fbpx
Wikipedia

Renewable energy debate

January 01, 1970

Policy makers often debate the constraints and opportunities of renewable energy.

Global public support for energy sources, based on a survey by Ipsos (2011).[1]
The 5 GW Rampart Dam was terminated as a result of concerns about indigenous people and ecological conservation issues.

Renewable electricity production, from sources such as wind power and solar power, is sometimes criticized for being variable or intermittent. The International Energy Agency has stated that its significance depends on a range of factors, such as the penetration of the renewables concerned.[2]

There have been concerns relating to the visual and other impacts of some wind farms, with local residents sometimes fighting or blocking construction.[3] In the US, the Massachusetts Cape Wind project was delayed for years partly because of such concerns. Residents in other areas have been more positive, and there are community wind farm developments. According to a town councillor, the overwhelming majority of locals believe the Ardrossan Wind Farm in Scotland has enhanced the area.[4]

The market for renewable energy technologies has continued to grow. Climate change concerns, coupled with high oil prices, peak oil, and increasing government support, are driving increasing renewable energy legislation, incentives and commercialization.[5] New government spending, regulation and policies helped the industry weather the 2009 economic crisis better than many other sectors.[6]

The concerns about environmental impacts of renewable energy are presented by the proponents of theories like degrowth and steady-state economy as one of the proofs that for achieving sustainability technological methods are not enough and there is a need to limit consumption.[7]

Definition of renewable energy edit

The International Energy Agency defines renewable energy saying

Renewable energy is derived from natural processes that are replenished constantly. In its various forms, it derives directly from the sun, or from heat generated deep within the earth. Included in the definition is electricity and heat generated from solar, wind, ocean, hydropower, biomass, geothermal resources, and biofuels and hydrogen derived from renewable resources.[8]

Renewable energy resources exist over wide geographical areas, in contrast to other energy sources, which are concentrated in a limited number of countries.[8]

Variable renewable energy edit

 
The 150 MW Andasol solar power station is a commercial parabolic trough solar thermal power plant, located in Spain. The Andasol plant uses tanks of molten salt to store solar energy so that it can continue generating electricity even when the sun isn't shining.[9]
 
Photovoltaic array and wind turbines at the Schneebergerhof wind farm in the German state of Rheinland-Pfalz
 
Biogas fermenter, wind turbine and photovoltaics on a farm in Horstedt, Schleswig-Holstein, Germany
See also: Variable renewable energy, Energy security and renewable technology, and Renewable Electricity and the Grid

Variability inherently affects solar energy, as the production of electricity from solar sources depends on the amount of light energy in a given location. Solar output varies throughout the day, the seasons, with cloud cover and by latitude on the globe. Windblown sand erodes glass in dry climates, protective layers add expenses. These factors are fairly predictable, and some solar thermal systems make use of molten salt heat storage to produce power when the sun is not shining.[10]

Wind-generated power is a variable resource, and the amount of electricity produced at any given point in time by a given plant will depend on wind speeds, air density, and turbine characteristics (among other factors). If wind speed is too low (less than about 2.5 m/s) then the wind turbines will not be able to make electricity, and if it is too high (more than about 25 m/s) the turbines will have to be shut down to avoid damage. While the output from a single turbine can vary greatly and rapidly as local wind speeds vary, as more turbines are connected over larger and larger areas the average power output becomes less variable.[11]

Capacity factors for PV solar are rather poor varying between 10 and 20% of the rated nameplate capacity. Onshore wind is better at 20-35% and offshore wind is best at 45%. This means that more total capacity needs to be installed in order to achieve an average output for the year.[12] The capacity factor relates to statements about capacity increases, generation may have increased by a much smaller figure.

The International Energy Agency says that there has been too much attention on issue of the variability of renewable electricity production.[13] This issue only applies to certain renewable technologies, mainly wind power and solar photovoltaics, and to a lesser extent run-of-the-river hydroelectricity. The significance of this "predictable variability[14] depends on a range of factors which include the market penetration of the renewables concerned, the nature of the energy sources used to balance the intermittentcy, as well as demand side flexibility. Variability will rarely be a barrier to increased renewable energy deployment. But at high levels of market penetration it requires careful analysis and management, and additional costs may be required for dispatchable back-up or system modification.[13] Renewable electricity supply in the 20-50+% penetration range has already been implemented in several European systems, albeit in the context of an integrated European grid system:[15]

In 2011, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, the world's leading climate researchers selected by the United Nations, said "as infrastructure and energy systems develop, in spite of the complexities, there are few, if any, fundamental technological limits to integrating a portfolio of renewable energy technologies to meet a majority share of total energy demand in locations where suitable renewable resources exist or can be supplied".[16] IPCC scenarios "generally indicate that growth in renewable energy will be widespread around the world".[17] The IPCC said that if governments were supportive, and the full complement of renewable energy technologies were deployed, renewable energy supply could account for almost 80% of the world's energy use within forty years.[18] Rajendra Pachauri, chairman of the IPCC, said the necessary investment in renewables would cost only about 1% of global GDP annually. This approach could contain greenhouse gas levels to less than 450 parts per million, the safe level beyond which climate change becomes catastrophic and irreversible.[18]

Mark Z. Jacobson says that there is no shortage of renewable energy and a "smart mix" of renewable energy sources can be used to reliably meet electricity demand:

Because the wind blows during stormy conditions when the sun does not shine and the sun often shines on calm days with little wind, combining wind and solar can go a long way toward meeting demand, especially when geothermal provides a steady base and hydroelectric can be called on to fill in the gaps.[19]

As physicist Amory Lovins has said:

The variability of sun, wind and so on, turns out to be a non-problem if you do several sensible things. One is to diversify your renewables by technology, so that weather conditions bad for one kind are good for another. Second, you diversify by site so they're not all subject to the same weather pattern at the same time because they're in the same place. Third, you use standard weather forecasting techniques to forecast wind, sun and rain, and of course hydro operators do this right now. Fourth, you integrate all your resources — supply side and demand side..."[20]

The combination of diversifying variable renewables by type and location, forecasting their variation, and integrating them with despatchable renewables, flexible fueled generators, and demand response can create a power system that has the potential to meet our needs reliably. Integrating ever-higher levels of renewables is being successfully demonstrated in the real world:[15]

In 2009, eight American and three European authorities, writing in the leading electrical engineers' professional journal, didn't find "a credible and firm technical limit to the amount of wind energy that can be accommodated by electricity grids". In Fact, not one of more than 200 international studies, nor official studies for the eastern and western U.S. regions, nor the International Energy Agency, has found major costs or technical barriers to reliably integrating up to 30% variable renewable supplies into the grid, and in some studies much more.[15]

Renewable electricity supply in the 20-50+% range has already been implemented in several European systems, albeit in the context of an integrated European grid system:[15]

In 2010, four German states, totalling 10 million people, relied on wind power for 43–52% of their annual electricity needs. Denmark isn't far behind, supplying 22% of its power from wind in 2010 (26% in an average wind year). The Extremadura region of Spain is getting up to 25% of its electricity from solar, while the whole country meets 16% of its demand from wind. Just during 2005–2010, Portugal vaulted from 17% to 45% renewable electricity.[15]

Integration of renewable energy has caused some grid stability problems in Germany. Voltage fluctuations have caused problems with sensitive equipment. In one case, Hydro Aluminium plant in Hamburg was forced to shut down when the rolling mill's highly sensitive monitor stopped production so abruptly that the aluminum belts snagged. They hit the machines and destroyed a piece of the mill. The malfunction was caused when voltage off the electricity grid weakened for a millisecond. A survey of members of the Association of German Industrial Energy Companies (VIK) revealed that the number of short interruptions to the German electricity grid has grown by 29 percent in the years 2009–2012. Over the same time period, the number of service failures has grown 31 percent, and almost half of those failures have led to production stoppages. Damages have ranged between €10,000 and hundreds of thousands of euros, according to company information.[21]

Minnkota Power Cooperative, the leading U.S. wind utility in 2009, supplied 38% of its retail sales from the wind.[15]

Mark A. Delucchi and Mark Z. Jacobson report that there are at least seven ways to design and operate variable renewable energy systems so that they will reliably satisfy electricity demand:[22]

  • (A) interconnect geographically dispersed, naturally variable energy sources (e.g., wind, solar, wave, tidal), which smoothes out electricity supply (and demand) significantly.
  • (B) use complementary and non-variable energy sources (such as hydroelectric power) to fill temporary gaps between demand and wind or solar generation.
  • (C) use "smart" demand-response management to shift flexible loads to a time when more renewable energy is available.
  • (D) store electric power, at the site of generation, (in batteries, hydrogen gas, molten salts, compressed air, pumped hydroelectric power, and flywheels), for later use.
  • (E) over-size renewable peak generation capacity to minimize the times when available renewable power is less than demand and to provide spare power to produce hydrogen for flexible transportation and heat uses.
  • (F) store electric power in electric-vehicle batteries, known as "vehicle to grid" or V2G.
  • (G) forecast the weather (winds, sunlight, waves, tides and precipitation) to better plan for energy supply needs.[22]

Jacobson and Delucchi argue that wind, water and solar power can be scaled up in cost-effective ways to meet our energy demands, freeing us from dependence on both fossil fuels and nuclear power. In 2009 they published "A Plan to Power 100 Percent of the Planet With Renewables" in Scientific American. The article addressed a number of issues, such as the worldwide spatial footprint of wind turbines, the availability of scarce materials needed for manufacture of new systems, the ability to produce reliable energy on demand and the average cost per kilowatt hour. A more detailed and updated technical analysis has been published as a two-part article in the journal Energy Policy.[23]

Renewable energy is naturally replenished and renewable power technologies increase energy security for the energy poor locales because they reduce dependence on foreign sources of fuel. Unlike power stations relying on uranium and recycled plutonium for fuel, they are not subject to the volatility of global fuel markets.[24] Renewable power decentralises electricity supply and so minimises the need to produce, transport and store hazardous fuels; reliability of power generation is improved by producing power close to the energy consumer. An accidental or intentional outage affects a smaller amount of capacity than an outage at a larger power station.[24]

The Fukushima I nuclear accidents in Japan have brought new attention to how national energy systems are vulnerable to natural disasters, with climate change is already bringing more weather and climate extremes. These threats to our old energy systems provide a rationale for investing in renewable energy. Shifting to renewable energy "can help us to meet the dual goals of reducing greenhouse gas emissions, thereby limiting future extreme weather and climate impacts, and ensuring reliable, timely, and cost-efficient delivery of energy". Investing in renewable energy can have significant dividends for our energy security.[25]

Economics and viability edit

 
The worldwide growth of renewable energy is shown by the green line[26]
See also: Cost of electricity by source

Renewable energy technologies are getting cheaper, through technological change and through the benefits of mass production and market competition. A 2011 IEA report said: "A portfolio of renewable energy technologies is becoming cost-competitive in an increasingly broad range of circumstances, in some cases providing investment opportunities without the need for specific economic support," and added that "cost reductions in critical technologies, such as wind and solar, are set to continue."[27] As of 2011, there have been substantial reductions in the cost of solar and wind technologies:

The price of PV modules per MW has fallen by 60 percent since the summer of 2008, according to Bloomberg New Energy Finance estimates, putting solar power for the first time on a competitive footing with the retail price of electricity in a number of sunny countries. Wind turbine prices have also fallen – by 18 percent per MW in the last two years – reflecting, as with solar, fierce competition in the supply chain. Further improvements in the levelised cost of energy for solar, wind and other technologies lie ahead, posing a growing threat to the dominance of fossil fuel generation sources in the next few years.[28]

Hydro-electricity and geothermal electricity produced at favourable sites are now the cheapest way to generate electricity. Renewable energy costs continue to drop, and the levelised cost of electricity (LCOE) is declining for wind power, solar photovoltaic (PV), concentrated solar power (CSP) and some biomass technologies.[29] Wind and Solar are able to produce electricity for 20-40% of the year.[30]

Renewable energy is also the most economic solution for new grid-connected capacity in areas without cheap fossil fuels. As the cost of renewable power falls, the scope of economically viable applications increases. Renewable technologies are now often the most economic solution for new generating capacity. Where "oil-fired generation is the predominant power generation source (e.g. on islands, off-grid and in some countries) a lower-cost renewable solution almost always exists today".[29]

As of 2012, renewable power generation technologies accounted for around half of all new power generation capacity additions globally. In 2011, additions included 41 gigawatt (GW) of new wind power capacity, 30 GW of PV, 25 GW of hydro-electricity, 6 GW of biomass, 0.5 GW of CSP, and 0.1 GW of geothermal power.[29] Hydropower provides 16.3% of the world's electricity. When combined with the other renewables wind, geothermal, solar, biomass and waste: together they make up 21.7% of electricity generation worldwide in 2013.[31]

Base load electricity edit

The "base load" is the minimum level of demand on an electrical grid over a span of time, some variation in demand may be compensated by varying production or electricity trading. The criteria for base load power generation are low price, availability and reliability. Over the years as technology and available resources evolved, a variety of power sources have been used. Hydroelectricity was the first method and this is still the case in a few wet climates like Brazil, Canada, Norway and Iceland. Coal became the most popular base load supply with the development of the steam turbine and bulk transport, and this is standard in much of the world. Nuclear power is also used and is in competition with coal, France is predominantly nuclear and uses less than 10% fossil fuel. In the US, the increasing popularity of natural gas is likely to replace coal as the base. There is no country where the majority of base load power is supplied by wind, solar, biofuels or geothermal, as each of these sources fails one or more of the criteria of low price, availability and reliability. However, there are many countries which meet more than 80% of electricity from the hydro power and the variable renewable energy sources (RES). It is feasible to meet 100% electricity demand including base load, at lower price with 100% reliability, by a mix of various dependable RES (solar thermal storage plants, peaking hydro plants and pumped storage hydro plants) and variable RES (solar PV, wind power and run of the river hydro plants) as RES power generation cost (particularly solar PV) has fallen below the operating/fuel cost of coal/natural gas fired base load power stations.[32] The surplus and cheaper solar PV power generated during the day light is stored by the pumped storage hydro power plants to meet electricity demand round the clock throughout the year.[33][34][35] The existing fossil and nuclear fuel based power generation can only sustain till their supplementation is required for the RES power generation. As the RES power generation cost is so cheap and environment friendly, there is no scope for new fossil and nuclear fuel based power plants.[36] Also lithium-ion battery price is expected to reduce from US$176/kWh in 2019 to US$94/kWh by 2024 which will make roof top solar PV with battery storage system more affordable in decentralized stand alone microgrid without the need to spend additionally on the huge centralized power grid.[37]

Environmental, social and legal considerations edit

Renewable power technologies can have significant environmental benefits. Unlike coal and natural gas, they can generate electricity and fuels without releasing significant quantities of CO2 and other greenhouse gases that contribute to climate change, however the greenhouse gas savings from a number of biofuels have been found to be much less than originally anticipated, as discussed in the article Indirect land use change impacts of biofuels.

