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Wikipedia

Fracking

September 04, 2023

Fracking (also known as hydraulic fracturing, fracing, hydrofracturing, or hydrofracking) is a well stimulation technique involving the fracturing of formations in bedrock by a pressurized liquid. The process involves the high-pressure injection of "fracking fluid" (primarily water, containing sand or other proppants suspended with the aid of thickening agents) into a wellbore to create cracks in the deep-rock formations through which natural gas, petroleum, and brine will flow more freely. When the hydraulic pressure is removed from the well, small grains of hydraulic fracturing proppants (either sand or aluminium oxide) hold the fractures open.[1]

Fracking
Fracking the Bakken Formation in North Dakota
Process typeMechanical
Industrial sector(s)Mining
Main technologies or sub-processesFluid pressure
Product(s)Natural gas, petroleum
InventorFloyd Farris, Joseph B. Clark (Stanolind Oil and Gas Corporation)
Year of invention1947

Hydraulic fracturing began as an experiment in 1947,[2] and the first commercially successful application followed in 1950. As of 2012, 2.5 million "frac jobs" had been performed worldwide on oil and gas wells, over one million of those within the U.S.[3][4] Such treatment is generally necessary to achieve adequate flow rates in shale gas, tight gas, tight oil, and coal seam gas wells.[5] Some hydraulic fractures can form naturally in certain veins or dikes.[6] Drilling and hydraulic fracturing have made the United States a major crude oil exporter as of 2019,[7] but leakage of methane, a powerful greenhouse gas, has dramatically increased.[8][9] Increased oil and gas production from the decade-long fracking boom has led to lower prices for consumers, with near-record lows of the share of household income going to energy expenditures.[10][11]

Hydraulic fracturing is highly controversial.[12] Its proponents advocate the economic benefits of more extensively accessible hydrocarbons,[13][14] as well as replacing coal with natural gas, which burns more cleanly and emits less carbon dioxide (CO2),[15][16] and energy independence.[17] Opponents of fracking argue that these are outweighed by the environmental impacts, which include groundwater and surface water contamination,[18] noise and air pollution, and the triggering of earthquakes, along with the resulting hazards to public health and the environment.[19][20] Research has found adverse health effects in populations living near hydraulic fracturing sites,[21][22] including confirmation of chemical, physical, and psychosocial hazards such as pregnancy and birth outcomes, migraine headaches, chronic rhinosinusitis, severe fatigue, asthma exacerbations and psychological stress.[23] Adherence to regulation and safety procedures are required to avoid further negative impacts.[24]

The scale of methane leakage associated with hydraulic fracturing is uncertain, and there is some evidence that leakage may cancel out any greenhouse gas emissions benefit of natural gas relative to other fossil fuels.

Diagram of Hydraulic Fracking Machinery and Process

Increases in seismic activity following hydraulic fracturing along dormant or previously unknown faults are sometimes caused by the deep-injection disposal of hydraulic fracturing flowback (a byproduct of hydraulically fractured wells),[25] and produced formation brine (a byproduct of both fractured and nonfractured oil and gas wells).[26] For these reasons, hydraulic fracturing is under international scrutiny, restricted in some countries, and banned altogether in others.[27][28][29] The European Union is drafting regulations that would permit the controlled application of hydraulic fracturing.[30]

For further information on the reasons why fracking is carried out, see Unconventional (oil & gas) reservoir § Essential differences between conventional and unconventional reservoirs.

Geology Edit

Main article: Fracture (geology)

Mechanics Edit

Fracturing rocks at great depth frequently become suppressed by pressure due to the weight of the overlying rock strata and the cementation of the formation. This suppression process is particularly significant in "tensile" (Mode 1) fractures which require the walls of the fracture to move against this pressure. Fracturing occurs when effective stress is overcome by the pressure of fluids within the rock. The minimum principal stress becomes tensile and exceeds the tensile strength of the material.[31][32] Fractures formed in this way are generally oriented in a plane perpendicular to the minimum principal stress, and for this reason, hydraulic fractures in wellbores can be used to determine the orientation of stresses.[33] In natural examples, such as dikes or vein-filled fractures, the orientations can be used to infer past states of stress.[34]

Veins Edit

Most mineral vein systems are a result of repeated natural fracturing during periods of relatively high pore fluid pressure. The effect of high pore fluid pressure on the formation process of mineral vein systems is particularly evident in "crack-seal" veins, where the vein material is part of a series of discrete fracturing events, and extra vein material is deposited on each occasion.[35] One example of long-term repeated natural fracturing is in the effects of seismic activity. Stress levels rise and fall episodically, and earthquakes can cause large volumes of connate water to be expelled from fluid-filled fractures. This process is referred to as "seismic pumping".[36]

Dikes Edit

Minor intrusions in the upper part of the crust, such as dikes, propagate in the form of fluid-filled cracks. In such cases, the fluid is magma. In sedimentary rocks with a significant water content, fluid at fracture tip will be steam.[37]

History Edit

Precursors Edit

 
Halliburton fracturing operation in the Bakken Formation, North Dakota, United States

Fracturing as a method to stimulate shallow, hard rock oil wells dates back to the 1860s. Dynamite or nitroglycerin detonations were used to increase oil and natural gas production from petroleum bearing formations. On 24 April 1865, US Civil War veteran Col. Edward A. L. Roberts received a patent for an "exploding torpedo".[38] It was employed in Pennsylvania, New York, Kentucky, and West Virginia using liquid and also, later, solidified nitroglycerin. Later still the same method was applied to water and gas wells. Stimulation of wells with acid, instead of explosive fluids, was introduced in the 1930s. Due to acid etching, fractures would not close completely resulting in further productivity increase.[39]

20th century applications Edit

Harold Hamm, Aubrey McClendon, Tom Ward and George P. Mitchell are each considered to have pioneered hydraulic fracturing innovations toward practical applications.[40][41]

Oil and gas wells Edit

The relationship between well performance and treatment pressures was studied by Floyd Farris of Stanolind Oil and Gas Corporation. This study was the basis of the first hydraulic fracturing experiment, conducted in 1947 at the Hugoton gas field in Grant County of southwestern Kansas by Stanolind.[5][42] For the well treatment, 1,000 US gallons (3,800 L; 830 imp gal) of gelled gasoline (essentially napalm) and sand from the Arkansas River was injected into the gas-producing limestone formation at 2,400 feet (730 m). The experiment was not very successful as the deliverability of the well did not change appreciably. The process was further described by J.B. Clark of Stanolind in his paper published in 1948. A patent on this process was issued in 1949 and an exclusive license was granted to the Halliburton Oil Well Cementing Company. On 17 March 1949, Halliburton performed the first two commercial hydraulic fracturing treatments in Stephens County, Oklahoma, and Archer County, Texas.[42] Since then, hydraulic fracturing has been used to stimulate approximately one million oil and gas wells[43] in various geologic regimes with good success.

In contrast with large-scale hydraulic fracturing used in low-permeability formations, small hydraulic fracturing treatments are commonly used in high-permeability formations to remedy "skin damage", a low-permeability zone that sometimes forms at the rock-borehole interface. In such cases the fracturing may extend only a few feet from the borehole.[44]

In the Soviet Union, the first hydraulic proppant fracturing was carried out in 1952. Other countries in Europe and Northern Africa subsequently employed hydraulic fracturing techniques including Norway, Poland, Czechoslovakia (before 1989), Yugoslavia (before 1991), Hungary, Austria, France, Italy, Bulgaria, Romania, Turkey, Tunisia, and Algeria.[45]

Massive fracturing Edit

 
Well head where fluids are injected into the ground
 
Well head after all the hydraulic fracturing equipment has been taken off location

Massive hydraulic fracturing (also known as high-volume hydraulic fracturing) is a technique first applied by Pan American Petroleum in Stephens County, Oklahoma, US in 1968. The definition of massive hydraulic fracturing varies, but generally refers to treatments injecting over 150 short tons, or approximately 300,000 pounds (136 metric tonnes), of proppant.[46]

American geologists gradually became aware that there were huge volumes of gas-saturated sandstones with permeability too low (generally less than 0.1 millidarcy) to recover the gas economically.[46] Starting in 1973, massive hydraulic fracturing was used in thousands of gas wells in the San Juan Basin, Denver Basin,[47] the Piceance Basin,[48] and the Green River Basin, and in other hard rock formations of the western US. Other tight sandstone wells in the US made economically viable by massive hydraulic fracturing were in the Clinton-Medina Sandstone (Ohio, Pennsylvania, and New York), and Cotton Valley Sandstone (Texas and Louisiana).[46]

Massive hydraulic fracturing quickly spread in the late 1970s to western Canada, Rotliegend and Carboniferous gas-bearing sandstones in Germany, Netherlands (onshore and offshore gas fields), and the United Kingdom in the North Sea.[45]

Horizontal oil or gas wells were unusual until the late 1980s. Then, operators in Texas began completing thousands of oil wells by drilling horizontally in the Austin Chalk, and giving massive slickwater hydraulic fracturing treatments to the wellbores. Horizontal wells proved much more effective than vertical wells in producing oil from tight chalk;[49] sedimentary beds are usually nearly horizontal, so horizontal wells have much larger contact areas with the target formation.[50]

Hydraulic fracturing operations have grown exponentially since the mid-1990s, when technologic advances and increases in the price of natural gas made this technique economically viable.[51]

Shales Edit

Hydraulic fracturing of shales goes back at least to 1965, when some operators in the Big Sandy gas field of eastern Kentucky and southern West Virginia started hydraulically fracturing the Ohio Shale and Cleveland Shale, using relatively small fracs. The frac jobs generally increased production, especially from lower-yielding wells.[52]

In 1976, the United States government started the Eastern Gas Shales Project, which included numerous public-private hydraulic fracturing demonstration projects.[53] During the same period, the Gas Research Institute, a gas industry research consortium, received approval for research and funding from the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission.[54]

In 1997, Nick Steinsberger, an engineer of Mitchell Energy (now part of Devon Energy), applied the slickwater fracturing technique, using more water and higher pump pressure than previous fracturing techniques, which was used in East Texas in the Barnett Shale of north Texas.[50] In 1998, the new technique proved to be successful when the first 90 days gas production from the well called S.H. Griffin No. 3 exceeded production of any of the company's previous wells.[55][56] This new completion technique made gas extraction widely economical in the Barnett Shale, and was later applied to other shales, including the Eagle Ford and Bakken Shale.[57][58][59] George P. Mitchell has been called the "father of fracking" because of his role in applying it in shales.[60] The first horizontal well in the Barnett Shale was drilled in 1991, but was not widely done in the Barnett until it was demonstrated that gas could be economically extracted from vertical wells in the Barnett.[50]

As of 2013, massive hydraulic fracturing is being applied on a commercial scale to shales in the United States, Canada, and China. Several additional countries are planning to use hydraulic fracturing.[61][62][63]

Process Edit

According to the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), hydraulic fracturing is a process to stimulate a natural gas, oil, or geothermal well to maximize extraction. The EPA defines the broader process to include acquisition of source water, well construction, well stimulation, and waste disposal.[64]

Method Edit

A hydraulic fracture is formed by pumping fracturing fluid into a wellbore at a rate sufficient to increase pressure at the target depth (determined by the location of the well casing perforations), to exceed that of the fracture gradient (pressure gradient) of the rock.[65] The fracture gradient is defined as pressure increase per unit of depth relative to density, and is usually measured in pounds per square inch, per square foot, or bars. The rock cracks, and the fracture fluid permeates the rock extending the crack further, and further, and so on. Fractures are localized as pressure drops off with the rate of frictional loss, which is relative to the distance from the well. Operators typically try to maintain "fracture width", or slow its decline following treatment, by introducing a proppant into the injected fluid – a material such as grains of sand, ceramic, or other particulate, thus preventing the fractures from closing when injection is stopped and pressure removed. Consideration of proppant strength and prevention of proppant failure becomes more important at greater depths where pressure and stresses on fractures are higher. The propped fracture is permeable enough to allow the flow of gas, oil, salt water and hydraulic fracturing fluids to the well.[65]

During the process, fracturing fluid leakoff (loss of fracturing fluid from the fracture channel into the surrounding permeable rock) occurs. If not controlled, it can exceed 70% of the injected volume. This may result in formation matrix damage, adverse formation fluid interaction, and altered fracture geometry, thereby decreasing efficiency.[66]

The location of one or more fractures along the length of the borehole is strictly controlled by various methods that create or seal holes in the side of the wellbore. Hydraulic fracturing is performed in cased wellbores, and the zones to be fractured are accessed by perforating the casing at those locations.[67]

Hydraulic-fracturing equipment used in oil and natural gas fields usually consists of a slurry blender, one or more high-pressure, high-volume fracturing pumps (typically powerful triplex or quintuplex pumps) and a monitoring unit. Associated equipment includes fracturing tanks, one or more units for storage and handling of proppant, high-pressure treating iron[clarification needed], a chemical additive unit (used to accurately monitor chemical addition), fracking hose (low-pressure flexible hoses), and many gauges and meters for flow rate, fluid density, and treating pressure.[68] Chemical additives are typically 0.5% of the total fluid volume. Fracturing equipment operates over a range of pressures and injection rates, and can reach up to 100 megapascals (15,000 psi) and 265 litres per second (9.4 cu ft/s; 133 US bbl/min).[69]

Well types Edit

A distinction can be made between conventional, low-volume hydraulic fracturing, used to stimulate high-permeability reservoirs for a single well, and unconventional, high-volume hydraulic fracturing, used in the completion of tight gas and shale gas wells. High-volume hydraulic fracturing usually requires higher pressures than low-volume fracturing; the higher pressures are needed to push out larger volumes of fluid and proppant that extend farther from the borehole.[70]

Horizontal drilling involves wellbores with a terminal drillhole completed as a "lateral" that extends parallel with the rock layer containing the substance to be extracted. For example, laterals extend 1,500 to 5,000 feet (460 to 1,520 m) in the Barnett Shale basin in Texas, and up to 10,000 feet (3,000 m) in the Bakken formation in North Dakota. In contrast, a vertical well only accesses the thickness of the rock layer, typically 50–300 feet (15–91 m). Horizontal drilling reduces surface disruptions as fewer wells are required to access the same volume of rock.

