitude sites, are preferred locations for wind farms.

Wind-generated electricity met nearly 4% of global electricity demand in 2015, with nearly 63 GW of new wind power capacity installed. Wind energy was the leading source of new capacity in Europe, the US and Canada, and the second largest in China. In Denmark, wind energy met more than 40% of its electricity demand while Ireland, Portugal and Spain each met nearly 20%.[65]

Globally, the long-term technical potential of wind energy is believed to be five times total current global energy production, or 40 times current electricity demand, assuming all practical barriers needed were overcome. This would require wind turbines to be installed over large areas, particularly in areas of higher wind resources, such as offshore, and likely also industrial use of new types of VAWT turbines in addition to the horizontal axis units currently in use. As offshore wind speeds average ~90% greater than that of land, offshore resources can contribute substantially more energy than land-stationed turbines.[66]

Hydropower edit

Main articles: Hydroelectricity and Hydropower
 
The Three Gorges Dam for hydropower on the Yangtze River in China
 
Three Gorges Dam and Gezhouba Dam, China
Global electricity power generation capacity 1,267.9 GW (2023)[67]
Global electricity power generation capacity annual growth rate 1.9% (2014-2023)[68]
Share of global electricity generation 15% (2022)[37]
Levelized cost per megawatt hour USD 65.581 (2019)[69]
Primary technology Dam
Other energy applications Pumped storage, mechanical power

Since water is about 800 times denser than air, even a slow flowing stream of water, or moderate sea swell, can yield considerable amounts of energy. Water can generate electricity with a conversion efficiency of about 90%, which is the highest rate in renewable energy.[70] There are many forms of water energy:

  • Historically, hydroelectric power came from constructing large hydroelectric dams and reservoirs, which are still popular in developing countries.[71] The largest of them are the Three Gorges Dam (2003) in China and the Itaipu Dam (1984) built by Brazil and Paraguay.
  • Small hydro systems are hydroelectric power installations that typically produce up to 50 MW of power. They are often used on small rivers or as a low-impact development on larger rivers. China is the largest producer of hydroelectricity in the world and has more than 45,000 small hydro installations.[72]
  • Run-of-the-river hydroelectricity plants derive energy from rivers without the creation of a large reservoir. The water is typically conveyed along the side of the river valley (using channels, pipes and/or tunnels) until it is high above the valley floor, whereupon it can be allowed to fall through a penstock to drive a turbine. A run-of-river plant may still produce a large amount of electricity, such as the Chief Joseph Dam on the Columbia River in the United States.[73] However many run-of-the-river hydro power plants are micro hydro or pico hydro plants.

Hydropower is produced in 150 countries, with the Asia-Pacific region generating 32 percent of global hydropower in 2010.[needs update] Of the top 50 countries by percentage of electricity generated from renewables, 46 are primarily hydroelectric.[74] There are now seven hydroelectricity stations larger than 10 GW (10,000 MW) worldwide, see table below.

Rank Station Country Location Capacity (MW)
1. Three Gorges Dam   China 30°49′15″N 111°00′08″E / 30.82083°N 111.00222°E / 30.82083; 111.00222 (Three Gorges Dam) 22,500
2. Baihetan Dam   China 27°13′23″N 102°54′11″E / 27.22306°N 102.90306°E / 27.22306; 102.90306 (Three Gorges Dam) 16,000
3. Itaipu Dam   Brazil
  Paraguay		 25°24′31″S 54°35′21″W / 25.40861°S 54.58917°W / -25.40861; -54.58917 (Itaipu Dam) 14,000
4. Xiluodu Dam   China 28°15′35″N 103°38′58″E / 28.25972°N 103.64944°E / 28.25972; 103.64944 (Xiluodu Dam) 13,860
5. Belo Monte Dam   Brazil 03°06′57″S 51°47′45″W / 3.11583°S 51.79583°W / -3.11583; -51.79583 (Belo Monte Dam) 11,233
6. Guri Dam   Venezuela 07°45′59″N 62°59′57″W / 7.76639°N 62.99917°W / 7.76639; -62.99917 (Guri Dam) 10,235
7. Wudongde Dam   China 26°20′2″N 102°37′48″E / 26.33389°N 102.63000°E / 26.33389; 102.63000 (Three Gorges Dam) 10,200

Much hydropower is flexible, thus complementing wind and solar.[75] In 2021, the world renewable hydropower capacity was 1,360 GW.[57] Only a third of the world's estimated hydroelectric potential of 14,000 TWh/year has been developed.[76][77] New hydropower projects face opposition from local communities due to their large impact, including relocation of communities and flooding of wildlife habitats and farming land.[78] High cost and lead times from permission process, including environmental and risk assessments, with lack of environmental and social acceptance are therefore the primary challenges for new developments.[79] It is popular to repower old dams thereby increasing their efficiency and capacity as well as quicker responsiveness on the grid.[80] Where circumstances permit existing dams such as the Russell Dam built in 1985 may be updated with "pump back" facilities for pumped-storage which is useful for peak loads or to support intermittent wind and solar power. Because dispatchable power is more valuable than VRE[81][82] countries with large hydroelectric developments such as Canada and Norway are spending billions to expand their grids to trade with neighboring countries having limited hydro.[83]

Bioenergy edit

Main article: Bioenergy
 
Stump harvesting increases recovery of biomass from forests
Further information: Biomass (energy) § Environmental impacts
 
Sugarcane plantation to produce ethanol in Brazil
 
A CHP power station using wood to supply 30,000 households in France
Global electricity power generation capacity 150.3 GW (2023)[84]
Global electricity power generation capacity annual growth rate 5.8% (2014-2023)[85]
Share of global electricity generation 2.4% (2022)[37]
Levelized cost per megawatt hour USD 118.908 (2019)[86]
Primary technologies biomass, biofuel
Other energy applications Heating, cooking, transportation fuels

Biomass is biological material derived from living, or recently living organisms. It commonly refers to plants or plant-derived materials. As an energy source, biomass can either be used directly via combustion to produce heat, or indirectly after converting it to various forms of biofuel in solid, liquid or gaseous form. Conversion of biomass to biofuel can be achieved by different methods which are broadly classified into: thermal, chemical, and biochemical methods. Wood was the largest biomass energy source as of 2012;[87] examples include forest residues – such as dead trees, branches and tree stumps, yard clippings, wood chips and even municipal solid waste. Industrial biomass can be grown from numerous types of plants, including miscanthus, switchgrass, hemp, corn, poplar, willow, sorghum, sugarcane, bamboo,[88] and a variety of tree species, ranging from eucalyptus to oil palm (palm oil).

Plant energy is produced by crops specifically grown for use as fuel that offer high biomass output per hectare with low input energy.[89] The grain can be used for liquid transportation fuels while the straw can be burned to produce heat or electricity. Plant biomass can also be degraded from cellulose to glucose through a series of chemical treatments, and the resulting sugar can then be used as a first-generation biofuel.

Biomass can be converted to other usable forms of energy such as methane gas[90] or transportation fuels such as ethanol and biodiesel. Rotting garbage, and agricultural and human waste, all release methane gas – also called landfill gas or biogas. Crops, such as corn and sugarcane, can be fermented to produce the transportation fuel, ethanol. Biodiesel, another transportation fuel, can be produced from left-over food products such as vegetable oils and animal fats.[91] There is a great deal of research involving algal fuel or algae-derived biomass due to the fact that it is a non-food resource, grows around 20 times faster than other types of food crops, such as corn and soy, and can be grown almost anywhere.[92][93] Once harvested, it can be fermented to produce biofuels such as ethanol, butanol, and methane, as well as biodiesel and hydrogen. The biomass used for electricity generation varies by region. Forest by-products, such as wood residues, are common in the United States. Agricultural waste is common in Mauritius (sugar cane residue) and Southeast Asia (rice husks).

Biomass, biogas and biofuels are burned to produce heat/power and in doing so can harm the environment. Pollutants such as sulphurous oxides (SOx), nitrous oxides (NOx), and particulate matter (PM) are produced from the combustion of biomass. With regards to traditional use of biomass for heating and cooking, the World Health Organization estimates that 3.7 million prematurely died from outdoor air pollution in 2012 while indoor pollution from biomass burning effects over 3 billion people worldwide.[94][95]

Bioenergy global capacity in 2021 was 158 GW. Biofuels avoided 4.4% of global transport fuel demand in 2021.[57]

Biofuel edit

Main article: Biofuel
See also: Ethanol fuel, Sustainable biofuel, and Issues relating to biofuels
 
Brazil produces bioethanol made from sugarcane available throughout the country. A typical gas station with dual fuel service is marked "A" for alcohol (ethanol) and "G" for gasoline.
 
A bus fueled by biodiesel

Biofuels include a wide range of fuels which are derived from biomass. The term covers solid, liquid, and gaseous fuels.[96] Liquid biofuels include bioalcohols, such as bioethanol, and oils, such as biodiesel. Gaseous biofuels include biogas, landfill gas and synthetic gas. Bioethanol is an alcohol made by fermenting the sugar components of plant materials and it is made mostly from sugar and starch crops. These include maize, sugarcane and, more recently, sweet sorghum. The latter crop is particularly suitable for growing in dryland conditions, and is being investigated by International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics for its potential to provide fuel, along with food and animal feed, in arid parts of Asia and Africa.[97]

With advanced technology being developed, cellulosic biomass, such as trees and grasses, are also used as feedstocks for ethanol production. Ethanol can be used as a fuel for vehicles in its pure form, but it is usually used as a gasoline additive to increase octane and improve vehicle emissions. Bioethanol is widely used in the United States and in Brazil. The energy costs for producing bio-ethanol are almost equal to, the energy yields from bio-ethanol. However, according to the European Environment Agency, biofuels do not address global warming concerns.[98] Biodiesel is made from vegetable oils, animal fats or recycled greases. It can be used as a fuel for vehicles in its pure form, or more commonly as a diesel additive to reduce levels of particulates, carbon monoxide, and hydrocarbons from diesel-powered vehicles. Biodiesel is produced from oils or fats using transesterification and is the most common biofuel in Europe. Biofuels provided 2.7% of the world's transport fuel in 2010.[99][needs update]

Policies in more than 80 countries support biofuels demand.[57]

Since the 1970s, Brazil has had an ethanol fuel program which has allowed the country to become the world's second largest producer of ethanol (after the United States) and the world's largest exporter.[100] Brazil's ethanol fuel program uses modern equipment and cheap sugarcane as feedstock, and the residual cane-waste (bagasse) is used to produce heat and power.[101] There are no longer light vehicles in Brazil running on pure gasoline.[102]

Biojet is expected to be important for short-term reduction of carbon dioxide emissions from long-haul flights.[103]

Geothermal energy edit

Main articles: Geothermal energy, Geothermal power, Renewable thermal energy, and Geothermal energy in the United States
 
Steam rising from the Nesjavellir Geothermal Power Station in Iceland
 
Geothermal plant at The Geysers, California, US
 
Krafla, a geothermal power station in Iceland
Global electricity power generation capacity 14.9 GW (2023)[104]
Global electricity power generation capacity annual growth rate 3.4% (2014-2023)[105]
Share of global electricity generation <1% (2018)[106]
Levelized cost per megawatt hour USD 58.257 (2019)[107]
Primary technologies Dry steam, flash steam, and binary cycle power stations
Other energy applications Heating

High temperature geothermal energy is from thermal energy generated and stored in the Earth. Thermal energy is the energy that determines the temperature of matter. Earth's geothermal energy originates from the original formation of the planet and from radioactive decay of minerals (in currently uncertain[108] but possibly roughly equal[109] proportions). The geothermal gradient, which is the difference in temperature between the core of the planet and its surface, drives a continuous conduction of thermal energy in the form of heat from the core to the surface. The adjective geothermal originates from the Greek roots geo, meaning earth, and thermos, meaning heat.

The heat used for geothermal energy can be from deep within the Earth, all the way down to Earth's core – 6,400 kilometres (4,000 mi) down. At the core, temperatures may reach over 5,000 °C (9,030 °F). Heat conducts from the core to the surrounding rock. Extremely high temperature and pressure cause some rock to melt, which is commonly known as magma. Magma convects upward since it is lighter than the solid rock. This magma then heats rock and water in the crust, sometimes up to 371 °C (700 °F).[110]

Low temperature geothermal[111] refers to the use of the outer crust of the Earth as a thermal battery to facilitate renewable thermal energy for heating and cooling buildings, and other refrigeration and industrial uses. In this form of geothermal, a geothermal heat pump and ground-coupled heat exchanger are used together to move heat energy into the Earth (for cooling) and out of the Earth (for heating) on a varying seasonal basis. Low-temperature geothermal (generally referred to as "GHP"[clarification needed]) is an increasingly important renewable technology because it both reduces total annual energy loads associated with heating and cooling, and it also flattens the electric demand curve eliminating the extreme summer and winter peak electric supply requirements. Thus low temperature geothermal/GHP is becoming an increasing national[clarification needed] priority with multiple tax credit support[112] and focus as part of the ongoing movement toward net zero energy.[113]

Geothermal power is cost effective, reliable, sustainable, and environmentally friendly,[114] but has historically been limited to areas near tectonic plate boundaries. Recent technological advances have expanded the range and size of viable resources, especially for applications such as home heating, opening a potential for widespread exploitation. Geothermal wells release greenhouse gases trapped deep within the earth, but these emissions are usually much lower per energy unit than those of fossil fuels.