The transition to renewable energy depends on non-renewable resources, such as mined metals.[38] Manufacturing of photovoltaic panels, wind turbines and batteries requires significant amounts of rare-earth elements[39] which has significant social and environmental impact if mined in forests and protected areas. In the year 2020 mining areas for materials needed to renewables overlapped with 16% of Wilderness[40] Producing 1 tone of rare earrh element produce 2,000 tons of toxic waste.[41] Due to co-occurrence of rare-earth and radioactive elements (thorium, uranium and radium), rare-earth mining results in production of low-level radioactive waste.[42]

Both solar and wind have been criticized from an aesthetic point of view.[43] However, methods and opportunities exist to deploy these renewable technologies efficiently and unobtrusively: fixed solar collectors can double as noise barriers along highways, and extensive roadway, parking lot, and roof-top area is currently available; amorphous photovoltaic cells can also be used to tint windows and produce energy.[44] Advocates of renewable energy also argue that current infrastructure is less aesthetically pleasing than alternatives, but sited further from the view of most critics.[45]

Hydroelectricity edit

Main article: Hydroelectricity § Advantages_and_disadvantages

In 2015 hydropower generated 16.6% of the worlds total electricity and 70% of all renewable electricity.[46] The major advantage of conventional hydroelectric systems with reservoirs is their ability to store potential power for later production on demand. When used in conjunction with intermittent sources like wind and solar, a constant supply of electricity is achieved. Other advantages include longer life than fuel-fired generation, low operating costs, and other uses of the reservoir. In areas without natural water flow, pumped-storage plants provide a constant supply of electricity. Overall, hydroelectric power can be far less expensive than electricity generated from fossil fuels or nuclear energy, and areas with abundant hydroelectric power attract industry. In Canada it's estimated there are 160,000 megawatts of undeveloped hydro potential.[47]

However, there are several disadvantages associated with conventional dam and reservoir hydroelectricity. These include dislocation if there are people living where the reservoirs are planned, release of significant amounts of carbon dioxide at construction and flooding of the reservoir, disruption of aquatic ecosystems and birdlife, adverse impacts on the river environment, potential risks of sabotage and terrorism, and in rare cases catastrophic failure of the dam wall.

Advantages edit

 
The Ffestiniog Power Station can generate 360 MW of electricity within 60 seconds of the demand arising.
  • Economic gains

Hydro is a flexible source of electricity since plants can be ramped up and down very quickly to adapt to changing electrical demands.[48] The cost of operating a hydroelectric plant is nearly immune to changes in the cost or availability of fossil fuels such as oil, natural gas or coal, and no imports are needed. The average cost of electricity from a hydro plant larger than 10 megawatts is 3 to 5 U.S. cents per kilowatt-hour.[48] Hydroelectric plants have long economic lives, with some plants still in service after 50–100 years.[49] Operating labor cost is also usually low, as plants are automated and have few personnel on site during normal operation.

  • Industrial use

While many hydroelectric projects supply public electricity networks, some are created to serve specific industrial enterprises. Dedicated hydroelectric projects are often built to provide the substantial amounts of electricity needed for aluminium electrolytic plants, for example. The Grand Coulee Dam switched to support Alcoa aluminium in Bellingham, Washington, United States for American World War II airplanes before it was allowed to provide irrigation and power to citizens (in addition to aluminium power) after the war. In Suriname, the Brokopondo Reservoir was constructed to provide electricity for the Alcoa aluminium industry. New Zealand's Manapouri Power Station was constructed to supply electricity to the aluminium smelter at Tiwai Point.

  • Low impact on climate change

Since hydroelectric dams do not burn fossil fuels, they do not directly produce carbon dioxide or pollutants. While some carbon dioxide is produced during cement manufacture and construction of the project, this is a tiny fraction of the operating emissions of equivalent fossil-fuel electricity generation. One measurement of greenhouse gas and other external comparison between energy sources can be found in the ExternE project by the Paul Scherrer Institut and the University of Stuttgart which was funded by the European Commission.[50] According to that study, hydroelectricity produces the least amount of greenhouse gases and externality of any energy source.[51] Coming in second place was wind, third was nuclear energy, and fourth was solar photovoltaic.[51] The low greenhouse gas impact of hydroelectricity is found especially in temperate climates. The above study was for local energy in Europe; presumably similar conditions prevail in North America and Northern Asia, which all see a regular, natural freeze/thaw cycle (with associated seasonal plant decay and regrowth). Greater greenhouse gas emissions of methane are found in the tropical regions.[52]

  • Other reservoir uses

The cost of large dams and reservoirs is justified by some of the added benefits. Reservoirs often provide facilities for water sports, and become tourist attractions themselves. In some countries, aquaculture in reservoirs is common. Multi-use dams installed for irrigation support agriculture with a relatively constant water supply. Large reservoirs can control flooding and alleviate droughts, which would otherwise harm people living downstream.[53] The Columbia River Treaty between The US and Canada required that in the 1960s and 1970s, very large reservoirs were constructed for flood control. In order to offset the cost of dam construction some locations included large hydroelectric plants.

Disadvantages edit

Further information: Hydroelectricity § Disadvantages, and Environmental impact of reservoirs
  • Reservoir land requirements
 
Hydroelectric power stations that use dams would submerge large areas of land due to the requirement of a reservoir.

Large reservoirs required for the operation of conventional hydroelectric dams result in submersion of extensive areas upstream of the dams, changing biologically rich and productive lowland and riverine valley forests, marshland and grasslands into artificial lakes. Ideally a reservoir would be large enough to average the annual flow of water or in its smallest form provide sufficient water for irrigation. The loss of land is often exacerbated by habitat fragmentation of surrounding areas caused by the reservoir.[54] In Europe and North America environmental concerns around land flooded by large reservoirs ended 30 years of dam construction in the 1990s, since then only run of the river projects have been approved. Large dams and reservoirs continue to be built in countries like China, Brazil and India.

  • Reservoirs displace communities

A consequence is the need to relocate the people living where the reservoirs are planned. In 2000, the World Commission on Dams estimated that dams had physically displaced 40-80 million people worldwide.[55] An example is the contentious Three Gorges Dam which displaced 1.24 million residents. In 1954 the river flooded 193,000 km2 (74,518 sq mi), killing 33,000 people and forcing 18 million people to move to higher ground. The dam now provides a flood storage capacity for 22 cubic kilometres of water.

  • Reservoir siltation

When water flows it has the ability to transport particles heavier than itself downstream. This may negatively affect the reservoir capacity and subsequently their power stations, particularly those on rivers or within catchment areas with high siltation. Siltation can fill a reservoir and reduce its capacity to control floods along with causing additional horizontal pressure on the upstream portion of the dam. Eventually, some reservoirs can become full of sediment and useless or over-top during a flood and fail.[56][57]

 
The Hoover Dam in the United States is a large conventional dammed-hydro facility, with an installed capacity of 2,080 MW.
  • Reservoirs methane generation

Some reservoirs in tropical regions produce substantial amounts of methane. This is due to plant material in flooded areas decaying in an anaerobic environment, and forming methane, a greenhouse gas. According to the World Commission on Dams report,[58] where the reservoir is large compared to the generating capacity (less than 100 watts per square metre of surface area) and no clearing of the forests in the area was undertaken prior to impoundment of the reservoir, greenhouse gas emissions from the reservoir may be higher than those of a conventional oil-fired thermal generation plant.[59] There is a lack of knowledge in the scientific community regarding reservoir GHG emissions, producing many diverging positions. To resolve this situation, the International Energy Agency is coordinating an analysis of actual emissions.[60] In boreal reservoirs of Canada and Northern Europe, greenhouse gas emissions are typically only 2% to 8% of any kind of conventional fossil-fuel thermal generation. A new class of underwater logging operation that targets drowned forests can mitigate the effect of forest decay.[61]

  • Reservoir safety

Because large conventional dammed-hydro facilities hold back large volumes of water, a failure due to poor construction, natural disasters or sabotage can be catastrophic to downriver settlements and infrastructure. During Typhoon Nina in 1975 Banqiao Dam failed in Southern China when more than a year's worth of rain fell within 24 hours. The resulting flood resulted in the deaths of 26,000 people, and another 145,000 from epidemics. Millions were left homeless. Also, the creation of a dam in a geologically inappropriate location may cause disasters such as 1963 disaster at Vajont Dam in Italy, where almost 2000 people died.[62] Smaller dams and micro hydro facilities create less risk, but can form continuing hazards even after being decommissioned. For example, the small 1939 Kelly Barnes Dam failed in 1967, causing 39 deaths with the Toccoa Flood, ten years after its power plant was decommissioned.[63]

  • Downstream aquatic ecosystem

Hydroelectric projects can be disruptive to surrounding aquatic ecosystems downstream of the plant site. Changes in the amount of river flow will correlate with the amount of energy produced by a dam. Water exiting a reservoir usually contains very little suspended sediment, which can lead to scouring of river beds and loss of riverbanks.[64] For fish migration a fish ladder may be required. For fish going through a high head turbine is usually fatal. Reservoir water passing through a turbine alters the downstream river environment. Downstream changes to the water temperature and dissolved gases have adverse effects on some species of fish.[65] In addition to this, alteration to the amount of water let through the dam can also change the composition of gasses in the water downstream. Changes in the amount of discharged water also have the ability to interrupt mating season for various species of fish by dewatering their spawning grounds and forcing them to retreat. Even if mating season has passed, any newly hatched fry can be killed off by low water levels in their spawning areas.[66]

Solar power edit

See also: Environmental impact of solar power and Space-based solar power
 
Part of the Senftenberg Solarpark, a solar photovoltaic power plant located on former open-pit mining areas close to the city of Senftenberg, in Eastern Germany. The 78 MW Phase 1 of the plant was completed within three months.

Unlike fossil fuel based technologies, solar power does not lead to any harmful emissions during operation, but the production of the panels leads to some amount of pollution.

The energy payback time of a power generating system is the time required to generate as much energy as was consumed during production of the system. In 2000 the energy payback time of PV systems was estimated as 8 to 11 years[67] and in 2006 this was estimated to be 1.5 to 3.5 years for crystalline silicon PV systems[68] and 1–1.5 years for thin film technologies (S. Europe).[68]

Another economic measure, closely related to the energy payback time, is the energy returned on energy invested (EROEI) or energy return on investment (EROI),[69] which is the ratio of electricity generated divided by the energy required to build and maintain the equipment. (This is not the same as the economic return on investment (ROI), which varies according to local energy prices, subsidies available and metering techniques.) With lifetimes of at least 30 years,[citation needed] the EROEI of PV systems are in the range of 10 to 30, thus generating enough energy over their lifetimes to reproduce themselves many times (6-31 reproductions) depending on what type of material, balance of system (BOS), and the geographic location of the system.[70]

One issue that has often raised concerns is the use of cadmium in cadmium telluride solar cells (CdTe is only used in a few types of PV panels). Cadmium in its metallic form is a toxic substance that has the tendency to accumulate in ecological food chains. The amount of cadmium used in thin-film PV modules is relatively small (5-10 g/m2) and with proper emission control techniques in place the cadmium emissions from module production can be almost zero. Current PV technologies lead to cadmium emissions of 0.3-0.9 microgram/kWh over the whole life-cycle.[68] Most of these emissions actually arise through the use of coal power for the manufacturing of the modules, and coal and lignite combustion leads to much higher emissions of cadmium. Life-cycle cadmium emissions from coal is 3.1 microgram/kWh, lignite 6.2, and natural gas 0.2 microgram/kWh. Note that if electricity produced by photovoltaic panels were used to manufacture the modules instead of electricity from burning coal, cadmium emissions from coal power usage in the manufacturing process could be entirely eliminated.[71]

Solar power plants require large amounts of land. According to the Bureau of Land Management, there are twenty proposals to use in total about 180 square miles of public land in California. If all twenty proposed projects were built, they would total 7,387 megawatts.[72] The requirement for so much land has spurred efforts to encourage solar facilities to be built on already-disturbed lands, and the Department of Interior identified Solar Energy Zones that it judges to contain lower value habitat where solar development would have less of an impact on ecosystems.[73] Sensitive wildlife impacted by large solar facility plans include the desert tortoise, Mohave Ground Squirrel, Mojave fringe-toed lizard, and desert bighorn sheep.