Drilling often plugs up the pore spaces at the wellbore wall, reducing permeability at and near the wellbore. This reduces flow into the borehole from the surrounding rock formation, and partially seals off the borehole from the surrounding rock. Low-volume hydraulic fracturing can be used to restore permeability.[71]

Fracturing fluids Edit

 
Water tanks preparing for hydraulic fracturing
Main articles: Hydraulic fracturing proppants and List of additives for hydraulic fracturing

The main purposes of fracturing fluid are to extend fractures, add lubrication, change gel strength, and to carry proppant into the formation. There are two methods of transporting proppant in the fluid – high-rate and high-viscosity. High-viscosity fracturing tends to cause large dominant fractures, while high-rate (slickwater) fracturing causes small spread-out micro-fractures.[72]

Water-soluble gelling agents (such as guar gum) increase viscosity and efficiently deliver proppant into the formation.[73]

 
Example of high pressure manifold combining pump flows before injection into well

Fluid is typically a slurry of water, proppant, and chemical additives.[74] Additionally, gels, foams, and compressed gases, including nitrogen, carbon dioxide and air can be injected. Typically, 90% of the fluid is water and 9.5% is sand with chemical additives accounting to about 0.5%.[65][75][76] However, fracturing fluids have been developed using liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) and propane. This process is called waterless fracturing.[77]

When propane is used it is turned into vapor by the high pressure and high temperature. The propane vapor and natural gas both return to the surface and can be collected, making it[clarification needed] easier to reuse and/or resale. None of the chemicals used will return to the surface. Only the propane used will return from what was used in the process.[78]

The proppant is a granular material that prevents the created fractures from closing after the fracturing treatment. Types of proppant include silica sand, resin-coated sand, bauxite, and man-made ceramics. The choice of proppant depends on the type of permeability or grain strength needed. In some formations, where the pressure is great enough to crush grains of natural silica sand, higher-strength proppants such as bauxite or ceramics may be used. The most commonly used proppant is silica sand, though proppants of uniform size and shape, such as a ceramic proppant, are believed to be more effective.[79]

 
USGS map of water use from hydraulic fracturing between 2011 and 2014. One cubic meter of water is 264.172 gallons.[80][81]

The fracturing fluid varies depending on fracturing type desired, and the conditions of specific wells being fractured, and water characteristics. The fluid can be gel, foam, or slickwater-based. Fluid choices are tradeoffs: more viscous fluids, such as gels, are better at keeping proppant in suspension; while less-viscous and lower-friction fluids, such as slickwater, allow fluid to be pumped at higher rates, to create fractures farther out from the wellbore. Important material properties of the fluid include viscosity, pH, various rheological factors, and others.

Water is mixed with sand and chemicals to create hydraulic fracturing fluid. Approximately 40,000 gallons of chemicals are used per fracturing.[82] A typical fracture treatment uses between 3 and 12 additive chemicals.[65] Although there may be unconventional fracturing fluids, typical chemical additives can include one or more of the following:

The most common chemical used for hydraulic fracturing in the United States in 2005–2009 was methanol, while some other most widely used chemicals were isopropyl alcohol, 2-butoxyethanol, and ethylene glycol.[84]

Typical fluid types are:

  • Conventional linear gels. These gels are cellulose derivative (carboxymethyl cellulose, hydroxyethyl cellulose, carboxymethyl hydroxyethyl cellulose, hydroxypropyl cellulose, hydroxyethyl methyl cellulose), guar or its derivatives (hydroxypropyl guar, carboxymethyl hydroxypropyl guar), mixed with other chemicals.[clarification needed]
  • Borate-crosslinked fluids. These are guar-based fluids cross-linked with boron ions (from aqueous borax/boric acid solution). These gels have higher viscosity at pH 9 onwards and are used to carry proppant. After the fracturing job, the pH is reduced to 3–4 so that the cross-links are broken, and the gel is less viscous and can be pumped out.
  • Organometallic-crosslinked fluids – zirconium, chromium, antimony, titanium salts – are known to crosslink guar-based gels. The crosslinking mechanism is not reversible, so once the proppant is pumped down along with cross-linked gel, the fracturing part is done. The gels are broken down with appropriate breakers.[clarification needed][73]
  • Aluminium phosphate-ester oil gels. Aluminium phosphate and ester oils are slurried to form cross-linked gel. These are one of the first known gelling systems.

For slickwater fluids the use of sweeps is common. Sweeps are temporary reductions in the proppant concentration, which help ensure that the well is not overwhelmed with proppant.[85] As the fracturing process proceeds, viscosity-reducing agents such as oxidizers and enzyme breakers are sometimes added to the fracturing fluid to deactivate the gelling agents and encourage flowback.[73] Such oxidizers react with and break down the gel, reducing the fluid's viscosity and ensuring that no proppant is pulled from the formation. An enzyme acts as a catalyst for breaking down the gel. Sometimes pH modifiers are used to break down the crosslink at the end of a hydraulic fracturing job, since many require a pH buffer system to stay viscous.[85] At the end of the job, the well is commonly flushed with water under pressure (sometimes blended with a friction reducing chemical.) Some (but not all) injected fluid is recovered. This fluid is managed by several methods, including underground injection control, treatment, discharge, recycling, and temporary storage in pits or containers. New technology is continually developing to better handle waste water and improve re-usability.[65]

Fracture monitoring Edit

Measurements of the pressure and rate during the growth of a hydraulic fracture, with knowledge of fluid properties and proppant being injected into the well, provides the most common and simplest method of monitoring a hydraulic fracture treatment. This data along with knowledge of the underground geology can be used to model information such as length, width and conductivity of a propped fracture.[65]

Radionuclide monitoring Edit

Main article: Hydraulic fracturing and radionuclides

Injection of radioactive tracers along with the fracturing fluid is sometimes used to determine the injection profile and location of created fractures.[86] Radiotracers are selected to have the readily detectable radiation, appropriate chemical properties, and a half life and toxicity level that will minimize initial and residual contamination.[87] Radioactive isotopes chemically bonded to glass (sand) and/or resin beads may also be injected to track fractures.[88] For example, plastic pellets coated with 10 GBq of Ag-110mm may be added to the proppant, or sand may be labelled with Ir-192, so that the proppant's progress can be monitored.[87] Radiotracers such as Tc-99m and I-131 are also used to measure flow rates.[87] The Nuclear Regulatory Commission publishes guidelines which list a wide range of radioactive materials in solid, liquid and gaseous forms that may be used as tracers and limit the amount that may be used per injection and per well of each radionuclide.[88]

A new technique in well-monitoring involves fiber-optic cables outside the casing. Using the fiber optics, temperatures can be measured every foot along the well – even while the wells are being fracked and pumped. By monitoring the temperature of the well, engineers can determine how much hydraulic fracturing fluid different parts of the well use as well as how much natural gas or oil they collect, during hydraulic fracturing operation and when the well is producing.[citation needed]

Microseismic monitoring Edit

For more advanced applications, microseismic monitoring is sometimes used to estimate the size and orientation of induced fractures. Microseismic activity is measured by placing an array of geophones in a nearby wellbore. By mapping the location of any small seismic events associated with the growing fracture, the approximate geometry of the fracture is inferred. Tiltmeter arrays deployed on the surface or down a well provide another technology for monitoring strain[89]

Microseismic mapping is very similar geophysically to seismology. In earthquake seismology, seismometers scattered on or near the surface of the earth record S-waves and P-waves that are released during an earthquake event. This allows for motion[clarification needed] along the fault plane to be estimated and its location in the Earth's subsurface mapped. Hydraulic fracturing, an increase in formation stress proportional to the net fracturing pressure, as well as an increase in pore pressure due to leakoff.[clarification needed][90] Tensile stresses are generated ahead of the fracture's tip, generating large amounts of shear stress. The increases in pore water pressure and in formation stress combine and affect weaknesses near the hydraulic fracture, like natural fractures, joints, and bedding planes.[91]

Different methods have different location errors[clarification needed] and advantages. Accuracy of microseismic event mapping is dependent on the signal-to-noise ratio and the distribution of sensors. Accuracy of events located by seismic inversion is improved by sensors placed in multiple azimuths from the monitored borehole. In a downhole array location, accuracy of events is improved by being close to the monitored borehole (high signal-to-noise ratio).

Monitoring of microseismic events induced by reservoir[clarification needed] stimulation has become a key aspect in evaluation of hydraulic fractures, and their optimization. The main goal of hydraulic fracture monitoring is to completely characterize the induced fracture structure, and distribution of conductivity within a formation. Geomechanical analysis, such as understanding a formations material properties, in-situ conditions, and geometries, helps monitoring by providing a better definition of the environment in which the fracture network propagates.[92] The next task is to know the location of proppant within the fracture and the distribution of fracture conductivity. This can be monitored using multiple types of techniques to finally develop a reservoir model than accurately predicts well performance.

Horizontal completions Edit

Since the early 2000s, advances in drilling and completion technology have made horizontal wellbores much[clarification needed] more economical. Horizontal wellbores allow far greater exposure to a formation than conventional vertical wellbores. This is particularly useful in shale formations which do not have sufficient permeability to produce economically with a vertical well. Such wells, when drilled onshore, are now usually hydraulically fractured in a number of stages, especially in North America. The type of wellbore completion is used to determine how many times a formation is fractured, and at what locations along the horizontal section.[93]

In North America, shale reservoirs such as the Bakken, Barnett, Montney, Haynesville, Marcellus, and most recently the Eagle Ford, Niobrara and Utica shales are drilled horizontally through the producing intervals, completed and fractured.[citation needed] The method by which the fractures are placed along the wellbore is most commonly achieved by one of two methods, known as "plug and perf" and "sliding sleeve".[94]

The wellbore for a plug-and-perf job is generally composed of standard steel casing, cemented or uncemented, set in the drilled hole. Once the drilling rig has been removed, a wireline truck is used to perforate near the bottom of the well, and then fracturing fluid is pumped. Then the wireline truck sets a plug in the well to temporarily seal off that section so the next section of the wellbore can be treated. Another stage is pumped, and the process is repeated along the horizontal length of the wellbore.[95]

The wellbore for the sliding sleeve[clarification needed] technique is different in that the sliding sleeves are included at set spacings in the steel casing at the time it is set in place. The sliding sleeves are usually all closed at this time. When the well is due to be fractured, the bottom sliding sleeve is opened using one of several activation techniques[citation needed] and the first stage gets pumped. Once finished, the next sleeve is opened, concurrently isolating the previous stage, and the process repeats. For the sliding sleeve method, wireline is usually not required.[citation needed]

 
Sleeves

These completion techniques may allow for more than 30 stages to be pumped into the horizontal section of a single well if required, which is far more than would typically be pumped into a vertical well that had far fewer feet of producing zone exposed.[96]

Uses Edit

Hydraulic fracturing is used to increase the rate at which substances such as petroleum or natural gas can be recovered from subterranean natural reservoirs. Reservoirs are typically porous sandstones, limestones or dolomite rocks, but also include "unconventional reservoirs" such as shale rock or coal beds. Hydraulic fracturing enables the extraction of natural gas and oil from rock formations deep below the earth's surface (generally 2,000–6,000 m (5,000–20,000 ft)), which is greatly below typical groundwater reservoir levels. At such depth, there may be insufficient permeability or reservoir pressure to allow natural gas and oil to flow from the rock into the wellbore at high economic return. Thus, creating conductive fractures in the rock is instrumental in extraction from naturally impermeable shale reservoirs. Permeability is measured in the microdarcy to nanodarcy range.[97] Fractures are a conductive path connecting a larger volume of reservoir to the well. So-called "super fracking," creates cracks deeper in the rock formation to release more oil and gas, and increases efficiency.[98] The yield for typical shale bores generally falls off after the first year or two, but the peak producing life of a well can be extended to several decades.[99]

Non-oil/gas uses Edit

While the main industrial use of hydraulic fracturing is in stimulating production from oil and gas wells,[100][101][102] hydraulic fracturing is also applied:

Since the late 1970s, hydraulic fracturing has been used, in some cases, to increase the yield of drinking water from wells in a number of countries, including the United States, Australia, and South Africa.[111][112][113]

Economic effects Edit

See also: Shale gas, Tight oil, Price of oil, and Hydraulic fracturing in the United States
 
Production costs for unconventional oil and gas continue to outweigh profits

Hydraulic fracturing has been seen as one of the key methods of extracting unconventional oil and unconventional gas resources. According to the International Energy Agency, the remaining technically recoverable resources of shale gas are estimated to amount to 208 trillion cubic metres (7,300 trillion cubic feet), tight gas to 76 trillion cubic metres (2,700 trillion cubic feet), and coalbed methane to 47 trillion cubic metres (1,700 trillion cubic feet). As a rule, formations of these resources have lower permeability than conventional gas formations. Therefore, depending on the geological characteristics of the formation, specific technologies such as hydraulic fracturing are required. Although there are also other methods to extract these resources, such as conventional drilling or horizontal drilling, hydraulic fracturing is one of the key methods making their extraction economically viable. The multi-stage fracturing technique has facilitated the development of shale gas and light tight oil production in the United States and is believed to do so in the other countries with unconventional hydrocarbon resources.[13]

A large majority of studies indicate that hydraulic fracturing in the United States has had a strong positive economic benefit so far.[citation needed] The Brookings Institution estimates that the benefits of Shale Gas alone has led to a net economic benefit of $48 billion per year. Most of this benefit is within the consumer and industrial sectors due to the significantly reduced prices for natural gas.[114] Other studies have suggested that the economic benefits are outweighed by the externalities and that the levelized cost of electricity (LCOE) from less carbon and water intensive sources is lower.[115]

The primary benefit of hydraulic fracturing is to offset imports of natural gas and oil, where the cost paid to producers otherwise exits the domestic economy.[citation needed] However, shale oil and gas is highly subsidised in the US, and has not yet covered production costs[116] – meaning that the cost of hydraulic fracturing is paid for in income taxes, and in many cases is up to double the cost paid at the pump.[117]

Research suggests that hydraulic fracturing wells have an adverse effect on agricultural productivity in the vicinity of the wells.[118] One paper found "that productivity of an irrigated crop decreases by 5.7% when a well is drilled during the agriculturally active months within 11–20 km radius of a producing township. This effect becomes smaller and weaker as the distance between township and wells increases."[118] The findings imply that the introduction of hydraulic fracturing wells to Alberta cost the province $14.8 million in 2014 due to the decline in the crop productivity,[118]

The Energy Information Administration of the US Department of Energy estimates that 45% of US gas supply will come from shale gas by 2035 (with the vast majority of this replacing conventional gas, which has a lower greenhouse-gas footprint).[119]

Public debate Edit

 
Poster against hydraulic fracturing in Vitoria-Gasteiz (Spain, 2012)
 
Placard against hydraulic fracturing at Extinction Rebellion (2018)

Politics and public policy Edit

Popular movement and civil society organizations Edit

An anti-fracking movement has emerged both internationally with involvement of international environmental organizations and nations such as France and locally in affected areas such as Balcombe in Sussex where the Balcombe drilling protest was in progress during mid-2013.[120] The considerable opposition against hydraulic fracturing activities in local townships in the United States has led companies to adopt a variety of public relations measures to reassure the public, including the employment of former military personnel with training in psychological warfare operations. According to Matt Pitzarella, the communications director at Range Resources, employees trained in the Middle East have been valuable to Range Resources in Pennsylvania, when dealing with emotionally charged township meetings and advising townships on zoning and local ordinances dealing with hydraulic fracturing.[121][122]

There have been many protests directed at hydraulic fracturing. For example, ten people were arrested in 2013 during an anti-fracking protest near New Matamoras, Ohio, after they illegally entered a development zone and latched themselves to drilling equipment.[123] In northwest Pennsylvania, there was a drive-by shooting at a well site, in which someone shot two rounds of a small-caliber rifle in the direction of a drilling rig.[124] In Washington County, Pennsylvania, a contractor working on a gas pipeline found a pipe bomb that had been placed where a pipeline was to be constructed, which local authorities said would have caused a "catastrophe" had they not discovered and detonated it.[125]