In 2017, the United States led the world in geothermal electricity production with 12.9 GW of installed capacity.[56] The largest group of geothermal power plants in the world is located at The Geysers, a geothermal field in California.[115] The Philippines follows the US as the second highest producer of geothermal power in the world, with 1.9 GW of capacity online.[56]

Global geothermal capacity in 2021 was 15 GW.[57]

Emerging technologies edit

There are also other renewable energy technologies that are still under development, including enhanced geothermal systems, concentrated solar power, cellulosic ethanol, and marine energy.[16][17] These technologies are not yet widely demonstrated or have limited commercialization. Many are on the horizon and may have potential comparable to other renewable energy technologies, but still depend on attracting sufficient attention and research, development and demonstration (RD&D) funding.[17]

There are numerous organizations within the academic, federal,[clarification needed] and commercial sectors conducting large-scale advanced research in the field of renewable energy. This research spans several areas of focus across the renewable energy spectrum. Most of the research is targeted at improving efficiency and increasing overall energy yields.[116] Multiple government-supported research organizations have focused on renewable energy in recent years. Two of the most prominent of these labs are Sandia National Laboratories and the National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL), both of which are funded by the United States Department of Energy and supported by various corporate partners.[117]

Enhanced geothermal systems edit

 
Enhanced geothermal system (see file description for details)
Main article: Enhanced geothermal systems

Enhanced geothermal systems (EGS) are a new type of geothermal power technology that does not require natural convective hydrothermal resources. The vast majority of geothermal energy within drilling reach is in dry and non-porous rock.[118] EGS technologies "enhance" and/or create geothermal resources in this "hot dry rock (HDR)" through hydraulic fracturing. EGS and HDR technologies, such as hydrothermal geothermal, are expected to be baseload resources that produce power 24 hours a day like a fossil plant. Distinct from hydrothermal, HDR and EGS may be feasible anywhere in the world, depending on the economic limits of drill depth. Good locations are over deep granite covered by a thick (3–5 km or 1.9–3.1 mi) layer of insulating sediments which slow heat loss.[119] There are HDR and EGS systems currently being developed and tested in France, Australia, Japan, Germany, the U.S., and Switzerland. The largest EGS project in the world is a 25 megawatt demonstration plant currently being developed in the Cooper Basin, Australia. The Cooper Basin has the potential to generate 5,000–10,000 MW.

Marine energy edit

 
Rance Tidal Power Station, France
Main article: Marine energy

Marine energy (also sometimes referred to as ocean energy) is the energy carried by ocean waves, tides, salinity, and ocean temperature differences. The movement of water in the world's oceans creates a vast store of kinetic energy, or energy in motion. This energy can be harnessed to generate electricity to power homes, transport and industries. The term marine energy encompasses wave power – power from surface waves, marine current power - power from marine hydrokinetic streams (e.g., the Gulf Stream), and tidal power – obtained from the kinetic energy of large bodies of moving water. Reverse electrodialysis (RED) is a technology for generating electricity by mixing fresh river water and salty sea water in large power cells designed for this purpose; as of 2016, it is being tested at a small scale (50 kW). Offshore wind power is not a form of marine energy, as wind power is derived from the wind, even if the wind turbines are placed over water. The oceans have a tremendous amount of energy and are close to many if not most concentrated populations. Ocean energy has the potential of providing a substantial amount of new renewable energy around the world.[120][121][page needed]

Earth infrared thermal radiation edit

Earth emits roughly 1017 W of infrared thermal radiation that flows toward the cold outer space. Solar energy hits the surface and atmosphere of the earth and produces heat. Using various theorized devices like emissive energy harvester (EEH) or thermoradiative diode, this energy flow can be converted into electricity. In theory, this technology can be used during nighttime.[124][125]

Others edit

Algae fuels edit

Main article: Algae fuels

Producing liquid fuels from oil-rich (fat-rich) varieties of algae is an ongoing research topic. Various microalgae grown in open or closed systems are being tried including some systems that can be set up in brownfield and desert lands.[126]

Water vapor edit

Collection of static electricity charges from water droplets on metal surfaces is an experimental technology that would be especially useful in low-income countries with relative air humidity over 60%.[127]

Nuclear energy edit

Breeder reactors could, in principle, extract almost all of the energy contained in uranium or thorium, decreasing fuel requirements by a factor of 100 compared to widely used once-through light water reactors, which extract less than 1% of the energy in the actinide metal (uranium or thorium) mined from the earth.[128] The high fuel-efficiency of breeder reactors could greatly reduce concerns about fuel supply, energy used in mining, and storage of radioactive waste. With seawater uranium extraction (currently too expensive to be economical), there is enough fuel for breeder reactors to satisfy the world's energy needs for 5 billion years at 1983's total energy consumption rate, thus making nuclear energy effectively a renewable energy.[129][130] In addition to seawater the average crustal granite rocks contain significant quantities of uranium and thorium that with breeder reactors can supply abundant energy for the remaining lifespan of the sun on the main sequence of stellar evolution.[131]

Artificial photosynthesis edit

Main article: Artificial photosynthesis

Artificial photosynthesis uses techniques including nanotechnology to store solar electromagnetic energy in chemical bonds by splitting water to produce hydrogen and then using carbon dioxide to make methanol.[132] Researchers in this field strived to design molecular mimics of photosynthesis that use a wider region of the solar spectrum, employ catalytic systems made from abundant, inexpensive materials that are robust, readily repaired, non-toxic, stable in a variety of environmental conditions and perform more efficiently allowing a greater proportion of photon energy to end up in the storage compounds, i.e., carbohydrates (rather than building and sustaining living cells).[133] However, prominent research faces hurdles, Sun Catalytix a MIT spin-off stopped scaling up their prototype fuel-cell in 2012 because it offers few savings over other ways to make hydrogen from sunlight.[134]

Consumption by sector edit

One of the efforts to decarbonize transportation is the increased use of electric vehicles (EVs).[135] Despite that and the use of biofuels, such as biojet, less than 4% of transport energy is from renewables.[136] Occasionally hydrogen fuel cells are used for heavy transport.[137] Meanwhile, in the future electrofuels may also play a greater role in decarbonizing hard-to-abate sectors like aviation and maritime shipping.[138]

Solar water heating makes an important contribution to renewable heat in many countries, most notably in China, which now has 70% of the global total (180 GWth). Most of these systems are installed on multi-family apartment buildings[139] and meet a portion of the hot water needs of an estimated 50–60 million households in China. Worldwide, total installed solar water heating systems meet a portion of the water heating needs of over 70 million households.

Heat pumps provide both heating and cooling, and also flatten the electric demand curve and are thus an increasing priority.[111] Renewable thermal energy is also growing rapidly.[140] About 10% of heating and cooling energy is from renewables.[141]

Some studies say that a global transition to 100% renewable energy across all sectors – power, heat, transport and industry – is feasible and economically viable.[142][143][144]

Intermittency edit

Main article: Variable renewable energy
 
Estimated power demand over a week in May 2012 and May 2020, Germany, showing the need for dispatchable generation rather than baseload generation in the grid[clarification needed]

Fossil fuel power plants are usually able to produce precisely the amount of energy an electricity grid requires at a given time. However, the two most important forms of renewable energy, solar and wind, are "intermittent" energy sources: they are not available constantly. Solar energy can only be captured during the day, and ideally in cloudless conditions. Wind power generation can vary significantly not only day-to-day, but even month-to-month.[145] This poses a challenge when transitioning away from fossil fuels: energy demand will often be higher or lower than what renewables can provide.[146] Both scenarios can cause electricity grids to become overloaded, leading to power outages. Energy storage is an important way of dealing with this variability.[147] Implementation of energy storage, using a wide variety of renewable energy technologies, and implementing a smart grid in which energy is automatically used at the moment it is produced can reduce risks and costs of renewable energy implementation.[146][148]: 15–16 

Sector coupling of the power generation sector with other sectors may increase flexibility: for example the transport sector can be coupled by charging electric vehicles and sending electricity from vehicle to grid.[149] Similarly the industry sector can be coupled by hydrogen produced by electrolysis,[150] and the buildings sector by thermal energy storage for space heating and cooling.[151]

Electrical energy storage edit

Main articles: Energy storage and Grid energy storage

Electrical energy storage is a collection of methods used to store electrical energy. Electrical energy is stored during times when production (especially from intermittent sources such as wind power, tidal power, solar power) exceeds consumption, and returned to the grid when production falls below consumption. Pumped-storage hydroelectricity accounts for more than 85% of all grid power storage.[152] Batteries are increasingly being deployed for storage[153] and grid ancillary services[154] and for domestic storage.[155] Green hydrogen is a more economical means of long-term renewable energy storage, in terms of capital expenditures compared to pumped hydroelectric or batteries.[156][157]

Further information: Self-powered dynamic systems

Market and industry trends edit

Main article: Renewable energy commercialization

Most new renewables are solar, followed by wind then hydro then bioenergy.[158] Investment in renewables, especially solar, tends to be more effective in creating jobs than coal, gas or oil.[159][160] Worldwide, renewables employ about 12 million people as of 2020, with solar PV being the technology employing the most at almost 4 million.[161] However, as of February 2024, the world's supply of workforce for solar energy is lagging greatly behind demand as universities worldwide still produce more workforce for fossil fuels than for renewable energy industries.[162]

In 2021, China accounted for almost half of the global increase in renewable electricity.[163]

There are 3,146 gigawatts installed in 135 countries, while 156 countries have laws regulating the renewable energy sector.[4][5]

Globally in 2020 there are over 10 million jobs associated with the renewable energy industries, with solar photovoltaics being the largest renewable employer.[164] The clean energy sectors added about 4.7 million jobs globally between 2019 and 2022, totaling 35 million jobs by 2022.[165]: 5 

Cost comparison edit

The International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA) stated that ~86% (187 GW) of renewable capacity added in 2022 had lower costs than electricity generated from fossil fuels.[166] IRENA also stated that capacity added since 2000 reduced electricity bills in 2022 by at least $520 billion, and that in non-OECD countries, the lifetime savings of 2022 capacity additions will reduce costs by up to $580 billion.[166]

Installed[167]
TWp 		Growth
TW/yr[167] 		Production
per installed
capacity*[168] 		Energy
TWh/yr*[168] 		Growth
TWh/yr*[168] 		Levelized cost
US¢/kWh[169] 		Av. auction prices
US¢/kWh[170] 		Cost development
2010–2019[169]
Solar PV 0.580 0.098 13% 549 123 6.8 3.9 −82%
Solar CSP 0.006 0.0006 13% 6.3 0.5 18.2 7.5 −47%
Wind Offshore 0.028 0.0045 33% 68 11.5 11.5 8.2 −30%
Wind Onshore 0.594 0.05 25% 1194 118 5.3 4.3 −38%
Hydro 1.310 0.013 38% 4267 90 4.7 +27%
Bioenergy 0.12 0.006 51% 522 27 6.6 −13%
Geothermal 0.014 0.00007 74% 13.9 0.7 7.3 +49%

* = 2018. All other values for 2019.

Growth of renewables edit

Investment and sources
 
Investment: Companies, governments and households have committed increasing amounts to decarbonization, including renewable energy (solar, wind), electric vehicles and associated charging infrastructure, energy storage, energy-efficient heating systems, carbon capture and storage, and hydrogen.[171][172]
 
Clean energy investment has benefited from post-pandemic economic recovery, a global energy crisis involving high fossil fuel prices, and growing policy support across various nations.[173]
 
The countries most reliant on fossil fuels for electricity vary widely on how great a portion of that electricity is generated from renewables, leaving wide variation in renewables' growth potential.[174]
Costs
 
Levelized cost: With increasingly widespread implementation of renewable energy sources, costs have declined, most notably for energy generated by solar panels.[175][176]
Levelized cost of energy (LCOE) is a measure of the average net present cost of electricity generation for a generating plant over its lifetime.
 