In the United States, some of the land in the eastern portion of the Mojave Desert is to be preserved, but the solar industry has mainly expressed interest in areas of the western desert, "where the sun burns hotter and there is easier access to transmission lines", said Kenn J. Arnecke of FPL Energy, a sentiment shared by many executives in the industry.[74]

Biofuels production edit

 
An ethanol fuel plant under construction, Butler County, Iowa
Main article: Food vs fuel
See also: Ethanol fuel energy balance and Cellulosic ethanol commercialization

Biofuel production has increased in recent years. Some commodities like maize (corn), sugar cane or vegetable oil can be used either as food, feed, or to make biofuels. The Food vs. fuel debate is the dilemma regarding the risk of diverting farmland or crops for biofuels production to the detriment of the food supply. The biofuel and food price debate involves wide-ranging views, and is a long-standing, controversial one in the literature.[75][76][77][78] There is disagreement about the significance of the issue, what is causing it, and what can or should be done to remedy the situation. This complexity and uncertainty is due to the large number of impacts and feedback loops that can positively or negatively affect the price system. Moreover, the relative strengths of these positive and negative impacts vary in the short and long terms, and involve delayed effects. The academic side of the debate is also blurred by the use of different economic models and competing forms of statistical analysis.[79]

According to the International Energy Agency, new biofuels technologies being developed today, notably cellulosic ethanol, could allow biofuels to play a much bigger role in the future than previously thought.[80] Cellulosic ethanol can be made from plant matter composed primarily of inedible cellulose fibers that form the stems and branches of most plants. Crop residues (such as corn stalks, wheat straw and rice straw), wood waste, and municipal solid waste are potential sources of cellulosic biomass. Dedicated energy crops, such as switchgrass, are also promising cellulose sources that can be sustainably produced in many regions of the United States.[81]

The ethanol and biodiesel production industries also create jobs in plant construction, operations, and maintenance, mostly in rural communities. According to the Renewable Fuels Association, the ethanol industry created almost 154,000 U.S. jobs in 2005 alone, boosting household income by $5.7 billion. It also contributed about $3.5 billion in tax revenues at the local, state, and federal levels.[82]

Biofuels are different from fossil fuels in regard to carbon emissions being short term, but are similar to fossil fuels in that biofuels contribute to air pollution. Burning produces airborne carbon particulates, carbon monoxide and nitrous oxides.[83] The WHO estimates 3.7 million premature deaths worldwide in 2012 due to air pollution.[84]

Wind farms edit

Main article: Environmental impact of wind power
 
Wind power is a common renewable energy source

Mark Diesendorf, formerly Professor of Environmental Science at the University of Technology, Sydney and a principal research scientist with CSIRO has summarised some of the benefits of onshore wind farms as follows.[85]

A wind farm, when installed on agricultural land, has one of the lowest environmental impacts of all energy sources:

  • It occupies less land area per kilowatt-hour (kWh) of electricity generated than any other energy conversion system, apart from rooftop solar energy, and is compatible with grazing and crops.
  • It generates the energy used in its construction in just 3 months of operation, yet its operational lifetime is 20–25 years.
  • Greenhouse gas emissions and air pollution produced by its construction are very tiny and declining. There are no emissions or pollution produced by its operation.
  • In substituting for load following natural gas plants [...] wind power produces a net decrease in greenhouse gas emissions and air pollution, and a net increase in biodiversity.
  • Large wind turbines are almost silent and rotate so slowly (in terms of revolutions per minute) that they are rarely a bird strike hazard.
    — Dissent, no. 13, Summer 2003/04, pp.43–48[85]

Onshore wind farms can have a significant visual impact and impact on the landscape.[86] Their network of turbines, access roads, transmission lines, and substations can result in "energy sprawl".[87] Due to a very low surface power density and spacing requirements, wind farms typically need to be spread over more land than other power stations.[88] They also need to be built away from urban areas,[89] which can lead to "industrialization of the countryside".[90] A report by the Mountaineering Council of Scotland concluded that wind farms harmed tourism in areas known for natural landscapes and panoramic views.[91]

Onshore wind farms can cause habitat loss and habitat fragmentation for some wildlife.[87] Some offshore wind farms in Europe are in areas heavily used by seabirds, and studies have found very few bird collisions.[92] Improvements in wind turbine design, including a much slower rate of rotation of the blades and a smooth tower base instead of perchable lattice towers, have helped reduce bird deaths at wind farms. However older smaller wind turbines may be hazardous to birds.[93] Birds are severely impacted by fossil fuel energy; examples include birds dying from exposure to oil spills, habitat loss from acid rain and mountaintop removal coal mining, and mercury poisoning.[94]

In several cases, wind farm construction near wetlands has been linked to bog landslides that have polluted rivers, such as at Derrybrien and Meenbog in Ireland.[95][96]

Community debate about wind farms edit

See also: Wind turbines on public display
 
Acceptance of wind and solar facilities in one's community is stronger among Democrats (blue), while acceptance of nuclear power plants is stronger among Republicans (red).[97]
 
The wind turbines at Findhorn Ecovillage, which make the community a net exporter of electricity
 
U.S. landowners typically receive $3,000 to $5,000 per year in rental income from each wind turbine, while farmers continue to grow crops or graze cattle up to the foot of the turbines.[98]
 
Wind turbines such as these, in Cumbria, England, have been opposed for a number of reasons, including aesthetics, by some sectors of the population.[99][100]

There have been concerns relating to the visual and other impacts of some wind farms, with local residents sometimes fighting or blocking construction. Some of these concerns have been dismissed as "not in my back yard" (NIMBY) opposition.[3] Certain wind farms have been opposed by residents, local councils and national trusts for their potential harmful impact on protected scenic areas, archaeological landscapes, tourism and cultural heritage.[101][102][103] In the US, the Massachusetts Cape Wind project was delayed for years partly because of aesthetic concerns. Elsewhere, there are concerns that some installations can negatively affect TV and radio reception and Doppler weather radar, as well as produce excessive sound and vibration levels leading to a decrease in property values.[104] Potential broadcast-reception solutions include predictive interference modeling as a component of site selection.[105][106]

Residents in other areas have been more positive and there are community wind farm developments. According to a town councillor, the overwhelming majority of locals believe that the Ardrossan Wind Farm in Scotland has enhanced the area.[4]

A starting point for better understanding community concerns about wind farms is often through public outreach initiatives (e.g., surveys, town hall meetings) to clarify the nature of concerns. Scott Victor Valentine (2011) said that community concerns over wind power projects have been shown to be based more on people's perception rather than fact.[107] According to Valentine, in tourist areas, there is a perception that the siting of wind farms will adversely affect tourism, but surveys conducted in tourist areas in Germany, Belgium and Scotland showed this is not the case. Similarly, according to Valentine, concerns over wind turbine noise, shadow flicker, and bird life threats are not supported by data. He says the difficulty is that the general public often does not have ready access to information needed to assess the pros and cons of wind power developments.[107] However, even where the general public supports wind power in principle and is well informed, there are often important qualifications around the building of wind farms (i.e. providing mitigation of development impacts on local ecology and assets).[108]

According to Valentine, the media often fails to give all the information the public needs to effectively evaluate the merits of a wind farm. Moreover, misinformation about wind power may be propagated by fossil fuel industry, or other special interest groups.[107] He says planners and policymakers can mitigate some public opposition by providing the community with comprehensive information, which may also lead to enhanced support fir a project.[107]

Valentine says public perceptions generally improve after wind farms become operational. Surveys within communities that host wind farms in the United Kingdom, France, the United States and Finland showed wind farms which are properly planned and sited can gain support. He says wind farms that have been well-planned to reduce social and environmental problems, have been shown to positively influence wind power perceptions. Support is enhanced when the community is offered investment opportunities and involvement in the wind power development.[107] Many wind power companies work with local communities to reduce environmental and other concerns associated with particular wind farms.[109][110][111] Appropriate government consultation, planning and approval procedures also help to minimize environmental risks.[112][113][114] Some people may still object to wind farms.[115] The Australia Institute says their concerns should be weighed against the need to address the threats posed by climate change and the opinions of the broader community.[116]

In other cases there is direct community ownership of wind farms. In Germany, hundreds of thousands of people have invested in citizens' wind farms and thousands of small and medium-sized enterprises are running successful businesses in a sector that in 2008 employed 90,000 people and generated 8 percent of Germany's electricity.[117] Wind power has gained very high social acceptance in Germany.[118] Surveys of public attitudes across Europe and in many other countries show strong public support for wind power.[112][119][120]

Opinion on increase in number of wind farms, 2010 Harris Poll[121]
U.S. Great
Britain		 France Italy Spain Germany
% % % % % %
Strongly oppose 3 6 6 2 2 4
Oppose more than favour 9 12 16 11 9 14
Favour more than oppose 37 44 44 38 37 42
Strongly favour 50 38 33 49 53 40

In America, wind projects are reported to boost local tax bases, helping to pay for schools, roads and hospitals. Wind projects also revitalize the economy of rural communities by providing steady income to farmers and other landowners.[98]

The Intrepid Wind Farm, in Iowa, is an example of one wind farm where the environmental impact of the project has been minimized through consultation and co-operation:

"Making sure the wind farm made as gentle an environmental impact as possible was an important consideration. Therefore, when MidAmerican first began planning the Intrepid site, they worked closely with a number of state and national environmental groups. Using input from such diverse groups as the Iowa Department of Natural Resources, the Nature Conservancy, Iowa State University, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, the Iowa Natural Heritage Foundation, and the Iowa Chapter of the Sierra Club, MidAmerican created a statewide map of areas in the proposed region that contained specific bird populations or habitats. Those areas were then avoided as site planning got underway in earnest. In order to minimize the wind farm's environmental impact even further, MidAmerican also worked in conjunction with the United States Army Corps of Engineers, to secure all necessary permits related to any potential risk to wetlands in the area. Regular inspections are also conducted to make certain that the wind farm is causing no adverse environmental impact to the region."[122]

Other examples include:

  • On 12 January 2004, it was reported that the Center for Biological Diversity filed a lawsuit against wind farm owners for killing tens of thousands of birds at the Altamont Pass Wind Resource Area near San Francisco, California.[123] In February 2008, a state appeals court upheld an earlier ruling that rejected the lawsuit.[124]
  • 21 January 2005: Three wind turbines on the island of Gigha in Scotland generate up to 675 kW of power. Revenue is produced by selling the electricity to the grid via an intermediary called Green Energy UK. Gigha residents control the whole project and profits are reinvested in the community. Local residents call the turbines "The Three Dancing Ladies".[125][126]
  • On 7 December 2007, it was reported that some environmentalists opposed a plan to build a wind farm in western Maryland[127] But other local environmentalists say that the environmental effects of wind farms "pale in comparison to coal-burning generators, which add to global warming and lead to acid rain" that is killing trees in the same area.[128]
  • On 4 February 2008, according to British Ministry of Defence turbines create a hole in radar coverage so that aircraft flying overhead are not detectable. In written evidence, Squadron Leader Chris Breedon said: "This obscuration occurs regardless of the height of the aircraft, of the radar and of the turbine."[129]
  • A 16 April 2008 article in the Pittsburgh Post-Gazette said that three different environmental organizations had raised objections to a proposed wind farm at Shaffer Mountain in northeastern Somerset County, Pennsylvania, because the wind farm would be a threat to the Indiana bat, which is listed as an endangered species.[130]
  • 25 July 2008: The Australian Hepburn Wind Project is a proposed wind farm, which will be the first Australian community-owned wind farm. The initiative emerged because the community felt that the state and federal governments were not doing enough to address climate change.[131]
  • 12 August 2008: The Ardrossan Wind Farm in Scotland has been "overwhelmingly accepted by local people". Instead of spoiling the landscape, they believe it has enhanced the area: "The turbines are impressive looking, bring a calming effect to the town and, contrary to the belief that they would be noisy, we have found them to be silent workhorses".[4]
  • 22 March 2009: Some rural communities in Alberta, Canada, want wind power companies to be allowed to develop wind farms on leased Crown land.[132]
  • 28 April 2009: After the McGuinty government opposed calls for a moratorium on the construction of new turbines in Ontario, several protests took place around the province, especially at Queen's Park in Toronto. Residents insist that more studies take place before continuing construction of the devices in their communities.[133][134][135][136]
  • In March 2010, the Toronto Renewable Energy Co-operative (TREC), incorporated in 1998, began organizing a new co-operative called "The Lakewind Project".[137][138] Its initial project, WindShare, completed in 2002 on the grounds of Exhibition Place in central downtown Toronto, was the first wind turbine installed in a major North American urban city centre,[139] and the first community-owned wind power project in Ontario.[140]
  • 20 July 2023 Nick Cater released a documentary showing how wind turbine blades are left abandoned in the forests of Chalumbin in Queensland on the site of a proposed large scale wind farm, and discussed the difficulty of recycling them and the pollution caused as a result.[141]

Longevity issues edit

Even though a source of renewable energy may last for billions of years, renewable energy infrastructure, like hydroelectric dams, will not last forever, and must be removed and replaced at some point. Events like the shifting of riverbeds, or changing weather patterns could potentially alter or even halt the function of hydroelectric dams, lowering the amount of time they are available to generate electricity. A reservoirs capacity may also be affected by silting which may not be cost-effective to remove.