U.S. government and Corporate lobbying Edit

The United States Department of State established the Global Shale Gas Initiative to persuade governments around the world to give concessions to the major oil and gas companies to set up fracking operations. A document United States diplomatic cables leak published by WikiLeaks show that, as part of this project, U.S. officials convened conferences for foreign government officials that featured presentations by major oil and gas company representatives and by public relations professionals with expertise on how to assuage populations of target countries whose citizens were often quite hostile to fracking on their lands. The US government project succeeded as many countries on several continents acceded to the idea of granting concessions for fracking; Poland, for example, agreed to permit fracking by the major oil and gas corporations on nearly a third of its territory.[126] The US Export-Import Bank, an agency of the US government, provided $4.7 billion in financing for fracking operations set up since 2010 in Queensland, Australia.[127]

Alleged Russian state advocacy Edit

In 2014 a number of European officials suggested that several major European protests against hydraulic fracturing (with mixed success in Lithuania and Ukraine) may be partially sponsored by Gazprom, Russia's state-controlled gas company. The New York Times suggested that Russia saw its natural gas exports to Europe as a key element of its geopolitical influence, and that this market would diminish if hydraulic fracturing is adopted in Eastern Europe, as it opens up significant shale gas reserves in the region. Russian officials have on numerous occasions made public statements to the effect that hydraulic fracturing "poses a huge environmental problem".[128]

Current fracking operations Edit

Hydraulic fracturing is currently taking place in the United States in Arkansas, California, Colorado, Louisiana, North Dakota, Oklahoma, Pennsylvania, Texas, Virginia, West Virginia,[129] and Wyoming. Other states, such as Alabama, Indiana, Michigan, Mississippi, New Jersey, New York, and Ohio, are either considering or preparing for drilling using this method. Maryland[130] and Vermont have permanently banned hydraulic fracturing, and New York and North Carolina have instituted temporary bans. New Jersey currently has a bill before its legislature to extend a 2012 moratorium on hydraulic fracturing that recently expired. Although a hydraulic fracturing moratorium was recently lifted in the United Kingdom, the government is proceeding cautiously because of concerns about earthquakes and the environmental effect of drilling. Hydraulic fracturing is currently banned in France and Bulgaria.[51]

Documentary films Edit

Josh Fox's 2010 Academy Award nominated film Gasland[131] became a center of opposition to hydraulic fracturing of shale. The movie presented problems with groundwater contamination near well sites in Pennsylvania, Wyoming, and Colorado.[132] Energy in Depth, an oil and gas industry lobbying group, called the film's facts into question.[133] In response, a rebuttal of Energy in Depth's claims of inaccuracy was posted on Gasland's website.[134] The Director of the Colorado Oil and Gas Conservation Commission (COGCC) offered to be interviewed as part of the film if he could review what was included from the interview in the final film but Fox declined the offer.[135] Exxon Mobil, Chevron Corporation and ConocoPhillips aired advertisements during 2011 and 2012 that claimed to describe the economic and environmental benefits of natural gas and argue that hydraulic fracturing was safe.[136]

The 2012 film Promised Land, starring Matt Damon, takes on hydraulic fracturing.[137] The gas industry countered the film's criticisms of hydraulic fracturing with flyers, and Twitter and Facebook posts.[136]

In January 2013, Northern Irish journalist and filmmaker Phelim McAleer released a crowdfunded[138] documentary called FrackNation as a response to the statements made by Fox in Gasland, claiming it "tells the truth about fracking for natural gas". FrackNation premiered on Mark Cuban's AXS TV. The premiere corresponded with the release of Promised Land.[139]

In April 2013, Josh Fox released Gasland 2, his "international odyssey uncovering a trail of secrets, lies and contamination related to hydraulic fracking". It challenges the gas industry's portrayal of natural gas as a clean and safe alternative to oil as a myth, and that hydraulically fractured wells inevitably leak over time, contaminating water and air, hurting families, and endangering the earth's climate with the potent greenhouse gas methane.

In 2014, Scott Cannon of Video Innovations released the documentary The Ethics of Fracking. The film covers the politics, spiritual, scientific, medical and professional points of view on hydraulic fracturing. It also digs into the way the gas industry portrays hydraulic fracturing in their advertising.[140]

In 2015, the Canadian documentary film Fractured Land had its world premiere at the Hot Docs Canadian International Documentary Festival.[141]

Research issues Edit

Typically the funding source of the research studies is a focal point of controversy. Concerns have been raised about research funded by foundations and corporations, or by environmental groups, which can at times lead to at least the appearance of unreliable studies.[142][143] Several organizations, researchers, and media outlets have reported difficulty in conducting and reporting the results of studies on hydraulic fracturing due to industry[144] and governmental pressure,[27] and expressed concern over possible censoring of environmental reports.[144][145][146] Some have argued there is a need for more research into the environmental and health effects of the technique.[147][148][149][150]

Health risks Edit

 
Anti-fracking banner at the Clean Energy March (Philadelphia, 2016)

There is concern over the possible adverse public health implications of hydraulic fracturing activity.[147] A 2013 review on shale gas production in the United States stated, "with increasing numbers of drilling sites, more people are at risk from accidents and exposure to harmful substances used at fractured wells."[151] A 2011 hazard assessment recommended full disclosure of chemicals used for hydraulic fracturing and drilling as many have immediate health effects, and many may have long-term health effects.[152]

In June 2014 Public Health England published a review of the potential public health impacts of exposures to chemical and radioactive pollutants as a result of shale gas extraction in the UK, based on the examination of literature and data from countries where hydraulic fracturing already occurs.[148] The executive summary of the report stated: "An assessment of the currently available evidence indicates that the potential risks to public health from exposure to the emissions associated with shale gas extraction will be low if the operations are properly run and regulated. Most evidence suggests that contamination of groundwater, if it occurs, is most likely to be caused by leakage through the vertical borehole. Contamination of groundwater from the underground hydraulic fracturing process itself (i.e. the fracturing of the shale) is unlikely. However, surface spills of hydraulic fracturing fluids or wastewater may affect groundwater, and emissions to air also have the potential to impact on health. Where potential risks have been identified in the literature, the reported problems are typically a result of operational failure and a poor regulatory environment."[148]: iii 

A 2012 report prepared for the European Union Directorate-General for the Environment identified potential risks to humans from air pollution and ground water contamination posed by hydraulic fracturing.[153] This led to a series of recommendations in 2014 to mitigate these concerns.[154][155] A 2012 guidance for pediatric nurses in the US said that hydraulic fracturing had a potential negative impact on public health and that pediatric nurses should be prepared to gather information on such topics so as to advocate for improved community health.[156]

A 2017 study in The American Economic Review found that "additional well pads drilled within 1 kilometer of a community water system intake increases shale gas-related contaminants in drinking water."[157]

A 2022 study conduced by Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health and published in Nature Energy found that elderly people living near or downwind of unconventional oil and gas development (UOGD) -- which involves extraction methods including fracking—are at greater risk of experiencing early death compared with elderly persons who don't live near such operations.[158]

Statistics collected by the U.S. Department of Labor and analyzed by the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention show a correlation between drilling activity and the number of occupational injuries related to drilling and motor vehicle accidents, explosions, falls, and fires.[159] Extraction workers are also at risk for developing pulmonary diseases, including lung cancer and silicosis (the latter because of exposure to silica dust generated from rock drilling and the handling of sand).[160] The U.S. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) identified exposure to airborne silica as a health hazard to workers conducting some hydraulic fracturing operations.[161] NIOSH and OSHA issued a joint hazard alert on this topic in June 2012.[161]

Additionally, the extraction workforce is at increased risk for radiation exposure. Fracking activities often require drilling into rock that contains naturally occurring radioactive material (NORM), such as radon, thorium, and uranium.[162]

Another report done by the Canadian Medical Journal reported that after researching they identified 55 factors that may cause cancer, including 20 that have been shown to increase the risk of leukemia and lymphoma. The Yale Public Health analysis warns that millions of people living within a mile of fracking wells may have been exposed to these chemicals.[163]

Environmental effects Edit

Main article: Environmental impact of fracking
See also: Environmental impact of hydraulic fracturing in the United States and Exemptions for hydraulic fracturing under United States federal law
Environmental Effects of Hydraulic Fracturing
 
Schematic depiction of hydraulic fracturing for shale gas
Process typeMechanical
Industrial sector(s)Mining
Main technologies or sub-processesFluid pressure
Product(s)Natural gas, petroleum
InventorFloyd Farris, Joseph B. Clark (Stanolind Oil and Gas Corporation)
Year of invention1947
 
Clean Energy March in Philadelphia
 
September 2019 climate strike in Alice Springs, Australia

The potential environmental effects of hydraulic fracturing include air emissions and climate change, high water consumption, groundwater contamination, land use,[164] risk of earthquakes, noise pollution, and various health effects on humans.[165] Air emissions are primarily methane that escapes from wells, along with industrial emissions from equipment used in the extraction process.[153] Modern UK and EU regulation requires zero emissions of methane, a potent greenhouse gas.[citation needed] Escape of methane is a bigger problem in older wells than in ones built under more recent EU legislation.[153]

In December 2016 the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) issued the "Hydraulic Fracturing for Oil and Gas: Impacts from the Hydraulic Fracturing Water Cycle on Drinking Water Resources in the United States (Final Report)." The EPA found scientific evidence that hydraulic fracturing activities can impact drinking water resources.[166] A few of the main reasons why drinking water can be contaminated according to the EPA are:

  • Water removal to be used for fracking in times or areas of low water availability[166]
  • Spills while handling fracking fluids and chemicals that result in large volumes or high concentrations of chemicals reaching groundwater resources[166]
  • Injection of fracking fluids into wells when mishandling machinery, allowing gases or liquids to move to groundwater resources[166]
  • Injection of fracking fluids directly into groundwater resources[166]
  • Leak of defective hydraulic fracturing wastewater to surface water[166]
  • Disposal or storage of fracking wastewater in unlined pits resulting in contamination of groundwater resources.[166]

Hydraulic fracturing uses between 1.2 and 3.5 million US gallons (4,500 and 13,200 m3) of water per well, with large projects using up to 5 million US gallons (19,000 m3).[167] Additional water is used when wells are refractured.[73][168] An average well requires 3 to 8 million US gallons (11,000 to 30,000 m3) of water over its lifetime.[65] According to the Oxford Institute for Energy Studies, greater volumes of fracturing fluids are required in Europe, where the shale depths average 1.5 times greater than in the U.S.[169] Surface water may be contaminated through spillage and improperly built and maintained waste pits,[170] and ground water can be contaminated if the fluid is able to escape the formation being fractured (through, for example, abandoned wells, fractures, and faults[171]) or by produced water (the returning fluids, which also contain dissolved constituents such as minerals and brine waters). The possibility of groundwater contamination from brine and fracturing fluid leakage through old abandoned wells is low.[172][148] Produced water is managed by underground injection, municipal and commercial wastewater treatment and discharge, self-contained systems at well sites or fields, and recycling to fracture future wells.[173] Typically less than half of the produced water used to fracture the formation is recovered.[174]

In the United States there is over 12 million acres that are being used for fossil fuels. About 3.6 hectares (8.9 acres) of land is needed per each drill pad for surface installations. This is equivalent of six Yellowstone National Parks.[175] Well pad and supporting structure construction significantly fragments landscapes which likely has negative effects on wildlife.[176] These sites need to be remediated after wells are exhausted.[153] Research indicates that effects on ecosystem services costs (i.e., those processes that the natural world provides to humanity) has reached over $250 million per year in the U.S.[177] Each well pad (in average 10 wells per pad) needs during preparatory and hydraulic fracturing process about 800 to 2,500 days of noisy activity, which affect both residents and local wildlife. In addition, noise is created by continuous truck traffic (sand, etc.) needed in hydraulic fracturing.[153] Research is underway to determine if human health has been affected by air and water pollution, and rigorous following of safety procedures and regulation is required to avoid harm and to manage the risk of accidents that could cause harm.[148]

In July 2013, the US Federal Railroad Administration listed oil contamination by hydraulic fracturing chemicals as "a possible cause" of corrosion in oil tank cars.[178]

Hydraulic fracturing has been sometimes linked to induced seismicity or earthquakes.[179] The magnitude of these events is usually too small to be detected at the surface, although tremors attributed to fluid injection into disposal wells have been large enough to have often been felt by people, and to have caused property damage and possibly injuries.[25][180][181][182][183][184] A U.S. Geological Survey reported that up to 7.9 million people in several states have a similar earthquake risk to that of California, with hydraulic fracturing and similar practices being a prime contributing factor.[185]

Microseismic events are often used to map the horizontal and vertical extent of the fracturing.[89] A better understanding of the geology of the area being fracked and used for injection wells can be helpful in mitigating the potential for significant seismic events.[186]

People obtain drinking water from either surface water, which includes rivers and reservoirs, or groundwater aquifers, accessed by public or private wells. There are already a host of documented instances in which nearby groundwater has been contaminated by fracking activities, requiring residents with private wells to obtain outside sources of water for drinking and everyday use.[187][188]

Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances also known as "PFAS" or "forever chemicals" have been linked to cancer and birth defects. The chemicals used in fracking stay in the environment. Once there those chemicals will eventually break down into PFAS. These chemicals can escape from drilling sites and into the groundwater. PFAS are able to leak into underground wells that store million gallons of wastewater.[189]

Despite these health concerns and efforts to institute a moratorium on fracking until its environmental and health effects are better understood, the United States continues to rely heavily on fossil fuel energy. In 2017, 37% of annual U.S. energy consumption is derived from petroleum, 29% from natural gas, 14% from coal, and 9% from nuclear sources, with only 11% supplied by renewable energy, such as wind and solar power.[190]

Regulations Edit

See also: Hydraulic fracturing by country and Regulation of hydraulic fracturing

Countries using or considering use of hydraulic fracturing have implemented different regulations, including developing federal and regional legislation, and local zoning limitations.[191][192] In 2011, after public pressure France became the first nation to ban hydraulic fracturing, based on the precautionary principle as well as the principle of preventive and corrective action of environmental hazards.[28][29][193][194] The ban was upheld by an October 2013 ruling of the Constitutional Council.[195] Some other countries such as Scotland have placed a temporary moratorium on the practice due to public health concerns and strong public opposition.[196] Countries like England and South Africa have lifted their bans, choosing to focus on regulation instead of outright prohibition.[197][198] Germany has announced draft regulations that would allow using hydraulic fracturing for the exploitation of shale gas deposits with the exception of wetland areas.[199] In China, regulation on shale gas still faces hurdles, as it has complex interrelations with other regulatory regimes, especially trade.[200] Many states in Australia have either permanently or temporarily banned fracturing for hydrocarbons.[citation needed] In 2019, hydraulic fracturing was banned in UK.[201]

The European Union has adopted a recommendation for minimum principles for using high-volume hydraulic fracturing.[30] Its regulatory regime requires full disclosure of all additives.[202] In the United States, the Ground Water Protection Council launched FracFocus.org, an online voluntary disclosure database for hydraulic fracturing fluids funded by oil and gas trade groups and the U.S. Department of Energy.[203][204] Hydraulic fracturing is excluded from the Safe Drinking Water Act's underground injection control's regulation, except when diesel fuel is used. The EPA assures surveillance of the issuance of drilling permits when diesel fuel is employed.[205]

In 2012, Vermont became the first state in the United States to ban hydraulic fracturing. On 17 December 2014, New York became the second state to issue a complete ban on any hydraulic fracturing due to potential risks to human health and the environment.[206][207][208]

See also Edit

References Edit

  This article incorporates public domain material from Hydraulic Fracturing for Oil and Gas: Impacts from the Hydraulic Fracturing Water Cycle on Drinking Water Resources in the United States (Final Report). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Retrieved 17 December 2016.