Past costs of producing renewable energy declined significantly,[177] with 62% of total renewable power generation added in 2020 having lower costs than the cheapest new fossil fuel option.[178]
 
"Learning curves": Trend of costs and deployment over time, with steeper lines showing greater cost reductions as deployment progresses.[179] With increased deployment, renewables benefit from learning curves and economies of scale.[180]

The results of a recent review of the literature concluded that as greenhouse gas (GHG) emitters begin to be held liable for damages resulting from GHG emissions resulting in climate change, a high value for liability mitigation would provide powerful incentives for deployment of renewable energy technologies.[181]

In the decade of 2010–2019, worldwide investment in renewable energy capacity excluding large hydropower amounted to US$2.7 trillion, of which the top countries China contributed US$818 billion, the United States contributed US$392.3 billion, Japan contributed US$210.9 billion, Germany contributed US$183.4 billion, and the United Kingdom contributed US$126.5 billion.[182] This was an increase of over three and possibly four times the equivalent amount invested in the decade of 2000–2009 (no data is available for 2000–2003).[182]

As of 2022, an estimated 28% of the world's electricity was generated by renewables. This is up from 19% in 1990.[183]

Future projections edit

See also: Energy transition
 
In 2023, electricity generation from wind and solar sources was projected to exceed 30% by 2030.[184]

A December 2022 report by the IEA forecasts that over 2022-2027, renewables are seen growing by almost 2 400 GW in its main forecast, equal to the entire installed power capacity of China in 2021. This is an 85% acceleration from the previous five years, and almost 30% higher than what the IEA forecast in its 2021 report, making its largest ever upward revision. Renewables are set to account for over 90% of global electricity capacity expansion over the forecast period.[57] To achieve net zero emissions by 2050, IEA believes that 90% of global electricity generation will need to be produced from renewable sources.[12]

In June 2022 IEA Executive Director Fatih Birol said that countries should invest more in renewables to "ease the pressure on consumers from high fossil fuel prices, make our energy systems more secure, and get the world on track to reach our climate goals.”[185]

China's five year plan to 2025 includes increasing direct heating by renewables such as geothermal and solar thermal.[186]

REPowerEU, the EU plan to escape dependence on fossil Russian gas, is expected to call for much more green hydrogen.[187]

After a transitional period,[188] renewable energy production is expected to make up most of the world's energy production. In 2018, the risk management firm, DNV GL, forecasts that the world's primary energy mix will be split equally between fossil and non-fossil sources by 2050.[189]

Demand edit

In July 2014, WWF and the World Resources Institute convened a discussion among a number of major US companies who had declared their intention to increase their use of renewable energy. These discussions identified a number of "principles" which companies seeking greater access to renewable energy considered important market deliverables. These principles included choice (between suppliers and between products), cost competitiveness, longer term fixed price supplies, access to third-party financing vehicles, and collaboration.[190]

UK statistics released in September 2020 noted that "the proportion of demand met from renewables varies from a low of 3.4 per cent (for transport, mainly from biofuels) to highs of over 20 per cent for 'other final users', which is largely the service and commercial sectors that consume relatively large quantities of electricity, and industry".[191]

In some locations, individual households can opt to purchase renewable energy through a consumer green energy program.

Developing countries edit

This section is an excerpt from Renewable energy in developing countries.[edit]
 
Shop selling PV panels in Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso
 
Solar cookers use sunlight as energy source for outdoor cooking.

Renewable energy in developing countries is an increasingly used alternative to fossil fuel energy, as these countries scale up their energy supplies and address energy poverty. Renewable energy technology was once seen as unaffordable for developing countries.[192] However, since 2015, investment in non-hydro renewable energy has been higher in developing countries than in developed countries, and comprised 54% of global renewable energy investment in 2019.[193] The International Energy Agency forecasts that renewable energy will provide the majority of energy supply growth through 2030 in Africa and Central and South America, and 42% of supply growth in China.[194]

Most developing countries have abundant renewable energy resources, including solar energy, wind power, geothermal energy, and biomass, as well as the ability to manufacture the relatively labor-intensive systems that harness these. By developing such energy sources developing countries can reduce their dependence on oil and natural gas, creating energy portfolios that are less vulnerable to price rises. In many circumstances, these investments can be less expensive than fossil fuel energy systems.[195]

In Kenya, the Olkaria V Geothermal Power Station is one of the largest in the world.[196] The Grand Ethiopia Renaissance Dam project incorporates wind turbines.[197] Once completed, Morocco's Ouarzazate Solar Power Station is projected to provide power to over a million people.[198]

Policy edit

 
Share of electricity production from renewables, 2022[33]

Policies to support renewable energy have been vital in their expansion. Where Europe dominated in establishing energy policy in the early 2000s, most countries around the world now have some form of energy policy.[199]

Policy trends edit

The International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA) is an intergovernmental organization for promoting the adoption of renewable energy worldwide. It aims to provide concrete policy advice and facilitate capacity building and technology transfer. IRENA was formed in 2009, with 75 countries signing the charter of IRENA.[200] As of April 2019, IRENA has 160 member states.[201] The then United Nations Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon has said that renewable energy can lift the poorest nations to new levels of prosperity,[202] and in September 2011 he launched the UN Sustainable Energy for All initiative to improve energy access, efficiency and the deployment of renewable energy.[203]

The 2015 Paris Agreement on climate change motivated many countries to develop or improve renewable energy policies.[11] In 2017, a total of 121 countries adopted some form of renewable energy policy.[199] National targets that year existed in 176 countries.[11] In addition, there is also a wide range of policies at the state/provincial, and local levels.[99] Some public utilities help plan or install residential energy upgrades.

Many national, state and local governments have created green banks. A green bank is a quasi-public financial institution that uses public capital to leverage private investment in clean energy technologies.[204] Green banks use a variety of financial tools to bridge market gaps that hinder the deployment of clean energy.

Climate neutrality by the year 2050 is the main goal of the European Green Deal.[205] For the European Union to reach their target of climate neutrality, one goal is to decarbonise its energy system by aiming to achieve "net-zero greenhouse gas emissions by 2050."[206]

Full renewable energy edit

These paragraphs are an excerpt from 100% renewable energy.[edit]

100% renewable energy is the goal of the use renewable resources for all energy. 100% renewable energy for electricity, heating, cooling and transport is motivated by climate change, pollution and other environmental issues, as well as economic and energy security concerns. Shifting the total global primary energy supply to renewable sources requires a transition of the energy system, since most of today's energy is derived from non-renewable fossil fuels.

Research into this topic is fairly new, with very few studies published before 2009, but has gained increasing attention in recent years. The majority of studies show that a global transition to 100% renewable energy across all sectors – power, heat, transport and industry – is feasible and economically viable.[207][208][209][210][need quotation to verify] A cross-sectoral, holistic approach is seen as an important feature of 100% renewable energy systems and is based on the assumption "that the best solutions can be found only if one focuses on the synergies between the sectors" of the energy system such as electricity, heat, transport or industry.[211]

The main barriers to the widespread implementation of large-scale renewable energy and low-carbon energy strategies are seen to be primarily social and political rather than technological or economic.[212] According to the 2013 Post Carbon Pathways report, which reviewed many international studies, the key roadblocks are: climate change denial, the fossil fuels lobby, political inaction, unsustainable energy consumption, outdated energy infrastructure, and financial constraints.[213]

Finance edit

The International Renewable Energy Agency's (IRENA) 2023 report on renewable energy finance highlights steady investment growth since 2018: USD 348 billion in 2020 (a 5.6% increase from 2019), USD 430 billion in 2021 (24% up from 2020), and USD 499 billion in 2022 (16% higher). This trend is driven by increasing recognition of renewable energy's role in mitigating climate change and enhancing energy security, along with investor interest in alternatives to fossil fuels. Policies such as feed-in tariffs in China and Vietnam have significantly increased renewable adoption. Furthermore, from 2013 to 2022, installation costs for solar photovoltaic (PV), onshore wind, and offshore wind fell by 69%, 33%, and 45%, respectively, making renewables more cost-effective.[214][215]

Solar edit

From 2020 to 2022, solar technology investments almost doubled from USD 162 billion to USD 308 billion, driven by the sector's increasing maturity and cost reductions, particularly in solar photovoltaic (PV), which accounted for 90% of total investments. China and the United States were the main recipients, collectively making up about half of all solar investments since 2013. Despite reductions in Japan and India due to policy changes and COVID-19, growth in China, the United States, and a significant increase from Vietnam's feed-in tariff program offset these declines. Globally, the solar sector added 714 gigawatts (GW) of solar PV and concentrated solar power (CSP) capacity between 2013 and 2021, with a notable rise in large-scale solar heating installations in 2021, especially in China, Europe, Turkey, and Mexico.[215]

Wind edit

Investments in wind technologies reached USD 161 billion in 2020, with onshore wind dominating at 80% of total investments from 2013 to 2022. Offshore wind investments nearly doubled to USD 41 billion between 2019 and 2020, primarily due to policy incentives in China and expansion in Europe. Global wind capacity increased by 557 GW between 2013 and 2021, with capacity additions increasing by an average of 19% each year.[215]

Other renewable energy edit

Between 2013 and 2022, the renewable energy sector underwent a significant realignment of investment priorities. Investment in solar and wind energy technologies markedly increased. In contrast, other renewable technologies such as hydropower (including pumped storage hydropower), biomass, biofuels, geothermal, and marine energy experienced a substantial decrease in financial investment. Notably, from 2017 to 2022, investment in these alternative renewable technologies declined by 45%, falling from USD 35 billion to USD 17 billion.[215]

Debates edit

Main articles: Renewable energy debate, Green job, and Intermittent power source
Further information: Climate change mitigation § Overviews, strategies and comparisons of measures
 
Most respondents to a climate survey conducted in 2021-2022 by the European Investment Bank say countries should back renewable energy to fight climate change.[216]
 
The same survey a year later shows that renewable energy is considered an investment priority in the European Union, China and the United States[217]

Renewable electricity generation by wind and solar is variable. This results in reduced capacity factor and may require keeping some gas-fired power plants or other dispatchable generation on standby[218][219][220] until there is enough energy storage, demand response, grid improvement, and/or base load power from non-intermittent sources like hydropower, nuclear power or bioenergy.

The market for renewable energy technologies has continued to grow. Climate change concerns and increasing in green jobs, coupled with high oil prices, peak oil, oil wars, oil spills, promotion of electric vehicles and renewable electricity, nuclear disasters and increasing government support, are driving increasing renewable energy legislation, incentives and commercialization.[221][better source needed]

The International Energy Agency has stated that deployment of renewable technologies usually increases the diversity of electricity sources and, through local generation, contributes to the flexibility of the system and its resistance to central shocks.[222]

Nuclear power proposed as renewable energy edit

 
The Leibstadt Nuclear Power Plant in Switzerland
This section is an excerpt from Nuclear power proposed as renewable energy.[edit]

Whether nuclear power should be considered a form of renewable energy is an ongoing subject of debate. Statutory definitions of renewable energy usually exclude many present nuclear energy technologies, with the notable exception of the state of Utah.[223] Dictionary-sourced definitions of renewable energy technologies often omit or explicitly exclude mention of nuclear energy sources, with an exception made for the natural nuclear decay heat generated within the Earth.[224][225]

The most common fuel used in conventional nuclear fission power stations, uranium-235 is "non-renewable" according to the Energy Information Administration, the organization however is silent on the recycled MOX fuel.[225] The National Renewable Energy Laboratory does not mention nuclear power in its "energy basics" definition.[226]

In 1987, the Brundtland Commission (WCED) classified fission reactors that produce more fissile nuclear fuel than they consume (breeder reactors, and if developed, fusion power) among conventional renewable energy sources, such as solar power and hydropower.[227] The monitoring and storage of radioactive waste products is also required upon the use of other renewable energy sources, such as geothermal energy.[228]

Geopolitics edit

See also: Russia in the European energy sector
 
A concept of a super grid

The geopolitical impact of the growing use of renewable energy is a subject of ongoing debate and research.[229] Many fossil-fuel producing countries, such as Qatar, Russia, Saudi Arabia and Norway, are currently able to exert diplomatic or geopolitical influence as a result of their oil wealth. Most of these countries are expected to be among the geopolitical "losers" of the energy transition, although some, like Norway, are also significant producers and exporters of renewable energy. Fossil fuels and the infrastructure to extract them may, in the long term, become stranded assets.[230] It has been speculated that countries dependent on fossil fuel revenue may one day find it in their interests to quickly sell off their remaining fossil fuels.[231]

