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Wikipedia

Fossil fuel phase-out

February 15, 2024

Not to be confused with Fossil fuel divestment.

Fossil fuel phase-out is the gradual reduction of the use and production of fossil fuels to zero, to reduce deaths and illness from air pollution, limit climate change, and strengthen energy independence. It is part of the ongoing renewable energy transition, but is being hindered by fossil fuel subsidies.

Investment: Companies, governments and households have been investing increasing amounts in decarbonisation, including renewable energy, electric vehicles and associated infrastructure, energy storage, energy-efficient heating systems, carbon capture and storage, and hydrogen energy.[1][2]
Cost: With increasingly widespread implementation of renewable energy sources, the levelised cost of energy has declined, most notably for energy generated by solar panels.[3][4]

Although many countries are shutting down coal-fired power stations,[5][6][7] electricity generation is not moving off coal fast enough to meet climate goals.[8] Many countries have set dates to stop selling petrol and diesel cars and trucks, but a timetable to stop burning fossil gas has not yet been agreed.[9]

Current efforts in fossil fuel phase-out involve replacing fossil fuels with sustainable energy sources in sectors such as transport and heating. Alternatives to fossil fuels include electrification, green hydrogen and biofuel. Phase-out policies include both demand-side and supply-side measures.[10] Whereas demand-side approaches seek to reduce fossil-fuel consumption, supply-side initiatives seek to constrain production to accelerate the pace of energy transition and reduction in emissions. It has been suggested that laws should be passed to make fossil fuel companies bury the same amount of carbon as they emit.[11] The International Energy Agency estimates that in order to achieve carbon neutrality by the middle of the century, global investments in renewable energy must treble by 2030, reaching over $4 trillion annually.[12][13]

Scope edit

While crude oil and natural gas are also being phased out in chemical processes (e.g. production of new building blocks for plastics) as the circular economy and biobased economy (e.g. bioplastics) are being developed[14] to reduce plastic pollution, the fossil fuel phase out specifically aims to end the burning of fossil fuels and the consequent production of greenhouse gases. Therefore, attempts to reduce the use of oil and gas in the plastic industry do not form part of fossil fuel phase-out or reduction plans.

Types of fossil fuels edit

Coal edit

Main article: Coal phase-out
See also: Beyond Coal
 
The annual amount of coal plant capacity being retired increased into the mid-2010s.[15] However, the rate of retirement has since stalled,[15] and global coal phase-out is not yet compatible with the goals of the Paris Climate Agreement.[16]
 
In parallel with retirement of some coal plant capacity, other coal plants are still being added, though the annual amount of added capacity has been declining since the 2010s.[17]

To meet the Paris Agreement target of keeping global warming to well below 2 °C (3.6 °F), coal use needs to halve from 2020 to 2030.[18] However as of 2017, coal supplied over a quarter of the world's primary energy[19] and about 40% of the greenhouse gas emissions from fossil fuels.[20] Phasing out coal has short-term health and environmental benefits which exceed the costs,[21] and without it the 2 °C target in the Paris Agreement cannot be met;[22] but some countries still favour coal,[23] and there is much disagreement about how quickly it should be phased out.[24][25]

As of 2018, 30 countries and many sub-national governments and businesses[26] had become members of the Powering Past Coal Alliance, each making a declaration to advance the transition away from unabated (abated means with carbon capture and storage (CCS), but almost all power plants are unabated as CCS is so expensive) coal power generation.[27] As of 2019, however, the countries which use the most coal have not joined, and some countries continue to build and finance new coal-fired power stations. A just transition from coal is supported by the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development.[28]

In 2019 the UN Secretary General said that countries should stop building new coal power plants from 2020 or face 'total disaster'.[29]

In 2020, although China built some plants, globally more coal power was retired than built: the UN Secretary General has said that OECD countries should stop generating electricity from coal by 2030 and the rest of the world by 2040.[30]

Oil edit

 
The 2010 Deepwater Horizon oil spill discharges 4.9 million barrels (780,000 m3)
See also: Peak oil

Crude oil is refined into fuel oil, diesel and petrol. The refined products are primarily for transportation by conventional cars, trucks, trains, planes and ships. Popular alternatives are human-powered transport, public transport, electric vehicles, and biofuels.[31]

Natural gas edit

See also: Natural gas § Environmental effects, and Peak gas
 
Natural gas well in Germany

Natural gas is widely used to generate electricity and has an emission intensity of about 500g/kWh. Heating is also a major source of carbon dioxide emissions. Leaks are also a large source of atmospheric methane.

In some countries natural gas is being used as a temporary "bridge fuel" to replace coal, in turn to be replaced by renewable sources or a hydrogen economy.[32] However this "bridge fuel" may significantly extend the use of fossil fuel or strand assets, such as gas-fired power plants built in the 2020s, as the average plant life is 35 years.[33] Although natural gas assets are likely to be stranded later than oil and coal assets, perhaps not until 2050, some investors are concerned by reputational risk.[34]

As of 2019, natural gas phase-out progressed in some regions, for example with increasing use of hydrogen by the European Network of Transmission System Operators for Gas (ENTSOG)[35] and changes to building regulations to reduce the use of gas heating.[36][37]

Reasons edit

Commonly cited reasons for phasing out fossil fuels are to:

Health edit

See also: Air pollution § Health effects

Most of the millions[40] of premature deaths from air pollution are due to fossil fuels.[41] Pollution may be indoors e.g. from heating and cooking, or outdoors from vehicle exhaust. One estimate is that the proportion is 65% and the number 3.5 million each year.[42] According to Professor Sir Andy Haines at the London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine the health benefits of phasing out fossil fuels measured in money (estimated by economists using the value of life for each country) are substantially more than the cost of achieving the 2-degree C goal of the Paris Agreement.[43]

Climate change mitigation edit

Fossil-fuel phase-out is the largest part of limiting global warming as fossil fuels account for over 70% of greenhouse gas emissions.[44] In 2020, the International Energy Agency said that to meet the goals of the Paris Agreement, the phase-out of fossil fuels would need to "move four times faster".[45] To achieve the goal of limiting global warming to 1.5 °C above pre-industrial levels, the vast majority of fossil fuel reserves owned by countries and companies as of 2021 would have to remain in the ground.[46][47]

Employment edit

The renewable energy transition can create jobs through the construction of new power plants and the manufacturing of the equipment that they need, as was seen in the case of Germany and the wind power industry.[48]

This can also be seen in the case of France and the nuclear power industry. France receives about 75% of its electricity from nuclear energy[49] and hundreds of jobs have been created for developing nuclear technology, construction workers, engineers, and radiation protection specialists.[50]

Energy independence edit

Countries which lack fossil fuel deposits, particularly coal but also petroleum and natural gas, often cite energy independence in their shift away from fossil fuels.

In Switzerland the decision to electrify virtually the entire railway network was taken in light of the two world wars (during which Switzerland was neutral) when coal imports became increasingly difficult. As Switzerland has ample hydropower resources, electric trains (as opposed to those driven by steam locomotives or diesel) could be run on domestic energy resources, reducing the need for coal imports.[51][52]

The 1973 oil crisis also led to a shift in energy policy in many places to become (more) independent of fossil fuel imports. In France the government announced an ambitious plan to expand nuclear power which by the end of the 1980s had shifted France's electricity sector almost entirely away from coal gas and oil and towards nuclear power.[53][54]

The trend towards encouraging cycling in the Netherlands[55][56] and Denmark[57][58] also coincided with the 1973 oil crisis and aimed in part at reducing the need for oil imports in the transportation sector.

Phase-out of fossil fuel subsidies edit

See also: Fossil fuel subsidies § Phase-out

Significant fossil fuel subsidies are present in many countries.[59] Fossil fuel subsidies in 2019 for consumption totalled USD 320 billion[60] spread over many countries.[61] As of 2019 governments subsidise fossil fuels by about $500 billion per year: however using an unconventional definition of subsidy which includes failing to price greenhouse gas emissions, the International Monetary Fund estimated that fossil fuel subsidies were $5.2 trillion in 2017, which was 6.4% of global GDP.[62] Some fossil fuel companies lobby governments.[63]

Phasing out fossil fuel subsidies is very important.[64] It must however be done carefully to avoid protests[65] and making poor people poorer.[66] In most cases, however, low fossil fuel prices benefit wealthier households more than poorer households. So to help poor and vulnerable people, other measures than fossil fuel subsidies would be more targeted.[67] This could in turn increase public support for subsidy reform.[68]

Economic theory indicates that the optimal policy would be to remove coal mining and burning subsidies and replace them with optimal[clarification needed] taxes. Global studies indicate that even without introducing taxes, subsidy and trade barrier removal at a sectoral level would improve efficiency and reduce environmental damage.[69]: 568  Removal of these subsidies would substantially reduce GHG emissions and create jobs in renewable energy.[70] The IMF estimated in 2023 that removal of fossil fuel subsidies would limit global heating to the Paris goal of substantially less than 2 degrees.[71]

The actual effects of removing fossil fuel subsidies would depend heavily on the type of subsidy removed and the availability and economics of other energy sources.[69][obsolete source] There is also the issue of carbon leakage, where removal of a subsidy to an energy-intensive industry could lead to a shift in production to another country with less regulation, and thus to a net increase in global emissions.

In developed countries, energy costs are low and heavily subsidised, whereas in developing countries, the poor pay high costs for low-quality services.[72]

A plan has been put forward to power 100% of the world's energy with wind, hydroelectric, and solar power by the year 2030.[73][74] It recommends transfer of energy subsidies from fossil fuel to renewable, and a price on carbon reflecting its cost for flood, cyclone, hurricane, drought, and related extreme weather expenses.