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Further reading Edit

  • Gamper-Rabindran, Shanti, ed. The Shale Dilemma: A Global Perspective on Fracking and Shale Development (U of Pittsburgh Press, 2018) online review
  • Kiparsky, Michael; Hein, Jayni Foley (April 2013). "Regulation of Hydraulic Fracturing in California: A Wastewater and Water Quality Perspective" (PDF). University of California Center for Law, Energy, and the Environment. Retrieved 1 May 2014.
  • Ridlington, Elizabeth; John Rumpler (3 October 2013). "Fracking by the numbers". Environment America.
  • "DISH, Texas Exposure Investigation" (PDF). Texas DSHS. Retrieved 27 March 2013.
  • de Pater, C.J.; Baisch, S. (2 November 2011). (PDF) (Report). Cuadrilla Resources. Archived from the original (PDF) on 15 February 2014. Retrieved 22 February 2012.
  • McKenzie, Lisa; Witter, Roxana; Newman, Lee; Adgate, John (2012). "Human health risk assessment of air emissions from development of unconventional natural gas resources". Science of the Total Environment. 424: 79–87. Bibcode:2012ScTEn.424...79M. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.368.4553. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2012.02.018. PMID 22444058. S2CID 19248364.
  • "The Hydraulic Fracturing Water Cycle". EPA. 16 March 2014. Retrieved 10 October 2014.
  • Fernandez, John Michael; Gunter, Matthew. (PDF). Environmentally Friendly Drilling Systems. Archived from the original (PDF) on 27 May 2013. Retrieved 29 December 2012.
  • Colborn, Theo; Kwiatkowski, Carol; Schultz, Kim; Bachran, Mary (2011). "Natural gas operations from public health perspective". Human and Ecological Risk Assessment. 17 (5): 1039–56. doi:10.1080/10807039.2011.605662. S2CID 53996198.
  • Abdalla, Charles W.; Drohan, Joy R.; Blunk, Kristen Saacke; Edson, Jessie (2014). Marcellus Shale Wastewater Issues in Pennsylvania – Current and Emerging Treatment and Disposal Technologies (Report). Penn State Extension. Retrieved 11 October 2014.
  • Arthur, J. Daniel; Langhus, Bruce; Alleman, David (2008). An overview of modern shale gas development in the United States (PDF) (Report). ALL Consulting. p. 21. Retrieved 7 May 2012.
  • Howe, J. Cullen; Del Percio, Stephen. The Legal and Regulatory Landscape of Hydraulic Fracturing (Report). LexisNexis. Retrieved 7 May 2014.
  • Molofsky, L. J.; Connor, J. A.; Shahla, K. F.; Wylie, A. S.; Wagner, T. (5 December 2011). "Methane in Pennsylvania Water Wells Unrelated to Marcellus Shale Fracturing". Oil and Gas Journal. 109 (49): 54–67.
  • IEA (2011). World Energy Outlook 2011. OECD. pp. 91, 164. ISBN 978-92-64-12413-4.
  • . USGS. Archived from the original on 19 October 2014. Retrieved 4 November 2012.
  • Moniz, Ernest J.; et al. (June 2011). (PDF) (Report). Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Archived from the original (PDF) on 12 March 2013. Retrieved 1 June 2012.
  • Biello, David (30 March 2010). "Natural gas cracked out of shale deposits may mean the U.S. has a stable supply for a century – but at what cost to the environment and human health?". Scientific American. Retrieved 23 March 2012.
  • Schmidt, Charles (1 August 2011). "Blind Rush? Shale Gas Boom Proceeds Amid Human Health Questions". Environmental Health Perspectives. 119 (8): a348–53. doi:10.1289/ehp.119-a348. PMC 3237379. PMID 21807583.
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  • Kassotis, Christopher D.; Tillitt, Donald E.; Davis, J. Wade; Hormann, Annette M.; Nagel, Susan C. (March 2014). "Estrogen and Androgen Receptor Activities of Hydraulic Fracturing Chemicals and Surface and Ground Water in a Drilling-Dense Region". Endocrinology. 155 (3): 897–907. doi:10.1210/en.2013-1697. PMID 24424034.
  • Chalupka, S. (October 2012). "Occupational Silica Exposure in Hydraulic Fracturing". Workplace Health & Safety. 60 (10): 460. doi:10.3928/21650799-20120926-70. PMID 23054167. ProQuest 1095508837.
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September 04, 2023
fracking, also, known, hydraulic, fracturing, fracing, hydrofracturing, hydrofracking, well, stimulation, technique, involving, fracturing, formations, bedrock, pressurized, liquid, process, involves, high, pressure, injection, fracking, fluid, primarily, wate. Fracking also known as hydraulic fracturing fracing hydrofracturing or hydrofracking is a well stimulation technique involving the fracturing of formations in bedrock by a pressurized liquid The process involves the high pressure injection of fracking fluid primarily water containing sand or other proppants suspended with the aid of thickening agents into a wellbore to create cracks in the deep rock formations through which natural gas petroleum and brine will flow more freely When the hydraulic pressure is removed from the well small grains of hydraulic fracturing proppants either sand or aluminium oxide hold the fractures open 1 FrackingFracking the Bakken Formation in North DakotaProcess typeMechanicalIndustrial sector s MiningMain technologies or sub processesFluid pressureProduct s Natural gas petroleumInventorFloyd Farris Joseph B Clark Stanolind Oil and Gas Corporation Year of invention1947Hydraulic fracturing began as an experiment in 1947 2 and the first commercially successful application followed in 1950 As of 2012 2 5 million frac jobs had been performed worldwide on oil and gas wells over one million of those within the U S 3 4 Such treatment is generally necessary to achieve adequate flow rates in shale gas tight gas tight oil and coal seam gas wells 5 Some hydraulic fractures can form naturally in certain veins or dikes 6 Drilling and hydraulic fracturing have made the United States a major crude oil exporter as of 2019 7 but leakage of methane a powerful greenhouse gas has dramatically increased 8 9 Increased oil and gas production from the decade long fracking boom has led to lower prices for consumers with near record lows of the share of household income going to energy expenditures 10 11 Hydraulic fracturing is highly controversial 12 Its proponents advocate the economic benefits of more extensively accessible hydrocarbons 13 14 as well as replacing coal with natural gas which burns more cleanly and emits less carbon dioxide CO2 15 16 and energy independence 17 Opponents of fracking argue that these are outweighed by the environmental impacts which include groundwater and surface water contamination 18 noise and air pollution and the triggering of earthquakes along with the resulting hazards to public health and the environment 19 20 Research has found adverse health effects in populations living near hydraulic fracturing sites 21 22 including confirmation of chemical physical and psychosocial hazards such as pregnancy and birth outcomes migraine headaches chronic rhinosinusitis severe fatigue asthma exacerbations and psychological stress 23 Adherence to regulation and safety procedures are required to avoid further negative impacts 24 The scale of methane leakage associated with hydraulic fracturing is uncertain and there is some evidence that leakage may cancel out any greenhouse gas emissions benefit of natural gas relative to other fossil fuels Diagram of Hydraulic Fracking Machinery and ProcessIncreases in seismic activity following hydraulic fracturing along dormant or previously unknown faults are sometimes caused by the deep injection disposal of hydraulic fracturing flowback a byproduct of hydraulically fractured wells 25 and produced formation brine a byproduct of both fractured and nonfractured oil and gas wells 26 For these reasons hydraulic fracturing is under international scrutiny restricted in some countries and banned altogether in others 27 28 29 The European Union is drafting regulations that would permit the controlled application of hydraulic fracturing 30 Contents 1 Geology 1 1 Mechanics 1 2 Veins 1 3 Dikes 2 History 2 1 Precursors 2 2 20th century applications 2 3 Oil and gas wells 2 4 Massive fracturing 2 5 Shales 3 Process 3 1 Method 3 2 Well types 3 3 Fracturing fluids 3 4 Fracture monitoring 3 4 1 Radionuclide monitoring 3 4 2 Microseismic monitoring 3 5 Horizontal completions 4 Uses 4 1 Non oil gas uses 5 Economic effects 6 Public debate 6 1 Politics and public policy 6 1 1 Popular movement and civil society organizations 6 1 2 U S government and Corporate lobbying 6 1 3 Alleged Russian state advocacy 6 1 4 Current fracking operations 6 2 Documentary films 6 3 Research issues 7 Health risks 8 Environmental effects 9 Regulations 10 See also 11 References 12 Further reading 13 External links For further information on the reasons why fracking is carried out see Unconventional oil amp gas reservoir Essential differences between conventional and unconventional reservoirs Geology EditMain article Fracture geology Mechanics Edit Fracturing rocks at great depth frequently become suppressed by pressure due to the weight of the overlying rock strata and the cementation of the formation This suppression process is particularly significant in tensile Mode 1 fractures which require the walls of the fracture to move against this pressure Fracturing occurs when effective stress is overcome by the pressure of fluids within the rock The minimum principal stress becomes tensile and exceeds the tensile strength of the material 31 32 Fractures formed in this way are generally oriented in a plane perpendicular to the minimum principal stress and for this reason hydraulic fractures in wellbores can be used to determine the orientation of stresses 33 In natural examples such as dikes or vein filled fractures the orientations can be used to infer past states of stress 34 Veins Edit Most mineral vein systems are a result of repeated natural fracturing during periods of relatively high pore fluid pressure The effect of high pore fluid pressure on the formation process of mineral vein systems is particularly evident in crack seal veins where the vein material is part of a series of discrete fracturing events and extra vein material is deposited on each occasion 35 One example of long term repeated natural fracturing is in the effects of seismic activity Stress levels rise and fall episodically and earthquakes can cause large volumes of connate water to be expelled from fluid filled fractures This process is referred to as seismic pumping 36 Dikes Edit Minor intrusions in the upper part of the crust such as dikes propagate in the form of fluid filled cracks In such cases the fluid is magma In sedimentary rocks with a significant water content fluid at fracture tip will be steam 37 History EditPrecursors Edit nbsp Halliburton fracturing operation in the Bakken Formation North Dakota United StatesFracturing as a method to stimulate shallow hard rock oil wells dates back to the 1860s Dynamite or nitroglycerin detonations were used to increase oil and natural gas production from petroleum bearing formations On 24 April 1865 US Civil War veteran Col Edward A L Roberts received a patent for an exploding torpedo 38 It was employed in Pennsylvania New York Kentucky and West Virginia using liquid and also later solidified nitroglycerin Later still the same method was applied to water and gas wells Stimulation of wells with acid instead of explosive fluids was introduced in the 1930s Due to acid etching fractures would not close completely resulting in further productivity increase 39 20th century applications Edit Harold Hamm Aubrey McClendon Tom Ward and George P Mitchell are each considered to have pioneered hydraulic fracturing innovations toward practical applications 40 41 Oil and gas wells Edit The relationship between well performance and treatment pressures was studied by Floyd Farris of Stanolind Oil and Gas Corporation This study was the basis of the first hydraulic fracturing experiment conducted in 1947 at the Hugoton gas field in Grant County of southwestern Kansas by Stanolind 5 42 For the well treatment 1 000 US gallons 3 800 L 830 imp gal of gelled gasoline essentially napalm and sand from the Arkansas River was injected into the gas producing limestone formation at 2 400 feet 730 m The experiment was not very successful as the deliverability of the well did not change appreciably The process was further described by J B Clark of Stanolind in his paper published in 1948 A patent on this process was issued in 1949 and an exclusive license was granted to the Halliburton Oil Well Cementing Company On 17 March 1949 Halliburton performed the first two commercial hydraulic fracturing treatments in Stephens County Oklahoma and Archer County Texas 42 Since then hydraulic fracturing has been used to stimulate approximately one million oil and gas wells 43 in various geologic regimes with good success In contrast with large scale hydraulic fracturing used in low permeability formations small hydraulic fracturing treatments are commonly used in high permeability formations to remedy skin damage a low permeability zone that sometimes forms at the rock borehole interface In such cases the fracturing may extend only a few feet from the borehole 44 In the Soviet Union the first hydraulic proppant fracturing was carried out in 1952 Other countries in Europe and Northern Africa subsequently employed hydraulic fracturing techniques including Norway Poland Czechoslovakia before 1989 Yugoslavia before 1991 Hungary Austria France Italy Bulgaria Romania Turkey Tunisia and Algeria 45 Massive fracturing Edit nbsp Well head where fluids are injected into the ground nbsp Well head after all the hydraulic fracturing equipment has been taken off locationMassive hydraulic fracturing also known as high volume hydraulic fracturing is a technique first applied by Pan American Petroleum in Stephens County Oklahoma US in 1968 The definition of massive hydraulic fracturing varies but generally refers to treatments injecting over 150 short tons or approximately 300 000 pounds 136 metric tonnes of proppant 46 American geologists gradually became aware that there were huge volumes of gas saturated sandstones with permeability too low generally less than 0 1 millidarcy to recover the gas economically 46 Starting in 1973 massive hydraulic fracturing was used in thousands of gas wells in the San Juan Basin Denver Basin 47 the Piceance Basin 48 and the Green River Basin and in other hard rock formations of the western US Other tight sandstone wells in the US made economically viable by massive hydraulic fracturing were in the Clinton Medina Sandstone Ohio Pennsylvania and New York and Cotton Valley Sandstone Texas and Louisiana 46 Massive hydraulic fracturing quickly spread in the late 1970s to western Canada Rotliegend and Carboniferous gas bearing sandstones in Germany Netherlands onshore and offshore gas fields and the United Kingdom in the North Sea 45 Horizontal oil or gas wells were unusual until the late 1980s Then operators in Texas began completing thousands of oil wells by drilling horizontally in the Austin Chalk and giving massive slickwater hydraulic fracturing treatments to the wellbores Horizontal wells proved much more effective than vertical wells in producing oil from tight chalk 49 sedimentary beds are usually nearly horizontal so horizontal wells have much larger contact areas with the target formation 50 Hydraulic fracturing operations have grown exponentially since the mid 1990s when technologic advances and increases in the price of natural gas made this technique economically viable 51 Shales Edit Hydraulic fracturing of shales goes back at least to 1965 when some operators in the Big Sandy gas field of eastern Kentucky and southern West Virginia started hydraulically fracturing the Ohio Shale and Cleveland Shale using relatively small fracs The frac jobs generally increased production especially from lower yielding wells 52 In 1976 the United States government started the Eastern Gas Shales Project which included numerous public private hydraulic fracturing demonstration projects 53 During the same period the Gas Research Institute a gas industry research consortium received approval for research and funding from the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission 54 In 1997 Nick Steinsberger an engineer of Mitchell Energy now part of Devon Energy applied the slickwater fracturing technique using more water and higher pump pressure than previous fracturing techniques which was used in East Texas in the Barnett Shale of north Texas 50 In 1998 the new technique proved to be successful when the first 90 days gas production from the well called S H Griffin No 3 exceeded production of any of the company s previous wells 55 56 This new completion technique made gas extraction widely economical in the Barnett Shale and was later applied to other shales including the Eagle Ford and Bakken Shale 57 58 59 George P Mitchell has been called the father of fracking because of his role in applying it in shales 60 The first horizontal well in the Barnett Shale was drilled in 1991 but was not widely done in the Barnett until it was demonstrated that gas could be