Conversely, nations abundant in renewable resources, and the minerals required for renewables technology, are expected to gain influence.[232][233] In particular, China has become the world's dominant manufacturer of the technology needed to produce or store renewable energy, especially solar panels, wind turbines, and lithium-ion batteries.[234] Nations rich in solar and wind energy could become major energy exporters.[235] Some may produce and export green hydrogen,[236][235] although electricity is projected to be the dominant energy carrier in 2050, accounting for almost 50% of total energy consumption (up from 22% in 2015).[237] Countries with large uninhabited areas such as Australia, China, and many African and Middle Eastern countries have a potential for huge installations of renewable energy. The production of renewable energy technologies requires rare-earth elements with new supply chains.[238]

Countries with already weak governments that rely on fossil fuel revenue may face even higher political instability or popular unrest. Analysts consider Nigeria, Angola, Chad, Gabon, and Sudan, all countries with a history of military coups, to be at risk of instability due to dwindling oil income.[239]

A study found that transition from fossil fuels to renewable energy systems reduces risks from mining, trade and political dependence because renewable energy systems don't need fuel – they depend on trade only for the acquisition of materials and components during construction.[240]

In October 2021, European Commissioner for Climate Action Frans Timmermans suggested "the best answer" to the 2021 global energy crisis is "to reduce our reliance on fossil fuels."[241] He said those blaming the European Green Deal were doing so "for perhaps ideological reasons or sometimes economic reasons in protecting their vested interests."[241] Some critics blamed the European Union Emissions Trading System (EU ETS) and closure of nuclear plants for contributing to the energy crisis.[242][243][244] European Commission President Ursula von der Leyen said that Europe is "too reliant" on natural gas and too dependent on natural gas imports. According to Von der Leyen, "The answer has to do with diversifying our suppliers ... and, crucially, with speeding up the transition to clean energy."[245]

Metal and mineral extraction edit

See also: Environmental footprint of electric cars and Rare-earth element § Environmental considerations

The renewable energy transition requires increased extraction of certain metals and minerals.[246] Solar power panels require large amounts of aluminum.[247] This impacts the environment and can lead to environmental conflict.[248]

The International Energy Agency does not recognise shortages of resources but states that supply could struggle to keep pace with the world's climate ambitions. Electric vehicles (EV) and battery storage are expected to cause the most demand. Wind farms and solar PV are less consuming. The extension of electrical grids requires large amounts of copper and aluminium. The IEA recommends to scale up recycling. By 2040, quantities of copper, lithium, cobalt, and nickel from spent batteries could reduce combined primary supply requirements for these minerals by around 10%.[246]

The demand for lithium by 2040 is expected to grow by the factor of 42. Graphite and nickel exploration is predicted to grow about 20-fold. For each of the most relevant minerals and metals, a significant share of resources are concentrated in only one country: copper in Chile, nickel in Indonesia, rare earths in China, cobalt in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), and lithium in Australia. China dominates processing of them all.[246]

A controversial approach is deep sea mining. Minerals can be collected from new sources like polymetallic nodules lying on the seabed,[249] but this could damage biodiversity.[250]

The transition to renewable energy depends on non-renewable resources, such as mined metals.[251] Manufacturing of photovoltaic panels, wind turbines and batteries requires significant amounts of rare-earth elements[252] which has significant social and environmental impact if mined in forests and protected areas.[253] Due to co-occurrence of rare-earth and radioactive elements (thorium, uranium and radium), rare-earth mining results in production of low-level radioactive waste.[254] In Africa, the green energy transition created a mining boom, causing deforestation and creating possibility to zoonotic spillover. To mitigate climate change and prevent epidemics some territories should stay intact.[255]

Conservation areas edit

Installations used to produce wind, solar and hydropower are an increasing threat to key conservation areas, with facilities built in areas set aside for nature conservation and other environmentally sensitive areas. They are often much larger than fossil fuel power plants, needing areas of land up to 10 times greater than coal or gas to produce equivalent energy amounts.[256] More than 2000 renewable energy facilities are built, and more are under construction, in areas of environmental importance and threaten the habitats of plant and animal species across the globe. The authors' team emphasized that their work should not be interpreted as anti-renewables because renewable energy is crucial for reducing carbon emissions. The key is ensuring that renewable energy facilities are built in places where they do not damage biodiversity.[257]

In 2020 scientists published a world map of areas that contain renewable energy materials as well as estimations of their overlaps with "Key Biodiversity Areas", "Remaining Wilderness" and "Protected Areas". The authors assessed that careful strategic planning is needed.[258][259][260]

Recycling of solar panels edit

Solar panels are recycled to reduce electronic waste and create a source for materials that would otherwise need to be mined,[261] but such business is still small and work is ongoing to improve and scale-up the process.[262][263][264]

Society and culture edit

Public support edit

 
Acceptance of wind and solar facilities in one's community is stronger among U.S. Democrats (blue), while acceptance of nuclear power plants is stronger among U.S. Republicans (red).[265]

Solar power plants may compete with arable land,[251][266] while on-shore wind farms face opposition due to aesthetic concerns and noise, which is impacting both humans and wildlife.[267][268][269][need quotation to verify]In the United States, the Massachusetts Cape Wind project was delayed for years partly because of aesthetic concerns. However, residents in other areas have been more positive. According to a town councilor, the overwhelming majority of locals believe that the Ardrossan Wind Farm in Scotland has enhanced the area.[270] These concerns, when directed against renewable energy, are sometimes described as "not in my back yard" attitude (NIMBY).

A 2011 UK Government document states that "projects are generally more likely to succeed if they have broad public support and the consent of local communities. This means giving communities both a say and a stake".[271] In countries such as Germany and Denmark many renewable projects are owned by communities, particularly through cooperative structures, and contribute significantly to overall levels of renewable energy deployment.[272][273]

In international public opinion surveys there is strong support for renewables such as solar power and wind power.[221][274]

History edit

See also: History of climate change policy and politics

Prior to the development of coal in the mid 19th century, nearly all energy used was renewable. The oldest known use of renewable energy, in the form of traditional biomass to fuel fires, dates from more than a million years ago. The use of biomass for fire did not become commonplace until many hundreds of thousands of years later.[275] Probably the second oldest usage of renewable energy is harnessing the wind in order to drive ships over water. This practice can be traced back some 7000 years, to ships in the Persian Gulf and on the Nile.[276] From hot springs, geothermal energy has been used for bathing since Paleolithic times and for space heating since ancient Roman times.[277] Moving into the time of recorded history, the primary sources of traditional renewable energy were human labor, animal power, water power, wind, in grain crushing windmills, and firewood, a traditional biomass.

In 1885, Werner Siemens, commenting on the discovery of the photovoltaic effect in the solid state, wrote:

In conclusion, I would say that however great the scientific importance of this discovery may be, its practical value will be no less obvious when we reflect that the supply of solar energy is both without limit and without cost, and that it will continue to pour down upon us for countless ages after all the coal deposits of the earth have been exhausted and forgotten.[278]

Max Weber mentioned the end of fossil fuel in the concluding paragraphs of his Die protestantische Ethik und der Geist des Kapitalismus (The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism), published in 1905.[279] Development of solar engines continued until the outbreak of World War I. The importance of solar energy was recognized in a 1911 Scientific American article: "in the far distant future, natural fuels having been exhausted [solar power] will remain as the only means of existence of the human race".[280]

The theory of peak oil was published in 1956.[281] In the 1970s environmentalists promoted the development of renewable energy both as a replacement for the eventual depletion of oil, as well as for an escape from dependence on oil, and the first electricity-generating wind turbines appeared. Solar had long been used for heating and cooling, but solar panels were too costly to build solar farms until 1980.[282]

New government spending, regulation and policies helped the industry weather the 2009 economic crisis better than many other sectors.[32]