Wind turbines suffer from wear and fatigue and are scheduled to last 25 years before being replaced, often by much taller units.

Some have claimed that geothermal being a renewable energy source depends on the rate of extraction being slow enough such that depletion does not occur. If depletion does occur, the temperature can regenerate if given a long period of non-use.[142][143]

The government of Iceland states: "It should be stressed that the geothermal resource is not strictly renewable in the same sense as the hydro resource." It estimates that Iceland's geothermal energy could provide 1700 MW for over 100 years, compared to the current production of 140 MW.[144] Radioactive elements in the Earth's crust continuously decay, replenishing the heat. The International Energy Agency classifies geothermal power as renewable.[145] Geothermal power in Iceland is developed in a stepwise development method to ensure that it is sustainable instead of excessive, which would deplete the resource.[146]

Diversification edit

The U.S. electric power industry now relies on large, central power stations, including coal, natural gas, nuclear, and hydropower plants that together generate more than 95% of the nation's electricity. Over the next few decades uses of renewable energy could help to diversify the nation's bulk power supply. In 2016 renewable hydro, solar, wind, geothermal and biomass produced 39% of California's electricity.[147]

Although most of today's electricity comes from large, central-station power plants, renewable energy technologies offer a range of options for generating electricity nearer to where it is needed, saving on the cost of transmitting and distributing power and improving the overall efficiency and reliability of the system.[148]

Improving energy efficiency represents the most immediate and often the most cost-effective way to reduce oil dependence, improve energy security, and reduce the health and environmental impact of the energy system. By reducing the total energy requirements of the economy, improved energy efficiency could make increased reliance on renewable energy sources more practical and affordable.[82]

Institutionalized barriers and choice awareness theory edit

Existing organizations and conservative political groups are disposed to keep renewable energy proposals out of the agenda at many levels.[149] Most Republicans do not support renewable energy investment because their framework is built on staying with current energy sources while promoting national drilling to reduce dependence on imports.[150] In contrast, progressives and libertarians tend to support renewable energy by encouraging job growth, national investment and tax incentives.[151] Thus, polarized organizational frameworks that shape industrial and governmental policies for renewable energy tend to create barriers for implementing renewable energy.

According to an article by Henrik Lund, the theory of Choice Awareness seeks to understand and explain why the descriptions of the best alternatives do not develop independently and what can be done about it.[149] The theory argues that public participation, and hence the awareness of choices, has been an important factor in successful decision-making processes[149] Choice Awareness theory emphasizes the fact that different organizations see things differently and that current organizational interests hinder passing renewable energy policies. Given these conditions leaves the public with a situation of no choice.[149] Consequently, this leaves the general public in a state to abide by conventional energy sources such as coal and oil.

In a broad sense most individuals, especially those that do not engage in public discourse of current economic policies, have little to no awareness of renewable energy. Enlightening communities on the socioeconomic implications of fossil fuel use is a potent mode of rhetoric that can promote the implementation of renewable energy sources.[152] Transparent local planning also proves useful in public discourse when used to determine the location of wind farms in communities supporting renewable energy.[153] According to an article by John Barry et al., a crucial factor communities need to engage discourse on is the principle of "assumption of and imperative towards consensus."[152] This principle claims that a community cannot neglect its energy or climate change responsibilities, and that it must do its part in helping to decrease carbon emissions through renewable energy reformation.[152] Hence, communities that continually engage in mutual learning and discourse by conflict resolution will help progress renewable energy.[152]

Nuclear power proposed as renewable energy edit

Main article: Nuclear power proposed as renewable energy

Legislative definitions of renewable energy, used when determining energy projects eligible for subsidies or tax breaks, usually exclude conventional nuclear reactor designs. Physicist Bernard Cohen elucidated in 1983 that uranium dissolved in seawater, when used in Breeder reactors (which are reactors that "breed" more fissile nuclear fuel than they consume from base fertile material) is effectively inexhaustible, with the seawater bearing uranium constantly replenished by river erosion carrying more uranium into the sea, and could therefore be considered a renewable source of energy.[154][155]

In 1987, the World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED), an organization independent from, but created by, the United Nations, published Our Common Future, in which breeder reactors, and, when it is developed, fusion power are both classified within the same category as conventional renewable energy sources, such as solar and falling water.[156]