economically extracted from vertical wells in the Barnett 50 As of 2013 massive hydraulic fracturing is being applied on a commercial scale to shales in the United States Canada and China Several additional countries are planning to use hydraulic fracturing 61 62 63 Process EditAccording to the United States Environmental Protection Agency EPA hydraulic fracturing is a process to stimulate a natural gas oil or geothermal well to maximize extraction The EPA defines the broader process to include acquisition of source water well construction well stimulation and waste disposal 64 Method Edit A hydraulic fracture is formed by pumping fracturing fluid into a wellbore at a rate sufficient to increase pressure at the target depth determined by the location of the well casing perforations to exceed that of the fracture gradient pressure gradient of the rock 65 The fracture gradient is defined as pressure increase per unit of depth relative to density and is usually measured in pounds per square inch per square foot or bars The rock cracks and the fracture fluid permeates the rock extending the crack further and further and so on Fractures are localized as pressure drops off with the rate of frictional loss which is relative to the distance from the well Operators typically try to maintain fracture width or slow its decline following treatment by introducing a proppant into the injected fluid a material such as grains of sand ceramic or other particulate thus preventing the fractures from closing when injection is stopped and pressure removed Consideration of proppant strength and prevention of proppant failure becomes more important at greater depths where pressure and stresses on fractures are higher The propped fracture is permeable enough to allow the flow of gas oil salt water and hydraulic fracturing fluids to the well 65 During the process fracturing fluid leakoff loss of fracturing fluid from the fracture channel into the surrounding permeable rock occurs If not controlled it can exceed 70 of the injected volume This may result in formation matrix damage adverse formation fluid interaction and altered fracture geometry thereby decreasing efficiency 66 The location of one or more fractures along the length of the borehole is strictly controlled by various methods that create or seal holes in the side of the wellbore Hydraulic fracturing is performed in cased wellbores and the zones to be fractured are accessed by perforating the casing at those locations 67 Hydraulic fracturing equipment used in oil and natural gas fields usually consists of a slurry blender one or more high pressure high volume fracturing pumps typically powerful triplex or quintuplex pumps and a monitoring unit Associated equipment includes fracturing tanks one or more units for storage and handling of proppant high pressure treating iron clarification needed a chemical additive unit used to accurately monitor chemical addition fracking hose low pressure flexible hoses and many gauges and meters for flow rate fluid density and treating pressure 68 Chemical additives are typically 0 5 of the total fluid volume Fracturing equipment operates over a range of pressures and injection rates and can reach up to 100 megapascals 15 000 psi and 265 litres per second 9 4 cu ft s 133 US bbl min 69 Well types Edit A distinction can be made between conventional low volume hydraulic fracturing used to stimulate high permeability reservoirs for a single well and unconventional high volume hydraulic fracturing used in the completion of tight gas and shale gas wells High volume hydraulic fracturing usually requires higher pressures than low volume fracturing the higher pressures are needed to push out larger volumes of fluid and proppant that extend farther from the borehole 70 Horizontal drilling involves wellbores with a terminal drillhole completed as a lateral that extends parallel with the rock layer containing the substance to be extracted For example laterals extend 1 500 to 5 000 feet 460 to 1 520 m in the Barnett Shale basin in Texas and up to 10 000 feet 3 000 m in the Bakken formation in North Dakota In contrast a vertical well only accesses the thickness of the rock layer typically 50 300 feet 15 91 m Horizontal drilling reduces surface disruptions as fewer wells are required to access the same volume of rock Drilling often plugs up the pore spaces at the wellbore wall reducing permeability at and near the wellbore This reduces flow into the borehole from the surrounding rock formation and partially seals off the borehole from the surrounding rock Low volume hydraulic fracturing can be used to restore permeability 71 Fracturing fluids Edit nbsp Water tanks preparing for hydraulic fracturingMain articles Hydraulic fracturing proppants and List of additives for hydraulic fracturing The main purposes of fracturing fluid are to extend fractures add lubrication change gel strength and to carry proppant into the formation There are two methods of transporting proppant in the fluid high rate and high viscosity High viscosity fracturing tends to cause large dominant fractures while high rate slickwater fracturing causes small spread out micro fractures 72 Water soluble gelling agents such as guar gum increase viscosity and efficiently deliver proppant into the formation 73 nbsp Example of high pressure manifold combining pump flows before injection into wellFluid is typically a slurry of water proppant and chemical additives 74 Additionally gels foams and compressed gases including nitrogen carbon dioxide and air can be injected Typically 90 of the fluid is water and 9 5 is sand with chemical additives accounting to about 0 5 65 75 76 However fracturing fluids have been developed using liquefied petroleum gas LPG and propane This process is called waterless fracturing 77 When propane is used it is turned into vapor by the high pressure and high temperature The propane vapor and natural gas both return to the surface and can be collected making it clarification needed easier to reuse and or resale None of the chemicals used will return to the surface Only the propane used will return from what was used in the process 78 The proppant is a granular material that prevents the created fractures from closing after the fracturing treatment Types of proppant include silica sand resin coated sand bauxite and man made ceramics The choice of proppant depends on the type of permeability or grain strength needed In some formations where the pressure is great enough to crush grains of natural silica sand higher strength proppants such as bauxite or ceramics may be used The most commonly used proppant is silica sand though proppants of uniform size and shape such as a ceramic proppant are believed to be more effective 79 nbsp USGS map of water use from hydraulic fracturing between 2011 and 2014 One cubic meter of water is 264 172 gallons 80 81 The fracturing fluid varies depending on fracturing type desired and the conditions of specific wells being fractured and water characteristics The fluid can be gel foam or slickwater based Fluid choices are tradeoffs more viscous fluids such as gels are better at keeping proppant in suspension while less viscous and lower friction fluids such as slickwater allow fluid to be pumped at higher rates to create fractures farther out from the wellbore Important material properties of the fluid include viscosity pH various rheological factors and others Water is mixed with sand and chemicals to create hydraulic fracturing fluid Approximately 40 000 gallons of chemicals are used per fracturing 82 A typical fracture treatment uses between 3 and 12 additive chemicals 65 Although there may be unconventional fracturing fluids typical chemical additives can include one or more of the following Acids hydrochloric acid or acetic acid is used in the pre fracturing stage for cleaning the perforations and initiating fissure in the near wellbore rock 76 Sodium chloride salt delays breakdown of gel polymer chains 76 Polyacrylamide and other friction reducers decrease turbulence in fluid flow and pipe friction thus allowing the pumps to pump at a higher rate without having greater pressure on the surface 76 Ethylene glycol prevents formation of scale deposits in the pipe 76 Borate salts used for maintaining fluid viscosity during the temperature increase 76 Sodium and potassium carbonates used for maintaining effectiveness of crosslinkers 76 Glutaraldehyde a biocide that prevents pipe corrosion from microbial activity 83 Guar gum and other water soluble gelling agents increases viscosity of the fracturing fluid to deliver proppant into the formation more efficiently 73 76 Citric acid used for corrosion prevention Isopropanol used to winterize the chemicals to ensure it doesn t freeze 76 The most common chemical used for hydraulic fracturing in the United States in 2005 2009 was methanol while some other most widely used chemicals were isopropyl alcohol 2 butoxyethanol and ethylene glycol 84 Typical fluid types are Conventional linear gels These gels are cellulose derivative carboxymethyl cellulose hydroxyethyl cellulose carboxymethyl hydroxyethyl cellulose hydroxypropyl cellulose hydroxyethyl methyl cellulose guar or its derivatives hydroxypropyl guar carboxymethyl hydroxypropyl guar mixed with other chemicals clarification needed Borate crosslinked fluids These are guar based fluids cross linked with boron ions from aqueous borax boric acid solution These gels have higher viscosity at pH 9 onwards and are used to carry proppant After the fracturing job the pH is reduced to 3 4 so that the cross links are broken and the gel is less viscous and can be pumped out Organometallic crosslinked fluids zirconium chromium antimony titanium salts are known to crosslink guar based gels The crosslinking mechanism is not reversible so once the proppant is pumped down along with cross linked gel the fracturing part is done The gels are broken down with appropriate breakers clarification needed 73 Aluminium phosphate ester oil gels Aluminium phosphate and ester oils are slurried to form cross linked gel These are one of the first known gelling systems For slickwater fluids the use of sweeps is common Sweeps are temporary reductions in the proppant concentration which help ensure that the well is not overwhelmed with proppant 85 As the fracturing process proceeds viscosity reducing agents such as oxidizers and enzyme breakers are sometimes added to the fracturing fluid to deactivate the gelling agents and encourage flowback 73 Such oxidizers react with and break down the gel reducing the fluid s viscosity and ensuring that no proppant is pulled from the formation An enzyme acts as a catalyst for breaking down the gel Sometimes pH modifiers are used to break down the crosslink at the end of a hydraulic fracturing job since many require a pH buffer system to stay viscous 85 At the end of the job the well is commonly flushed with water under pressure sometimes blended with a friction reducing chemical Some but not all injected fluid is recovered This fluid is managed by several methods including underground injection control treatment discharge recycling and temporary storage in pits or containers New technology is continually developing to better handle waste water and improve re usability 65 Fracture monitoring Edit Measurements of the pressure and rate during the growth of a hydraulic fracture with knowledge of fluid properties and proppant being injected into the well provides the most common and simplest method of monitoring a hydraulic fracture treatment This data along with knowledge of the underground geology can be used to model information such as length width and conductivity of a propped fracture 65 Radionuclide monitoring Edit Main article Hydraulic fracturing and radionuclides Injection of radioactive tracers along with the fracturing fluid is sometimes used to determine the injection profile and location of created fractures 86 Radiotracers are selected to have the readily detectable radiation appropriate chemical properties and a half life and toxicity level that will minimize initial and residual contamination 87 Radioactive isotopes chemically bonded to glass sand and or resin beads may also be injected to track fractures 88 For example plastic pellets coated with 10 GBq of Ag 110mm may be added to the proppant or sand may be labelled with Ir 192 so that the proppant s progress can be monitored 87 Radiotracers such as Tc 99m and I 131 are also used to measure flow rates 87 The Nuclear Regulatory Commission publishes guidelines which list a wide range of radioactive materials in solid liquid and gaseous forms that may be used as tracers and limit the amount that may be used per injection and per well of each radionuclide 88 A new technique in well monitoring involves fiber optic cables outside the casing Using the fiber optics temperatures can be measured every foot along the well even while the wells are being fracked and pumped By monitoring the temperature of the well engineers can determine how much hydraulic fracturing fluid different parts of the well use as well as how much natural gas or oil they collect during hydraulic fracturing operation and when the well is producing citation needed Microseismic monitoring Edit For more advanced applications microseismic monitoring is sometimes used to estimate the size and orientation of induced fractures Microseismic activity is measured by placing an array of geophones in a nearby wellbore By mapping the location of any small seismic events associated with the growing fracture the approximate geometry of the fracture is inferred Tiltmeter arrays deployed on the surface or down a well provide another technology for monitoring strain 89 Microseismic mapping is very similar geophysically to seismology In earthquake seismology seismometers scattered on or near the surface of the earth record S waves and P waves that are released during an earthquake event This allows for motion clarification needed along the fault plane to be estimated and its location in the Earth s subsurface mapped Hydraulic fracturing an increase in formation stress proportional to the net fracturing pressure as well as an increase in pore pressure due to leakoff clarification needed 90 Tensile stresses are generated ahead of the fracture s tip generating large amounts of shear stress The increases in pore water pressure and in formation stress combine and affect weaknesses near the hydraulic fracture like natural fractures joints and bedding planes 91 Different methods have different location errors clarification needed and advantages Accuracy of microseismic event mapping is dependent on the signal to noise ratio and the distribution of sensors Accuracy of events located by seismic inversion is improved by sensors placed in multiple azimuths from the monitored borehole In a downhole array location accuracy of events is improved by being close to the monitored borehole high signal to noise ratio Monitoring of microseismic events induced by reservoir clarification needed stimulation has become a key aspect in evaluation of hydraulic fractures and their optimization The main goal of hydraulic fracture monitoring is to completely characterize the induced fracture structure and distribution of conductivity within a formation Geomechanical analysis such as understanding a formations material properties in situ conditions and geometries helps monitoring by providing a better definition of the environment in which the fracture network propagates 92 The next task is to know the location of proppant within the fracture and the distribution of fracture conductivity This can be monitored using multiple types of techniques to finally develop a reservoir model than accurately predicts well performance Horizontal completions Edit Since the early 2000s advances in drilling and completion technology have made horizontal wellbores much clarification needed more economical Horizontal wellbores allow far greater exposure to a formation than conventional vertical wellbores This is particularly useful in shale formations which do not have sufficient permeability to produce economically with a vertical well Such wells when drilled onshore are now usually hydraulically fractured in a number of stages especially in North America The type of wellbore completion is used to determine how many times a formation is fractured and at what locations along the horizontal section 93 In North America shale reservoirs such as the Bakken Barnett Montney Haynesville Marcellus and most recently the Eagle Ford Niobrara and Utica shales are drilled horizontally through the producing intervals completed and fractured citation needed The method by which the fractures are placed along the wellbore is most commonly achieved by one of two methods known as plug and perf and sliding sleeve 94 The wellbore for a plug and perf job is generally composed of standard steel casing cemented or uncemented set in the drilled hole Once the