See also edit

References edit

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January 01, 1970
renewable, energy, journal, renewable, energy, journal, green, energy, carbon, energy, energy, from, renewable, natural, resources, that, replenished, human, timescale, mainstream, renewable, energy, options, include, solar, energy, wind, power, hydropower, bi. For the journal see Renewable Energy journal Renewable energy or green energy low carbon energy is energy from renewable natural resources that are replenished on a human timescale Mainstream renewable energy options include solar energy wind power hydropower bioenergy and geothermal power Renewable energy installations can be large or small They are suited for urban as well as rural areas Renewable energy is often deployed together with further electrification This has several benefits electricity can move heat or objects efficiently and is clean at the point of consumption 1 2 Variable renewable energy sources are those that are not dispatchable due to their fluctuating nature such as wind power and solar power In contrast controllable renewable energy sources include dammed hydroelectricity bioenergy or geothermal power Using renewable energy and energy efficiency technologies is resulting in more energy security climate change mitigation and economic benefits 3 Examples of renewable energy options concentrated solar power with molten salt heat storage in Spain wind energy in South Africa the Three Gorges Dam on the Yangtze River in China biomass energy plant in Scotland From 2011 to 2021 renewable energy grew from 20 to 28 of global electricity supply Use of fossil energy shrank from 68 to 62 and nuclear from 12 to 10 The share of hydropower decreased from 16 to 15 while power from sun and wind increased from 2 to 10 Biomass and geothermal energy grew from 2 to 3 4 5 Renewable energy systems are rapidly becoming more efficient and cheaper As a result their share of the global energy consumption is increasing 6 A large majority of worldwide newly installed electricity capacity is now renewable 7 In most countries photovoltaic solar or onshore wind are the cheapest new build electricity 8 Renewable energy can help reduce energy poverty in rural and remote areas of developing countries where lack of energy access is often hindering economic development Many countries around the world already have renewable energy contributing more than 20 of their total energy supply Some countries generate over half their electricity from renewables 9 A few countries generate all their electricity from renewable energy 10 National renewable energy markets are projected to continue to grow strongly in the 2020s and beyond 11 According to the IEA to achieve net zero emissions by 2050 90 of global electricity generation will need to be produced from renewable sources 12 Renewable energy resources exist all over the world This is in contrast to fossil fuels resources which are concentrated in a limited number of countries However the deployment of renewable energy is being hindered by massive fossil fuel subsidies 13 In 2022 the International Energy Agency requested all countries to reduce their policy regulatory permitting and financing obstacles for renewables 14 This would increase the chances of the world reaching net zero carbon emissions by 2050 14 There are ongoing debates around the renewable energy topic For example whether nuclear power should be grouped under the renewable energy category or not There are also debates around geopolitics the metal and mineral extraction needed for solar panels and batteries possible installations in conservation areas and the need to recycle solar panels Although most renewable energy sources are sustainable some are not For example some biomass sources are unsustainable at current rates of exploitation 15 There are also other renewable energy technologies that are still under development for example enhanced geothermal systems concentrated solar power cellulosic ethanol and marine energy 16 17 Contents 1 Overview 1 1 Definition 1 2 Role in addressing climate change 1 3 Other benefits 2 History 3 Mainstream technologies 3 1 Solar energy 3 1 1 Photovoltaic development 3 1 2 Solar thermal 3 2 Wind power 3 3 Hydropower 3 4 Bioenergy 3 4 1 Biofuel 3 5 Geothermal energy 4 Emerging technologies 4 1 Enhanced geothermal systems 4 2 Marine energy 4 3 Earth infrared thermal radiation 4 4 Others 4 4 1 Algae fuels 4 4 2 Water vapor 4 4 3 Nuclear energy 4 4 4 Artificial photosynthesis 5 Consumption by sector 6 Intermittency 6 1 Electrical energy storage 7 Market and industry trends 7 1 Cost comparison 7 2 Growth of renewables 7 2 1 Future projections 7 3 Demand 7 4 Developing countries 8 Policy 8 1 Policy trends 8 2 Full renewable energy 9 Finance 9 1 Solar 9 2 Wind 9 3 Other renewable energy 10 Debates 10 1 Nuclear power proposed as renewable energy 10 2 Geopolitics 10 3 Metal and mineral extraction 10 4 Conservation areas 10 5 Recycling of solar panels 11 Society and culture 11 1 Public support 12 History 13 See also 14 References 14 1 Sources 15 External linksOverview edit nbsp Renewable energy sources especially solar photovoltaic and wind are generating an increasing share of electricity 18 See also Lists of renewable energy topics nbsp Coal oil and natural gas remain the primary global energy sources even as renewables have begun rapidly increasing 19 Definition edit Renewable energy is usually understood as energy harnessed from continuously occurring natural phenomena The International Energy Agency defines it as energy derived from natural processes that are replenished at a faster rate than they are consumed Solar power wind power hydroelectricity geothermal energy and biomass are widely agreed to be the main types of renewable energy 20 Renewable energy often displaces conventional fuels in four areas electricity generation hot water space heating transportation and rural off grid energy services 21 Although almost all forms of renewable energy cause much fewer carbon emissions than fossil fuels the term is not synonymous with low carbon energy Some non renewable sources of energy such as nuclear power generate almost no emissions while some renewable energy sources can be very carbon intensive such as the burning of biomass if it is not offset by planting new plants 22 Renewable energy is also distinct from sustainable energy a more abstract concept that seeks to group energy sources based on their overall permanent impact on future generations of humans For example biomass is often associated with unsustainable deforestation 23 Role in addressing climate change edit nbsp Deaths caused as a result of fossil fuel use areas of rectangles in chart greatly exceed those resulting from production of renewable energy rectangles barely visible in chart 24 As part of the global effort to address climate change most of the world s countries have committed substantially reducing their greenhouse gas emissions In practice this means phasing out fossil fuels and replacing them with low emissions energy sources 22 At the 2023 United Nations Climate Change Conference around three quarters of the world s countries set a goal of tripling renewable energy capacity by 2030 25 The European Union aims to generate 40 of its electricity from renewables by the same year 26 Renewable energy is also more evenly distributed around the world than fossil fuels which are concentrated in a limited number of countries 27 It also brings health benefits by reducing air pollution caused by the burning of fossil fuels The potential worldwide savings in health care costs have been estimated at trillions of dollars annually 28 Other benefits edit Main article Climate change mitigation Co benefits Moving to modern renewable energy has very large health benefits due to reducing air pollution from fossil fuels 29 30 31 History editNew government spending regulation and policies helped the renewables industry weather the global financial crisis better than many other sectors 32 In 2022 renewables accounted for 30 of global electricity generation up from 21 in 1985 33 Mainstream technologies edit nbsp Renewable energy capacity has steadily grown led by solar photovoltaic power 34 Solar energy edit Main articles Solar energy Solar power and Outline of solar energy Global electricity power generation capacity 1419 0 GW 2023 35 Global electricity power generation capacity annual growth rate 25 2014 2023 36 Share of global electricity generation 4 5 2022 37 Levelized cost per megawatt hour Utility scale photovoltaics USD 38 343 2019 38 Primary technologies Photovoltaics concentrated solar power solar thermal collector Other energy applications Water heating heating ventilation and air conditioning HVAC cooking process heat water treatment nbsp A small roof top mounted PV system in Bonn Germany nbsp Komekurayama photovoltaic power station in Kofu JapanSolar power produced around 1 3 terrawatt hours TWh worldwide in 2022 9 representing 4 6 of the world s electricity Almost all of this growth has happened since 2010 39 Solar energy can be harnessed anywhere that receives sunlight however the amount of solar energy that can be harnessed for electricity generation is influenced by weather conditions geographic location and time of day 40 There are two mainstream ways of harnessing solar energy solar thermal which converts solar energy into heat and photovoltaics PV which converts it into electricity 22 PV is far more widespread accounting for around two thirds of the global solar energy capacity as of 2022 41 It is also growing at a much faster rate with 170 GW newly installed capacity in 2021 42 compared to 25 GW of solar thermal 41 Passive solar refers to a range of construction strategies and technologies that aim to optimize the distribution of solar heat in a building Examples include solar chimneys 22 orienting a building to the sun using construction materials that can store heat and designing spaces that naturally circulate air 43 Photovoltaic development edit Main articles Growth of photovoltaics Solar power by country and List of photovoltaic power stations nbsp Swanson s law stating that solar module prices have dropped about 20 for each doubling of installed capacity defines the learning rate of solar photovoltaics 44 45 A photovoltaic system consisting of solar cells assembled into panels converts light into electrical direct current via the photoelectric effect 46 Almost all commercial PV cells consist of crystalline silicon with a market share of 95 Cadmium telluride thin film solar cells account for the remainder 47 PV has several advantages that make it by far the fastest growing renewable energy technology It is cheap low maintenance and scalable adding to an existing PV installation as demanded arises is simple Its main disadvantage is its poor performance in cloudy weather 22 PV systems range from small residential and commercial rooftop or building integrated installations to large utility scale photovoltaic power station Building integrated PV uses existing land and structures to generate power close to where it is consumed 48 A household s solar panels and batteries if they have them can often either be used for just that household or if connected to an electrical grid can be aggregated with millions of others 49 As of 2022 around 25 million households rely on rooftop solar power worldwide 50 Australia has by far the most rooftop solar capacity per capita 51 The first utility scale solar power plant was built in 1982 in Hesperia California by ARCO 52 The plant was not profitable and was sold eight years later 53 However over the following decades PV technology significantly improved its electricity generating efficiency reduced the installation cost per watt as well as its energy payback time and reached grid parity 54 As a result PV adoption has grown exponentially since 2010 55 Global capacity increased from 230 GW at the end of 2015 to 890 GW in 2021 56 PV grew fastest in China between 2016 and 2021 adding 560 GW more than all advanced economies combined 57 Four of the ten biggest solar power stations are in China including the biggest Golmud Solar Park in China 58 Many utility scale PV systems use tracking systems that follow the sun s daily path across the sky to generate more electricity than fixed mounted systems 59 Solar thermal edit This section is an excerpt from Solar thermal energy edit nbsp Roof mounted close coupled thermosiphon solar water heater Solar thermal energy STE is a form of energy and a technology for harnessing solar energy to generate thermal energy for use in industry and in the residential and commercial sectors Solar thermal collectors are classified by the United States Energy Information Administration as low medium or high temperature collectors Low temperature collectors are generally unglazed and used to heat swimming pools or to heat ventilation air Medium temperature collectors are also usually flat plates but are used for heating water or air for residential and commercial use High temperature collectors concentrate sunlight using mirrors or lenses and are generally used for fulfilling heat requirements up to 300 deg C 20 bar pressure in industries and for electric power production Two categories include Concentrated Solar Thermal CST for fulfilling heat requirements in industries and Concentrated Solar Power CSP when the heat collected is used for electric power generation CST and CSP are not replaceable in terms of application Wind power edit Main articles Wind power and Wind power by country nbsp Burbo NW England nbsp Sunrise at the Fenton Wind Farm in Minnesota United States nbsp Wind energy generation by region over time 60 Global electricity power generation capacity 1017 2 GW 2023 61 Global electricity power generation capacity annual growth rate 13 2014 2023 62 Share of global electricity generation 7 6 2022 37 Levelized cost per megawatt hour Land based wind USD 30 165 2019 63 Primary technology Wind turbine Other energy applications Windmill windpumpHumans have harnessed wind energy since at least 3500 BC Until the 20th century it was primarily used to power ships windmills and water pumps Today the vast majority of wind power is used to generate electricity using wind turbines 22 Modern utility scale wind turbines range from around 600 kW to 9 MW of rated power The power available from the wind is a function of the cube of the wind speed so as wind speed increases power output increases up to the maximum output for the particular turbine 64 Areas where winds are stronger and more constant such as offshore and high altitude sites are preferred locations for wind farms Wind generated electricity met nearly 4 of global electricity demand in 2015 with nearly 63 GW of new wind power capacity installed Wind energy was the leading source of new capacity in Europe the US and Canada and the second largest in China In Denmark wind energy met more than 40 of its electricity demand while Ireland Portugal and Spain each met nearly 20 65 Globally the long term technical potential of wind energy is believed to be five times total current global energy production or 40 times current electricity demand assuming all practical barriers needed were overcome This would require wind turbines to be installed over large areas particularly in areas of higher wind resources such as offshore and likely also industrial use of new types of VAWT turbines in addition to the horizontal axis units currently in use As offshore wind speeds average 90 greater than that of land offshore resources can contribute substantially more energy than land stationed turbines 66 Hydropower edit Main articles Hydroelectricity and Hydropower nbsp The Three Gorges Dam for hydropower on the Yangtze River in China nbsp Three Gorges Dam and Gezhouba Dam China Global electricity power generation capacity 1 267 9 GW 2023 67 Global electricity power generation capacity annual growth rate 1 9 2014 2023 68 Share of global electricity generation 15 2022 37 Levelized cost per megawatt hour USD 65 581 2019 69 Primary technology Dam Other energy applications Pumped storage mechanical power Since water is about 800 times denser than air even a slow flowing stream of water or moderate sea swell can yield considerable amounts of energy Water can generate electricity with a conversion efficiency of about 90 which is the highest rate in renewable energy 70 There are many forms of water energy Historically hydroelectric power came from constructing large hydroelectric dams and reservoirs which are still popular in developing countries 71 The largest of them are the Three Gorges Dam 2003 in China and the Itaipu Dam 1984 built by Brazil and Paraguay Small hydro systems are hydroelectric power installations that typically produce up to 50 MW of power They are often used on small rivers or as a low impact development on larger rivers China is the largest producer of hydroelectricity in the world and has more than 45 000 small hydro installations 72 Run of the river hydroelectricity plants derive energy from rivers without the creation of a large reservoir The water is typically conveyed along the side of the river valley using channels pipes and or tunnels until it is high above the valley floor whereupon it can be allowed to fall through a penstock to drive a turbine A run of river plant may still produce a large amount of electricity such as the Chief Joseph Dam on the Columbia River in the United