Excluding subsidies the levelised cost of electricity from new large-scale solar power in India and China has been below existing coal-fired power stations since 2021.[75]

A study by Rice University Center for Energy Studies suggested the following steps for countries:[39]

  1. Countries should commit to a specific time frame for a full phaseout of implicit and explicit fossil fuel subsidies.
  2. Clarify the language on subsidy reform to remove ambiguous terminology.
  3. Seek formal legislation in affected countries that codifies reform pathways and reduces opportunities for backsliding.
  4. Publish transparent formulas for market-linked pricing, and adhere to a regular schedule for price adjustments.
  5. Phase-in full reforms in a sequence of gradual steps. Increasing prices gradually but on a defined schedule signals intent to consumers while allowing time to invest in energy efficiency to partially offset the increases.
  6. Aspire to account for externalities over time by imposing a fee or tax on fossil energy products and services, and eliminating preferences for fossil fuels that remain embedded in the tax code.
  7. Use direct cash transfers to maintain benefits for poor segments of society rather than preserving subsidised prices for vulnerable socioeconomic groups.
  8. Launch a comprehensive public communications campaign.
  9. Any remaining fossil fuel subsidies should be clearly budgeted at full international prices and paid for by the national treasury.
  10. Document price and emissions changes with reporting requirements.


Studies about fossil fuel phase-out edit

Reduction in fossil fuel capacity compared to renewables
 
Renewable energy sources, especially solar photovoltaic and wind power, are providing an increasing share of power capacity.[76]
 
In 2023, electricity generation from wind and solar sources was projected to exceed 30% by 2030, as fossil fuels' use continues to decline.[77]
 
The countries most reliant on fossil fuels for electricity vary widely on how great a percentage of that electricity is generated from renewables, leaving wide variation in renewables' growth potential.[78]

In 2015, Greenpeace and Climate Action Network Europe released a report highlighting the need for an active phase-out of coal-fired generation across Europe. Their analysis derived from a database of 280 coal plants and included emissions data from official EU registries.[79]

A 2016 report by Oil Change International, concludes that the carbon emissions embedded in the coal, oil, and gas in currently working mines and fields, assuming that these run to the end of their working lifetimes, will take the world to just beyond the 2 °C limit contained in the 2015 Paris Agreement and even further from the 1.5 °C goal.[80][81][82] The report observes that "one of the most powerful climate policy levers is also the simplest: stop digging for more fossil fuels".[82]: 5 

In 2016, the Overseas Development Institute (ODI) and 11 other NGOs released a report on the impact of building new coal-fired power plants in countries where a significant proportion of the population lacks access to electricity. The report concludes that, on the whole, building coal-fired power plants does little to help the poor and may make them poorer. Moreover, wind and solar generation are beginning to challenge coal on cost.[83][84][85]

A 2018 study in Nature Energy, suggests that 10 countries in Europe could completely phase out coal-fired electricity generation with their current infrastructure, whilst the United States and Russia could phase out at least 30%.[86]

In 2020, the Fossil Fuel Cuts Database provided the first global account of supply-side initiatives to constrain fossil fuel production.[87] The latest update of the database recorded 1967 initiatives implemented between 1988 and October 2021 in 110 countries across seven major types of supply-side approaches (Divestment, n=1201; Blockades, n= 374; Litigation, n= 192; Moratoria and Bans, n= 146; Production subsidies removal, n=31; Carbon tax on fossil fuel production, n=16; Emissions Trading Schemes, n= 7).

The GeGaLo index of geopolitical gains and losses assesses how the geopolitical position of 156 countries may change if the world fully transitions to renewable energy resources. Former fossil fuel exporters are expected to lose power, while the positions of former fossil fuel importers and countries rich in renewable energy resources is expected to strengthen.[88]

Multiple decarbonisation plans that get to zero CO2 emissions have been presented.

A Guardian investigation showed in 2022, that big fossil fuel firms continue to plan huge investments in new fossil fuel production projects that would drive the climate past internationally agreed temperature limits.[89]

Renewable energy potentials edit

In June 2021 Dr Sven Teske and Dr Sarah Niklas from the Institute for Sustainable Futures, University of Technology Sydney found that "existing coal, oil and gas production puts the world on course to overshoot Paris climate targets." In co-operation with the Fossil Fuel Non-Proliferation Treaty Initiative they published a report entitled, Fossil Fuel Exit Strategy: An orderly wind down of coal, oil, and gas to meet the Paris Agreement. It analyses global renewable energy potential, and finds that "every region on Earth can replace fossil fuels with renewable energy to keep warming below 1.5°C and provide reliable energy access to all."[90]

Assessment of extraction prevention responsibilities edit

In September 2021, the first scientific assessment of the minimum amount of fossil fuels that would need to be secured from extraction per region as well as globally, to allow for a 50% probability of limiting global warming by 2050 to 1.5 °C was provided.[91][92]

Challenges of fossil fuel phase-out edit

 
Net income of the global oil and gas industry reached a record US$4 trillion in 2022.[93]
 
After recovering from the COVID-19 pandemic, energy company profits increased with greater revenues from higher fuel prices resulting from the Russian invasion of Ukraine, falling debt levels, tax write-downs of projects shut down in Russia, and backing off from earlier plans to reduce greenhouse gas emissions.[94] Record profits sparked public calls for windfall taxes.[94]

The phase-out of fossil fuels involves many challenges, and one of them is the reliance that the world currently has on them. In 2014, fossil fuels provided over 80% of the primary energy consumption of the world.[95]

Fossil fuel phase-out may lead to an increment in electricity prices, because of the new investments needed to replace their share in the electricity mix with alternative energy sources.[96][obsolete source]

Another impact of a phase-out of fossil fuels is in employment. In the case of employment in the fossil fuel industry, a phase-out is logically undesired, therefore, people employed in the industry will usually oppose any measures that put their industries under scrutiny.[48] Endre Tvinnereim and Elisabeth Ivarsflaten studied the relationship between employment in the fossil fuel industry with the support to climate change policies. They proposed that one opportunity for displaced drilling employments in the fossil fuel industry could be in the geothermal energy industry. This was suggested as a result of their conclusion: people and companies in the fossil fuel industry will likely oppose measures that endanger their employment, unless they have other stronger alternatives.[97] This can be extrapolated to political interests, that can push against the phase-out of fossil fuels initiative.[98] One example is how the vote of United States Congress members is related to the preeminence of fossil fuel industries in their respective states.[99]

Other challenges include ensuring sustainable recycling, sourcing of the required materials, disruptions of existing power structures, managing variable renewable energy, developing optimal national transition policies, transforming transportation infrastructure and responsibilities of fossil fuel extraction prevention. There is active research and development on such issues.[100][101][102][additional citation(s) needed]

According to the people present at COP27 in Egypt, Saudi Arabian representatives pushed to block a call for the world to burn less oil. After objections from Saudi Arabia and a few other oil producers, summit's final statement failed to include a call for nations to phase out fossil fuels. In March 2022, at a United Nations meeting with climate scientists, Saudi Arabia, together with Russia, pushed to delete a reference to "human-induced climate change" from an official document, disputing the scientifically established fact that the burning of fossil fuels by humans is the main driver of the climate crisis.[103]

Major initiatives and legislation to phase out fossil fuels edit

China edit

China has pledged to become carbon neutral by 2060, which would need a just transition for over 3 million workers in the coal-mining and power industry.[104] It is not yet clear whether China aims to phase-out all fossil fuel use by that date or whether a small proportion will still be in use with the carbon captured and stored.[104] In 2021, coal mining was ordered to run at maximum capacity.[105]

EU edit

At the end of 2019, the European Union launched its European Green Deal. It included:

It also leans on Horizon Europe, to play a pivotal role in leveraging national public and private investments. Through partnerships with industry and member States, it will support research and innovation on transport technologies, including batteries, clean hydrogen, low-carbon steel making, circular bio-based sectors and the built environment.[109]

The European Investment Bank contributed over €81 billion to help the energy industry between 2017 and 2022, in line with EU energy policy. This comprised nearly €76 billion for initiatives related to power grids, energy efficiency, and renewable energy throughout Europe and other parts of the world.[12]

India edit

India is confident of exceeding Paris COP commitments.[110] In the Paris Agreement, India has committed to an Intended Nationally Determined Contributions target of achieving 40% of its total electricity generation from non-fossil fuel sources by 2030.[111]

Japan edit

Japan has pledged to become carbon neutral by 2050.[112]

United Kingdom edit

See also: Energy policy of the United Kingdom

The UK is legally committed to be carbon neutral by 2050, and moving away from the heating of homes by natural gas is likely to be the most difficult part of the country's fossil fuel phase out.[113] Alternative green recovery legislative plans have been proposed by multiple groups to phase out fossil fuels as fast as technology allows.[114]

Legislation and initiatives to phase out coal edit

Further information: Coal phase-out

Phase-out of fossil fuel power plants edit

See also: Alternative energy, energy transition, and 100% renewable energy
 
Bloomberg NEF reported that in 2022, global energy transition investment equaled fossil fuels investment for the first time.[115]
 
In 2020, renewables overtook fossil fuels as the European Union's main source of electricity for the first time.[116]

Alternative energy refers to any source of energy that can substitute the role of fossil fuels. Renewable energy, or energy that is harnessed from renewable sources, is an alternative energy. However, alternative energy can refer to non-renewable sources as well, like nuclear energy. Between the alternative sources of energy are: solar energy, hydroelectricity, marine energy, wind energy, geothermal energy, biofuels, ethanol and hydrogen.

Energy efficiency is complementary to the use of alternative energy sources, when phasing-out fossil fuels.