drilling rig has been removed a wireline truck is used to perforate near the bottom of the well and then fracturing fluid is pumped Then the wireline truck sets a plug in the well to temporarily seal off that section so the next section of the wellbore can be treated Another stage is pumped and the process is repeated along the horizontal length of the wellbore 95 The wellbore for the sliding sleeve clarification needed technique is different in that the sliding sleeves are included at set spacings in the steel casing at the time it is set in place The sliding sleeves are usually all closed at this time When the well is due to be fractured the bottom sliding sleeve is opened using one of several activation techniques citation needed and the first stage gets pumped Once finished the next sleeve is opened concurrently isolating the previous stage and the process repeats For the sliding sleeve method wireline is usually not required citation needed nbsp SleevesThese completion techniques may allow for more than 30 stages to be pumped into the horizontal section of a single well if required which is far more than would typically be pumped into a vertical well that had far fewer feet of producing zone exposed 96 Uses EditHydraulic fracturing is used to increase the rate at which substances such as petroleum or natural gas can be recovered from subterranean natural reservoirs Reservoirs are typically porous sandstones limestones or dolomite rocks but also include unconventional reservoirs such as shale rock or coal beds Hydraulic fracturing enables the extraction of natural gas and oil from rock formations deep below the earth s surface generally 2 000 6 000 m 5 000 20 000 ft which is greatly below typical groundwater reservoir levels At such depth there may be insufficient permeability or reservoir pressure to allow natural gas and oil to flow from the rock into the wellbore at high economic return Thus creating conductive fractures in the rock is instrumental in extraction from naturally impermeable shale reservoirs Permeability is measured in the microdarcy to nanodarcy range 97 Fractures are a conductive path connecting a larger volume of reservoir to the well So called super fracking creates cracks deeper in the rock formation to release more oil and gas and increases efficiency 98 The yield for typical shale bores generally falls off after the first year or two but the peak producing life of a well can be extended to several decades 99 Non oil gas uses Edit While the main industrial use of hydraulic fracturing is in stimulating production from oil and gas wells 100 101 102 hydraulic fracturing is also applied To stimulate groundwater wells 103 To precondition or induce rock cave ins mining 104 As a means of enhancing waste remediation usually hydrocarbon waste or spills 105 To dispose waste by injection deep into rock 106 To measure stress in the Earth 107 For electricity generation in enhanced geothermal systems 108 To increase injection rates for geologic sequestration of CO2 109 To store electrical energy pumped storage hydroelectricity 110 Since the late 1970s hydraulic fracturing has been used in some cases to increase the yield of drinking water from wells in a number of countries including the United States Australia and South Africa 111 112 113 Economic effects EditSee also Shale gas Tight oil Price of oil and Hydraulic fracturing in the United States nbsp Production costs for unconventional oil and gas continue to outweigh profitsHydraulic fracturing has been seen as one of the key methods of extracting unconventional oil and unconventional gas resources According to the International Energy Agency the remaining technically recoverable resources of shale gas are estimated to amount to 208 trillion cubic metres 7 300 trillion cubic feet tight gas to 76 trillion cubic metres 2 700 trillion cubic feet and coalbed methane to 47 trillion cubic metres 1 700 trillion cubic feet As a rule formations of these resources have lower permeability than conventional gas formations Therefore depending on the geological characteristics of the formation specific technologies such as hydraulic fracturing are required Although there are also other methods to extract these resources such as conventional drilling or horizontal drilling hydraulic fracturing is one of the key methods making their extraction economically viable The multi stage fracturing technique has facilitated the development of shale gas and light tight oil production in the United States and is believed to do so in the other countries with unconventional hydrocarbon resources 13 A large majority of studies indicate that hydraulic fracturing in the United States has had a strong positive economic benefit so far citation needed The Brookings Institution estimates that the benefits of Shale Gas alone has led to a net economic benefit of 48 billion per year Most of this benefit is within the consumer and industrial sectors due to the significantly reduced prices for natural gas 114 Other studies have suggested that the economic benefits are outweighed by the externalities and that the levelized cost of electricity LCOE from less carbon and water intensive sources is lower 115 The primary benefit of hydraulic fracturing is to offset imports of natural gas and oil where the cost paid to producers otherwise exits the domestic economy citation needed However shale oil and gas is highly subsidised in the US and has not yet covered production costs 116 meaning that the cost of hydraulic fracturing is paid for in income taxes and in many cases is up to double the cost paid at the pump 117 Research suggests that hydraulic fracturing wells have an adverse effect on agricultural productivity in the vicinity of the wells 118 One paper found that productivity of an irrigated crop decreases by 5 7 when a well is drilled during the agriculturally active months within 11 20 km radius of a producing township This effect becomes smaller and weaker as the distance between township and wells increases 118 The findings imply that the introduction of hydraulic fracturing wells to Alberta cost the province 14 8 million in 2014 due to the decline in the crop productivity 118 The Energy Information Administration of the US Department of Energy estimates that 45 of US gas supply will come from shale gas by 2035 with the vast majority of this replacing conventional gas which has a lower greenhouse gas footprint 119 Public debate Edit nbsp Poster against hydraulic fracturing in Vitoria Gasteiz Spain 2012 nbsp Placard against hydraulic fracturing at Extinction Rebellion 2018 Politics and public policy Edit Popular movement and civil society organizations Edit An anti fracking movement has emerged both internationally with involvement of international environmental organizations and nations such as France and locally in affected areas such as Balcombe in Sussex where the Balcombe drilling protest was in progress during mid 2013 120 The considerable opposition against hydraulic fracturing activities in local townships in the United States has led companies to adopt a variety of public relations measures to reassure the public including the employment of former military personnel with training in psychological warfare operations According to Matt Pitzarella the communications director at Range Resources employees trained in the Middle East have been valuable to Range Resources in Pennsylvania when dealing with emotionally charged township meetings and advising townships on zoning and local ordinances dealing with hydraulic fracturing 121 122 There have been many protests directed at hydraulic fracturing For example ten people were arrested in 2013 during an anti fracking protest near New Matamoras Ohio after they illegally entered a development zone and latched themselves to drilling equipment 123 In northwest Pennsylvania there was a drive by shooting at a well site in which someone shot two rounds of a small caliber rifle in the direction of a drilling rig 124 In Washington County Pennsylvania a contractor working on a gas pipeline found a pipe bomb that had been placed where a pipeline was to be constructed which local authorities said would have caused a catastrophe had they not discovered and detonated it 125 U S government and Corporate lobbying Edit The United States Department of State established the Global Shale Gas Initiative to persuade governments around the world to give concessions to the major oil and gas companies to set up fracking operations A document United States diplomatic cables leak published by WikiLeaks show that as part of this project U S officials convened conferences for foreign government officials that featured presentations by major oil and gas company representatives and by public relations professionals with expertise on how to assuage populations of target countries whose citizens were often quite hostile to fracking on their lands The US government project succeeded as many countries on several continents acceded to the idea of granting concessions for fracking Poland for example agreed to permit fracking by the major oil and gas corporations on nearly a third of its territory 126 The US Export Import Bank an agency of the US government provided 4 7 billion in financing for fracking operations set up since 2010 in Queensland Australia 127 Alleged Russian state advocacy Edit In 2014 a number of European officials suggested that several major European protests against hydraulic fracturing with mixed success in Lithuania and Ukraine may be partially sponsored by Gazprom Russia s state controlled gas company The New York Times suggested that Russia saw its natural gas exports to Europe as a key element of its geopolitical influence and that this market would diminish if hydraulic fracturing is adopted in Eastern Europe as it opens up significant shale gas reserves in the region Russian officials have on numerous occasions made public statements to the effect that hydraulic fracturing poses a huge environmental problem 128 Current fracking operations Edit Hydraulic fracturing is currently taking place in the United States in Arkansas California Colorado Louisiana North Dakota Oklahoma Pennsylvania Texas Virginia West Virginia 129 and Wyoming Other states such as Alabama Indiana Michigan Mississippi New Jersey New York and Ohio are either considering or preparing for drilling using this method Maryland 130 and Vermont have permanently banned hydraulic fracturing and New York and North Carolina have instituted temporary bans New Jersey currently has a bill before its legislature to extend a 2012 moratorium on hydraulic fracturing that recently expired Although a hydraulic fracturing moratorium was recently lifted in the United Kingdom the government is proceeding cautiously because of concerns about earthquakes and the environmental effect of drilling Hydraulic fracturing is currently banned in France and Bulgaria 51 Documentary films Edit Josh Fox s 2010 Academy Award nominated film Gasland 131 became a center of opposition to hydraulic fracturing of shale The movie presented problems with groundwater contamination near well sites in Pennsylvania Wyoming and Colorado 132 Energy in Depth an oil and gas industry lobbying group called the film s facts into question 133 In response a rebuttal of Energy in Depth s claims of inaccuracy was posted on Gasland s website 134 The Director of the Colorado Oil and Gas Conservation Commission COGCC offered to be interviewed as part of the film if he could review what was included from the interview in the final film but Fox declined the offer 135 Exxon Mobil Chevron Corporation and ConocoPhillips aired advertisements during 2011 and 2012 that claimed to describe the economic and environmental benefits of natural gas and argue that hydraulic fracturing was safe 136 The 2012 film Promised Land starring Matt Damon takes on hydraulic fracturing 137 The gas industry countered the film s criticisms of hydraulic fracturing with flyers and Twitter and Facebook posts 136 In January 2013 Northern Irish journalist and filmmaker Phelim McAleer released a crowdfunded 138 documentary called FrackNation as a response to the statements made by Fox in Gasland claiming it tells the truth about fracking for natural gas FrackNation premiered on Mark Cuban s AXS TV The premiere corresponded with the release of Promised Land 139 In April 2013 Josh Fox released Gasland 2 his international odyssey uncovering a trail of secrets lies and contamination related to hydraulic fracking It challenges the gas industry s portrayal of natural gas as a clean and safe alternative to oil as a myth and that hydraulically fractured wells inevitably leak over time contaminating water and air hurting families and endangering the earth s climate with the potent greenhouse gas methane In 2014 Scott Cannon of Video Innovations released the documentary The Ethics of Fracking The film covers the politics spiritual scientific medical and professional points of view on hydraulic fracturing It also digs into the way the gas industry portrays hydraulic fracturing in their advertising 140 In 2015 the Canadian documentary film Fractured Land had its world premiere at the Hot Docs Canadian International Documentary Festival 141 Research issues Edit Typically the funding source of the research studies is a focal point of controversy Concerns have been raised about research funded by foundations and corporations or by environmental groups which can at times lead to at least the appearance of unreliable studies 142 143 Several organizations researchers and media outlets have reported difficulty in conducting and reporting the results of studies on hydraulic fracturing due to industry 144 and governmental pressure 27 and expressed concern over possible censoring of environmental reports 144 145 146 Some have argued there is a need for more research into the environmental and health effects of the technique 147 148 149 150 Health risks Edit nbsp Anti fracking banner at the Clean Energy March Philadelphia 2016 There is concern over the possible adverse public health implications of hydraulic fracturing activity 147 A 2013 review on shale gas production in the United States stated with increasing numbers of drilling sites more people are at risk from accidents and exposure to harmful substances used at fractured wells 151 A 2011 hazard assessment recommended full disclosure of chemicals used for hydraulic fracturing and drilling as many have immediate health effects and many may have long term health effects 152 In June 2014 Public Health England published a review of the potential public health impacts of exposures to chemical and radioactive pollutants as a result of shale gas extraction in the UK based on the examination of literature and data from countries where hydraulic fracturing already occurs 148 The executive summary of the report stated An assessment of the currently available evidence indicates that the potential risks to public health from exposure to the emissions associated with shale gas extraction will be low if the operations are properly run and regulated Most evidence suggests that contamination of groundwater if it occurs is most likely to be caused by leakage through the vertical borehole Contamination of groundwater from the underground hydraulic fracturing process itself i e the fracturing of the shale is unlikely However surface spills of hydraulic fracturing fluids or wastewater may affect groundwater and emissions to air also have the potential to impact on health Where potential risks have been identified in the literature the reported problems are typically a result of operational failure and a poor regulatory environment 148 iii A 2012 report prepared for the European Union Directorate General for the Environment identified potential risks to humans from air pollution and ground water contamination posed by hydraulic fracturing 153 This led to a series of recommendations in 2014 to mitigate these concerns 154 155 A 2012 guidance for pediatric nurses in the US said that hydraulic fracturing had a potential negative impact on public health and that pediatric nurses should be prepared to gather information on such topics so as to advocate for improved community health 156 A 2017 study in The American Economic Review found that additional well pads drilled within 1 kilometer of a community water system intake increases shale gas related contaminants in drinking water 157 A 2022 study conduced by Harvard T H Chan School of Public Health and published in Nature Energy found that elderly people living near or downwind of unconventional oil and gas development UOGD which involves extraction methods including fracking are at greater risk of experiencing early death compared with elderly persons who don t live near such operations 158 Statistics collected by the U S Department of Labor and analyzed by the U S Centers for Disease Control and Prevention show a correlation between drilling activity and