States 73 However many run of the river hydro power plants are micro hydro or pico hydro plants Hydropower is produced in 150 countries with the Asia Pacific region generating 32 percent of global hydropower in 2010 needs update Of the top 50 countries by percentage of electricity generated from renewables 46 are primarily hydroelectric 74 There are now seven hydroelectricity stations larger than 10 GW 10 000 MW worldwide see table below Rank Station Country Location Capacity MW 1 Three Gorges Dam nbsp China 30 49 15 N 111 00 08 E 30 82083 N 111 00222 E 30 82083 111 00222 Three Gorges Dam 22 500 2 Baihetan Dam nbsp China 27 13 23 N 102 54 11 E 27 22306 N 102 90306 E 27 22306 102 90306 Three Gorges Dam 16 000 3 Itaipu Dam nbsp Brazil nbsp Paraguay 25 24 31 S 54 35 21 W 25 40861 S 54 58917 W 25 40861 54 58917 Itaipu Dam 14 000 4 Xiluodu Dam nbsp China 28 15 35 N 103 38 58 E 28 25972 N 103 64944 E 28 25972 103 64944 Xiluodu Dam 13 860 5 Belo Monte Dam nbsp Brazil 03 06 57 S 51 47 45 W 3 11583 S 51 79583 W 3 11583 51 79583 Belo Monte Dam 11 233 6 Guri Dam nbsp Venezuela 07 45 59 N 62 59 57 W 7 76639 N 62 99917 W 7 76639 62 99917 Guri Dam 10 235 7 Wudongde Dam nbsp China 26 20 2 N 102 37 48 E 26 33389 N 102 63000 E 26 33389 102 63000 Three Gorges Dam 10 200 Much hydropower is flexible thus complementing wind and solar 75 In 2021 the world renewable hydropower capacity was 1 360 GW 57 Only a third of the world s estimated hydroelectric potential of 14 000 TWh year has been developed 76 77 New hydropower projects face opposition from local communities due to their large impact including relocation of communities and flooding of wildlife habitats and farming land 78 High cost and lead times from permission process including environmental and risk assessments with lack of environmental and social acceptance are therefore the primary challenges for new developments 79 It is popular to repower old dams thereby increasing their efficiency and capacity as well as quicker responsiveness on the grid 80 Where circumstances permit existing dams such as the Russell Dam built in 1985 may be updated with pump back facilities for pumped storage which is useful for peak loads or to support intermittent wind and solar power Because dispatchable power is more valuable than VRE 81 82 countries with large hydroelectric developments such as Canada and Norway are spending billions to expand their grids to trade with neighboring countries having limited hydro 83 Bioenergy edit Main article Bioenergy nbsp Stump harvesting increases recovery of biomass from forests Further information Biomass energy Environmental impacts nbsp Sugarcane plantation to produce ethanol in Brazil nbsp A CHP power station using wood to supply 30 000 households in France Global electricity power generation capacity 150 3 GW 2023 84 Global electricity power generation capacity annual growth rate 5 8 2014 2023 85 Share of global electricity generation 2 4 2022 37 Levelized cost per megawatt hour USD 118 908 2019 86 Primary technologies biomass biofuel Other energy applications Heating cooking transportation fuels Biomass is biological material derived from living or recently living organisms It commonly refers to plants or plant derived materials As an energy source biomass can either be used directly via combustion to produce heat or indirectly after converting it to various forms of biofuel in solid liquid or gaseous form Conversion of biomass to biofuel can be achieved by different methods which are broadly classified into thermal chemical and biochemical methods Wood was the largest biomass energy source as of 2012 87 examples include forest residues such as dead trees branches and tree stumps yard clippings wood chips and even municipal solid waste Industrial biomass can be grown from numerous types of plants including miscanthus switchgrass hemp corn poplar willow sorghum sugarcane bamboo 88 and a variety of tree species ranging from eucalyptus to oil palm palm oil Plant energy is produced by crops specifically grown for use as fuel that offer high biomass output per hectare with low input energy 89 The grain can be used for liquid transportation fuels while the straw can be burned to produce heat or electricity Plant biomass can also be degraded from cellulose to glucose through a series of chemical treatments and the resulting sugar can then be used as a first generation biofuel Biomass can be converted to other usable forms of energy such as methane gas 90 or transportation fuels such as ethanol and biodiesel Rotting garbage and agricultural and human waste all release methane gas also called landfill gas or biogas Crops such as corn and sugarcane can be fermented to produce the transportation fuel ethanol Biodiesel another transportation fuel can be produced from left over food products such as vegetable oils and animal fats 91 There is a great deal of research involving algal fuel or algae derived biomass due to the fact that it is a non food resource grows around 20 times faster than other types of food crops such as corn and soy and can be grown almost anywhere 92 93 Once harvested it can be fermented to produce biofuels such as ethanol butanol and methane as well as biodiesel and hydrogen The biomass used for electricity generation varies by region Forest by products such as wood residues are common in the United States Agricultural waste is common in Mauritius sugar cane residue and Southeast Asia rice husks Biomass biogas and biofuels are burned to produce heat power and in doing so can harm the environment Pollutants such as sulphurous oxides SOx nitrous oxides NOx and particulate matter PM are produced from the combustion of biomass With regards to traditional use of biomass for heating and cooking the World Health Organization estimates that 3 7 million prematurely died from outdoor air pollution in 2012 while indoor pollution from biomass burning effects over 3 billion people worldwide 94 95 Bioenergy global capacity in 2021 was 158 GW Biofuels avoided 4 4 of global transport fuel demand in 2021 57 Biofuel edit Main article Biofuel See also Ethanol fuel Sustainable biofuel and Issues relating to biofuels nbsp Brazil produces bioethanol made from sugarcane available throughout the country A typical gas station with dual fuel service is marked A for alcohol ethanol and G for gasoline nbsp A bus fueled by biodiesel Biofuels include a wide range of fuels which are derived from biomass The term covers solid liquid and gaseous fuels 96 Liquid biofuels include bioalcohols such as bioethanol and oils such as biodiesel Gaseous biofuels include biogas landfill gas and synthetic gas Bioethanol is an alcohol made by fermenting the sugar components of plant materials and it is made mostly from sugar and starch crops These include maize sugarcane and more recently sweet sorghum The latter crop is particularly suitable for growing in dryland conditions and is being investigated by International Crops Research Institute for the Semi Arid Tropics for its potential to provide fuel along with food and animal feed in arid parts of Asia and Africa 97 With advanced technology being developed cellulosic biomass such as trees and grasses are also used as feedstocks for ethanol production Ethanol can be used as a fuel for vehicles in its pure form but it is usually used as a gasoline additive to increase octane and improve vehicle emissions Bioethanol is widely used in the United States and in Brazil The energy costs for producing bio ethanol are almost equal to the energy yields from bio ethanol However according to the European Environment Agency biofuels do not address global warming concerns 98 Biodiesel is made from vegetable oils animal fats or recycled greases It can be used as a fuel for vehicles in its pure form or more commonly as a diesel additive to reduce levels of particulates carbon monoxide and hydrocarbons from diesel powered vehicles Biodiesel is produced from oils or fats using transesterification and is the most common biofuel in Europe Biofuels provided 2 7 of the world s transport fuel in 2010 99 needs update Policies in more than 80 countries support biofuels demand 57 Since the 1970s Brazil has had an ethanol fuel program which has allowed the country to become the world s second largest producer of ethanol after the United States and the world s largest exporter 100 Brazil s ethanol fuel program uses modern equipment and cheap sugarcane as feedstock and the residual cane waste bagasse is used to produce heat and power 101 There are no longer light vehicles in Brazil running on pure gasoline 102 Biojet is expected to be important for short term reduction of carbon dioxide emissions from long haul flights 103 Geothermal energy edit Main articles Geothermal energy Geothermal power Renewable thermal energy and Geothermal energy in the United States nbsp Steam rising from the Nesjavellir Geothermal Power Station in Iceland nbsp Geothermal plant at The Geysers California US nbsp Krafla a geothermal power station in Iceland Global electricity power generation capacity 14 9 GW 2023 104 Global electricity power generation capacity annual growth rate 3 4 2014 2023 105 Share of global electricity generation lt 1 2018 106 Levelized cost per megawatt hour USD 58 257 2019 107 Primary technologies Dry steam flash steam and binary cycle power stations Other energy applications Heating High temperature geothermal energy is from thermal energy generated and stored in the Earth Thermal energy is the energy that determines the temperature of matter Earth s geothermal energy originates from the original formation of the planet and from radioactive decay of minerals in currently uncertain 108 but possibly roughly equal 109 proportions The geothermal gradient which is the difference in temperature between the core of the planet and its surface drives a continuous conduction of thermal energy in the form of heat from the core to the surface The adjective geothermal originates from the Greek roots geo meaning earth and thermos meaning heat The heat used for geothermal energy can be from deep within the Earth all the way down to Earth s core 6 400 kilometres 4 000 mi down At the core temperatures may reach over 5 000 C 9 030 F Heat conducts from the core to the surrounding rock Extremely high temperature and pressure cause some rock to melt which is commonly known as magma Magma convects upward since it is lighter than the solid rock This magma then heats rock and water in the crust sometimes up to 371 C 700 F 110 Low temperature geothermal 111 refers to the use of the outer crust of the Earth as a thermal battery to facilitate renewable thermal energy for heating and cooling buildings and other refrigeration and industrial uses In this form of geothermal a geothermal heat pump and ground coupled heat exchanger are used together to move heat energy into the Earth for cooling and out of the Earth for heating on a varying seasonal basis Low temperature geothermal generally referred to as GHP clarification needed is an increasingly important renewable technology because it both reduces total annual energy loads associated with heating and cooling and it also flattens the electric demand curve eliminating the extreme summer and winter peak electric supply requirements Thus low temperature geothermal GHP is becoming an increasing national clarification needed priority with multiple tax credit support 112 and focus as part of the ongoing movement toward net zero energy 113 Geothermal power is cost effective reliable sustainable and environmentally friendly 114 but has historically been limited to areas near tectonic plate boundaries Recent technological advances have expanded the range and size of viable resources especially for applications such as home heating opening a potential for widespread exploitation Geothermal wells release greenhouse gases trapped deep within the earth but these emissions are usually much lower per energy unit than those of fossil fuels In 2017 the United States led the world in geothermal electricity production with 12 9 GW of installed capacity 56 The largest group of geothermal power plants in the world is located at The Geysers a geothermal field in California 115 The Philippines follows the US as the second highest producer of geothermal power in the world with 1 9 GW of capacity online 56 Global geothermal capacity in 2021 was 15 GW 57 Emerging technologies editThere are also other renewable energy technologies that are still under development including enhanced geothermal systems concentrated solar power cellulosic ethanol and marine energy 16 17 These technologies are not yet widely demonstrated or have limited commercialization Many are on the horizon and may have potential comparable to other renewable energy technologies but still depend on attracting sufficient attention and research development and demonstration RD amp D funding 17 There are numerous organizations within the academic federal clarification needed and commercial sectors conducting large scale advanced research in the field of renewable energy This research spans several areas of focus across the renewable energy spectrum Most of the research is targeted at improving efficiency and increasing overall energy yields 116 Multiple government supported research organizations have focused on renewable energy in recent years Two of the most prominent of these labs are Sandia National Laboratories and the National Renewable Energy Laboratory NREL both of which are funded by the United States Department of Energy and supported by various corporate partners 117 Enhanced geothermal systems edit nbsp Enhanced geothermal system see file description for details Main article Enhanced geothermal systems Enhanced geothermal systems EGS are a new type of geothermal power technology that does not require natural convective hydrothermal resources The vast majority of geothermal energy within drilling reach is in dry and non porous rock 118 EGS technologies enhance and or create geothermal resources in this hot dry rock HDR through hydraulic fracturing EGS and HDR technologies such as hydrothermal geothermal are expected to be baseload resources that produce power 24 hours a day like a fossil plant Distinct from hydrothermal HDR and EGS may be feasible anywhere in the world depending on the economic limits of drill depth Good locations are over deep granite covered by a thick 3 5 km or 1 9 3 1 mi layer of insulating sediments which slow heat loss 119 There are HDR and EGS systems currently being developed and tested in France Australia Japan Germany the U S and Switzerland The largest EGS project in the world is a 25 megawatt demonstration plant currently being developed in the Cooper Basin Australia The Cooper Basin has the potential to generate 5 000 10 000 MW Marine energy edit nbsp Rance Tidal Power Station France Main article Marine energy Marine energy also sometimes referred to as ocean energy is the energy carried by ocean waves tides salinity and ocean temperature differences The movement of water in the world s oceans creates a vast store of kinetic energy or energy in motion This energy can be harnessed to generate electricity to power homes transport and industries The term marine energy encompasses wave power power from surface waves marine current power power from marine hydrokinetic streams e g the Gulf Stream and tidal power obtained from the kinetic energy of large bodies of moving water Reverse electrodialysis RED is a technology for generating electricity by mixing fresh river water and salty sea water in large power cells designed for this purpose as of 2016 it is being tested at a small scale 50 kW Offshore wind power is not a form of marine energy as wind power is derived from the wind even if the wind turbines are placed over water The oceans have a tremendous amount of energy and are close to many if not most concentrated populations Ocean energy has the potential of providing a substantial amount of new renewable energy around the world 120 121 page needed Station Country Location Capacity Refs 1 Sihwa Lake Tidal Power Station South Korea 37 18 47 N 126 36 46 E 37 31306 N 126 61278 E 37 31306 126 61278 Sihwa Lake Tidal Power Station 254 MW 122 2 Rance Tidal Power Station France 48 37 05 N 02 01 24 W 48 61806 N 2 02333 W 48 61806 2 02333 Rance Tidal Power Station 240 MW 123 3 Annapolis Royal Generating Station Canada 44 45 07 N 65 30 40 W 44 75194 N 65 51111 W 44 75194 65 51111 Annapolis Royal Generating Station 20 MW 123 Earth infrared thermal radiation edit Earth emits roughly 1017 W of infrared thermal radiation that flows toward the cold outer space Solar energy hits the surface and atmosphere of the earth and produces heat Using various theorized devices like emissive energy harvester EEH or thermoradiative diode this energy flow can be converted into electricity In theory this technology can be used during nighttime 124 125 Others edit Algae fuels edit Main article Algae fuels Producing liquid fuels from oil rich fat rich varieties of algae is an ongoing research topic Various microalgae grown in open or closed systems are being tried including some systems that can be set up in brownfield and desert lands 126 Water vapor edit Collection of static electricity charges from water droplets on metal surfaces is an experimental technology that would be especially useful in low income countries with relative air humidity over 60 127 Nuclear energy edit Breeder reactors could in principle