See also edit

References edit

  1. ^ Ipsos (23 June 2011). (PDF). p. 3. Archived from the original (PDF) on 24 December 2014.
  2. ^ International Energy Agency (2007). Contribution of Renewables to Energy Security IEA Information Paper, p. 5.
  3. ^ a b "Whatever Happened to Wind Energy?". LiveScience. 14 January 2008. Retrieved 17 January 2012.
  4. ^ a b c Gourlay, Simon (12 August 2009). "Wind farms are not only beautiful, they're absolutely necessary". The Guardian. UK. Retrieved 17 January 2012.
  5. ^ United Nations Environment Programme Global Trends in Sustainable Energy Investment 2007: Analysis of Trends and Issues in the Financing of Renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency in OECD and Developing Countries 25 March 2009 at the Wayback Machine (PDF), p. 3.
  6. ^ Clean Edge (2009). Clean Energy Trends 2009 18 March 2009 at the Wayback Machine pp. 1–4.
  7. ^ Foramitti, Joël; Tsagkari, Marula; Zografos, Christos. "Why degrowth is the only responsible way forward". Open Democracy. Retrieved 23 September 2019.
  8. ^ a b IEA Renewable Energy Working Party (2002). Renewable Energy... into the mainstream, p. 9.
  9. ^ Cartlidge, Edwin (18 November 2011). "Saving for a rainy day". Science. 334 (6058): 922–924. Bibcode:2011Sci...334..922C. doi:10.1126/science.334.6058.922. PMID 22096185. S2CID 207761955.
  10. ^ Biello, David. "How to Use Solar Energy at Night". Scientific American. Retrieved 15 September 2016.
  11. ^ "Variability of Wind Power and other Renewables: Management Options and Strategies" (PDF). IEA. 2005. Retrieved 15 October 2008.
  12. ^ "Capacity factors at Danish offshore wind farms". Retrieved 15 September 2016.
  13. ^ a b Contribution of Renewables to Energy Security
  14. ^ "http://www.wind-energy-the-facts.org/variability-versus-predictability-of-wind-power-production.html
  15. ^ a b c d e f Amory Lovins (2011). Reinventing Fire, Chelsea Green Publishing, p. 199.
  16. ^ IPCC (2011). "Special Report on Renewable Energy Sources and Climate Change Mitigation" (PDF). Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA. p. 17.
  17. ^ IPCC (2011). "Special Report on Renewable Energy Sources and Climate Change Mitigation" (PDF). Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA. p. 22.
  18. ^ a b Harvey, Fiona (9 May 2011). "Renewable energy can power the world, says landmark IPCC study". The Guardian. London.
  19. ^ Jacobson, Mark Z.; Delucchi, M.A. (November 2009). "A Path to Sustainable Energy by 2030" (PDF). Scientific American. 301 (5): 58–65. Bibcode:2009SciAm.301e..58J. doi:10.1038/scientificamerican1109-58. PMID 19873905.
  20. ^ "Amory Lovins/Rocky Mountain Institute warm to PHEVs". Calcars.org. Retrieved 17 January 2012.
  21. ^ "Energy Revolution Hiccups: Grid Instability Has Industry Scrambling for Solutions". Spiegel Online. 16 August 2012. Retrieved 15 September 2016.
  22. ^ a b Delucchi, Mark A. and Mark Z. Jacobson (2010). "Providing all Global Energy with Wind, Water, and Solar Power, Part II: Reliability, System and Transmission Costs, and Policies" (PDF). Energy policy.
  23. ^ Folbre, Nancy (28 March 2011). "Renewing Support for Renewables". The New York Times.
  24. ^ a b Benjamin K. Sovacool. A Critical Evaluation of Nuclear Power and Renewable Electricity in Asia, Journal of Contemporary Asia, Vol. 40, No. 3, August 2010, p. 387.
  25. ^ Staudt, Amanda (20 April 2011). "Climate Risk: Yet Another Reason to Choose Renewable Energy". Renewable Energy World.
  26. ^ Statistical Review of World Energy, Workbook (xlsx), London, 2016
  27. ^ Gloystein, Henning (23 November 2011). "Renewable energy becoming cost competitive, IEA says". Reuters.
  28. ^ "Renewables Investment Breaks Records". Renewable Energy World. 29 August 2011.
  29. ^ a b c International Renewable Energy Agency (2012). "Renewable Power Generation Costs in 2012: An Overview" (PDF).
  30. ^ http://www.eia.gov/forecasts/aeo/electricity_generation.cfm Levelized Cost of New Generation Resources in the Annual Energy Outlook 2014. Released April, 2014. Report of the US Energy Information Administration (EIA) of the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE).
  31. ^ Historical Data Workbook (2013 calendar year)
  32. ^ "Race Heats Up For Title of Cheapest Solar Energy in the World". Forbes. Retrieved 28 October 2019.
  33. ^ "Elon Musk Should Build Pumped Hydro With Tesla Energy, The Boring Co., & Coal Miners". Retrieved 27 October 2019.
  34. ^ "Interactive world map showing the feasible locations of pumped storage hydro power projects". Retrieved 19 November 2019.
  35. ^ "Transition towards a decarbonised electricity sector" (PDF). Retrieved 28 October 2019.
  36. ^ "An entirely renewable energy future is possible". Retrieved 13 September 2019.
  37. ^ "The Death of the World's Most Popular Battery". Retrieved 28 October 2019.
  38. ^ van Zalk, John; Behrens, Paul (1 December 2018). "The spatial extent of renewable and non-renewable power generation: A review and meta-analysis of power densities and their application in the U.S." Energy Policy. 123: 83–91. doi:10.1016/j.enpol.2018.08.023. hdl:1887/64883. ISSN 0301-4215.
  39. ^ Månberger, André; Stenqvist, Björn (1 August 2018). "Global metal flows in the renewable energy transition: Exploring the effects of substitutes, technological mix and development". Energy Policy. 119: 226–241. doi:10.1016/j.enpol.2018.04.056. ISSN 0301-4215.
  40. ^ Thomas, Tobi (1 September 2020). "Mining needed for renewable energy 'could harm biodiversity'". Nature Communications. The Guardian. from the original on 6 October 2020. Retrieved 18 October 2020.
  41. ^ Nayar, Jaya (12 August 2021). "Not So "Green" Technology: The Complicated Legacy of Rare Earth Mining". Harvard International Review. Retrieved 13 July 2022.
  42. ^ Law, Yao-Hua (1 April 2019). "Radioactive waste standoff could slash high tech's supply of rare earth elements". Science | AAAS. from the original on 1 April 2020. Retrieved 23 April 2020.
  43. ^ . Thames Valley Energy. 14 February 2007. Archived from the original on 23 August 2007. Retrieved 19 September 2007.
  44. ^ Denis Du Bois (22 May 2006). . Energy Priorities. Archived from the original on 12 October 2007. Retrieved 19 September 2007.
  45. ^ "What is the worst eyesore in the UK?". BBC News. 21 November 2003. Retrieved 19 September 2007. I really wish people wouldn't criticize wind farms. I would much rather have 12 hills full of wind turbines than 1 single nuclear power station.
  46. ^ (PDF). www.ren21.net. Archived from the original (PDF) on 12 August 2016. Retrieved 13 January 2022.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
  47. ^ . Archived from the original on 12 June 2013. Retrieved 15 September 2016.
  48. ^ a b Worldwatch Institute (January 2012). "Use and Capacity of Global Hydropower Increases".
  49. ^ Hydropower – A Way of Becoming Independent of Fossil Energy? 28 May 2008 at the Wayback Machine
  50. ^ Rabl A.; et al. (August 2005). (PDF). Externalities of Energy: Extension of Accounting Framework and Policy Applications. European Commission. Archived from the original (PDF) on 7 March 2012.
  51. ^ a b "External costs of electricity systems (graph format)". ExternE-Pol. Technology Assessment / GaBE (Paul Scherrer Institut). 2005.
  52. ^ Wehrli, Bernhard (1 September 2011). "Climate science: Renewable but not carbon-free". Nature Geoscience. 4 (9): 585–586. Bibcode:2011NatGe...4..585W. doi:10.1038/ngeo1226.
  53. ^ Atkins, William (2003). "Hydroelectric Power". Water: Science and Issues. 2: 187–191.
  54. ^ Robbins, Paul (2007). "Hydropower". Encyclopedia of Environment and Society. 3.
  55. ^ . Internationalrivers.org. 29 February 2008. Archived from the original on 13 September 2008. Retrieved 11 November 2013.
  56. ^ Patrick James, H Chansen (1998). (PDF). Great Britain: TEMPUS Publications. pp. 265–275. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2 September 2009.
  57. ^ Șentürk, Fuat (1994). Hydraulics of dams and reservoirs (reference. ed.). Highlands Ranch, Colo.: Water Resources Publications. p. 375. ISBN 978-0-918334-80-0.
  58. ^ "Download the official WCD Report". RiverNet.org. 16 November 2000.
  59. ^ Graham-Rowe, Duncan (24 February 2005). "Hydroelectric power's dirty secret revealed". NewScientist.com.
  60. ^ "Hydropower and the Environment: Managing the Carbon Balance in Freshwater Reservoirs" (PDF). International Energy Agency. 22 October 2012.
  61. ^ ""Rediscovered" Wood & The Triton Sawfish". Inhabitat.com. 16 November 2006.
  62. ^ References may be found in the list of Dam failures.
  63. ^ Toccoa Flood USGS Historical Site, retrieved 02sep2009
  64. ^ . Internationalrivers.org. Archived from the original on 1 October 2010. Retrieved 16 July 2010.
  65. ^ Topinka, Lyn (2005). "The Columbia River – Bonneville Dam Fish Ladders". Retrieved 15 September 2016.
  66. ^ Stober, Quentin J. (1982). Effects of hydroelectric discharge fluctuation on salmon and steelhead in the Skagit River, Washington. University of Washington, School of Fisheries, Fisheries Research Institute. OCLC 09837591.
  67. ^ Andrew Blakers and Klaus Weber, "The Energy Intensity of Photovoltaic Systems", Centre for Sustainable Energy Systems, Australian National University, 2000.
  68. ^ a b c Alsema, E.A.; Wild – Scholten, M.J. de; Fthenakis, V.M. Environmental impacts of PV electricity generation – a critical comparison of energy supply options ECN, September 2006; 7p. Presented at the 21st European Photovoltaic Solar Energy Conference and Exhibition, Dresden, Germany, 4–8 September 2006.
  69. ^ C. Reich-Weiser, D. Dornfeld, and S. Horne. Environmental assessment and metrics for solar: Case study of solfocus solar concentrator systems. UC Berkeley: Laboratory for Manufacturing and Sustainability, 8 May 2008.
  70. ^ Joshua Pearce and Andrew Lau, "Net Energy Analysis For Sustainable Energy Production From Silicon Based Solar Cells", Proceedings of American Society of Mechanical Engineers Solar 2002: Sunrise on the Reliable Energy Economy, editor R. Campbell-Howe, 2002.
  71. ^ CdTe PV: Real and Perceived EHS Risks
  72. ^ "Solar Applications and Authorizations PDF". United States Bureau of Land Management. Retrieved 3 December 2011.
  73. ^ Seltenrich, Nate. "A Matter of Survival". Sierra Magazine. Retrieved 3 December 2011.
  74. ^ A Mojave power failure A shortfall in Mojave protection bill, Los Angeles Times, editorial, 26 December 2009.
  75. ^ Ayre, Maggie (3 October 2007). "Will biofuel leave the poor hungry?". BBC News. Retrieved 28 April 2008.
  76. ^ Wilson, Mike (8 February 2008). . Farm Futures. Archived from the original on 9 February 2008. Retrieved 28 April 2008.
  77. ^ Grundwald, Michael (27 March 2008). . Time. Archived from the original on 30 March 2008. Retrieved 28 April 2008.
  78. ^ The Impact of US Biofuel Policies on Agricultural Price Levels and Volatility, By Bruce A. Babcock, Center for Agricultural and Rural Development, Iowa State University, for ICTSD, Issue Paper No. 35. June 2011.
  79. ^ HLPE (June 2013). "Biofuels and food security" (PDF).
  80. ^ International Energy Agency, World Energy Outlook 2006 28 September 2007 at the Wayback Machine (PDF), page 8.