Renewable energy edit

These paragraphs are an excerpt from Renewable energy.[edit]

Renewable energy, green energy, or low-carbon energy is energy from renewable resources that are naturally replenished on a human timescale. Renewable resources include sunlight, wind, the movement of water, and geothermal heat.[117][118] Although most renewable energy sources are sustainable, some are not. For example, some biomass sources are considered unsustainable at current rates of exploitation.[119][120] Renewable energy is often used for electricity generation, heating and cooling. Renewable energy projects are typically large-scale, but they are also suited to rural and remote areas and developing countries, where energy is often crucial in human development.[121][122]

Renewable energy is often deployed together with further electrification, which has several benefits: electricity can move heat or objects efficiently, and is clean at the point of consumption.[123][124] From 2011 to 2021, renewable energy grew from 20% to 28% of global electricity supply. Use of fossil energy shrank from 68% to 62%, and nuclear from 12% to 10%. The share of hydropower decreased from 16% to 15% while power from sun and wind increased from 2% to 10%. Biomass and geothermal energy grew from 2% to 3%. There are 3,146 gigawatts installed in 135 countries, while 156 countries have laws regulating the renewable energy sector.[125][126] In 2021, China accounted for almost half of the global increase in renewable electricity.[127]

Globally there are over 10 million jobs associated with the renewable energy industries, with solar photovoltaics being the largest renewable employer.[128] Renewable energy systems are rapidly becoming more efficient and cheaper and their share of total energy consumption is increasing,[129] with a large majority of worldwide newly installed electricity capacity being renewable.[130] In most countries, photovoltaic solar or onshore wind are the cheapest new-build electricity.[131]

Many nations around the world already have renewable energy contributing more than 20% of their total energy supply, with some generating over half their electricity from renewables.[132] A few countries generate all their electricity using renewable energy.[133] National renewable energy markets are projected to continue to grow strongly in the 2020s and beyond.[134] According to the IEA, to achieve net zero emissions by 2050, 90% of global electricity generation will need to be produced from renewable sources.[135] Some studies say that a global transition to 100% renewable energy across all sectors – power, heat, transport and industry – is feasible and economically viable.[136][137][138]

Renewable energy resources exist over wide geographical areas, in contrast to fossil fuels, which are concentrated in a limited number of countries. Deployment of renewable energy and energy efficiency technologies is resulting in significant energy security, climate change mitigation, and economic benefits.[139] However renewables are being hindered by hundreds of billions of dollars of fossil fuel subsidies.[140] In international public opinion surveys there is strong support for renewables such as solar power and wind power.[141][142] In 2022 the International Energy Agency asked countries to solve policy, regulatory, permitting and financing obstacles to adding more renewables, to have a better chance of reaching net zero carbon emissions by 2050.[143]

Hydroelectricity edit

 
Chief Joseph Dam near Bridgeport, Washington, US, is a major run-of-the-river station without a sizeable reservoir.

In 2015, hydroelectric energy generated 16.6% of the world's total electricity and 70% of all renewable electricity.[144] In Europe and North America environmental concerns around land flooded by large reservoirs ended 30 years of dam construction in the 1990s. Since then large dams and reservoirs continue to be built in countries like China, Brazil and India. Run-of-the-river hydroelectricity and small hydro have become popular alternatives to conventional dams that may create reservoirs in environmentally sensitive areas.

Wind power edit

These paragraphs are an excerpt from Wind power.[edit]

Wind power is the use of wind energy to generate useful work. Historically, wind power was used by sails, windmills and windpumps, but today it is mostly used to generate electricity. This article deals only with wind power for electricity generation. Today, wind power is generated almost completely with wind turbines, generally grouped into wind farms and connected to the electrical grid.

In 2022, wind supplied over 2000 TWh of electricity, which was over 7% of world electricity[145]: 58  and about 2% of world energy.[146][147] With about 100 GW added during 2021, mostly in China and the United States, global installed wind power capacity exceeded 800 GW.[148][147][149] To help meet the Paris Agreement goals to limit climate change, analysts say it should expand much faster - by over 1% of electricity generation per year.[150]

Wind power is considered a sustainable, renewable energy source, and has a much smaller impact on the environment compared to burning fossil fuels. Wind power is variable, so it needs energy storage or other dispatchable generation energy sources to attain a reliable supply of electricity. Land-based (onshore) wind farms have a greater visual impact on the landscape than most other power stations per energy produced.[151][152] Wind farms sited offshore have less visual impact and have higher capacity factors, although they are generally more expensive.[148] Offshore wind power currently has a share of about 10% of new installations.[153]

Wind power is one of the lowest-cost electricity sources per unit of energy produced. In many locations, new onshore wind farms are cheaper than new coal or gas plants.[154]

Regions in the higher northern and southern latitudes have the highest potential for wind power.[155] In most regions, wind power generation is higher in nighttime, and in winter when solar power output is low. For this reason, combinations of wind and solar power are suitable in many countries.[156]

Solar edit

Main articles: Solar power and Solar energy

In 2017, solar power provided 1.7% of total worldwide electricity production, growing at 35% per annum.[157] By 2020 the solar contribution to global final energy consumption is expected to exceed 1%.[158]

Solar photovoltaics edit

 
The 71.8 MW Lieberose Photovoltaic Park in Germany
Main article: Photovoltaics
Main article: List of photovoltaic power stations

Solar photovoltaic cells convert sunlight into electricity and many solar photovoltaic power stations have been built. The size of these stations has increased progressively over the last decade with frequent new capacity records. Many of these plants are integrated with agriculture and some use innovative tracking systems that follow the sun's daily path across the sky to generate more electricity than conventional fixed-mounted systems. Solar power plants have no fuel costs or emissions during operation.

Concentrated solar power edit

 
The 150 MW Andasol solar power station is a commercial parabolic trough solar thermal power plant, located in Spain. The Andasol plant uses tanks of molten salt to store solar energy so that it can continue generating electricity even when the sun isn't shining.[159]
See also: Concentrated solar power

Concentrating Solar Power (CSP) systems use lenses or mirrors and tracking systems to focus a large area of sunlight into a small beam. The concentrated heat is then used as a heat source for a conventional power plant. A wide range of concentrating technologies exists; the most developed are the parabolic trough, the Compact linear Fresnel reflector, the Stirling dish and the solar power tower. Various techniques are used to track the Sun and focus light. In all of these systems a working fluid is heated by the concentrated sunlight, and is then used for power generation or energy storage.[160]

Nuclear energy edit

Main article: Nuclear power

The 2014 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) report identifies nuclear energy as one of the technologies that can provide electricity with less than 5% of the lifecycle greenhouse gas emissions of coal power.[161] There are more than 60 nuclear reactors shown as under construction in the list of Nuclear power by country with China leading at 23. Globally, more nuclear power reactors have closed than opened in recent years but overall capacity has increased.[162] China has stated its plans to double nuclear generation by 2030. India also plans to greatly increase its nuclear power. The Manhattan 2 Project has presented a report that describes how to significantly increase nuclear power via factory automation.

Several countries have enacted laws to cease construction on new nuclear power stations. Several European countries have debated nuclear phase-outs and others have completely shut down some reactors. Three nuclear accidents have influenced the slowdown of nuclear power: the 1979 Three Mile Island accident in the United States, the 1986 Chernobyl disaster in the USSR, and the 2011 Fukushima nuclear disaster in Japan. Following the March 2011 Fukushima nuclear disaster, Germany has permanently shut down eight of its 17 reactors and pledged to close the rest by the end of 2022.[163] Italy voted overwhelmingly to keep their country non-nuclear.[164] Switzerland and Spain have banned the construction of new reactors.[165] Japan's prime minister has called for a dramatic reduction in Japan's reliance on nuclear power.[166] Taiwan's president did the same. Shinzō Abe, prime minister of Japan since December 2012, announced a plan to restart some of the 54 Japanese nuclear power plants and to continue some nuclear reactors under construction.

As of 2016, countries such as Australia, Austria, Denmark, Greece, Malaysia, New Zealand and Norway have no nuclear power stations and remain opposed to nuclear power.[167][168] Germany, Italy, Spain and Switzerland are phasing-out their nuclear power.[162][168][169][170] Despite this, most pathways for spurring a fossil fuel phase-out that keeps pace with global electricity demands include the expansion of nuclear power, according to the IPCC.[171] Likewise, the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe has stated that global climate objectives would likely not be met without nuclear expansion.[172]

Cost overruns, construction delays, the threat of catastrophic accidents, and regulatory hurdles often make nuclear power plant expansion practically infeasible. Some companies and organisations have proposed plans aimed at mitigating the cost, duration, and risk of nuclear power plant construction. NuScale Power, for example, has received regulatory approval from the Nuclear Regulatory Commission for a light-water reactor that would theoretically limit the risk of accidents and could be manufactured for less than traditional nuclear plants.[173][174] The Energy Impact Center's OPEN100, a platform that provides open-source blueprints for the construction of a nuclear plant with a 100-megawatt pressurised water reactor, claims that its model could be built in as little as two years for $300 million. In both plans, the ability to mass manufacture small modular reactors would theoretically cut down on construction time.[173][175]

Biomass edit

Main article: Biomass

Biomass is biological material from living, or recently living organisms, most often referring to plants or plant-derived materials.[176] As a renewable energy source, biomass can either be used directly, or indirectly – once or converted into another type of energy product such as biofuel. Biomass can be converted to energy in three ways: thermal conversion, chemical conversion, and biochemical conversion.

Using biomass as a fuel produces air pollution in the form of carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, NOx (nitrogen oxides), VOCs (volatile organic compounds), particulates and other pollutants at levels above those from traditional fuel sources such as coal or natural gas in some cases (such as with indoor heating and cooking).[177][178][179] Use of wood biomass as a fuel can also produce fewer particulate and other pollutants than open burning as seen in wildfires or direct heat applications.[180] Black carbon – a pollutant created by combustion of fossil fuels, biofuels, and biomass – is possibly the second largest contributor to global warming.[181]: 56–57  In 2009 a Swedish study of the giant brown haze that periodically covers large areas in South Asia determined that it had been principally produced by biomass burning, and to a lesser extent by fossil fuel burning.[182] Denmark has increased the use of biomass and garbage,[183] and decreased the use of coal.[184]

Phase-out of fossil fuel vehicles edit

Main article: Phase-out of fossil fuel vehicles
 
Sales of electric vehicles (EVs) indicate a trend away from gas-powered vehicles that generate greenhouse gases.[185]

Many countries and cities have introduced bans on the sales of new internal combustion engine vehicles, requiring all new cars to be electric vehicles or otherwise powered by clean, non-emitting sources.[186][187] Such bans include the United Kingdom by 2035[188] and Norway by 2025. Many transit authorities are working to purchase only electric buses while also restricting use of ICE vehicles in the city center to limit air pollution. Many US states have a zero-emissions vehicle mandate, incrementally requiring a certain per cent of cars sold to be electric. The German term de: Verkehrswende ("traffic transition" analogous to "Energiewende", energetic transition) calls for a shift from combustion powered road transport to bicycles, walking and rail transport and the replacement of remaining road vehicles with electric traction.