extract almost all of the energy contained in uranium or thorium decreasing fuel requirements by a factor of 100 compared to widely used once through light water reactors which extract less than 1 of the energy in the actinide metal uranium or thorium mined from the earth 128 The high fuel efficiency of breeder reactors could greatly reduce concerns about fuel supply energy used in mining and storage of radioactive waste With seawater uranium extraction currently too expensive to be economical there is enough fuel for breeder reactors to satisfy the world s energy needs for 5 billion years at 1983 s total energy consumption rate thus making nuclear energy effectively a renewable energy 129 130 In addition to seawater the average crustal granite rocks contain significant quantities of uranium and thorium that with breeder reactors can supply abundant energy for the remaining lifespan of the sun on the main sequence of stellar evolution 131 Artificial photosynthesis edit Main article Artificial photosynthesis Artificial photosynthesis uses techniques including nanotechnology to store solar electromagnetic energy in chemical bonds by splitting water to produce hydrogen and then using carbon dioxide to make methanol 132 Researchers in this field strived to design molecular mimics of photosynthesis that use a wider region of the solar spectrum employ catalytic systems made from abundant inexpensive materials that are robust readily repaired non toxic stable in a variety of environmental conditions and perform more efficiently allowing a greater proportion of photon energy to end up in the storage compounds i e carbohydrates rather than building and sustaining living cells 133 However prominent research faces hurdles Sun Catalytix a MIT spin off stopped scaling up their prototype fuel cell in 2012 because it offers few savings over other ways to make hydrogen from sunlight 134 Consumption by sector editOne of the efforts to decarbonize transportation is the increased use of electric vehicles EVs 135 Despite that and the use of biofuels such as biojet less than 4 of transport energy is from renewables 136 Occasionally hydrogen fuel cells are used for heavy transport 137 Meanwhile in the future electrofuels may also play a greater role in decarbonizing hard to abate sectors like aviation and maritime shipping 138 Solar water heating makes an important contribution to renewable heat in many countries most notably in China which now has 70 of the global total 180 GWth Most of these systems are installed on multi family apartment buildings 139 and meet a portion of the hot water needs of an estimated 50 60 million households in China Worldwide total installed solar water heating systems meet a portion of the water heating needs of over 70 million households Heat pumps provide both heating and cooling and also flatten the electric demand curve and are thus an increasing priority 111 Renewable thermal energy is also growing rapidly 140 About 10 of heating and cooling energy is from renewables 141 Some studies say that a global transition to 100 renewable energy across all sectors power heat transport and industry is feasible and economically viable 142 143 144 Intermittency editMain article Variable renewable energy nbsp Estimated power demand over a week in May 2012 and May 2020 Germany showing the need for dispatchable generation rather than baseload generation in the grid clarification needed Fossil fuel power plants are usually able to produce precisely the amount of energy an electricity grid requires at a given time However the two most important forms of renewable energy solar and wind are intermittent energy sources they are not available constantly Solar energy can only be captured during the day and ideally in cloudless conditions Wind power generation can vary significantly not only day to day but even month to month 145 This poses a challenge when transitioning away from fossil fuels energy demand will often be higher or lower than what renewables can provide 146 Both scenarios can cause electricity grids to become overloaded leading to power outages Energy storage is an important way of dealing with this variability 147 Implementation of energy storage using a wide variety of renewable energy technologies and implementing a smart grid in which energy is automatically used at the moment it is produced can reduce risks and costs of renewable energy implementation 146 148 15 16 Sector coupling of the power generation sector with other sectors may increase flexibility for example the transport sector can be coupled by charging electric vehicles and sending electricity from vehicle to grid 149 Similarly the industry sector can be coupled by hydrogen produced by electrolysis 150 and the buildings sector by thermal energy storage for space heating and cooling 151 Electrical energy storage edit Main articles Energy storage and Grid energy storage Electrical energy storage is a collection of methods used to store electrical energy Electrical energy is stored during times when production especially from intermittent sources such as wind power tidal power solar power exceeds consumption and returned to the grid when production falls below consumption Pumped storage hydroelectricity accounts for more than 85 of all grid power storage 152 Batteries are increasingly being deployed for storage 153 and grid ancillary services 154 and for domestic storage 155 Green hydrogen is a more economical means of long term renewable energy storage in terms of capital expenditures compared to pumped hydroelectric or batteries 156 157 Further information Self powered dynamic systemsMarket and industry trends editMain article Renewable energy commercialization Most new renewables are solar followed by wind then hydro then bioenergy 158 Investment in renewables especially solar tends to be more effective in creating jobs than coal gas or oil 159 160 Worldwide renewables employ about 12 million people as of 2020 with solar PV being the technology employing the most at almost 4 million 161 However as of February 2024 the world s supply of workforce for solar energy is lagging greatly behind demand as universities worldwide still produce more workforce for fossil fuels than for renewable energy industries 162 In 2021 China accounted for almost half of the global increase in renewable electricity 163 There are 3 146 gigawatts installed in 135 countries while 156 countries have laws regulating the renewable energy sector 4 5 Globally in 2020 there are over 10 million jobs associated with the renewable energy industries with solar photovoltaics being the largest renewable employer 164 The clean energy sectors added about 4 7 million jobs globally between 2019 and 2022 totaling 35 million jobs by 2022 165 5 Cost comparison edit The International Renewable Energy Agency IRENA stated that 86 187 GW of renewable capacity added in 2022 had lower costs than electricity generated from fossil fuels 166 IRENA also stated that capacity added since 2000 reduced electricity bills in 2022 by at least 520 billion and that in non OECD countries the lifetime savings of 2022 capacity additions will reduce costs by up to 580 billion 166 Installed 167 TWp GrowthTW yr 167 Productionper installedcapacity 168 EnergyTWh yr 168 GrowthTWh yr 168 Levelized costUS kWh 169 Av auction pricesUS kWh 170 Cost development2010 2019 169 Solar PV 0 580 0 098 13 549 123 6 8 3 9 82 Solar CSP 0 006 0 0006 13 6 3 0 5 18 2 7 5 47 Wind Offshore 0 028 0 0045 33 68 11 5 11 5 8 2 30 Wind Onshore 0 594 0 05 25 1194 118 5 3 4 3 38 Hydro 1 310 0 013 38 4267 90 4 7 27 Bioenergy 0 12 0 006 51 522 27 6 6 13 Geothermal 0 014 0 00007 74 13 9 0 7 7 3 49 2018 All other values for 2019 Growth of renewables edit Investment and sources nbsp Investment Companies governments and households have committed increasing amounts to decarbonization including renewable energy solar wind electric vehicles and associated charging infrastructure energy storage energy efficient heating systems carbon capture and storage and hydrogen 171 172 nbsp Clean energy investment has benefited from post pandemic economic recovery a global energy crisis involving high fossil fuel prices and growing policy support across various nations 173 nbsp The countries most reliant on fossil fuels for electricity vary widely on how great a portion of that electricity is generated from renewables leaving wide variation in renewables growth potential 174 Costs nbsp Levelized cost With increasingly widespread implementation of renewable energy sources costs have declined most notably for energy generated by solar panels 175 176 Levelized cost of energy LCOE is a measure of the average net present cost of electricity generation for a generating plant over its lifetime nbsp Past costs of producing renewable energy declined significantly 177 with 62 of total renewable power generation added in 2020 having lower costs than the cheapest new fossil fuel option 178 nbsp Learning curves Trend of costs and deployment over time with steeper lines showing greater cost reductions as deployment progresses 179 With increased deployment renewables benefit from learning curves and economies of scale 180 The results of a recent review of the literature concluded that as greenhouse gas GHG emitters begin to be held liable for damages resulting from GHG emissions resulting in climate change a high value for liability mitigation would provide powerful incentives for deployment of renewable energy technologies 181 In the decade of 2010 2019 worldwide investment in renewable energy capacity excluding large hydropower amounted to US 2 7 trillion of which the top countries China contributed US 818 billion the United States contributed US 392 3 billion Japan contributed US 210 9 billion Germany contributed US 183 4 billion and the United Kingdom contributed US 126 5 billion 182 This was an increase of over three and possibly four times the equivalent amount invested in the decade of 2000 2009 no data is available for 2000 2003 182 As of 2022 an estimated 28 of the world s electricity was generated by renewables This is up from 19 in 1990 183 Future projections edit See also Energy transition nbsp In 2023 electricity generation from wind and solar sources was projected to exceed 30 by 2030 184 A December 2022 report by the IEA forecasts that over 2022 2027 renewables are seen growing by almost 2 400 GW in its main forecast equal to the entire installed power capacity of China in 2021 This is an 85 acceleration from the previous five years and almost 30 higher than what the IEA forecast in its 2021 report making its largest ever upward revision Renewables are set to account for over 90 of global electricity capacity expansion over the forecast period 57 To achieve net zero emissions by 2050 IEA believes that 90 of global electricity generation will need to be produced from renewable sources 12 In June 2022 IEA Executive Director Fatih Birol said that countries should invest more in renewables to ease the pressure on consumers from high fossil fuel prices make our energy systems more secure and get the world on track to reach our climate goals 185 China s five year plan to 2025 includes increasing direct heating by renewables such as geothermal and solar thermal 186 REPowerEU the EU plan to escape dependence on fossil Russian gas is expected to call for much more green hydrogen 187 After a transitional period 188 renewable energy production is expected to make up most of the world s energy production In 2018 the risk management firm DNV GL forecasts that the world s primary energy mix will be split equally between fossil and non fossil sources by 2050 189 Demand edit In July 2014 WWF and the World Resources Institute convened a discussion among a number of major US companies who had declared their intention to increase their use of renewable energy These discussions identified a number of principles which companies seeking greater access to renewable energy considered important market deliverables These principles included choice between suppliers and between products cost competitiveness longer term fixed price supplies access to third party financing vehicles and collaboration 190 UK statistics released in September 2020 noted that the proportion of demand met from renewables varies from a low of 3 4 per cent for transport mainly from biofuels to highs of over 20 per cent for other final users which is largely the service and commercial sectors that consume relatively large quantities of electricity and industry 191 In some locations individual households can opt to purchase renewable energy through a consumer green energy program Developing countries edit This section is an excerpt from Renewable energy in developing countries edit nbsp Shop selling PV panels in Ouagadougou Burkina Faso nbsp Solar cookers use sunlight as energy source for outdoor cooking Renewable energy in developing countries is an increasingly used alternative to fossil fuel energy as these countries scale up their energy supplies and address energy poverty Renewable energy technology was once seen as unaffordable for developing countries 192 However since 2015 investment in non hydro renewable energy has been higher in developing countries than in developed countries and comprised 54 of global renewable energy investment in 2019 193 The International Energy Agency forecasts that renewable energy will provide the majority of energy supply growth through 2030 in Africa and Central and South America and 42 of supply growth in China 194 Most developing countries have abundant renewable energy resources including solar energy wind power geothermal energy and biomass as well as the ability to manufacture the relatively labor intensive systems that harness these By developing such energy sources developing countries can reduce their dependence on oil and natural gas creating energy portfolios that are less vulnerable to price rises In many circumstances these investments can be less expensive than fossil fuel energy systems 195 In Kenya the Olkaria V Geothermal Power Station is one of the largest in the world 196 The Grand Ethiopia Renaissance Dam project incorporates wind turbines 197 Once completed Morocco s Ouarzazate Solar Power Station is projected to provide power to over a million people 198 Policy edit nbsp Share of electricity production from renewables 2022 33 Policies to support renewable energy have been vital in their expansion Where Europe dominated in establishing energy policy in the early 2000s most countries around the world now have some form of energy policy 199 Policy trends edit The International Renewable Energy Agency IRENA is an intergovernmental organization for promoting the adoption of renewable energy worldwide It aims to provide concrete policy advice and facilitate capacity building and technology transfer IRENA was formed in 2009 with 75 countries signing the charter of IRENA 200 As of April 2019 IRENA has 160 member states 201 The then United Nations Secretary General Ban Ki moon has said that renewable energy can lift the poorest nations to new levels of prosperity 202 and in September 2011 he launched the UN Sustainable Energy for All initiative to improve energy access efficiency and the deployment of renewable energy 203 The 2015 Paris Agreement on climate change motivated many countries to develop or improve renewable energy policies 11 In 2017 a total of 121 countries adopted some form of renewable energy policy 199 National targets that year existed in 176 countries 11 In addition there is also a wide range of policies at the state provincial and local levels 99 Some public utilities help plan or install residential energy upgrades Many national state and local governments have created green banks A green bank is a quasi public financial institution that uses public capital to leverage private investment in clean energy technologies 204 Green banks use a variety of financial tools to bridge market gaps that hinder the deployment of clean energy Climate neutrality by the year 2050 is the main goal of the European Green Deal 205 For the European Union to reach their target of climate neutrality one goal is to decarbonise its energy system by aiming to achieve net zero greenhouse gas emissions by 2050 206 Full renewable energy edit These paragraphs are an excerpt from 100 renewable energy edit 100 renewable energy is the goal of the use renewable resources for all energy 100 renewable energy for electricity heating cooling and transport is motivated by climate change pollution and other environmental issues as well as economic and energy security concerns Shifting the total global primary energy supply to renewable sources requires a transition of the energy system since most of today s energy is derived from non renewable fossil fuels Research into this topic is fairly new with very few studies published before 2009 but has gained increasing attention in recent years The majority of studies show that a global transition to 100 renewable energy across all sectors power heat transport and industry is feasible and economically viable 207 208 209 210 need quotation to verify A cross sectoral holistic approach is seen as an important feature of 100 renewable energy systems and is based on the assumption that the best solutions can be found only if one focuses on the synergies between the sectors of the energy system such as electricity heat transport or industry 211 The main barriers to the