  81. ^ Industrial Biotechnology Is Revolutionizing the Production of Ethanol Transportation Fuel 12 February 2006 at the Wayback Machine (PDF), pages 3–4.
  82. ^ a b "American Energy: The Renewable Path to Energy Security" (PDF). Worldwatch Institute. September 2006. Retrieved 11 March 2007.
  83. ^ (PDF). www.who.int. Archived from the original (PDF) on 9 July 2012. Retrieved 13 January 2022.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
  84. ^ WHO | Ambient (outdoor) air quality and health
  85. ^ a b Diesendorf, Mark (2003). (PDF). Dissent. Archived from the original (PDF) on 1 January 2007. Retrieved 29 April 2010.
  86. ^ Thomas Kirchhoff (2014): Energiewende und Landschaftsästhetik. Versachlichung ästhetischer Bewertungen von Energieanlagen durch Bezugnahme auf drei intersubjektive Landschaftsideale 18 April 2016 at the Wayback Machine, in: Naturschutz und Landschaftsplanung 46 (1), 10–16.
  87. ^ a b Nathan F. Jones, Liba Pejchar, Joseph M. Kiesecker. "The Energy Footprint: How Oil, Natural Gas, and Wind Energy Affect Land for Biodiversity and the Flow of Ecosystem Services". BioScience, Volume 65, Issue 3, March 2015. pp.290–301
  88. ^ "What are the pros and cons of onshore wind energy?". Grantham Research Institute on Climate Change and the Environment. from the original on 22 June 2019. Retrieved 12 December 2020.
  89. ^ "The Germans fighting wind farms close to their homes | DW | 26.11.2019". Deutsche Welle. from the original on 12 November 2020. Retrieved 12 December 2020.
  90. ^ Szarka, Joseph (2007). Wind Power in Europe: Politics, Business and Society. Springer. p. 176.
  91. ^ Gordon, Dr. David. Wind farms and tourism in Scotland 21 September 2020 at the Wayback Machine. Mountaineering Council of Scotland. November 2017. p.3
  92. ^ newscientist.com June 2005 Wind turbines a breeze for migrating birds
  93. ^ Chapman, Andrew (15 November 2003). "Renewable energy industry environmental impacts". Country Guardian. Retrieved 19 September 2007. Evaluations of the bird kills at Altamont suggested that the small, 18-metre diameter rotor, turbines rotating a high speed, 60 revolutions per minute, were a major contributor.
  94. ^ "What about offshore wind farms and birds?". Capewind.org. Retrieved 17 January 2012.
  95. ^ "Fears Donegal landslide has devastated EU protected salmon site". RTÉ News. 18 November 2020. Retrieved 18 January 2022.
  96. ^ "Donegal: Peat landslide linked to wind farm raised in Dáil". BBC News. 18 November 2020. Retrieved 18 January 2022.
  97. ^ Chiu, Allyson; Guskin, Emily; Clement, Scott (3 October 2023). "Americans don't hate living near solar and wind farms as much as you might think". The Washington Post. from the original on 3 October 2023.
  98. ^ a b American Wind Energy Association (2009). Annual Wind Industry Report, Year Ending 2008 20 April 2009 at the Wayback Machine pp. 9–10.
  99. ^ "Wind Farms in Cumbria". Retrieved 3 October 2008.
  100. ^ Arnold, James (20 September 2004). "Wind Turbulence over turbines in Cumbria". BBC News. Retrieved 3 October 2008.
  101. ^ Dodd, Eimear (27 March 2021). "Permission to build five turbine wind farm at Kilranelagh refused". Irish Independent. Retrieved 18 January 2022.
  102. ^ Kula, Adam (9 April 2021). "Department defends 500ft windfarm in protected Area of Outstanding Beauty". The News Letter. Retrieved 18 January 2022.
  103. ^ "Building wind farms 'could destroy Welsh landscape'". BBC News. 4 November 2019. Retrieved 18 January 2022.
  104. ^ Glenn Cramer, Sheldon Town Councilman (30 October 2009). "Town Councilor regrets High Sheldon Wind Farm (Sheldon, NY)". Retrieved 4 September 2015.
  105. ^ Broadcast Wind, LLC. "Solutions for the Broadcasting and Wind Energy Industries". Retrieved 4 September 2015.
  106. ^ . TSR (grupo Tratamiento de Señal y Radiocomunicaciones de la UPV/EHU). Archived from the original on 23 September 2015. Retrieved 4 September 2015.
  107. ^ a b c d e Scott Victor Valentine (2011). "Sheltering wind power projects from tempestuous community concerns" (PDF). Energy Policy.
  108. ^ Natarajan, L; Rydin, Y; Lock, S.J; Lee, M (1 March 2018). "Navigating the participatory processes of renewable energy infrastructure regulation: A 'local participant perspective' on the NSIPs regime in England and Wales". Energy Policy. 114: 201–210. doi:10.1016/j.enpol.2017.12.006. ISSN 0301-4215.
  109. ^ . Renewableenergyaccess.com. Archived from the original on 12 October 2007. Retrieved 17 January 2012.
  110. ^ Fisher, Jeanette. "Wind Power: MidAmerican's Intrepid Wind Farm". Environmentpsychology.com. Retrieved 17 January 2012.
  111. ^ "Stakeholder Engagement". Agl.com.au. 19 March 2008. Retrieved 17 January 2012.
  112. ^ a b "Wind Energy and the Environment" (PDF). Retrieved 17 January 2012.
  113. ^ (PDF). Environment.gov.au. Archived from the original (PDF) on 5 September 2008. Retrieved 17 January 2012.
  114. ^ "New standard and big investment for wind energy" (PDF). Publish.csiro.au. 17 December 2007. Retrieved 17 January 2012.
  115. ^ "National Wind Watch – Wind Energy Opposition and Action Groups". National Wind Watch. Retrieved 15 September 2016.
  116. ^ The Australia Institute (2006). Wind Farms The facts and the fallacies 25 February 2012 at the Wayback Machine Discussion Paper Number 91, October, ISSN 1322-5421, p. 28.
  117. ^ "Community Power Empowers". Dsc.discovery.com. 26 May 2009. Retrieved 17 January 2012.
  118. ^ Community Wind Farms 20 July 2008 at the Wayback Machine
  119. ^ "A Summary of Opinion Surveys on Wind Power" (PDF). Retrieved 17 January 2012.
  120. ^ . Eon-uk.com. 28 February 2008. Archived from the original on 14 March 2012. Retrieved 17 January 2012.
  121. ^ The Harris Poll#119 (13 October 2010). "Large Majorities in U.S. and Five Largest European Countries Favor More Wind Farms and Subsidies for Bio-fuels, but Opinion is Split on Nuclear Power". PRNewswire.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  122. ^ "Wind Power: MidAmerican's Intrepid Wind Farm." Environmental Psychology. 2006
  123. ^ Lawsuit Seeks Redress for Massive Illegal Bird Kills at Altamont Pass, CA, Wind Farms, Center for Biological Diversity, 12 January 2004
  124. ^ "Appeals court dismisses lawsuit over bird deaths at Altamont Pass". Mercurynews.com. Retrieved 17 January 2012.
  125. ^ . greenenergy.uk.com. 26 January 2005. Archived from the original on 21 December 2006. Retrieved 1 February 2007.
  126. ^ Warren, Charles R; McFadyen, Malcolm (2010). "Does community ownership affect public attitudes to wind energy? A case study from south-west Scotland". Land Use Policy. 27 (2): 204–213. doi:10.1016/j.landusepol.2008.12.010.
  127. ^ O'Malley weighs western windmills; The Washington Times.
  128. ^ "After Years of Study, Power-Generating 'Wind Farms' on Horizon in State". Newsline.umd.edu. 3 December 2004. Retrieved 17 January 2012.
  129. ^ O'Neill, Sean (17 January 2012). "Wind farms 'a threat to national security'". The Times. UK. Retrieved 17 January 2012.
  130. ^ Saying wind power plan endangers bat, groups notify company of intent to sue Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, 16 April 2008
  131. ^ "Victorian community goes it alone on wind farm". Australia: ABC. 25 July 2008. Retrieved 17 January 2012.
  132. ^ Rural communities want Alberta to allow wind power farms on leased Crown land, The Canadian Press, 22 March 2009
  133. ^ "Wind Turbine Opponents Claim Health Concerns Ignored – CityNews". Citytv.com. 28 April 2010. Retrieved 17 January 2012.
  134. ^ Talaga, Tanya (28 April 2010). "Wind turbines making us sick: Protesters". The Star. Toronto.
  135. ^ "Wind turbine debate swirls – The Whig Standard – Ontario, CA". Thewhig.com. Retrieved 17 January 2012.
  136. ^ "Protest at Queen's Park|UPDATE |VIDEO". MyKawartha Article. Retrieved 17 January 2012.
  137. ^ (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 4 March 2012. Retrieved 17 January 2012.
  138. ^ WindShare. . WindShare website. WindShare. Archived from the original on 6 March 2010. Retrieved 9 March 2010.
  139. ^ . Toronto Hydro. 6 February 2006. Archived from the original on 30 March 2008. Retrieved 11 April 2008.
  140. ^ . Windshare.ca. Archived from the original on 3 January 2012. Retrieved 17 January 2012.
  141. ^ "Chalumbin windfarm trampling on indigenous heritage - Thursday 20 July, 2023 - 2023". ADH TV. Retrieved 6 August 2023.
  142. ^ "Geothermal Energy: Renewable or Not? | Jcmiras.Net_01". Jcmiras.net. 12 January 2012. Retrieved 17 January 2012.
  143. ^ Australian Broadcasting Company. Critics say geo-thermal power not renewable. 20 August 2008.
  144. ^ Response of Wairakei geothermal reservoir to 40 years of production 7 July 2003 at the Wayback Machine, 2006 (pdf) Allan Clotworthy, Proceedings World Geothermal Congress 2000. (accessed 30 March).
  145. ^ 5 Minutes 10 Minutes. "Geodynamics says it has the "hottest rocks on earth"". Theaustralian.news.com.au. Retrieved 17 January 2012.{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  146. ^ "Sustainable Utilization – National Energy Authority of Iceland". Retrieved 15 September 2016.
  147. ^ "Total System Electric Generation".
  148. ^ "100% Clean and Renewable Wind, Water, and Sunlight All-Sector Energy Roadmaps for 139 Countries of the World" (PDF). Jacobson. September 2017. Retrieved 28 December 2019.
  149. ^ a b c d Lund, Henrik (2010). "The implementation of renewable energy systems. Lessons learned from the Danish case". Energy. 35 (10): 4003–4009. doi:10.1016/j.energy.2010.01.036.
  150. ^ Eilperin, Juliet (28 March 2013). "House GOP energy plan: drill more, mine more". The Washington Post. from the original on 29 March 2013.
  151. ^ "Home". progressiveea.com.
  152. ^ a b c d Barry, John (2008). "Cool Rationalities and Hot Air: A Rhetorical Approach to Understanding Debates on Renewable Energy". Global Environmental Politics. 8 (2): 67–98. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.564.968. doi:10.1162/glep.2008.8.2.67. S2CID 57572362.
  153. ^ Mulvaney, Kate (2013). "Different Shades of Green: A Case Study of Support for Wind Farms in the Rural Midwest". Environmental Management. 51 (5): 1012–1024. Bibcode:2013EnMan..51.1012M. doi:10.1007/s00267-013-0026-8. PMID 23519901. S2CID 37099335.
  154. ^ Cohen, Bernard L. (January 1983). (PDF). American Journal of Physics. 51 (1): 75–76. Bibcode:1983AmJPh..51...75C. doi:10.1119/1.13440. Archived from the original (PDF) on 26 September 2007. Retrieved 3 August 2007.
  155. ^ McCarthy, John (12 February 1996). . Progress and its Sustainability. Stanford. Archived from the original on 10 April 2007. Retrieved 3 August 2007.
  156. ^ Brundtland, Gro Harlem (20 March 1987). "Chapter 7: Energy: Choices for Environment and Development". Our Common Future: Report of the World Commission on Environment and Development. Oslo. Retrieved 27 March 2013. Today's primary sources of energy are mainly non-renewable: natural gas, oil, coal, peat, and conventional nuclear power. There are also renewable sources, including wood, plants, dung, falling water, geothermal sources, solar, tidal, wind, and wave energy, as well as human and animal muscle-power. Nuclear reactors that produce their own fuel ('breeders') and eventually fusion reactors are also in this category