Biofuels edit

Main article: Biofuel

Biofuels, in the form of liquid fuels derived from plant materials, are entering the market. However, many of the biofuels that are currently being supplied have been criticised for their adverse impacts on the natural environment, food security, and land use.[189][190]

Opinion edit

Those corporations that continue to invest in new fossil fuel exploration, new fossil fuel exploitation, are really in flagrant breach of their fiduciary duty because the science is abundantly clear that this is something we can no longer do.

— Christiana Figueres, executive secretary of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change[191]
 
Protest at the Legislative Building in Olympia, Washington. Ted Nation, a long-time environmental activist beside protest sign.

Polls edit

In 2023, Pew commissioned a poll that estimated 31% of Americans were ready to phase out the use of oil, coal and natural gas completely, 32% wanted to phase out fossil fuel eventually and 35% said they never want fossil fuel to be phased out.[192]

Prominent individuals supporting a coal moratorium edit

If you're a young person looking at the future of this planet and looking at what is being done right now, and not done, I believe we have reached the stage where it is time for civil disobedience to prevent the construction of new coal plants that do not have carbon capture and sequestration.

Prominent individuals supporting a coal phase-out edit

Mitigation of peak oil edit

 
The standard Hubbert curve, plotting crude oil production of a region over time.
 
World energy consumption, 1970–2025. Source: International Energy Outlook 2004.

The mitigation of peak oil is the attempt to delay the date and minimize the social and economic effects of peak oil by reducing the consumption of and reliance on petroleum.[citation needed] By reducing petroleum consumption, mitigation efforts seek to favorably change the shape of the Hubbert curve, which is the graph of real oil production over time predicted by Hubbert peak theory. The peak of this curve is known as peak oil, and by changing the shape of the curve, the timing of the peak in oil production is affected. An analysis by the author of the Hirsch report showed that while the shape of the oil production curve can be affected by mitigation efforts, mitigation efforts are also affected by the shape of Hubbert curve.[195]

For the most part, mitigation involves fuel conservation, and the use of alternative and renewable energy sources. The development of unconventional oil resources can extend the supply of petroleum,[196] but does not reduce consumption.

Historically, world oil consumption data show that mitigation efforts during the 1973 and 1979 oil shocks lowered oil consumption, while general recessions since the 1970s have had no effect on curbing the oil consumption until 2007.[citation needed] In the United States, oil consumption declines in reaction to high prices.[197][198]

Key questions for mitigation are the viability of methods, the roles of government and private sector and how early these solutions are implemented.[199][200] The responses to such questions and steps taken towards mitigation may determine whether or not the lifestyle of a society can be maintained, and may affect the population capacity of the planet.

Alternative energy edit

The most effective method of mitigating peak oil is to use renewable or alternative energy sources in place of petroleum.

Transportation fuel use edit

Because most oil is consumed for transportation[201] most mitigation discussions revolve around transportation issues.

Fuel substitution edit

Main article: Future energy development

While there is some interchangeability, the alternative energy sources available tend to depend on whether the fuel is being used in static or mobile applications.

Biofuel edit
This section is an excerpt from Biofuel.[edit]
 
A sample of biodiesel

Biofuel is a fuel that is produced over a short time span from biomass, rather than by the very slow natural processes involved in the formation of fossil fuels, such as oil. Biofuel can be produced from plants or from agricultural, domestic or industrial biowaste. Biofuels are mostly used for transportation, but can also be used for heating and electricity.[202]: 173 [203] Biofuels (and bioenergy in general) are regarded as a renewable energy source.[204]: 11  The use of biofuel has been subject to criticism regarding the "food vs fuel" debate, sustainability, deforestation, loss of biodiversity, etc.

In general, biofuels emit fewer greenhouse gas emissions when burned in an engine and are generally considered carbon-neutral fuels as the carbon emitted has been captured from the atmosphere by the crops used in production.[205] However, life-cycle assessments of biofuels have shown large emissions associated with the potential land-use change required to produce additional biofuel feedstocks.[206][207] Estimates about the climate impact from biofuels vary widely based on the methodology and exact situation examined.[206] Therefore, the climate change mitigation potential of biofuel varies considerably: in some scenarios emission levels are comparable to fossil fuels, and in other scenarios the biofuel emissions result in negative emissions.

The two most common types of biofuel are bioethanol and biodiesel. Brazil is the largest producer of bioethanol, while the EU is the largest producer of biodiesel. The energy content in the global production of bioethanol and biodiesel is 2.2 and 1.8 EJ per year, respectively.[208] Demand for aviation biofuel is forecast to increase.[209][210]

Bioethanol is an alcohol made by fermentation, mostly from carbohydrates produced in sugar or starch crops such as maize, sugarcane, or sweet sorghum. Cellulosic biomass, derived from non-food sources, such as trees and grasses, is also being developed as a feedstock for ethanol production. Ethanol can be used as a fuel for vehicles in its pure form (E100), but it is usually used as a gasoline additive to increase octane ratings and improve vehicle emissions.

Biodiesel is produced from oils or fats using transesterification. It can be used as a fuel for vehicles in its pure form (B100), but it is usually used as a diesel additive to reduce levels of particulates, carbon monoxide, and hydrocarbons from diesel-powered vehicles.[211]
Static installations edit

Although oil and diesel still generates a small share of global electricity, some Middle East oil producing countries are replacing that with solar power, as it is more profitable to export the oil.[212]

Mobile applications edit
See also: Biofuel, Hydrogen economy, Methanol economy, and Hydrogen-powered aircraft

Due to its high energy density and ease of handling, oil has a unique role as a transportation fuel. There are, however, a number of possible alternatives. Among the biofuels the use of bioethanol and biodiesel is already established to some extent in some countries.

The use of hydrogen fuel is another alternative under development in various countries, alongside, hydrogen vehicles[213] though hydrogen is actually an energy storage medium, not a primary energy source, and consequently the use of a non-petroleum source would be required to extract the hydrogen for use. Though hydrogen is currently outperformed in terms of cost and efficiency by battery powered vehicles[214][citation needed], there are applications where it would come in useful. Short haul ferries and very cold climates are two examples. Hydrogen fuel cells are about a third as efficient as batteries and double the efficiency of petrol vehicles.

Electric vehicles powered by batteries are another alternative, and these have the advantage of having the highest well-to-wheels efficiency rate of any energy pathway and thus would allow much greater numbers of vehicles than any other methods. In addition, even if the electricity was sourced from coal-fired power plants, two advantages would remain: first it is cheaper to sequester carbon from a few thousand smokestacks than it is to retrofit hundreds of millions of vehicles, and second encouraging the use of electric vehicles allows a further pathway for scaling up of renewable energy sources.

Alternative aviation fuel edit

The Airbus A380 flew on alternative fuel for the first time on 1 February 2008.[citation needed] Boeing also plans to use alternative fuel on the 747.[215] Because some biofuels such as ethanol contains less energy, more "tankstops" might be necessary for such planes.

The US Air Force is currently in the process of certifying its entire fleet to run on a 50/50 blend of synthetic fuel derived from the Fischer–Tropsch process and JP-8 jet fuel.[216]

Conservation edit

When alternative fuels are not available, the development of more energy efficient vehicles becomes an important mitigant. Some ways of decreasing the oil used in transportation include increasing the use of bicycles, public transport, carpooling, electric vehicles, and diesel and hybrid vehicles with higher fuel efficiency.

More comprehensive mitigations include better land use planning through smart growth to reduce the need for private transportation, increased capacity and use of mass transit, vanpooling and carpooling,[217] bus rapid transit, remote work, and human-powered transport from current levels.[218] Rationing and driving bans are also forms of reducing private transportation.[217] The higher oil prices of 2007 and 2008 caused United States drivers to begin driving less in 2007 and to a much greater extent in the first three months of 2008.[197][198]

In order to deal with potential problems from peak oil, Colin Campbell has proposed the Rimini protocol, a plan which among other things would require countries to balance oil consumption with their current production.

See also edit

Notes edit

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References edit

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External links edit

  • Amory Lovins: Winning the oil endgame on TED.com - a discussion of how the United States can stop importing oil by 2045, based on research commissioned by The Pentagon
  • Oil Depletion Analysis Centre in the United Kingdom
  • "Sci/Tech – US greens say coal must go". BBC News. Retrieved 26 March 2019.
  • Big Shift: Campaign to end to public financing of fossil fuels
  • "Global Fossil Infrastructure Tracker" 10 December 2019 at the Wayback Machine