the number of occupational injuries related to drilling and motor vehicle accidents explosions falls and fires 159 Extraction workers are also at risk for developing pulmonary diseases including lung cancer and silicosis the latter because of exposure to silica dust generated from rock drilling and the handling of sand 160 The U S National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health NIOSH identified exposure to airborne silica as a health hazard to workers conducting some hydraulic fracturing operations 161 NIOSH and OSHA issued a joint hazard alert on this topic in June 2012 161 Additionally the extraction workforce is at increased risk for radiation exposure Fracking activities often require drilling into rock that contains naturally occurring radioactive material NORM such as radon thorium and uranium 162 Another report done by the Canadian Medical Journal reported that after researching they identified 55 factors that may cause cancer including 20 that have been shown to increase the risk of leukemia and lymphoma The Yale Public Health analysis warns that millions of people living within a mile of fracking wells may have been exposed to these chemicals 163 Environmental effects EditMain article Environmental impact of fracking See also Environmental impact of hydraulic fracturing in the United States and Exemptions for hydraulic fracturing under United States federal law Environmental Effects of Hydraulic Fracturing nbsp Schematic depiction of hydraulic fracturing for shale gasProcess typeMechanicalIndustrial sector s MiningMain technologies or sub processesFluid pressureProduct s Natural gas petroleumInventorFloyd Farris Joseph B Clark Stanolind Oil and Gas Corporation Year of invention1947 nbsp Clean Energy March in Philadelphia nbsp September 2019 climate strike in Alice Springs AustraliaThe potential environmental effects of hydraulic fracturing include air emissions and climate change high water consumption groundwater contamination land use 164 risk of earthquakes noise pollution and various health effects on humans 165 Air emissions are primarily methane that escapes from wells along with industrial emissions from equipment used in the extraction process 153 Modern UK and EU regulation requires zero emissions of methane a potent greenhouse gas citation needed Escape of methane is a bigger problem in older wells than in ones built under more recent EU legislation 153 In December 2016 the United States Environmental Protection Agency EPA issued the Hydraulic Fracturing for Oil and Gas Impacts from the Hydraulic Fracturing Water Cycle on Drinking Water Resources in the United States Final Report The EPA found scientific evidence that hydraulic fracturing activities can impact drinking water resources 166 A few of the main reasons why drinking water can be contaminated according to the EPA are Water removal to be used for fracking in times or areas of low water availability 166 Spills while handling fracking fluids and chemicals that result in large volumes or high concentrations of chemicals reaching groundwater resources 166 Injection of fracking fluids into wells when mishandling machinery allowing gases or liquids to move to groundwater resources 166 Injection of fracking fluids directly into groundwater resources 166 Leak of defective hydraulic fracturing wastewater to surface water 166 Disposal or storage of fracking wastewater in unlined pits resulting in contamination of groundwater resources 166 Hydraulic fracturing uses between 1 2 and 3 5 million US gallons 4 500 and 13 200 m3 of water per well with large projects using up to 5 million US gallons 19 000 m3 167 Additional water is used when wells are refractured 73 168 An average well requires 3 to 8 million US gallons 11 000 to 30 000 m3 of water over its lifetime 65 According to the Oxford Institute for Energy Studies greater volumes of fracturing fluids are required in Europe where the shale depths average 1 5 times greater than in the U S 169 Surface water may be contaminated through spillage and improperly built and maintained waste pits 170 and ground water can be contaminated if the fluid is able to escape the formation being fractured through for example abandoned wells fractures and faults 171 or by produced water the returning fluids which also contain dissolved constituents such as minerals and brine waters The possibility of groundwater contamination from brine and fracturing fluid leakage through old abandoned wells is low 172 148 Produced water is managed by underground injection municipal and commercial wastewater treatment and discharge self contained systems at well sites or fields and recycling to fracture future wells 173 Typically less than half of the produced water used to fracture the formation is recovered 174 In the United States there is over 12 million acres that are being used for fossil fuels About 3 6 hectares 8 9 acres of land is needed per each drill pad for surface installations This is equivalent of six Yellowstone National Parks 175 Well pad and supporting structure construction significantly fragments landscapes which likely has negative effects on wildlife 176 These sites need to be remediated after wells are exhausted 153 Research indicates that effects on ecosystem services costs i e those processes that the natural world provides to humanity has reached over 250 million per year in the U S 177 Each well pad in average 10 wells per pad needs during preparatory and hydraulic fracturing process about 800 to 2 500 days of noisy activity which affect both residents and local wildlife In addition noise is created by continuous truck traffic sand etc needed in hydraulic fracturing 153 Research is underway to determine if human health has been affected by air and water pollution and rigorous following of safety procedures and regulation is required to avoid harm and to manage the risk of accidents that could cause harm 148 In July 2013 the US Federal Railroad Administration listed oil contamination by hydraulic fracturing chemicals as a possible cause of corrosion in oil tank cars 178 Hydraulic fracturing has been sometimes linked to induced seismicity or earthquakes 179 The magnitude of these events is usually too small to be detected at the surface although tremors attributed to fluid injection into disposal wells have been large enough to have often been felt by people and to have caused property damage and possibly injuries 25 180 181 182 183 184 A U S Geological Survey reported that up to 7 9 million people in several states have a similar earthquake risk to that of California with hydraulic fracturing and similar practices being a prime contributing factor 185 Microseismic events are often used to map the horizontal and vertical extent of the fracturing 89 A better understanding of the geology of the area being fracked and used for injection wells can be helpful in mitigating the potential for significant seismic events 186 People obtain drinking water from either surface water which includes rivers and reservoirs or groundwater aquifers accessed by public or private wells There are already a host of documented instances in which nearby groundwater has been contaminated by fracking activities requiring residents with private wells to obtain outside sources of water for drinking and everyday use 187 188 Per and polyfluoroalkyl substances also known as PFAS or forever chemicals have been linked to cancer and birth defects The chemicals used in fracking stay in the environment Once there those chemicals will eventually break down into PFAS These chemicals can escape from drilling sites and into the groundwater PFAS are able to leak into underground wells that store million gallons of wastewater 189 Despite these health concerns and efforts to institute a moratorium on fracking until its environmental and health effects are better understood the United States continues to rely heavily on fossil fuel energy In 2017 37 of annual U S energy consumption is derived from petroleum 29 from natural gas 14 from coal and 9 from nuclear sources with only 11 supplied by renewable energy such as wind and solar power 190 Regulations EditSee also Hydraulic fracturing by country and Regulation of hydraulic fracturing Countries using or considering use of hydraulic fracturing have implemented different regulations including developing federal and regional legislation and local zoning limitations 191 192 In 2011 after public pressure France became the first nation to ban hydraulic fracturing based on the precautionary principle as well as the principle of preventive and corrective action of environmental hazards 28 29 193 194 The ban was upheld by an October 2013 ruling of the Constitutional Council 195 Some other countries such as Scotland have placed a temporary moratorium on the practice due to public health concerns and strong public opposition 196 Countries like England and South Africa have lifted their bans choosing to focus on regulation instead of outright prohibition 197 198 Germany has announced draft regulations that would allow using hydraulic fracturing for the exploitation of shale gas deposits with the exception of wetland areas 199 In China regulation on shale gas still faces hurdles as it has complex interrelations with other regulatory regimes especially trade 200 Many states in Australia have either permanently or temporarily banned fracturing for hydrocarbons citation needed In 2019 hydraulic fracturing was banned in UK 201 The European Union has adopted a recommendation for minimum principles for using high volume hydraulic fracturing 30 Its regulatory regime requires full disclosure of all additives 202 In the United States the Ground Water Protection Council launched FracFocus org an online voluntary disclosure database for hydraulic fracturing fluids funded by oil and gas trade groups and the U S Department of Energy 203 204 Hydraulic fracturing is excluded from the Safe Drinking Water Act s underground injection control s regulation except when diesel fuel is used The EPA assures surveillance of the issuance of drilling permits when diesel fuel is employed 205 In 2012 Vermont became the first state in the United States to ban hydraulic fracturing On 17 December 2014 New York became the second state to issue a complete ban on any hydraulic fracturing due to potential risks to human health and the environment 206 207 208 See also EditDirectional drilling Environmental impact of electricity generation Environmental effects of petroleum Fracking by country Fracking in the United States Fracking in the United Kingdom In situ leach Nuclear power Peak oil Stranded asset Shale oil extractionReferences Edit nbsp This article incorporates public domain material from Hydraulic Fracturing for Oil and Gas Impacts from the Hydraulic Fracturing Water Cycle on Drinking Water Resources in the United States Final Report 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Retrieved 30 May 2023 With governor s signature Maryland becomes third state to ban fracking 5 April 2017 Documentary Gasland 2010 104 minutes Gasland PBS 2010 Retrieved 14 May 2012 Gasland Debunked PDF Energy in Depth Retrieved 14 May 2012 Affirming Gasland PDF July 2010 Retrieved 21 December 2010 COGCC Gasland Correction Document Archived 5 September 2013 at the Wayback Machine Colorado Department of Natural Resources 29 October 2010 a b Gilbert Daniel 7 October 2012 Matt Damon Fracking Film Lights Up Petroleum Lobby The Wall Street Journal subscription required Retrieved 26 December 2012 Gerhardt Tina 31 December 2012 Matt Damon Exposes Fracking in Promised Land The Progressive Retrieved 4 January 2013 Kickstarter FrackNation by Ann and Phelim Media LLC 6 April 2012 The Hollywood Reporter Mark Cuban s AXS TV Picks Up Pro Fracking Documentary FrackNation 17 December 2012 The Ethics of Fracking Green Planet Films Archived from the original on 1 October 2020 Retrieved 27 April 2015 Fractured Land Doc Coming to VIFF The Tyee 9 September 2015 Retrieved 20 October 2015 Deller Steven Schreiber Andrew 2012 Mining and Community Economic Growth The Review of Regional Studies 42 2 121 141 doi 10 52324 001c 8126 Archived from the original PDF on 2 May 2014 Retrieved 3 March 2013 Soraghan Mike 12 March 2012 Quiet foundation funds the anti fracking fight E amp E News Retrieved 27 March 2013 In our work to oppose fracking the Park Foundation has simply helped to fuel an army of courageous individuals and NGOs or non governmental organizations said Adelaide Park Gomer foundation president and Park heir in a speech late last year a b Urbina Ian 3 March 2011 Pressure Limits Efforts to Police Drilling for Gas The New York Times Retrieved 23 February 2012 More than a quarter century of efforts by some lawmakers and regulators to force the federal government to police the industry better have been thwarted as E P A studies have been repeatedly narrowed in scope and important findings have been removed The Debate Over the Hydrofracking Study s Scope The New York Times 3 March 2011 Retrieved 1 May 2012 While environmentalists have aggressively lobbied the agency to broaden the scope of the study industry has lobbied the agency to narrow this focus Natural Gas Documents The New York Times 27 February 2011 Retrieved 5 May 2012 The Times reviewed more than 30 000 pages of documents obtained through open records requests of state and federal agencies and by visiting various regional offices that oversee drilling in Pennsylvania Some of the documents were leaked by state or federal officials a b Finkel M L Hays J October 2013 The implications of unconventional drilling for natural gas a global public health concern Public Health Review 127 10 889 893 doi 10 1016 j puhe 2013 07 005 PMID 24119661 a b c d e Kibble A Cabianca T Daraktchieva Z Gooding T Smithard J Kowalczyk G McColl N P Singh M Mitchem L Lamb P Vardoulakis S Kamanyire R June 2014 Review of the Potential Public Health Impacts of Exposures to Chemical and Radioactive Pollutants as a Result of the Shale Gas Extraction Process PDF Report Public Health England ISBN 978 0 85951 752 2 PHE CRCE 009 Drajem Mark 11 January 2012 Fracking Political Support Unshaken by Doctors Call for Ban Bloomberg Retrieved 19 January 2012 Alex Wayne 4 January 2012 Health Effects of Fracking Need Study Says CDC Scientist Bloomberg Businessweek Archived from the original on 13 March 2012 Retrieved 29 February 2012 Centner Terence J September 2013 Oversight of shale gas production in the United States and the disclosure of toxic substances Resources Policy 38 3 233 240 doi 10 1016 j resourpol 2013 03 001 Colborn Theo et al 20 September 2011 Natural Gas Operations from a Public Health Perspective PDF Human and Ecological Risk Assessment 17 5 1039 1056 doi 10 1080 10807039 2011 605662 S2CID 53996198 a b c d e Broomfield Mark 10 August 2012 Support to the identification of potential risks for the environment and human health arising from hydrocarbons operations involving hydraulic fracturing in Europe PDF Report European Commission pp vi xvi ED57281 Retrieved 29 September 2014 EU Commission minimum principles for the exploration and production of hydrocarbons such as shale gas using high volume hydraulic fracturing European Union 8 February 2014 Energy and environment European Union Lauver LS August 2012 Environmental health advocacy an overview of natural gas drilling in northeast Pennsylvania and implications for pediatric nursing J Pediatr Nurs 27 4 383 9 doi 10 1016 j pedn 2011 07 012 PMID 22703686 Elaine Hill Lala Ma 1 May 2017 Shale Gas Development and Drinking Water Quality American Economic Review 107 5 522 525 doi 10 1257 aer p20171133 ISSN 0002 8282 PMC 5804812 PMID 29430021 Li Longxiang Dominici Francesca Blomberg Annelise J Bargagli Stoffi Falco J Schwartz Joel D Coull Brent A Spengler John D Wei Yaguang Lawrence Joy Koutrakis Petros 27 January 2022 Exposure to unconventional oil and gas development and all cause mortality in Medicare beneficiaries Nature Energy 7 2 177 185 Bibcode 2022NatEn 7 177L doi 10 1038 s41560 021 00970 y ISSN 2058 7546 PMC 9004666 PMID 35425643 S2CID 246373641 Fatalities among oil and gas extraction workers United States 2003 2006 American Psychological Association 2008 doi 10 1037 e458082008 002 McDonald J C McDonald A D Hughes J M Rando R J Weill H 22 February 2005 Mortality from Lung and Kidney Disease in a Cohort of North American Industrial Sand Workers An Update The Annals of Occupational Hygiene 49 5 367 73 doi 10 1093 annhyg mei001 ISSN 1475 3162 PMID 15728107 a b OSHA NIOSH Hazard Alert Worker Exposure to Silica During Hydraulic Fracturing June 2012 Office of radiation and indoor air Program description University of North Texas 1 June 1993 doi 10 2172 10115876 Vogel L 2017 Fracking tied to cancer causing chemicals CMAJ 189 2 E94 E95 doi 10 1503 cmaj 109 5358 PMC 5235941 PMID 27956395 Hu Tongxi Toman Elizabeth Chen Gang Shao Gang Zhou Yuyu 2021 Mapping fine scale human disturbances in a working landscape with Landsat time series