Further reading edit

January 01, 1970
renewable, energy, debate, policy, makers, often, debate, constraints, opportunities, renewable, energy, global, public, support, energy, sources, based, survey, ipsos, 2011, rampart, terminated, result, concerns, about, indigenous, people, ecological, conserv. Policy makers often debate the constraints and opportunities of renewable energy Global public support for energy sources based on a survey by Ipsos 2011 1 The 5 GW Rampart Dam was terminated as a result of concerns about indigenous people and ecological conservation issues Renewable electricity production from sources such as wind power and solar power is sometimes criticized for being variable or intermittent The International Energy Agency has stated that its significance depends on a range of factors such as the penetration of the renewables concerned 2 There have been concerns relating to the visual and other impacts of some wind farms with local residents sometimes fighting or blocking construction 3 In the US the Massachusetts Cape Wind project was delayed for years partly because of such concerns Residents in other areas have been more positive and there are community wind farm developments According to a town councillor the overwhelming majority of locals believe the Ardrossan Wind Farm in Scotland has enhanced the area 4 The market for renewable energy technologies has continued to grow Climate change concerns coupled with high oil prices peak oil and increasing government support are driving increasing renewable energy legislation incentives and commercialization 5 New government spending regulation and policies helped the industry weather the 2009 economic crisis better than many other sectors 6 The concerns about environmental impacts of renewable energy are presented by the proponents of theories like degrowth and steady state economy as one of the proofs that for achieving sustainability technological methods are not enough and there is a need to limit consumption 7 Contents 1 Definition of renewable energy 2 Variable renewable energy 3 Economics and viability 3 1 Base load electricity 4 Environmental social and legal considerations 4 1 Hydroelectricity 4 1 1 Advantages 4 1 2 Disadvantages 4 2 Solar power 4 3 Biofuels production 4 4 Wind farms 4 4 1 Community debate about wind farms 5 Longevity issues 6 Diversification 7 Institutionalized barriers and choice awareness theory 8 Nuclear power proposed as renewable energy 9 See also 10 References 11 Further readingDefinition of renewable energy editThe International Energy Agency defines renewable energy saying Renewable energy is derived from natural processes that are replenished constantly In its various forms it derives directly from the sun or from heat generated deep within the earth Included in the definition is electricity and heat generated from solar wind ocean hydropower biomass geothermal resources and biofuels and hydrogen derived from renewable resources 8 Renewable energy resources exist over wide geographical areas in contrast to other energy sources which are concentrated in a limited number of countries 8 Variable renewable energy edit nbsp The 150 MW Andasol solar power station is a commercial parabolic trough solar thermal power plant located in Spain The Andasol plant uses tanks of molten salt to store solar energy so that it can continue generating electricity even when the sun isn t shining 9 nbsp Photovoltaic array and wind turbines at the Schneebergerhof wind farm in the German state of Rheinland Pfalz nbsp Biogas fermenter wind turbine and photovoltaics on a farm in Horstedt Schleswig Holstein Germany See also Variable renewable energy Energy security and renewable technology and Renewable Electricity and the Grid Variability inherently affects solar energy as the production of electricity from solar sources depends on the amount of light energy in a given location Solar output varies throughout the day the seasons with cloud cover and by latitude on the globe Windblown sand erodes glass in dry climates protective layers add expenses These factors are fairly predictable and some solar thermal systems make use of molten salt heat storage to produce power when the sun is not shining 10 Wind generated power is a variable resource and the amount of electricity produced at any given point in time by a given plant will depend on wind speeds air density and turbine characteristics among other factors If wind speed is too low less than about 2 5 m s then the wind turbines will not be able to make electricity and if it is too high more than about 25 m s the turbines will have to be shut down to avoid damage While the output from a single turbine can vary greatly and rapidly as local wind speeds vary as more turbines are connected over larger and larger areas the average power output becomes less variable 11 Capacity factors for PV solar are rather poor varying between 10 and 20 of the rated nameplate capacity Onshore wind is better at 20 35 and offshore wind is best at 45 This means that more total capacity needs to be installed in order to achieve an average output for the year 12 The capacity factor relates to statements about capacity increases generation may have increased by a much smaller figure The International Energy Agency says that there has been too much attention on issue of the variability of renewable electricity production 13 This issue only applies to certain renewable technologies mainly wind power and solar photovoltaics and to a lesser extent run of the river hydroelectricity The significance of this predictable variability 14 depends on a range of factors which include the market penetration of the renewables concerned the nature of the energy sources used to balance the intermittentcy as well as demand side flexibility Variability will rarely be a barrier to increased renewable energy deployment But at high levels of market penetration it requires careful analysis and management and additional costs may be required for dispatchable back up or system modification 13 Renewable electricity supply in the 20 50 penetration range has already been implemented in several European systems albeit in the context of an integrated European grid system 15 In 2011 the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change the world s leading climate researchers selected by the United Nations said as infrastructure and energy systems develop in spite of the complexities there are few if any fundamental technological limits to integrating a portfolio of renewable energy technologies to meet a majority share of total energy demand in locations where suitable renewable resources exist or can be supplied 16 IPCC scenarios generally indicate that growth in renewable energy will be widespread around the world 17 The IPCC said that if governments were supportive and the full complement of renewable energy technologies were deployed renewable energy supply could account for almost 80 of the world s energy use within forty years 18 Rajendra Pachauri chairman of the IPCC said the necessary investment in renewables would cost only about 1 of global GDP annually This approach could contain greenhouse gas levels to less than 450 parts per million the safe level beyond which climate change becomes catastrophic and irreversible 18 Mark Z Jacobson says that there is no shortage of renewable energy and a smart mix of renewable energy sources can be used to reliably meet electricity demand Because the wind blows during stormy conditions when the sun does not shine and the sun often shines on calm days with little wind combining wind and solar can go a long way toward meeting demand especially when geothermal provides a steady base and hydroelectric can be called on to fill in the gaps 19 As physicist Amory Lovins has said The variability of sun wind and so on turns out to be a non problem if you do several sensible things One is to diversify your renewables by technology so that weather conditions bad for one kind are good for another Second you diversify by site so they re not all subject to the same weather pattern at the same time because they re in the same place Third you use standard weather forecasting techniques to forecast wind sun and rain and of course hydro operators do this right now Fourth you integrate all your resources supply side and demand side 20 The combination of diversifying variable renewables by type and location forecasting their variation and integrating them with despatchable renewables flexible fueled generators and demand response can create a power system that has the potential to meet our needs reliably Integrating ever higher levels of renewables is being successfully demonstrated in the real world 15 In 2009 eight American and three European authorities writing in the leading electrical engineers professional journal didn t find a credible and firm technical limit to the amount of wind energy that can be accommodated by electricity grids In Fact not one of more than 200 international studies nor official studies for the eastern and western U S regions nor the International Energy Agency has found major costs or technical barriers to reliably integrating up to 30 variable renewable supplies into the grid and in some studies much more 15 Renewable electricity supply in the 20 50 range has already been implemented in several European systems albeit in the context of an integrated European grid system 15 In 2010 four German states totalling 10 million people relied on wind power for 43 52 of their annual electricity needs Denmark isn t far behind supplying 22 of its power from wind in 2010 26 in an average wind year The Extremadura region of Spain is getting up to 25 of its electricity from solar while the whole country meets 16 of its demand from wind Just during 2005 2010 Portugal vaulted from 17 to 45 renewable electricity 15 Integration of renewable energy has caused some grid stability problems in Germany Voltage fluctuations have caused problems with sensitive equipment In one case Hydro Aluminium plant in Hamburg was forced to shut down when the rolling mill s highly sensitive monitor stopped production so abruptly that the aluminum belts snagged They hit the machines and destroyed a piece of the mill The malfunction was caused when voltage off the electricity grid weakened for a millisecond A survey of members of the Association of German Industrial Energy Companies VIK revealed that the number of short interruptions to the German electricity grid has grown by 29 percent in the years 2009 2012 Over the same time period the number of service failures has grown 31 percent and almost half of those failures have led to production stoppages Damages have ranged between 10 000 and hundreds of thousands of euros according to company information 21 Minnkota Power Cooperative the leading U S wind utility in 2009 supplied 38 of its retail sales from the wind 15 Mark A Delucchi and Mark Z Jacobson report that there are at least seven ways to design and operate variable renewable energy systems so that they will reliably satisfy electricity demand 22 A interconnect geographically dispersed naturally variable energy sources e g wind solar wave tidal which smoothes out electricity supply and demand significantly B use complementary and non variable energy sources such as hydroelectric power to fill temporary gaps between demand and wind or solar generation C use smart demand response management to shift flexible loads to a time when more renewable energy is available D store electric power at the site of generation in batteries hydrogen gas molten salts compressed air pumped hydroelectric power and flywheels for later use E over size renewable peak generation capacity to minimize the times when available renewable power is less than demand and to provide spare power to produce hydrogen for flexible transportation and heat uses F store electric power in electric vehicle batteries known as vehicle to grid or V2G G forecast the weather winds sunlight waves tides and precipitation to better plan for energy supply needs 22 Jacobson and Delucchi argue that wind water and solar power can be scaled up in cost effective ways to meet our energy demands freeing us from dependence on both fossil fuels and nuclear power In 2009 they published A Plan to Power 100 Percent of the Planet With Renewables in Scientific American The article addressed a number of issues such as the worldwide spatial footprint of wind turbines the availability of scarce materials needed for manufacture of new systems the ability to produce reliable energy on demand and the average cost per kilowatt hour A more detailed and updated technical analysis has been published as a two part article in the journal Energy Policy 23 Renewable energy is naturally replenished and renewable power technologies increase energy security for the energy poor locales because they reduce dependence on foreign sources of fuel Unlike power stations relying on uranium and recycled plutonium for fuel they are not subject to the volatility of global fuel markets 24 Renewable power decentralises electricity supply and so minimises the need to produce transport and store hazardous fuels reliability of power generation is improved by producing power close to the energy consumer An accidental or intentional outage affects a smaller amount of capacity than an outage at a larger power station 24 The Fukushima I nuclear accidents in Japan have brought new attention to how national energy systems are vulnerable to natural disasters with climate change is already bringing more weather and climate extremes These threats to our old energy systems provide a rationale for investing in renewable energy Shifting to renewable energy can help us to meet the dual goals of reducing greenhouse gas emissions thereby limiting future extreme weather and climate impacts and ensuring reliable timely and cost efficient delivery of energy Investing in renewable energy can have significant dividends for our energy security 25 Economics and viability edit nbsp The worldwide growth of renewable energy is shown by the green line 26 See also Cost of electricity by source Renewable energy technologies are getting cheaper through technological change and through the benefits of mass production and market competition A 2011 IEA report said A portfolio of renewable energy technologies is becoming cost competitive in an increasingly broad range of circumstances in some cases providing investment opportunities without the need for specific economic support and added that cost reductions in critical technologies such as wind and solar are set to continue 27 As of 2011 update there have been substantial reductions in the cost of solar and wind technologies The price of PV modules per MW has fallen by 60 percent since the summer of 2008 according to Bloomberg New Energy Finance estimates putting solar power for the first time on a competitive footing with the retail price of electricity in a number of sunny countries Wind turbine prices have also fallen by 18 percent per MW in the last two years reflecting as with solar fierce competition in the supply chain Further improvements in the levelised cost of energy for solar wind and other technologies lie ahead posing a growing threat to the dominance of fossil fuel generation sources in the next few years 28 Hydro electricity and geothermal electricity produced at favourable sites are now the cheapest way to generate electricity Renewable energy costs continue to drop and the levelised cost of electricity LCOE is declining for wind power solar photovoltaic PV concentrated solar power CSP and some biomass technologies 29 Wind and Solar are able to produce electricity for 20 40 of the year 30 Renewable energy is also the most economic solution for new grid connected capacity in areas without cheap fossil fuels As the cost of renewable power falls the scope of economically viable applications increases Renewable technologies are now often the most economic solution for new generating capacity Where oil fired generation is the predominant power generation source e g on islands off grid and in some countries a lower cost renewable solution almost always exists today 29 As of 2012 renewable power generation technologies accounted for around half of all new power generation capacity additions globally In 2011 additions included 41 gigawatt GW of new wind power capacity 30 GW of PV 25 GW of hydro electricity 6 GW of biomass 0 5 GW of CSP and 0 1 GW of geothermal power 29 Hydropower provides 16 3 of the world s electricity When combined with the other renewables wind geothermal solar biomass and waste together they make up 21 7 of electricity generation worldwide in 2013 31 Base load electricity edit The base load is the minimum level of demand on an electrical grid over a span of time some variation in demand may be compensated by varying production or electricity trading The criteria for base load power generation are low price availability and reliability Over the years as technology and available resources evolved a variety of power sources have been used Hydroelectricity was the first method and this is still the case in a few wet climates like Brazil Canada Norway and Iceland Coal became the most popular base load supply with the development of the steam turbine and bulk transport and this is standard in much of the world Nuclear power is also used and is in competition with coal France is predominantly nuclear and uses less than 10 fossil fuel In the US the increasing popularity of natural gas is likely to replace coal as the base There is no country where the majority of base load power is supplied by wind solar biofuels or geothermal as each of these sources fails one or more of the criteria of low price availability and reliability However there are many countries which meet more than 80 of electricity from the hydro power and the variable renewable energy sources RES It is feasible to meet 100 electricity demand including base load at lower price with 100 reliability by a mix of various dependable RES solar thermal storage plants peaking hydro plants and pumped storage hydro plants and variable RES solar PV wind power and run of the river hydro plants as RES power generation cost particularly solar PV has fallen below the operating fuel cost of coal natural gas fired base load power stations 32 The surplus and cheaper solar PV power generated during the day light is stored by the pumped storage hydro power plants to meet electricity demand round the clock throughout the year 33 34 35 The existing fossil and nuclear fuel based power generation can only sustain till their supplementation is required for the RES power generation As the RES power generation cost is so cheap and environment friendly there is no scope for new fossil and nuclear fuel based power plants 36 Also lithium ion battery price is expected to reduce from US 176 kWh in 2019 to US 94 kWh by 2024 which will make roof top solar PV with battery storage system more affordable in decentralized stand alone microgrid without the need to spend additionally on the huge centralized power grid 37 Environmental social and legal considerations editRenewable power technologies can have significant environmental benefits Unlike coal and natural gas they can generate electricity and fuels without releasing significant quantities of CO2 and other greenhouse gases that contribute to climate change however the greenhouse gas savings from a number of biofuels have been found to be much less than originally anticipated as discussed in the article Indirect land use change impacts of biofuels The transition to renewable energy depends on non renewable resources such as mined metals 38 Manufacturing of photovoltaic panels wind turbines and batteries requires significant amounts of rare earth elements 39 which has significant social and environmental impact if mined in forests and protected areas In the year 2020 mining areas for materials needed to renewables overlapped with 16 of Wilderness 40 Producing 1 tone of rare earrh element produce 2 000 tons of toxic waste 41 Due to co occurrence of rare earth and radioactive elements thorium uranium and radium rare earth mining results in production of low level radioactive waste 42 Both solar and wind have been criticized from an aesthetic point of view 43 However methods and opportunities exist to deploy these renewable technologies efficiently and unobtrusively fixed solar collectors can double as noise barriers along highways and extensive roadway parking lot and roof top area is currently available amorphous photovoltaic cells can also be used to tint windows and produce energy 44 Advocates of renewable energy also argue that current infrastructure is less aesthetically pleasing than alternatives but sited further from the view of most critics 45 Hydroelectricity edit Main article Hydroelectricity Advantages and disadvantages In 2015 hydropower generated 16 6 of the worlds total electricity and 70 of all renewable electricity 46 The major advantage of conventional hydroelectric systems with reservoirs is their ability to store potential power for later production on demand When used in conjunction with intermittent sources like wind and solar a constant supply of electricity is achieved Other advantages include longer life than fuel fired generation low operating costs and other uses of the reservoir In areas without natural water flow pumped storage plants provide a constant supply of electricity Overall hydroelectric power can be far less expensive than electricity generated from fossil fuels or nuclear energy and areas with abundant hydroelectric power attract industry In Canada it s estimated there are 160 000 megawatts of undeveloped hydro potential 47 However there are several disadvantages associated with conventional dam and reservoir hydroelectricity These include dislocation if there are people living where the reservoirs are planned release of significant amounts of carbon dioxide at construction and flooding of the reservoir disruption of aquatic ecosystems and birdlife adverse impacts on the river environment potential risks of sabotage and terrorism and in rare cases catastrophic failure of the dam wall Advantages edit nbsp The Ffestiniog Power Station can generate 360 MW of electricity within 60 seconds of the demand arising Economic gains Hydro is a flexible source of electricity since plants can be ramped up and down very quickly to adapt to changing electrical demands 48 The cost of operating a hydroelectric plant is nearly immune to changes in the cost or availability of fossil fuels such as oil natural gas or coal and no imports are needed The average cost of electricity from a hydro plant larger than 10 megawatts is 3 to 5 U S cents per kilowatt hour 48 Hydroelectric plants have long economic lives with some plants still in service after 50 100 years 49 Operating labor cost is also usually low as plants are automated and have few personnel on site during normal operation Industrial use While many hydroelectric projects supply public electricity networks some are created to serve specific industrial enterprises Dedicated hydroelectric projects are often built to provide the substantial amounts of electricity needed for aluminium electrolytic plants for example The Grand Coulee Dam switched to support Alcoa aluminium in Bellingham Washington United States for American World War II airplanes before it was allowed to provide irrigation and power to citizens in addition to aluminium power after the war In Suriname the Brokopondo Reservoir was constructed to provide electricity for the Alcoa aluminium industry New Zealand s Manapouri Power Station was constructed to supply electricity to the aluminium smelter at Tiwai Point Low impact on climate change Since hydroelectric dams do not burn fossil fuels they do not directly produce carbon dioxide or pollutants While some carbon dioxide is produced during cement manufacture and construction of the project this is a tiny fraction of the operating emissions of equivalent fossil fuel electricity generation One measurement of greenhouse gas and other external comparison between energy sources can be found in the ExternE project by the Paul Scherrer Institut and the University