February 15, 2024
fossil, fuel, phase, confused, with, fossil, fuel, divestment, gradual, reduction, production, fossil, fuels, zero, reduce, deaths, illness, from, pollution, limit, climate, change, strengthen, energy, independence, part, ongoing, renewable, energy, transition. Not to be confused with Fossil fuel divestment Fossil fuel phase out is the gradual reduction of the use and production of fossil fuels to zero to reduce deaths and illness from air pollution limit climate change and strengthen energy independence It is part of the ongoing renewable energy transition but is being hindered by fossil fuel subsidies Investment Companies governments and households have been investing increasing amounts in decarbonisation including renewable energy electric vehicles and associated infrastructure energy storage energy efficient heating systems carbon capture and storage and hydrogen energy 1 2 Cost With increasingly widespread implementation of renewable energy sources the levelised cost of energy has declined most notably for energy generated by solar panels 3 4 Although many countries are shutting down coal fired power stations 5 6 7 electricity generation is not moving off coal fast enough to meet climate goals 8 Many countries have set dates to stop selling petrol and diesel cars and trucks but a timetable to stop burning fossil gas has not yet been agreed 9 Current efforts in fossil fuel phase out involve replacing fossil fuels with sustainable energy sources in sectors such as transport and heating Alternatives to fossil fuels include electrification green hydrogen and biofuel Phase out policies include both demand side and supply side measures 10 Whereas demand side approaches seek to reduce fossil fuel consumption supply side initiatives seek to constrain production to accelerate the pace of energy transition and reduction in emissions It has been suggested that laws should be passed to make fossil fuel companies bury the same amount of carbon as they emit 11 The International Energy Agency estimates that in order to achieve carbon neutrality by the middle of the century global investments in renewable energy must treble by 2030 reaching over 4 trillion annually 12 13 Contents 1 Scope 2 Types of fossil fuels 2 1 Coal 2 2 Oil 2 3 Natural gas 3 Reasons 3 1 Health 3 2 Climate change mitigation 3 3 Employment 3 4 Energy independence 4 Phase out of fossil fuel subsidies 5 Studies about fossil fuel phase out 5 1 Renewable energy potentials 5 2 Assessment of extraction prevention responsibilities 6 Challenges of fossil fuel phase out 7 Major initiatives and legislation to phase out fossil fuels 7 1 China 7 2 EU 7 3 India 7 4 Japan 7 5 United Kingdom 8 Legislation and initiatives to phase out coal 9 Phase out of fossil fuel power plants 9 1 Renewable energy 9 2 Hydroelectricity 9 3 Wind power 9 4 Solar 9 4 1 Solar photovoltaics 9 4 2 Concentrated solar power 9 5 Nuclear energy 9 6 Biomass 10 Phase out of fossil fuel vehicles 10 1 Biofuels 11 Opinion 11 1 Polls 11 2 Prominent individuals supporting a coal moratorium 11 3 Prominent individuals supporting a coal phase out 12 Mitigation of peak oil 12 1 Alternative energy 12 2 Transportation fuel use 12 2 1 Fuel substitution 12 2 1 1 Biofuel 12 2 1 2 Static installations 12 2 1 3 Mobile applications 12 2 1 4 Alternative aviation fuel 12 2 2 Conservation 13 See also 14 Notes 15 References 16 External linksScope editWhile crude oil and natural gas are also being phased out in chemical processes e g production of new building blocks for plastics as the circular economy and biobased economy e g bioplastics are being developed 14 to reduce plastic pollution the fossil fuel phase out specifically aims to end the burning of fossil fuels and the consequent production of greenhouse gases Therefore attempts to reduce the use of oil and gas in the plastic industry do not form part of fossil fuel phase out or reduction plans Types of fossil fuels editCoal edit Main article Coal phase out See also Beyond Coal nbsp The annual amount of coal plant capacity being retired increased into the mid 2010s 15 However the rate of retirement has since stalled 15 and global coal phase out is not yet compatible with the goals of the Paris Climate Agreement 16 nbsp In parallel with retirement of some coal plant capacity other coal plants are still being added though the annual amount of added capacity has been declining since the 2010s 17 To meet the Paris Agreement target of keeping global warming to well below 2 C 3 6 F coal use needs to halve from 2020 to 2030 18 However as of 2017 update coal supplied over a quarter of the world s primary energy 19 and about 40 of the greenhouse gas emissions from fossil fuels 20 Phasing out coal has short term health and environmental benefits which exceed the costs 21 and without it the 2 C target in the Paris Agreement cannot be met 22 but some countries still favour coal 23 and there is much disagreement about how quickly it should be phased out 24 25 As of 2018 update 30 countries and many sub national governments and businesses 26 had become members of the Powering Past Coal Alliance each making a declaration to advance the transition away from unabated abated means with carbon capture and storage CCS but almost all power plants are unabated as CCS is so expensive coal power generation 27 As of 2019 update however the countries which use the most coal have not joined and some countries continue to build and finance new coal fired power stations A just transition from coal is supported by the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development 28 In 2019 the UN Secretary General said that countries should stop building new coal power plants from 2020 or face total disaster 29 In 2020 although China built some plants globally more coal power was retired than built the UN Secretary General has said that OECD countries should stop generating electricity from coal by 2030 and the rest of the world by 2040 30 Oil edit nbsp The 2010 Deepwater Horizon oil spill discharges 4 9 million barrels 780 000 m3 See also Peak oil Crude oil is refined into fuel oil diesel and petrol The refined products are primarily for transportation by conventional cars trucks trains planes and ships Popular alternatives are human powered transport public transport electric vehicles and biofuels 31 Natural gas edit See also Natural gas Environmental effects and Peak gas nbsp Natural gas well in GermanyNatural gas is widely used to generate electricity and has an emission intensity of about 500g kWh Heating is also a major source of carbon dioxide emissions Leaks are also a large source of atmospheric methane In some countries natural gas is being used as a temporary bridge fuel to replace coal in turn to be replaced by renewable sources or a hydrogen economy 32 However this bridge fuel may significantly extend the use of fossil fuel or strand assets such as gas fired power plants built in the 2020s as the average plant life is 35 years 33 Although natural gas assets are likely to be stranded later than oil and coal assets perhaps not until 2050 some investors are concerned by reputational risk 34 As of 2019 update natural gas phase out progressed in some regions for example with increasing use of hydrogen by the European Network of Transmission System Operators for Gas ENTSOG 35 and changes to building regulations to reduce the use of gas heating 36 37 Reasons editCommonly cited reasons for phasing out fossil fuels are to reduce deaths and illness caused by air pollution limit climate change reduce fossil fuel subsidies 38 39 strengthen energy independence countries with low or no fossil fuel deposits often transition away from fossil fuels to gain energy independently citation needed Health edit See also Air pollution Health effects Most of the millions 40 of premature deaths from air pollution are due to fossil fuels 41 Pollution may be indoors e g from heating and cooking or outdoors from vehicle exhaust One estimate is that the proportion is 65 and the number 3 5 million each year 42 According to Professor Sir Andy Haines at the London School of Hygiene amp Tropical Medicine the health benefits of phasing out fossil fuels measured in money estimated by economists using the value of life for each country are substantially more than the cost of achieving the 2 degree C goal of the Paris Agreement 43 Climate change mitigation edit Fossil fuel phase out is the largest part of limiting global warming as fossil fuels account for over 70 of greenhouse gas emissions 44 In 2020 the International Energy Agency said that to meet the goals of the Paris Agreement the phase out of fossil fuels would need to move four times faster 45 To achieve the goal of limiting global warming to 1 5 C above pre industrial levels the vast majority of fossil fuel reserves owned by countries and companies as of 2021 would have to remain in the ground 46 47 Employment edit This section needs expansion You can help by adding to it October 2020 The renewable energy transition can create jobs through the construction of new power plants and the manufacturing of the equipment that they need as was seen in the case of Germany and the wind power industry 48 This can also be seen in the case of France and the nuclear power industry France receives about 75 of its electricity from nuclear energy 49 and hundreds of jobs have been created for developing nuclear technology construction workers engineers and radiation protection specialists 50 Energy independence edit Countries which lack fossil fuel deposits particularly coal but also petroleum and natural gas often cite energy independence in their shift away from fossil fuels In Switzerland the decision to electrify virtually the entire railway network was taken in light of the two world wars during which Switzerland was neutral when coal imports became increasingly difficult As Switzerland has ample hydropower resources electric trains as opposed to those driven by steam locomotives or diesel could be run on domestic energy resources reducing the need for coal imports 51 52 The 1973 oil crisis also led to a shift in energy policy in many places to become more independent of fossil fuel imports In France the government announced an ambitious plan to expand nuclear power which by the end of the 1980s had shifted France s electricity sector almost entirely away from coal gas and oil and towards nuclear power 53 54 The trend towards encouraging cycling in the Netherlands 55 56 and Denmark 57 58 also coincided with the 1973 oil crisis and aimed in part at reducing the need for oil imports in the transportation sector Phase out of fossil fuel subsidies editSee also Fossil fuel subsidies Phase out Significant fossil fuel subsidies are present in many countries 59 Fossil fuel subsidies in 2019 for consumption totalled USD 320 billion 60 spread over many countries 61 As of 2019 update governments subsidise fossil fuels by about 500 billion per year however using an unconventional definition of subsidy which includes failing to price greenhouse gas emissions the International Monetary Fund estimated that fossil fuel subsidies were 5 2 trillion in 2017 which was 6 4 of global GDP 62 Some fossil fuel companies lobby governments 63 Phasing out fossil fuel subsidies is very important 64 It must however be done carefully to avoid protests 65 and making poor people poorer 66 In most cases however low fossil fuel prices benefit wealthier households more than poorer households So to help poor and vulnerable people other measures than fossil fuel subsidies would be more targeted 67 This could in turn increase public support for subsidy reform 68 Economic theory indicates that the optimal policy would be to remove coal mining and burning subsidies and replace them with optimal clarification needed taxes Global studies indicate that even without introducing taxes subsidy and trade barrier removal at a sectoral level would improve efficiency and reduce environmental damage 69 568 Removal of these subsidies would substantially reduce GHG emissions and create jobs in renewable energy 70 The IMF estimated in 2023 that removal of fossil fuel subsidies would limit global heating to the Paris goal of substantially less than 2 degrees 71 The actual effects of removing fossil fuel subsidies would depend heavily on the type of subsidy removed and the availability and economics of other energy sources 69 obsolete source There is also the issue of carbon leakage where removal of a subsidy to an energy intensive industry could lead to a shift in production to another country with less regulation and thus to a net increase in global emissions In developed countries energy costs are low and heavily subsidised whereas in developing countries the poor pay