widespread implementation of large scale renewable energy and low carbon energy strategies are seen to be primarily social and political rather than technological or economic 212 According to the 2013 Post Carbon Pathways report which reviewed many international studies the key roadblocks are climate change denial the fossil fuels lobby political inaction unsustainable energy consumption outdated energy infrastructure and financial constraints 213 Finance editThe International Renewable Energy Agency s IRENA 2023 report on renewable energy finance highlights steady investment growth since 2018 USD 348 billion in 2020 a 5 6 increase from 2019 USD 430 billion in 2021 24 up from 2020 and USD 499 billion in 2022 16 higher This trend is driven by increasing recognition of renewable energy s role in mitigating climate change and enhancing energy security along with investor interest in alternatives to fossil fuels Policies such as feed in tariffs in China and Vietnam have significantly increased renewable adoption Furthermore from 2013 to 2022 installation costs for solar photovoltaic PV onshore wind and offshore wind fell by 69 33 and 45 respectively making renewables more cost effective 214 215 Solar edit From 2020 to 2022 solar technology investments almost doubled from USD 162 billion to USD 308 billion driven by the sector s increasing maturity and cost reductions particularly in solar photovoltaic PV which accounted for 90 of total investments China and the United States were the main recipients collectively making up about half of all solar investments since 2013 Despite reductions in Japan and India due to policy changes and COVID 19 growth in China the United States and a significant increase from Vietnam s feed in tariff program offset these declines Globally the solar sector added 714 gigawatts GW of solar PV and concentrated solar power CSP capacity between 2013 and 2021 with a notable rise in large scale solar heating installations in 2021 especially in China Europe Turkey and Mexico 215 Wind edit Investments in wind technologies reached USD 161 billion in 2020 with onshore wind dominating at 80 of total investments from 2013 to 2022 Offshore wind investments nearly doubled to USD 41 billion between 2019 and 2020 primarily due to policy incentives in China and expansion in Europe Global wind capacity increased by 557 GW between 2013 and 2021 with capacity additions increasing by an average of 19 each year 215 Other renewable energy edit Between 2013 and 2022 the renewable energy sector underwent a significant realignment of investment priorities Investment in solar and wind energy technologies markedly increased In contrast other renewable technologies such as hydropower including pumped storage hydropower biomass biofuels geothermal and marine energy experienced a substantial decrease in financial investment Notably from 2017 to 2022 investment in these alternative renewable technologies declined by 45 falling from USD 35 billion to USD 17 billion 215 Debates editMain articles Renewable energy debate Green job and Intermittent power source Further information Climate change mitigation Overviews strategies and comparisons of measures nbsp Most respondents to a climate survey conducted in 2021 2022 by the European Investment Bank say countries should back renewable energy to fight climate change 216 nbsp The same survey a year later shows that renewable energy is considered an investment priority in the European Union China and the United States 217 Renewable electricity generation by wind and solar is variable This results in reduced capacity factor and may require keeping some gas fired power plants or other dispatchable generation on standby 218 219 220 until there is enough energy storage demand response grid improvement and or base load power from non intermittent sources like hydropower nuclear power or bioenergy The market for renewable energy technologies has continued to grow Climate change concerns and increasing in green jobs coupled with high oil prices peak oil oil wars oil spills promotion of electric vehicles and renewable electricity nuclear disasters and increasing government support are driving increasing renewable energy legislation incentives and commercialization 221 better source needed The International Energy Agency has stated that deployment of renewable technologies usually increases the diversity of electricity sources and through local generation contributes to the flexibility of the system and its resistance to central shocks 222 Nuclear power proposed as renewable energy edit nbsp The Leibstadt Nuclear Power Plant in Switzerland This section is an excerpt from Nuclear power proposed as renewable energy edit Whether nuclear power should be considered a form of renewable energy is an ongoing subject of debate Statutory definitions of renewable energy usually exclude many present nuclear energy technologies with the notable exception of the state of Utah 223 Dictionary sourced definitions of renewable energy technologies often omit or explicitly exclude mention of nuclear energy sources with an exception made for the natural nuclear decay heat generated within the Earth 224 225 The most common fuel used in conventional nuclear fission power stations uranium 235 is non renewable according to the Energy Information Administration the organization however is silent on the recycled MOX fuel 225 The National Renewable Energy Laboratory does not mention nuclear power in its energy basics definition 226 In 1987 the Brundtland Commission WCED classified fission reactors that produce more fissile nuclear fuel than they consume breeder reactors and if developed fusion power among conventional renewable energy sources such as solar power and hydropower 227 The monitoring and storage of radioactive waste products is also required upon the use of other renewable energy sources such as geothermal energy 228 Geopolitics edit See also Russia in the European energy sector nbsp A concept of a super grid The geopolitical impact of the growing use of renewable energy is a subject of ongoing debate and research 229 Many fossil fuel producing countries such as Qatar Russia Saudi Arabia and Norway are currently able to exert diplomatic or geopolitical influence as a result of their oil wealth Most of these countries are expected to be among the geopolitical losers of the energy transition although some like Norway are also significant producers and exporters of renewable energy Fossil fuels and the infrastructure to extract them may in the long term become stranded assets 230 It has been speculated that countries dependent on fossil fuel revenue may one day find it in their interests to quickly sell off their remaining fossil fuels 231 Conversely nations abundant in renewable resources and the minerals required for renewables technology are expected to gain influence 232 233 In particular China has become the world s dominant manufacturer of the technology needed to produce or store renewable energy especially solar panels wind turbines and lithium ion batteries 234 Nations rich in solar and wind energy could become major energy exporters 235 Some may produce and export green hydrogen 236 235 although electricity is projected to be the dominant energy carrier in 2050 accounting for almost 50 of total energy consumption up from 22 in 2015 237 Countries with large uninhabited areas such as Australia China and many African and Middle Eastern countries have a potential for huge installations of renewable energy The production of renewable energy technologies requires rare earth elements with new supply chains 238 Countries with already weak governments that rely on fossil fuel revenue may face even higher political instability or popular unrest Analysts consider Nigeria Angola Chad Gabon and Sudan all countries with a history of military coups to be at risk of instability due to dwindling oil income 239 A study found that transition from fossil fuels to renewable energy systems reduces risks from mining trade and political dependence because renewable energy systems don t need fuel they depend on trade only for the acquisition of materials and components during construction 240 In October 2021 European Commissioner for Climate Action Frans Timmermans suggested the best answer to the 2021 global energy crisis is to reduce our reliance on fossil fuels 241 He said those blaming the European Green Deal were doing so for perhaps ideological reasons or sometimes economic reasons in protecting their vested interests 241 Some critics blamed the European Union Emissions Trading System EU ETS and closure of nuclear plants for contributing to the energy crisis 242 243 244 European Commission President Ursula von der Leyen said that Europe is too reliant on natural gas and too dependent on natural gas imports According to Von der Leyen The answer has to do with diversifying our suppliers and crucially with speeding up the transition to clean energy 245 Metal and mineral extraction edit See also Environmental footprint of electric cars and Rare earth element Environmental considerations The renewable energy transition requires increased extraction of certain metals and minerals 246 Solar power panels require large amounts of aluminum 247 This impacts the environment and can lead to environmental conflict 248 The International Energy Agency does not recognise shortages of resources but states that supply could struggle to keep pace with the world s climate ambitions Electric vehicles EV and battery storage are expected to cause the most demand Wind farms and solar PV are less consuming The extension of electrical grids requires large amounts of copper and aluminium The IEA recommends to scale up recycling By 2040 quantities of copper lithium cobalt and nickel from spent batteries could reduce combined primary supply requirements for these minerals by around 10 246 The demand for lithium by 2040 is expected to grow by the factor of 42 Graphite and nickel exploration is predicted to grow about 20 fold For each of the most relevant minerals and metals a significant share of resources are concentrated in only one country copper in Chile nickel in Indonesia rare earths in China cobalt in the Democratic Republic of the Congo DRC and lithium in Australia China dominates processing of them all 246 A controversial approach is deep sea mining Minerals can be collected from new sources like polymetallic nodules lying on the seabed 249 but this could damage biodiversity 250 The transition to renewable energy depends on non renewable resources such as mined metals 251 Manufacturing of photovoltaic panels wind turbines and batteries requires significant amounts of rare earth elements 252 which has significant social and environmental impact if mined in forests and protected areas 253 Due to co occurrence of rare earth and radioactive elements thorium uranium and radium rare earth mining results in production of low level radioactive waste 254 In Africa the green energy transition created a mining boom causing deforestation and creating possibility to zoonotic spillover To mitigate climate change and prevent epidemics some territories should stay intact 255 Conservation areas edit Installations used to produce wind solar and hydropower are an increasing threat to key conservation areas with facilities built in areas set aside for nature conservation and other environmentally sensitive areas They are often much larger than fossil fuel power plants needing areas of land up to 10 times greater than coal or gas to produce equivalent energy amounts 256 More than 2000 renewable energy facilities are built and more are under construction in areas of environmental importance and threaten the habitats of plant and animal species across the globe The authors team emphasized that their work should not be interpreted as anti renewables because renewable energy is crucial for reducing carbon emissions The key is ensuring that renewable energy facilities are built in places where they do not damage biodiversity 257 In 2020 scientists published a world map of areas that contain renewable energy materials as well as estimations of their overlaps with Key Biodiversity Areas Remaining Wilderness and Protected Areas The authors assessed that careful strategic planning is needed 258 259 260 Recycling of solar panels edit Solar panels are recycled to reduce electronic waste and create a source for materials that would otherwise need to be mined 261 but such business is still small and work is ongoing to improve and scale up the process 262 263 264 Society and culture editPublic support edit nbsp Acceptance of wind and solar facilities in one s community is stronger among U S Democrats blue while acceptance of nuclear power plants is stronger among U S Republicans red 265 Solar power plants may compete with arable land 251 266 while on shore wind farms face opposition due to aesthetic concerns and noise which is impacting both humans and wildlife 267 268 269 need quotation to verify In the United States the Massachusetts Cape Wind project was delayed for years partly because of aesthetic concerns However residents in other areas have been more positive According to a town councilor the overwhelming majority of locals believe that the Ardrossan Wind Farm in Scotland has enhanced the area 270 These concerns when directed against renewable energy are sometimes described as not in my back yard attitude NIMBY A 2011 UK Government document states that projects are generally more likely to succeed if they have broad public support and the consent of local communities This means giving communities both a say and a stake 271 In countries such as Germany and Denmark many renewable projects are owned by communities particularly through cooperative structures and contribute significantly to overall levels of renewable energy deployment 272 273 In international public opinion surveys there is strong support for renewables such as solar power and wind power 221 274 History editSee also History of climate change policy and politics Prior to the development of coal in the mid 19th century nearly all energy used was renewable The oldest known use of renewable energy in the form of traditional biomass to fuel fires dates from more than a million years ago The use of biomass for fire did not become commonplace until many hundreds of thousands of years later 275 Probably the second oldest usage of renewable energy is harnessing the wind in order to drive ships over water This practice can be traced back some 7000 years to ships in the Persian Gulf and on the Nile 276 From hot springs geothermal energy has been used for bathing since Paleolithic times and for space heating since ancient Roman times 277 Moving into the time of recorded history the primary sources of traditional renewable energy were human labor animal power water power wind in grain crushing windmills and firewood a traditional biomass In 1885 Werner Siemens commenting on the discovery of the photovoltaic effect in the solid state wrote In conclusion I would say that however great the scientific importance of this discovery may be its practical value will be no less obvious when we reflect that the supply of solar energy is both without limit and without cost and that it will continue to pour down upon us for countless ages after all the coal deposits of the earth have been exhausted and forgotten 278 Max Weber mentioned the end of fossil fuel in the concluding paragraphs of his Die protestantische Ethik und der Geist des Kapitalismus The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism published in 1905 279 Development of solar engines continued until the outbreak of World War I The importance of solar energy was recognized in a 1911 Scientific American article in the far distant future natural fuels having been exhausted solar power will remain as the only means of existence of the human race 280 The theory of peak oil was published in 1956 281 In the 1970s environmentalists promoted the development of renewable energy both as a replacement for the eventual depletion of oil as well as for an escape from dependence on oil and the first electricity generating wind turbines appeared Solar had long been used for heating and cooling but solar panels were too costly to build solar farms until 1980 282 New government spending regulation and policies helped the industry weather the 2009 economic crisis better than many other sectors 32 See also edit nbsp Environment portal nbsp Renewable energy portal nbsp Society portal nbsp Water portal Distributed generation Decentralised electricity generation Efficient energy use Energy efficiency Energy harvesting Collecting energy from external sources Energy security National security considerations of energy availability Energy storage Captured energy for later usage Energy poverty Lack of access to energy services such as electricity and heating Fuel efficiency Form of thermal efficiency Fossil fuel phase out Gradual reduction of the use and production of fossil fuels Mass production in renewable energy sector High volume production of standardized products Energy transition Significant structural change in an energy system Thermal energy storage Technologies to store thermal energy List of countries by renewable electricity production List of renewable energy topics by country and territory Renewable heat Application of renewable 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