on Google Earth Engine PDF ISPRS Journal of Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing 176 250 261 doi 10 1016 j isprsjprs 2021 04 008 S2CID 236339268 Tatomir A McDermott C Bensabat J Class H Edlmann K Taherdangkoo R amp Sauter M 2018 https www adv geosci net 45 185 2018 Conceptual model development using a generic Features Events and Processes FEP database for assessing the potential impact of hydraulic fracturing on groundwater aquifers Advances in Geosciences v 45 p185 192 a b c d e f g Hydraulic Fracturing for Oil and Gas Impacts from the Hydraulic Fracturing Water Cycle on Drinking Water Resources in the United States Final Report United States Environmental Protection Agency Environmental Protection Agency Retrieved 17 December 2016 nbsp This article incorporates text from this source which is in the public domain Buono Regina Lopez Gunn Elena McKay Jennifer Staddon Chad 2020 Regulating Water Security in Unconventional Oil and Gas 1st 2020 ed Cham ISBN 978 3 030 18342 4 a href Template Cite book html title Template Cite book cite book a CS1 maint location missing publisher link Abdalla Charles W Drohan Joy R 2010 Water Withdrawals for Development of Marcellus Shale Gas in Pennsylvania Introduction to Pennsylvania s Water Resources PDF Report The Pennsylvania State University Retrieved 16 September 2012 Hydrofracturing a horizontal Marcellus well may use 4 to 8 million gallons of water typically within about 1 week However based on experiences in other major U S shale gas fields some Marcellus wells may need to be hydrofractured several times over their productive life typically five to twenty years or more Faucon Benoit 17 September 2012 Shale Gas Boom Hits Eastern Europe WSJ com Retrieved 17 September 2012 New Research of Surface Spills in Fracking Industry Professional Safety 58 9 18 2013 Taherdangkoo Reza Tatomir Alexandru Taylor Robert Sauter Martin September 2017 Numerical investigations of upward migration of fracking fluid along a fault zone during and after stimulation Energy Procedia 125 126 135 doi 10 1016 j egypro 2017 08 093 Taherdangkoo Reza Tatomir Alexandru Anighoro Tega Sauter Martin February 2019 Modeling fate and transport of hydraulic fracturing fluid in the presence of abandoned wells Journal of Contaminant Hydrology 221 58 68 Bibcode 2019JCHyd 221 58T doi 10 1016 j jconhyd 2018 12 003 PMID 30679092 S2CID 59249479 Logan Jeffrey 2012 Natural Gas and the Transformation of the U S Energy Sector Electricity PDF Report Joint Institute for Strategic Energy Analysis Retrieved 27 March 2013 Koster Vera 5 February 2013 What is Shale Gas How Does Fracking Work www chemistryviews org Retrieved 4 December 2014 7 ways oil and gas drilling is bad for the environment The Wilderness Society www wilderness org Retrieved 1 December 2021 Moran Matthew D 8 January 2015 Habitat Loss and Modification Due to Gas Development in the Fayetteville Shale Environmental Management 55 6 1276 1284 Bibcode 2015EnMan 55 1276M doi 10 1007 s00267 014 0440 6 PMID 25566834 S2CID 36628835 Moran Matthew D 2017 Land use and ecosystem services costs of unconventional US oil and gas development Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment 15 5 237 242 doi 10 1002 fee 1492 Frederick J Herrmann Federal Railroad Administration letter to American Petroleum Institute 17 July 2013 p 4 Fitzpatrick Jessica amp Petersen Mark Induced Earthquakes Raise Chances of Damaging Shaking in 2016 USGS Retrieved 1 April 2019 a href Template Cite web html title Template Cite web cite web a CS1 maint multiple names authors list link Zoback Mark Kitasei Saya Copithorne Brad July 2010 Addressing the Environmental Risks from Shale Gas Development PDF Report Worldwatch Institute p 9 Archived from the original PDF on 21 May 2018 Retrieved 24 May 2012 Begley Sharon McAllister Edward 12 July 2013 News in Science Earthquakes may trigger fracking tremors ABC Science Reuters Retrieved 17 December 2013 Fracking tests near Blackpool likely cause of tremors BBC News 2 November 2011 Retrieved 22 February 2012 Ellsworth W L 2013 Injection Induced Earthquakes Science 341 6142 1225942 CiteSeerX 10 1 1 460 5560 doi 10 1126 science 1225942 PMID 23846903 S2CID 206543048 Conca James Thanks To Fracking Earthquake Hazards In Parts Of Oklahoma Now Comparable To California Forbes Egan Matt amp Wattles Jackie 3 September 2016 Oklahoma orders shutdown of 37 wells after earthquake CNN CNN Money Retrieved 17 December 2016 a href Template Cite news html title Template Cite news cite news a CS1 maint multiple names authors list link Managing the seismic risk posed by wastewater disposal Earth Magazine 57 38 43 2012 M D Zoback Retrieved 31 December 2014 Osborn S G Vengosh A Warner N R Jackson R B 9 May 2011 Methane contamination of drinking water accompanying gas well drilling and hydraulic fracturing Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 108 20 8172 8176 Bibcode 2011PNAS 108 8172O doi 10 1073 pnas 1100682108 ISSN 0027 8424 PMC 3100993 PMID 21555547 Roberts JS Testimony of J Scott Roberts Deputy Secretary for Mineral Resources Management Department of Environmental Protection Pennsylvania 20 May 2010 Tabuchi Hiroko 13 July 2021 E P A Allowed Fracking Chemicals Despite Worries The New York Times p B1 Gale A668271858 Retrieved 20 October 2021 U S Energy Information Administration 16 May 2018 U S Energy Facts Explained Nolon John R Polidoro Victoria 2012 Hydrofracking Disturbances Both Geological and Political Who Decides PDF The Urban Lawyer 44 3 1 14 Retrieved 21 December 2012 Negro Sorrell E February 2012 Fracking Wars Federal State and Local Conflicts over the Regulation of Natural Gas Activities PDF Zoning and Planning Law Report 35 2 1 14 Retrieved 1 May 2014 LOI n 2011 835 du 13 juillet 2011 visant a interdire l exploration et l exploitation des mines d hydrocarbures liquides ou gazeux par fracturation hydraulique et a abroger les permis exclusifs de recherches comportant des projets ayant recours a cette technique 1 Legifrance www legifrance gouv fr Article L110 1 Code de l environnement Legifrance www legifrance gouv fr Fracking ban upheld by French court BBC 11 October 2013 Retrieved 16 October 2013 Moore Robbie Fracking PR and the Greening of Gas The International Archived from the original on 21 March 2013 Retrieved 16 March 2013 Bakewell Sally 13 December 2012 U K Government Lifts Ban on Shale Gas Fracking Bloomberg Retrieved 26 March 2013 Hweshe Francis 17 September 2012 South Africa International Groups Rally Against Fracking TKAG Claims West Cape News Retrieved 11 February 2014 Nicola Stefan Andersen Tino 26 February 2013 Germany agrees on regulations to allow fracking for shale gas Bloomberg Retrieved 1 May 2014 Farah Paolo Davide Tremolada Riccardo 2015 Regulation and Prospects of the Shale Gas Market in China in Light of International Trade Energy Law Production Sharing Agreements Environmental Protection and Sustainable Development A Comparison with the US Experience SSRN 2666216 Ambrose Jillian 2 November 2019 Fracking banned in UK as government makes major U turn The Guardian ISSN 0261 3077 Healy Dave July 2012 Hydraulic Fracturing or Fracking A Short Summary of Current Knowledge and Potential Environmental Impacts PDF Report Environmental Protection Agency Retrieved 28 July 2013 Hass Benjamin 14 August 2012 Fracking Hazards Obscured in Failure to Disclose Wells Bloomberg Retrieved 27 March 2013 Soraghan Mike 13 December 2013 White House official backs FracFocus as preferred disclosure method E amp E News Retrieved 27 March 2013 1 Environmental Protection Agency Gov Cuomo Makes Sense on Fracking The New York Times 17 December 2014 Retrieved 18 December 2014 Nearing Brian 18 December 2014 Citing perils state bans fracking Times Union Retrieved 25 January 2015 Brady Jeff 18 December 2014 Citing Health Environment Concerns New York Moves To Ban Fracking NPR Retrieved 25 January 2015 Further reading EditGamper Rabindran Shanti ed The Shale Dilemma A Global Perspective on Fracking and Shale Development U of Pittsburgh Press 2018 online review Kiparsky Michael Hein Jayni Foley April 2013 Regulation of Hydraulic Fracturing in California A Wastewater and Water Quality Perspective PDF University of California Center for Law Energy and the Environment Retrieved 1 May 2014 Ridlington Elizabeth John Rumpler 3 October 2013 Fracking by the numbers Environment America DISH Texas Exposure Investigation PDF Texas DSHS Retrieved 27 March 2013 de Pater C J Baisch S 2 November 2011 Geomechanical Study of Bowland Shale Seismicity PDF Report Cuadrilla Resources Archived from the original PDF on 15 February 2014 Retrieved 22 February 2012 McKenzie Lisa Witter Roxana Newman Lee Adgate John 2012 Human health risk assessment of air emissions from development of unconventional natural gas resources Science of the Total Environment 424 79 87 Bibcode 2012ScTEn 424 79M CiteSeerX 10 1 1 368 4553 doi 10 1016 j scitotenv 2012 02 018 PMID 22444058 S2CID 19248364 The Hydraulic Fracturing Water Cycle EPA 16 March 2014 Retrieved 10 October 2014 Fernandez John Michael Gunter Matthew Hydraulic Fracturing Environmentally Friendly Practices PDF Environmentally Friendly Drilling Systems Archived from the original PDF on 27 May 2013 Retrieved 29 December 2012 Colborn Theo Kwiatkowski Carol Schultz Kim Bachran Mary 2011 Natural gas operations from public health perspective Human and Ecological Risk Assessment 17 5 1039 56 doi 10 1080 10807039 2011 605662 S2CID 53996198 Abdalla Charles W Drohan Joy R Blunk Kristen Saacke Edson Jessie 2014 Marcellus Shale Wastewater Issues in Pennsylvania Current and Emerging Treatment and Disposal Technologies Report Penn State Extension Retrieved 11 October 2014 Arthur J Daniel Langhus Bruce Alleman David 2008 An overview of modern shale gas development in the United States PDF Report ALL Consulting p 21 Retrieved 7 May 2012 Howe J Cullen Del Percio Stephen The Legal and Regulatory Landscape of Hydraulic Fracturing Report LexisNexis Retrieved 7 May 2014 Molofsky L J Connor J A Shahla K F Wylie A S Wagner T 5 December 2011 Methane in Pennsylvania Water Wells Unrelated to Marcellus Shale Fracturing Oil and Gas Journal 109 49 54 67 IEA 2011 World Energy Outlook 2011 OECD pp 91 164 ISBN 978 92 64 12413 4 How is hydraulic fracturing related to earthquakes and tremors USGS Archived from the original on 19 October 2014 Retrieved 4 November 2012 Moniz Ernest J et al June 2011 The Future of Natural Gas An Interdisciplinary MIT Study PDF Report Massachusetts Institute of Technology Archived from the original PDF on 12 March 2013 Retrieved 1 June 2012 Biello David 30 March 2010 Natural gas cracked out of shale deposits may mean the U S has a stable supply for a century but at what cost to the environment and human health Scientific American Retrieved 23 March 2012 Schmidt Charles 1 August 2011 Blind Rush Shale Gas Boom Proceeds Amid Human Health Questions Environmental Health Perspectives 119 8 a348 53 doi 10 1289 ehp 119 a348 PMC 3237379 PMID 21807583 Allen David T Torres Vincent N Thomas James Sullivan David W Harrison Matthew Hendler Al Herndon Scott C Kolb Charles E Fraser Matthew P Hill A Daniel Lamb Brian K Miskimins Jennifer Sawyer Robert F Seinfeld John H 16 September 2013 Measurements of methane emissions at natural gas production sites in the United States Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 110 44 17768 73 Bibcode 2013PNAS 11017768A doi 10 1073 pnas 1304880110 PMC 3816463 PMID 24043804 Kassotis Christopher D Tillitt Donald E Davis J Wade Hormann Annette M Nagel Susan C March 2014 Estrogen and Androgen Receptor Activities of Hydraulic Fracturing Chemicals and Surface and Ground Water in a Drilling Dense Region Endocrinology 155 3 897 907 doi 10 1210 en 2013 1697 PMID 24424034 Chalupka S October 2012 Occupational Silica Exposure in Hydraulic Fracturing Workplace Health amp Safety 60 10 460 doi 10 3928 21650799 20120926 70 PMID 23054167 ProQuest 1095508837 Smith S 1 August 2014 Respirators Are Not Enough New Study Examines Worker Exposure to Silica in Hydraulic Fracturing Operations EHS Today ProQuest 1095508837 Waste water flowback from hydraulic fracturing PDF Ohio Department of Natural Resources Archived from the original PDF on 8 May 2012 Retrieved 29 June 2013 Spath David P November 1997 Policy Memo 97 005 Policy Guidance for Direct Domestic Use of Extremely Impaired Sources PDF State of California Department of Public Health Archived from the original PDF on 23 September 2015 Retrieved 7 October 2014 Weinhold Bob 19 September 2012 Unknown Quantity Regulating Radionuclides in Tap Water Environmental Health Perspectives 120 9 A350 56 doi 10 1289 ehp 120 a350 PMC 3440123 PMID 23487846 Examples of human activities that may lead to radionuclide exposure include mining milling and processing of radioactive substances wastewater releases from the hydraulic fracturing of oil and natural gas wells Mining and hydraulic fracturing or fracking can concentrate levels of uranium as well as radium radon and thorium in wastewater Rachel Maddow Terrence Henry 7 August 2012 Rachel Maddow Show Fracking waste messes with Texas video MSNBC Event occurs at 9 24 10 35 Cothren Jackson Modeling the Effects of Non Riparian Surface Water Diversions on Flow Conditions in the Little Red Watershed PDF Report U S Geological Survey Arkansas Water Science Center Arkansas Water Resources Center American Water Resources Association Arkansas State Section Fayetteville Shale Symposium 2012 p 12 Retrieved 16 September 2012 each well requires between 3 and 7 million gallons of water for hydraulic fracturing and the number of wells is expected to grow in the future Janco David F 1 February 2007 PADEP Determination Letter No 970 Diminution of Snow Shoe Borough Authority Water Well No 2 primary water source for about 1 000 homes and businesses in and around the borough contested by Range Resources Determination Letter acquired by the Scranton Times Tribune via Right To Know Law request PDF Report Scranton Times Tribune Archived from the original PDF on 27 December 2013 Retrieved 27 December 2013 Janco David F 3 January 2008 PADEP Determination Letter No 352 Determination Letter acquired by the Scranton Times Tribune via Right To Know Law request Order Atlas Miller 42 and 43 gas wells Aug 2007 investigation supplied temporary buffalo for two springs ordered to permanently replace supplies PDF Report Scranton Times Tribune Archived from the original PDF on 27 December 2013 Retrieved 27 December 2013 Lustgarten Abrahm 21 June 2012 Are Fracking Wastewater Wells Poisoning the Ground beneath Our Feet Leaking injection wells may pose a risk and the science has not kept pace with the growing glut of wastewater Scientific American Retrieved 11 October 2014 Rabinowitz Peter M Rabinowitz Ilya B Slizovskiy Vanessa Lamers Sally J Trufan Theodore R Holford James D Dziura Peter N Peduzzi Michael J Kane John S Reif John Weiss Theresa R Stowe1 Meredith H 2014 Proximity to Natural Gas Wells and Reported Health Status Results of a Household Survey in Washington County Pennsylvania Environmental Health Perspectives 123 1 21 26 doi 10 1289 ehp 1307732 PMC 4286272 PMID 25204871 Arthur J Daniel Uretsky Mike Wilson Preston 5 6 May 2010 Water Resources and Use for Hydraulic Fracturing in the Marcellus Shale Region PDF Meeting of the American Institute of Professional Geologists Pittsburgh ALL Consulting p 3 Archived from the original PDF on 20 January 2019 Retrieved 9 May 2012 Colborn Theo Kwiatkowski Carol Schultz Kim Bachran Mary 2011 Natural Gas Operations from a Public Health Perspective PDF Human and Ecological Risk Assessment 17 5 1039 56 doi 10 1080 10807039 2011 605662 S2CID 53996198 Archived from the original PDF on 26 April 2012 Osborn Stephen G Vengosh Avner Warner Nathaniel R Jackson Robert B 17 May 2011 Methane contamination of drinking water accompanying gas well drilling and hydraulic fracturing Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 108 20 8172 76 Bibcode 2011PNAS 108 8172O doi 10 1073 pnas 1100682108 PMC 3100993 PMID 21555547 Nicholas St Fleur 19 December 2014 The Alarming Research Behind New York s Fracking Ban an analysis of the findings in Governor Andrew Cuomo s 184 page review of hydraulic fracturing The Atlantic Retrieved 21 December 2014 Gallegos T J and B A Varela 2015 Hydraulic Fracturing Distributions and Treatment Fluids Additives Proppants and Water Volumes Applied to Wells Drilled in the United States from 1947 through 2010 U S Geological Survey External links EditHydraulic Fracturing Litigation Summary 22 April 2021 nbsp Wikimedia Commons has media related to Hydraulic fracturing nbsp Wikinews has related news Disposal of fracking wastewater poses potential environmental problems nbsp Look up fracking in Wiktionary the free dictionary Portals nbsp Earth sciences nbsp Energy nbsp Environment Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Fracking amp oldid 1173638053, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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