high costs for low quality services 72 A plan has been put forward to power 100 of the world s energy with wind hydroelectric and solar power by the year 2030 73 74 It recommends transfer of energy subsidies from fossil fuel to renewable and a price on carbon reflecting its cost for flood cyclone hurricane drought and related extreme weather expenses Excluding subsidies the levelised cost of electricity from new large scale solar power in India and China has been below existing coal fired power stations since 2021 75 A study by Rice University Center for Energy Studies suggested the following steps for countries 39 Countries should commit to a specific time frame for a full phaseout of implicit and explicit fossil fuel subsidies Clarify the language on subsidy reform to remove ambiguous terminology Seek formal legislation in affected countries that codifies reform pathways and reduces opportunities for backsliding Publish transparent formulas for market linked pricing and adhere to a regular schedule for price adjustments Phase in full reforms in a sequence of gradual steps Increasing prices gradually but on a defined schedule signals intent to consumers while allowing time to invest in energy efficiency to partially offset the increases Aspire to account for externalities over time by imposing a fee or tax on fossil energy products and services and eliminating preferences for fossil fuels that remain embedded in the tax code Use direct cash transfers to maintain benefits for poor segments of society rather than preserving subsidised prices for vulnerable socioeconomic groups Launch a comprehensive public communications campaign Any remaining fossil fuel subsidies should be clearly budgeted at full international prices and paid for by the national treasury Document price and emissions changes with reporting requirements Studies about fossil fuel phase out editReduction in fossil fuel capacity compared to renewables nbsp Renewable energy sources especially solar photovoltaic and wind power are providing an increasing share of power capacity 76 nbsp In 2023 electricity generation from wind and solar sources was projected to exceed 30 by 2030 as fossil fuels use continues to decline 77 nbsp The countries most reliant on fossil fuels for electricity vary widely on how great a percentage of that electricity is generated from renewables leaving wide variation in renewables growth potential 78 In 2015 Greenpeace and Climate Action Network Europe released a report highlighting the need for an active phase out of coal fired generation across Europe Their analysis derived from a database of 280 coal plants and included emissions data from official EU registries 79 A 2016 report by Oil Change International concludes that the carbon emissions embedded in the coal oil and gas in currently working mines and fields assuming that these run to the end of their working lifetimes will take the world to just beyond the 2 C limit contained in the 2015 Paris Agreement and even further from the 1 5 C goal 80 81 82 The report observes that one of the most powerful climate policy levers is also the simplest stop digging for more fossil fuels 82 5 In 2016 the Overseas Development Institute ODI and 11 other NGOs released a report on the impact of building new coal fired power plants in countries where a significant proportion of the population lacks access to electricity The report concludes that on the whole building coal fired power plants does little to help the poor and may make them poorer Moreover wind and solar generation are beginning to challenge coal on cost 83 84 85 A 2018 study in Nature Energy suggests that 10 countries in Europe could completely phase out coal fired electricity generation with their current infrastructure whilst the United States and Russia could phase out at least 30 86 In 2020 the Fossil Fuel Cuts Database provided the first global account of supply side initiatives to constrain fossil fuel production 87 The latest update of the database recorded 1967 initiatives implemented between 1988 and October 2021 in 110 countries across seven major types of supply side approaches Divestment n 1201 Blockades n 374 Litigation n 192 Moratoria and Bans n 146 Production subsidies removal n 31 Carbon tax on fossil fuel production n 16 Emissions Trading Schemes n 7 The GeGaLo index of geopolitical gains and losses assesses how the geopolitical position of 156 countries may change if the world fully transitions to renewable energy resources Former fossil fuel exporters are expected to lose power while the positions of former fossil fuel importers and countries rich in renewable energy resources is expected to strengthen 88 Multiple decarbonisation plans that get to zero CO2 emissions have been presented A Guardian investigation showed in 2022 that big fossil fuel firms continue to plan huge investments in new fossil fuel production projects that would drive the climate past internationally agreed temperature limits 89 Renewable energy potentials edit In June 2021 Dr Sven Teske and Dr Sarah Niklas from the Institute for Sustainable Futures University of Technology Sydney found that existing coal oil and gas production puts the world on course to overshoot Paris climate targets In co operation with the Fossil Fuel Non Proliferation Treaty Initiative they published a report entitled Fossil Fuel Exit Strategy An orderly wind down of coal oil and gas to meet the Paris Agreement It analyses global renewable energy potential and finds that every region on Earth can replace fossil fuels with renewable energy to keep warming below 1 5 C and provide reliable energy access to all 90 Assessment of extraction prevention responsibilities edit In September 2021 the first scientific assessment of the minimum amount of fossil fuels that would need to be secured from extraction per region as well as globally to allow for a 50 probability of limiting global warming by 2050 to 1 5 C was provided 91 92 Challenges of fossil fuel phase out edit nbsp Net income of the global oil and gas industry reached a record US 4 trillion in 2022 93 nbsp After recovering from the COVID 19 pandemic energy company profits increased with greater revenues from higher fuel prices resulting from the Russian invasion of Ukraine falling debt levels tax write downs of projects shut down in Russia and backing off from earlier plans to reduce greenhouse gas emissions 94 Record profits sparked public calls for windfall taxes 94 The phase out of fossil fuels involves many challenges and one of them is the reliance that the world currently has on them In 2014 fossil fuels provided over 80 of the primary energy consumption of the world 95 Fossil fuel phase out may lead to an increment in electricity prices because of the new investments needed to replace their share in the electricity mix with alternative energy sources 96 obsolete source Another impact of a phase out of fossil fuels is in employment In the case of employment in the fossil fuel industry a phase out is logically undesired therefore people employed in the industry will usually oppose any measures that put their industries under scrutiny 48 Endre Tvinnereim and Elisabeth Ivarsflaten studied the relationship between employment in the fossil fuel industry with the support to climate change policies They proposed that one opportunity for displaced drilling employments in the fossil fuel industry could be in the geothermal energy industry This was suggested as a result of their conclusion people and companies in the fossil fuel industry will likely oppose measures that endanger their employment unless they have other stronger alternatives 97 This can be extrapolated to political interests that can push against the phase out of fossil fuels initiative 98 One example is how the vote of United States Congress members is related to the preeminence of fossil fuel industries in their respective states 99 Other challenges include ensuring sustainable recycling sourcing of the required materials disruptions of existing power structures managing variable renewable energy developing optimal national transition policies transforming transportation infrastructure and responsibilities of fossil fuel extraction prevention There is active research and development on such issues 100 101 102 additional citation s needed According to the people present at COP27 in Egypt Saudi Arabian representatives pushed to block a call for the world to burn less oil After objections from Saudi Arabia and a few other oil producers summit s final statement failed to include a call for nations to phase out fossil fuels In March 2022 at a United Nations meeting with climate scientists Saudi Arabia together with Russia pushed to delete a reference to human induced climate change from an official document disputing the scientifically established fact that the burning of fossil fuels by humans is the main driver of the climate crisis 103 Major initiatives and legislation to phase out fossil fuels editChina edit China has pledged to become carbon neutral by 2060 which would need a just transition for over 3 million workers in the coal mining and power industry 104 It is not yet clear whether China aims to phase out all fossil fuel use by that date or whether a small proportion will still be in use with the carbon captured and stored 104 In 2021 coal mining was ordered to run at maximum capacity 105 EU edit At the end of 2019 the European Union launched its European Green Deal It included a revision of the Energy Taxation Directive which is looking closely at fossil fuel subsidies and tax exemptions aviation shipping a circular economy action plan 106 a review and possible revision where needed of the all relevant climate related policy instruments including the Emissions Trading System a sustainable and smart mobility strategy potential carbon tariffs for countries that don t curtail their greenhouse gas pollution at the same rate 107 The mechanism to achieve this is called the Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism CBAM 108 It also leans on Horizon Europe to play a pivotal role in leveraging national public and private investments Through partnerships with industry and member States it will support research and innovation on transport technologies including batteries clean hydrogen low carbon steel making circular bio based sectors and the built environment 109 The European Investment Bank contributed over 81 billion to help the energy industry between 2017 and 2022 in line with EU energy policy This comprised nearly 76 billion for initiatives related to power grids energy efficiency and renewable energy throughout Europe and other parts of the world 12 India edit India is confident of exceeding Paris COP commitments 110 In the Paris Agreement India has committed to an Intended Nationally Determined Contributions target of achieving 40 of its total electricity generation from non fossil fuel sources by 2030 111 Japan edit This section needs expansion You can help by adding to it October 2020 Japan has pledged to become carbon neutral by 2050 112 United Kingdom edit See also Energy policy of the United Kingdom The UK is legally committed to be carbon neutral by 2050 and moving away from the heating of homes by natural gas is likely to be the most difficult part of the country s fossil fuel phase out 113 Alternative green recovery legislative plans have been proposed by multiple groups to phase out fossil fuels as fast as technology allows 114 Legislation and initiatives to phase out coal editFurther information Coal phase outPhase out of fossil fuel power plants editSee also Alternative energy energy transition and 100 renewable energy nbsp Bloomberg NEF reported that in 2022 global energy transition investment equaled fossil fuels investment for the first time 115 nbsp In 2020 renewables overtook fossil fuels as the European Union s main source of electricity for the first time 116 Alternative energy refers to any source of energy that can substitute the role of fossil fuels Renewable energy or energy that is harnessed from renewable sources is an alternative energy However alternative energy can refer to non renewable sources as well like nuclear energy Between the alternative sources of energy are solar energy hydroelectricity marine energy wind energy geothermal energy biofuels ethanol and hydrogen Energy efficiency is complementary to the use of alternative energy sources when phasing out fossil fuels Renewable energy edit These paragraphs are an excerpt from Renewable energy edit Renewable energy green energy or low carbon energy is energy from renewable resources that are naturally replenished on a human timescale Renewable resources include sunlight wind the movement of water and geothermal heat 117 118 Although most renewable energy sources are sustainable some are not For example some biomass sources are considered unsustainable at current rates of exploitation 119 120 Renewable energy is often used for electricity generation heating and cooling Renewable energy projects are typically large scale but they are also suited to rural and remote areas and developing countries where energy is often crucial in human development 121 122 Renewable energy is often deployed together with further electrification which has several benefits electricity can move heat or objects efficiently and is clean at the point of consumption 123 124 From 2011 to 2021 renewable energy grew from 20 to 28 of global electricity supply Use of fossil energy shrank from 68 to 62 and nuclear from 12 to 10 The share of hydropower decreased from 16 to 15 while power from sun and wind increased from 2 to 10 Biomass and geothermal energy grew from 2 to 3 There are 3 146 gigawatts installed in 135 countries while 156 countries have laws regulating the renewable energy sector 125 126 In 2021 China accounted for almost half of the global increase in renewable electricity 127 Globally there are over 10 million jobs associated with the renewable energy industries with solar photovoltaics being the largest renewable employer 128 Renewable energy systems are rapidly becoming more efficient and cheaper and their share of total energy consumption is increasing 129 with a large majority of worldwide newly installed electricity capacity being renewable 130 In most countries photovoltaic solar or onshore wind are the cheapest new build electricity 131 Many nations around the world already have renewable energy contributing more than 20 of their total energy supply with some generating over half their electricity from renewables 132 A few countries generate all their electricity using renewable energy 133 National renewable energy markets are projected to continue to grow strongly in the 2020s and beyond 134 According to the IEA to achieve net zero emissions by 2050 90 of global electricity generation will need to be produced from renewable sources 135 Some studies say that a global transition to 100 renewable energy across all sectors power heat transport and industry is feasible and economically viable 136 137 138 Renewable energy resources exist over wide geographical areas in contrast to fossil fuels which are concentrated in a limited number of countries Deployment of renewable energy and energy efficiency technologies is resulting in significant energy security climate change mitigation and economic benefits 139 However renewables are being hindered by hundreds of billions of dollars of fossil fuel subsidies 140 In international public opinion surveys there is strong support for renewables such as solar power and wind power 141 142 In 2022 the International Energy Agency asked countries to solve policy regulatory permitting and financing obstacles to adding more renewables to have a better chance of reaching net zero carbon emissions by 2050 143 Hydroelectricity edit nbsp Chief Joseph Dam near Bridgeport Washington US is a major run of the river station without a sizeable reservoir In 2015 hydroelectric energy generated 16 6 of the world s total electricity and 70 of all renewable electricity 144 In Europe and North America environmental concerns around land flooded by large reservoirs ended 30 years of dam construction in the 1990s Since then large dams and reservoirs continue to be built in countries like China Brazil and India Run of the river hydroelectricity and small hydro have become popular alternatives to conventional dams that may create reservoirs in environmentally sensitive areas Wind power edit These paragraphs are an excerpt from Wind power edit Wind power is the use of wind energy to generate useful work Historically wind power was used by sails windmills and windpumps but today it is mostly used to generate electricity This article deals only with wind power for electricity generation Today wind power is generated almost completely with wind turbines generally grouped into wind farms and connected to the electrical grid In 2022 wind supplied over 2000 TWh of electricity which was over 7 of world electricity 145 58 and about 2 of world energy 146 147 With about 100 GW added during 2021 mostly in China and the United States global installed wind power capacity exceeded 800 GW 148 147 149 To help meet the Paris Agreement goals to limit climate change analysts say it should expand much faster by over 1 of electricity generation per year 150 Wind power is considered a sustainable renewable energy source and has a much smaller impact on the environment compared to burning fossil fuels Wind power is variable so it needs energy storage or other dispatchable generation energy sources to attain a reliable supply of electricity Land based onshore wind farms have a greater visual impact on the landscape than most other power stations per energy produced 151 152 Wind farms sited offshore have less visual impact and have higher capacity factors although they are generally more expensive 148 Offshore wind power currently has a share of about 10 of new installations 153 Wind power is one of the lowest cost electricity sources per unit of energy produced In many locations new onshore wind farms are cheaper than new coal or gas plants 154 Regions in the higher northern and southern latitudes have the highest potential for wind power 155 In most regions wind power generation is higher in nighttime and in winter when solar power output is low For this reason combinations of wind and solar power are suitable in many countries 156 Solar edit Main articles Solar power and Solar energy In 2017 solar power provided 1 7 of total worldwide electricity production growing at 35 per annum 157 By 2020 the solar contribution to global final energy consumption is expected to exceed 1 158 Solar photovoltaics edit nbsp The 71 8 MW Lieberose Photovoltaic Park in GermanyMain article PhotovoltaicsMain article List of photovoltaic power stations Solar photovoltaic cells convert sunlight into electricity and many solar photovoltaic power stations have been built The size of these stations has increased progressively over the last decade with frequent new capacity records Many of these plants are integrated with agriculture and some use innovative tracking systems that follow the sun s daily path across the sky to generate more electricity than conventional fixed mounted systems Solar power plants have no fuel costs or emissions during operation Concentrated solar power edit nbsp The 150 MW Andasol solar power station is a commercial parabolic trough solar thermal power plant located in Spain The Andasol plant uses tanks of molten salt to store solar energy so that it can continue generating electricity even when the sun isn t shining 159 See also Concentrated solar power Concentrating Solar Power CSP systems use lenses or mirrors and tracking systems to focus a large area of sunlight into a small beam The concentrated heat is then used as a heat source for a conventional power plant A wide range of concentrating technologies exists the most developed are the parabolic trough the Compact linear Fresnel reflector the Stirling dish and the solar power tower Various techniques are used to track the Sun and focus light In all of these systems a working fluid is heated by the concentrated sunlight and is then used for power generation or energy storage 160 Nuclear energy edit Main article Nuclear power The 2014 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change IPCC report identifies nuclear energy as one of the technologies that can provide electricity with less than 5 of the lifecycle greenhouse gas emissions of coal power 161 There are more than 60 nuclear reactors shown as under construction in the list of Nuclear power by country with China leading at 23 Globally more nuclear power reactors have closed than opened in recent years but overall capacity has increased 162 China has stated its plans to double nuclear generation by 2030 India also plans to greatly increase its nuclear power The Manhattan 2 Project has presented a report that describes how to significantly increase nuclear power via factory automation Several countries have enacted laws to cease construction on new nuclear power stations Several European countries have debated nuclear phase outs and others have completely shut down some reactors Three nuclear accidents have influenced the slowdown of nuclear power the 1979 Three Mile Island accident in the United States the 1986 Chernobyl disaster in the USSR and the 2011 Fukushima nuclear disaster in Japan Following the March 2011 Fukushima nuclear disaster Germany has permanently shut down eight of its 17 reactors and pledged to close the rest by the end of 2022 163 Italy voted overwhelmingly to keep their country non nuclear 164 Switzerland and Spain have banned the construction of new reactors 165 Japan s prime minister has called for a dramatic reduction in Japan s reliance on nuclear power 166 Taiwan s president did the same Shinzō Abe prime minister of Japan since December 2012 announced a plan to restart some of the 54 Japanese nuclear power plants and to continue some nuclear reactors under construction As of 2016 countries such as Australia Austria Denmark Greece Malaysia New Zealand and Norway have no nuclear power stations and remain opposed to nuclear power 167 168 Germany Italy Spain and Switzerland are phasing out their nuclear power 162 168 169 170 Despite this most pathways for spurring a fossil fuel phase out that keeps pace with global electricity demands include the expansion of nuclear power according to the IPCC 171 Likewise the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe has stated that global climate objectives would likely not be met without nuclear expansion 172 Cost overruns construction delays the threat of catastrophic accidents and regulatory hurdles often make nuclear power plant expansion practically infeasible Some companies and organisations have proposed plans aimed at mitigating the cost duration and risk of nuclear power plant construction NuScale Power for example has received regulatory approval from the Nuclear Regulatory Commission for a light water reactor that would theoretically limit the risk of accidents and could be manufactured for less than traditional nuclear plants 173 174 The Energy Impact Center s OPEN100 a platform that provides open source blueprints for the construction of a nuclear plant with a 100 megawatt pressurised water reactor claims that its model could be built in as little as two years for 300 million In both plans the ability to mass manufacture small modular reactors would theoretically cut down on construction time 173 175 Biomass edit Main article Biomass Biomass is biological material from living or recently living organisms most often referring to plants or plant derived materials 176 As a renewable energy source biomass can either be used directly or indirectly once or converted into another type of energy product such as biofuel Biomass can be converted to energy in three ways thermal conversion chemical conversion and biochemical conversion Using biomass as a fuel produces air pollution in the form of carbon monoxide carbon dioxide NOx nitrogen oxides VOCs volatile organic compounds particulates and other pollutants at levels above those from traditional fuel sources such as coal or natural gas in some cases such as with indoor heating and cooking 177 178 179 Use of wood biomass as a fuel can also produce fewer particulate and other pollutants than open burning as seen in wildfires or direct heat applications 180 Black carbon a pollutant created by combustion of fossil fuels biofuels and biomass is possibly the second largest contributor to global warming 181 56 57 In 2009 a Swedish study of the giant brown haze that periodically covers large areas in South Asia determined that it had been principally produced by biomass burning and to a lesser extent by fossil fuel burning 182 Denmark has increased the use of biomass and garbage 183 and decreased the use of coal 184 Phase out of fossil fuel vehicles editMain article Phase out of fossil fuel vehicles nbsp Sales of electric vehicles EVs indicate a trend away from gas powered vehicles that generate greenhouse gases 185 Many countries and cities have introduced bans on the sales of new internal combustion engine vehicles requiring all new cars to be electric vehicles or otherwise powered by clean non emitting sources 186 187 Such bans include the United Kingdom by 2035 188 and Norway by 2025 Many transit authorities are working to purchase only electric buses while also restricting use of ICE vehicles in the city center to limit air pollution Many US states have a zero emissions vehicle mandate incrementally requiring a certain per cent of cars sold to be electric The German term de Verkehrswende traffic transition analogous to Energiewende energetic transition calls for a shift from combustion powered road transport to bicycles walking and rail transport and the replacement of remaining road vehicles with electric traction Biofuels edit Main article Biofuel Biofuels in the form of liquid fuels derived from plant materials are entering the market However many of the biofuels that are currently being supplied have been criticised for their adverse impacts on the natural environment food security and land use 189 190 Opinion editThose corporations that continue to invest in new fossil fuel exploration new fossil fuel exploitation are really in flagrant breach of their fiduciary duty because the science is abundantly clear that this is something we can no longer do Christiana Figueres executive secretary of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change 191 nbsp Protest at the Legislative Building in Olympia Washington Ted Nation a long time environmental activist beside protest sign Polls edit In 2023 Pew commissioned a poll that estimated 31 of Americans were ready to phase out the use of oil coal and natural gas completely 32 wanted to phase out fossil fuel eventually and 35 said they never want fossil fuel to be phased out 192 Prominent individuals supporting a coal moratorium edit US politician Al Gore stated 193 If you re a young person looking at the future of this planet and looking at what is being done right now and not done I believe we have reached the stage where it is time for civil disobedience to prevent the construction of new coal plants that do not have carbon capture and sequestration Prominent individuals supporting a coal phase out edit Eric Schmidt then CEO of Google called for replacing all fossil fuels with renewable sources of energy in twenty years 194 Mitigation of peak oil edit nbsp The standard Hubbert curve plotting crude oil production of a region over time nbsp World energy consumption 1970 2025 Source International Energy Outlook 2004 The mitigation of peak oil is the attempt to delay the date and minimize the social and economic effects of peak oil by reducing the consumption of and reliance on petroleum citation needed By reducing petroleum consumption mitigation efforts seek to favorably change the shape of the Hubbert curve which is the graph of real oil production over time predicted by Hubbert peak theory The peak of this curve is known as peak oil and by changing the shape of the curve the timing of the peak in oil production is affected An analysis by the author of the Hirsch report showed that while the shape of the oil production curve can be affected by mitigation efforts mitigation efforts are also affected by the shape of Hubbert curve 195 For the most part mitigation involves fuel conservation and the use of alternative and renewable energy sources The development of unconventional oil resources can extend the supply of petroleum 196 but does not reduce consumption Historically world oil consumption data show that mitigation efforts during the 1973 and 1979 oil shocks lowered oil consumption while general recessions since the 1970s have had no effect on curbing the oil consumption until 2007 citation needed In the United States oil consumption declines in reaction to high prices 197 198 Key questions for mitigation are the viability of methods the roles of government and private sector and how early these solutions are implemented 199 200 The responses to such questions and steps taken towards mitigation may determine whether or not the lifestyle of a society can be maintained and may affect the population capacity of the planet Alternative energy edit The most effective method of mitigating peak oil is to use renewable or alternative energy sources in place of petroleum Transportation fuel use edit Because most oil is consumed for transportation 201 most mitigation discussions revolve around transportation issues Fuel substitution edit Main article Future energy development While there is some interchangeability the alternative energy sources available tend to depend on whether the fuel is being used in static or mobile applications Biofuel edit This section is an excerpt from Biofuel edit nbsp A sample of biodieselBiofuel is a fuel that is produced over a short time span from biomass rather than by the very slow natural processes involved in the formation of fossil fuels such as oil Biofuel can be produced from plants or from agricultural domestic or industrial biowaste Biofuels are mostly used for transportation but can also be used for heating and electricity 202 173 203 Biofuels and bioenergy in general are regarded as a renewable energy source 204 11 The use of biofuel has been subject to criticism regarding the food vs fuel debate sustainability deforestation loss of biodiversity etc In general biofuels emit fewer greenhouse gas emissions when burned in an engine and are generally considered carbon neutral fuels as the carbon emitted has been captured from the atmosphere by the crops used in production 205 However life cycle assessments of biofuels have shown large emissions associated with the potential land use change required to produce additional biofuel feedstocks 206 207 Estimates about the climate impact from biofuels vary widely based on the methodology and exact situation examined 206 Therefore the climate change mitigation potential of biofuel varies considerably in some scenarios emission levels are comparable to fossil fuels and in other scenarios the biofuel emissions result in negative emissions The two most common types of biofuel are bioethanol and biodiesel Brazil is the largest producer of bioethanol while the EU is the largest producer of biodiesel The energy content in the global production of bioethanol and biodiesel is 2 2 and 1 8 EJ per year respectively 208 Demand for aviation biofuel is forecast to increase 209 210 Bioethanol is an alcohol made by fermentation mostly from carbohydrates produced in sugar or starch crops such as maize sugarcane or sweet sorghum Cellulosic biomass derived from non food sources such as trees and grasses is also being developed as a feedstock for ethanol production Ethanol can be used as a fuel for vehicles in its pure form E100 but it is usually used as a gasoline additive to increase octane ratings and improve vehicle emissions Biodiesel is produced from oils or fats using transesterification It can be used as a fuel for vehicles in its pure form B100 but it is usually used as a diesel additive to reduce levels of particulates carbon monoxide and hydrocarbons from diesel powered vehicles 211 Static installations edit Although oil and diesel still generates a small share of global electricity some Middle East oil producing countries are replacing that with solar power as it is more profitable to export the oil 212 Mobile applications edit See also Biofuel Hydrogen economy Methanol economy and Hydrogen powered aircraft Due to its high energy density and ease of handling oil has a unique role as a transportation fuel There are however a number of possible alternatives Among the biofuels the use of bioethanol and biodiesel is already established to some extent in some countries The use of hydrogen fuel is another alternative under development in various countries alongside hydrogen vehicles 213 though hydrogen is actually an energy storage medium not a primary energy source and consequently the use of a non petroleum source would be required to extract the hydrogen for use Though hydrogen is currently outperformed in terms of cost and efficiency by battery powered vehicles 214 citation needed there are applications where it would come in useful Short haul ferries and very cold climates are two examples Hydrogen fuel cells are about a third as efficient as batteries and double the efficiency of petrol vehicles Electric vehicles powered by batteries are another alternative and these have the advantage of having the highest well to wheels efficiency rate of any energy pathway and thus would allow much greater numbers of vehicles than any other methods In addition even if the electricity was sourced from coal fired power plants two advantages would remain first it is cheaper to sequester carbon from a few thousand smokestacks than it is to retrofit hundreds of millions of vehicles and second encouraging the use of electric vehicles allows a further pathway for scaling up of renewable energy sources Alternative aviation fuel edit The Airbus A380 flew on alternative fuel for the first time on 1 February 2008 citation needed Boeing also plans to use alternative fuel on the 747 215 Because some biofuels such as ethanol contains less energy more tankstops might be necessary for such planes The US Air Force is currently in the process of certifying its entire fleet to run on a 50 50 blend of synthetic fuel derived from the Fischer Tropsch process and JP 8 jet fuel 216 Conservation edit When alternative fuels are not available the development of more energy efficient vehicles becomes an important mitigant Some ways of decreasing the oil used in transportation include increasing the use of bicycles public transport carpooling electric vehicles and diesel and hybrid vehicles with higher fuel efficiency More comprehensive mitigations include better land use planning through smart growth to reduce the need for private transportation increased capacity and use of mass transit vanpooling and carpooling 217 bus rapid transit remote work and human powered transport from current levels 218 Rationing and driving bans are also forms of reducing private transportation 217 The higher oil prices of 2007 and 2008 caused United States drivers to begin driving less in 2007 and to a much greater extent in the first three months of 2008 197 198 In order to deal with potential problems from peak oil Colin Campbell has proposed the Rimini protocol a plan which among other things would require countries to balance oil consumption with their current production See also edit nbsp Energy portal nbsp Climate change portal nbsp Renewable energy portalGas boiler phase out Phase out of fossil fuel vehicles Coal phase out Plastic bans Montreal Protocol Backstop resources Carbon bubble Carbon neutral fuel Downshifting lifestyle Eco economic decoupling Financial market impact of the COVID 19 pandemic pandemic s effect on the fossil fuel industry Global strategic petroleum reserves Green recovery Health and environmental impact of the coal industry Measures taken to address the economic impact of the COVID 19 pandemic Making Sweden an Oil Free Society a mitigation proposal Pickens Plan Prospective Outlook on Long term Energy Systems POLES an energy model Renewable energy commercialization Repurposing offshore drilling rigs for storing carbon World energy resources and consumptionNotes edit Energy Transition Investment Hit 500 Billion in 2020 For First Time Bloomberg New Energy Finance 19 January 2021 Archived from the original on 19 January 2021 Catsaros Oktavia 26 January 2023 Global Low Carbon Energy Technology Investment Surges Past 1 Trillion for the First Time Figure 1 Bloomberg NEF New Energy Finance Archived from the original on 22 May 2023 Defying supply chain disruptions and macroeconomic headwinds 2022 energy transition investment jumped 31 to draw level with fossil fuels Chrobak Ula Chodosh Sara 28 January 2021 Solar power got cheap So why aren t we using it more Popular Science Archived from the original on 29 January 2021 Chodosh s graphic is derived from data in Lazard s Levelized Cost of Energy Version 14 0 PDF Lazard com Lazard 19 October 2020 Archived PDF from the original on 28 January 2021 2023 Levelized Cost Of Energy Lazard 12 April 2023 p 9 Archived from the original on 27 August 2023 Download link labeled Lazard s LCOE April 2023 1 PDF 1MB Nearly a quarter of the operating U S coal fired fleet scheduled to retire by 2029 www eia gov Retrieved 21 February 2023 Australia hastens coal plant closures to catch up on climate Nikkei Asia Retrieved 21 February 2023 Our members PPCA 2 August 2022 Retrieved 21 February 2023 Coal Fired Electricity Analysis IEA Retrieved 21 February 2023 No EU agreement on fossil phase out text Argus Media 20 February 2023 Retrieved 21 February 2023 Green F Denniss R 2018 Cutting with both arms of the scissors the economic and political case for restrictive supply side climate policies Climatic Change 150 1 73 87 Bibcode 2018ClCh 150 73G doi 10 1007 s10584 018 2162 x S2CID 59374909 Fossil 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