of Stuttgart which was funded by the European Commission 50 According to that study hydroelectricity produces the least amount of greenhouse gases and externality of any energy source 51 Coming in second place was wind third was nuclear energy and fourth was solar photovoltaic 51 The low greenhouse gas impact of hydroelectricity is found especially in temperate climates The above study was for local energy in Europe presumably similar conditions prevail in North America and Northern Asia which all see a regular natural freeze thaw cycle with associated seasonal plant decay and regrowth Greater greenhouse gas emissions of methane are found in the tropical regions 52 Other reservoir uses The cost of large dams and reservoirs is justified by some of the added benefits Reservoirs often provide facilities for water sports and become tourist attractions themselves In some countries aquaculture in reservoirs is common Multi use dams installed for irrigation support agriculture with a relatively constant water supply Large reservoirs can control flooding and alleviate droughts which would otherwise harm people living downstream 53 The Columbia River Treaty between The US and Canada required that in the 1960s and 1970s very large reservoirs were constructed for flood control In order to offset the cost of dam construction some locations included large hydroelectric plants Disadvantages edit Further information Hydroelectricity Disadvantages and Environmental impact of reservoirs Reservoir land requirements nbsp Hydroelectric power stations that use dams would submerge large areas of land due to the requirement of a reservoir Large reservoirs required for the operation of conventional hydroelectric dams result in submersion of extensive areas upstream of the dams changing biologically rich and productive lowland and riverine valley forests marshland and grasslands into artificial lakes Ideally a reservoir would be large enough to average the annual flow of water or in its smallest form provide sufficient water for irrigation The loss of land is often exacerbated by habitat fragmentation of surrounding areas caused by the reservoir 54 In Europe and North America environmental concerns around land flooded by large reservoirs ended 30 years of dam construction in the 1990s since then only run of the river projects have been approved Large dams and reservoirs continue to be built in countries like China Brazil and India Reservoirs displace communities A consequence is the need to relocate the people living where the reservoirs are planned In 2000 the World Commission on Dams estimated that dams had physically displaced 40 80 million people worldwide 55 An example is the contentious Three Gorges Dam which displaced 1 24 million residents In 1954 the river flooded 193 000 km2 74 518 sq mi killing 33 000 people and forcing 18 million people to move to higher ground The dam now provides a flood storage capacity for 22 cubic kilometres of water Reservoir siltation When water flows it has the ability to transport particles heavier than itself downstream This may negatively affect the reservoir capacity and subsequently their power stations particularly those on rivers or within catchment areas with high siltation Siltation can fill a reservoir and reduce its capacity to control floods along with causing additional horizontal pressure on the upstream portion of the dam Eventually some reservoirs can become full of sediment and useless or over top during a flood and fail 56 57 nbsp The Hoover Dam in the United States is a large conventional dammed hydro facility with an installed capacity of 2 080 MW Reservoirs methane generation Some reservoirs in tropical regions produce substantial amounts of methane This is due to plant material in flooded areas decaying in an anaerobic environment and forming methane a greenhouse gas According to the World Commission on Dams report 58 where the reservoir is large compared to the generating capacity less than 100 watts per square metre of surface area and no clearing of the forests in the area was undertaken prior to impoundment of the reservoir greenhouse gas emissions from the reservoir may be higher than those of a conventional oil fired thermal generation plant 59 There is a lack of knowledge in the scientific community regarding reservoir GHG emissions producing many diverging positions To resolve this situation the International Energy Agency is coordinating an analysis of actual emissions 60 In boreal reservoirs of Canada and Northern Europe greenhouse gas emissions are typically only 2 to 8 of any kind of conventional fossil fuel thermal generation A new class of underwater logging operation that targets drowned forests can mitigate the effect of forest decay 61 Reservoir safety Because large conventional dammed hydro facilities hold back large volumes of water a failure due to poor construction natural disasters or sabotage can be catastrophic to downriver settlements and infrastructure During Typhoon Nina in 1975 Banqiao Dam failed in Southern China when more than a year s worth of rain fell within 24 hours The resulting flood resulted in the deaths of 26 000 people and another 145 000 from epidemics Millions were left homeless Also the creation of a dam in a geologically inappropriate location may cause disasters such as 1963 disaster at Vajont Dam in Italy where almost 2000 people died 62 Smaller dams and micro hydro facilities create less risk but can form continuing hazards even after being decommissioned For example the small 1939 Kelly Barnes Dam failed in 1967 causing 39 deaths with the Toccoa Flood ten years after its power plant was decommissioned 63 Downstream aquatic ecosystem Hydroelectric projects can be disruptive to surrounding aquatic ecosystems downstream of the plant site Changes in the amount of river flow will correlate with the amount of energy produced by a dam Water exiting a reservoir usually contains very little suspended sediment which can lead to scouring of river beds and loss of riverbanks 64 For fish migration a fish ladder may be required For fish going through a high head turbine is usually fatal Reservoir water passing through a turbine alters the downstream river environment Downstream changes to the water temperature and dissolved gases have adverse effects on some species of fish 65 In addition to this alteration to the amount of water let through the dam can also change the composition of gasses in the water downstream Changes in the amount of discharged water also have the ability to interrupt mating season for various species of fish by dewatering their spawning grounds and forcing them to retreat Even if mating season has passed any newly hatched fry can be killed off by low water levels in their spawning areas 66 Solar power edit See also Environmental impact of solar power and Space based solar power nbsp Part of the Senftenberg Solarpark a solar photovoltaic power plant located on former open pit mining areas close to the city of Senftenberg in Eastern Germany The 78 MW Phase 1 of the plant was completed within three months Unlike fossil fuel based technologies solar power does not lead to any harmful emissions during operation but the production of the panels leads to some amount of pollution The energy payback time of a power generating system is the time required to generate as much energy as was consumed during production of the system In 2000 the energy payback time of PV systems was estimated as 8 to 11 years 67 and in 2006 this was estimated to be 1 5 to 3 5 years for crystalline silicon PV systems 68 and 1 1 5 years for thin film technologies S Europe 68 Another economic measure closely related to the energy payback time is the energy returned on energy invested EROEI or energy return on investment EROI 69 which is the ratio of electricity generated divided by the energy required to build and maintain the equipment This is not the same as the economic return on investment ROI which varies according to local energy prices subsidies available and metering techniques With lifetimes of at least 30 years citation needed the EROEI of PV systems are in the range of 10 to 30 thus generating enough energy over their lifetimes to reproduce themselves many times 6 31 reproductions depending on what type of material balance of system BOS and the geographic location of the system 70 One issue that has often raised concerns is the use of cadmium in cadmium telluride solar cells CdTe is only used in a few types of PV panels Cadmium in its metallic form is a toxic substance that has the tendency to accumulate in ecological food chains The amount of cadmium used in thin film PV modules is relatively small 5 10 g m2 and with proper emission control techniques in place the cadmium emissions from module production can be almost zero Current PV technologies lead to cadmium emissions of 0 3 0 9 microgram kWh over the whole life cycle 68 Most of these emissions actually arise through the use of coal power for the manufacturing of the modules and coal and lignite combustion leads to much higher emissions of cadmium Life cycle cadmium emissions from coal is 3 1 microgram kWh lignite 6 2 and natural gas 0 2 microgram kWh Note that if electricity produced by photovoltaic panels were used to manufacture the modules instead of electricity from burning coal cadmium emissions from coal power usage in the manufacturing process could be entirely eliminated 71 Solar power plants require large amounts of land According to the Bureau of Land Management there are twenty proposals to use in total about 180 square miles of public land in California If all twenty proposed projects were built they would total 7 387 megawatts 72 The requirement for so much land has spurred efforts to encourage solar facilities to be built on already disturbed lands and the Department of Interior identified Solar Energy Zones that it judges to contain lower value habitat where solar development would have less of an impact on ecosystems 73 Sensitive wildlife impacted by large solar facility plans include the desert tortoise Mohave Ground Squirrel Mojave fringe toed lizard and desert bighorn sheep In the United States some of the land in the eastern portion of the Mojave Desert is to be preserved but the solar industry has mainly expressed interest in areas of the western desert where the sun burns hotter and there is easier access to transmission lines said Kenn J Arnecke of FPL Energy a sentiment shared by many executives in the industry 74 Biofuels production edit nbsp An ethanol fuel plant under construction Butler County Iowa Main article Food vs fuel See also Ethanol fuel energy balance and Cellulosic ethanol commercialization Biofuel production has increased in recent years Some commodities like maize corn sugar cane or vegetable oil can be used either as food feed or to make biofuels The Food vs fuel debate is the dilemma regarding the risk of diverting farmland or crops for biofuels production to the detriment of the food supply The biofuel and food price debate involves wide ranging views and is a long standing controversial one in the literature 75 76 77 78 There is disagreement about the significance of the issue what is causing it and what can or should be done to remedy the situation This complexity and uncertainty is due to the large number of impacts and feedback loops that can positively or negatively affect the price system Moreover the relative strengths of these positive and negative impacts vary in the short and long terms and involve delayed effects The academic side of the debate is also blurred by the use of different economic models and competing forms of statistical analysis 79 According to the International Energy Agency new biofuels technologies being developed today notably cellulosic ethanol could allow biofuels to play a much bigger role in the future than previously thought 80 Cellulosic ethanol can be made from plant matter composed primarily of inedible cellulose fibers that form the stems and branches of most plants Crop residues such as corn stalks wheat straw and rice straw wood waste and municipal solid waste are potential sources of cellulosic biomass Dedicated energy crops such as switchgrass are also promising cellulose sources that can be sustainably produced in many regions of the United States 81 The ethanol and biodiesel production industries also create jobs in plant construction operations and maintenance mostly in rural communities According to the Renewable Fuels Association the ethanol industry created almost 154 000 U S jobs in 2005 alone boosting household income by 5 7 billion It also contributed about 3 5 billion in tax revenues at the local state and federal levels 82 Biofuels are different from fossil fuels in regard to carbon emissions being short term but are similar to fossil fuels in that biofuels contribute to air pollution Burning produces airborne carbon particulates carbon monoxide and nitrous oxides 83 The WHO estimates 3 7 million premature deaths worldwide in 2012 due to air pollution 84 Wind farms edit Main article Environmental impact of wind power nbsp Wind power is a common renewable energy source Mark Diesendorf formerly Professor of Environmental Science at the University of Technology Sydney and a principal research scientist with CSIRO has summarised some of the benefits of onshore wind farms as follows 85 A wind farm when installed on agricultural land has one of the lowest environmental impacts of all energy sources It occupies less land area per kilowatt hour kWh of electricity generated than any other energy conversion system apart from rooftop solar energy and is compatible with grazing and crops It generates the energy used in its construction in just 3 months of operation yet its operational lifetime is 20 25 years Greenhouse gas emissions and air pollution produced by its construction are very tiny and declining There are no emissions or pollution produced by its operation In substituting for load following natural gas plants wind power produces a net decrease in greenhouse gas emissions and air pollution and a net increase in biodiversity Large wind turbines are almost silent and rotate so slowly in terms of revolutions per minute that they are rarely a bird strike hazard Dissent no 13 Summer 2003 04 pp 43 48 85 Onshore wind farms can have a significant visual impact and impact on the landscape 86 Their network of turbines access roads transmission lines and substations can result in energy sprawl 87 Due to a very low surface power density and spacing requirements wind farms typically need to be spread over more land than other power stations 88 They also need to be built away from urban areas 89 which can lead to industrialization of the countryside 90 A report by the Mountaineering Council of Scotland concluded that wind farms harmed tourism in areas known for natural landscapes and panoramic views 91 Onshore wind farms can cause habitat loss and habitat fragmentation for some wildlife 87 Some offshore wind farms in Europe are in areas heavily used by seabirds and studies have found very few bird collisions 92 Improvements in wind turbine design including a much slower rate of rotation of the blades and a smooth tower base instead of perchable lattice towers have helped reduce bird deaths at wind farms However older smaller wind turbines may be hazardous to birds 93 Birds are severely impacted by fossil fuel energy examples include birds dying from exposure to oil spills habitat loss from acid rain and mountaintop removal coal mining and mercury poisoning 94 In several cases wind farm construction near wetlands has been linked to bog landslides that have polluted rivers such as at Derrybrien and Meenbog in Ireland 95 96 Community debate about wind farms edit See also Wind turbines on public display nbsp Acceptance of wind and solar facilities in one s community is stronger among Democrats blue while acceptance of nuclear power plants is stronger among Republicans red 97 nbsp The wind turbines at Findhorn Ecovillage which make the community a net exporter of electricity nbsp U S landowners typically receive 3 000 to 5 000 per year in rental income from each wind turbine while farmers continue to grow crops or graze cattle up to the foot of the turbines 98 nbsp Wind turbines such as these in Cumbria England have been opposed for a number of reasons including aesthetics by some sectors of the population 99 100 There have been concerns relating to the visual and other impacts of some wind farms with local residents sometimes fighting or blocking construction Some of these concerns have been dismissed as not in my back yard NIMBY opposition 3 Certain wind farms have been opposed by residents local councils and national trusts for their potential harmful impact on protected scenic areas archaeological landscapes tourism and cultural heritage 101 102 103 In the US the Massachusetts Cape Wind project was delayed for years partly because of aesthetic concerns Elsewhere there are concerns that some installations can negatively affect TV and radio reception and Doppler weather radar as well as produce excessive sound and vibration levels leading to a decrease in property values 104 Potential broadcast reception solutions include predictive interference modeling as a component of site selection 105 106 Residents in other areas have been more positive and there are community wind farm developments According to a town councillor the overwhelming majority of locals believe that the Ardrossan Wind Farm in Scotland has enhanced the area 4 A starting point for better understanding community concerns about wind farms is often through public outreach initiatives e g surveys town hall meetings to clarify the nature of concerns Scott Victor Valentine 2011 said that community concerns over wind power projects have been shown to be based more on people s perception rather than fact 107 According to Valentine in tourist areas there is a perception that the siting of wind farms will adversely affect tourism but surveys conducted in tourist areas in Germany Belgium and Scotland showed this is not the case Similarly according to Valentine concerns over wind turbine noise shadow flicker and bird life threats are not supported by data He says the difficulty is that the general public often does not have ready access to information needed to assess the pros and cons of wind power developments 107 However even where the general public supports wind power in principle and is well informed there are often important qualifications around the building of wind farms i e providing mitigation of development impacts on local ecology and assets 108 According to Valentine the media often fails to give all the information the public needs to effectively evaluate the merits of a wind farm Moreover misinformation about wind power may be propagated by fossil fuel industry or other special interest groups 107 He says planners and policymakers can mitigate some public opposition by providing the community with comprehensive information which may also lead to enhanced support fir a project 107 Valentine says public perceptions generally improve after wind farms become operational Surveys within communities that host wind farms in the United Kingdom France the United States and Finland showed wind farms which are properly planned and sited can gain support He says wind farms that have been well planned to reduce social and environmental problems have been shown to positively influence wind power perceptions Support is enhanced when the community is offered investment opportunities and involvement in the wind power development 107 Many wind power companies work with local communities to reduce environmental and other concerns associated with particular wind farms 109 110 111 Appropriate government consultation planning and approval procedures also help to minimize environmental risks 112 113 114 Some people may still object to wind farms 115 The Australia Institute says their concerns should be weighed against the need to address the threats posed by climate change and the opinions of the broader community 116 In other cases there is direct community ownership of wind farms In Germany hundreds of thousands of people have invested in citizens wind farms and thousands of small and medium sized enterprises are running successful businesses in a sector that in 2008 employed 90 000 people and generated 8 percent of Germany s electricity 117 Wind power has gained very high social acceptance in Germany 118 Surveys of public attitudes across Europe and in many other countries show strong public support for wind power 112 119 120 Opinion on increase in number of wind farms 2010 Harris Poll 121 U S Great Britain France Italy Spain Germany Strongly oppose 3 6 6 2 2 4 Oppose more than favour 9 12 16 11 9 14 Favour more than oppose 37 44 44 38 37 42 Strongly favour 50 38 33 49 53 40 In America wind projects are reported to boost local tax bases helping to pay for schools roads and hospitals Wind projects also revitalize the economy of rural communities by providing steady income to farmers and other landowners 98 The Intrepid Wind Farm in Iowa is an example of one wind farm where the environmental impact of the project has been minimized through consultation and co operation Making sure the wind farm made as gentle an environmental impact as possible was an important consideration Therefore when MidAmerican first began planning the Intrepid site they worked closely with a number of state and national environmental groups Using input from such diverse groups as the Iowa Department of Natural Resources the Nature Conservancy Iowa State University the U S Fish and Wildlife Service the Iowa Natural Heritage Foundation and the Iowa Chapter of the Sierra Club MidAmerican created a statewide map of areas in the proposed region that contained specific bird populations or habitats Those areas were then avoided as site planning got underway in earnest In order to minimize the wind farm s environmental impact even further MidAmerican also worked in conjunction with the United States Army Corps of Engineers to secure all necessary permits related to any potential risk to wetlands in the area Regular inspections are also conducted to make certain that the wind farm is causing no adverse environmental impact to the region 122 Other examples include On 12 January 2004 it was reported that the Center for Biological Diversity filed a lawsuit against wind farm owners for killing tens of thousands of birds at the Altamont Pass Wind Resource Area near San Francisco California 123 In February 2008 a state appeals court upheld an earlier ruling that rejected the lawsuit 124 21 January 2005 Three wind turbines on the island of Gigha in Scotland generate up to 675 kW of power Revenue is produced by selling the electricity to the grid via an intermediary called Green Energy UK Gigha residents control the whole project and profits are reinvested in the community Local residents call the turbines The Three Dancing Ladies 125 126 On 7 December 2007 it was reported that some environmentalists opposed a plan to build a wind farm in western Maryland 127 But other local environmentalists say that the environmental effects of wind farms pale in comparison to coal burning generators which add to global warming and lead to acid rain that is killing trees in the same area 128 On 4 February 2008 according to British Ministry of Defence turbines create a hole in radar coverage so that aircraft flying overhead are not detectable In written evidence Squadron Leader Chris Breedon said This obscuration occurs regardless of the height of the aircraft of the radar and of the turbine 129 A 16 April 2008 article in the Pittsburgh Post Gazette said that three different environmental organizations had raised objections to a proposed wind farm at Shaffer Mountain in northeastern Somerset County Pennsylvania because the wind farm would be a threat to the Indiana bat which is listed as an endangered species 130 25 July 2008 The Australian Hepburn Wind Project is a proposed wind farm which will be the first Australian community owned wind farm The initiative emerged because the community felt that the state and federal governments were not doing enough to address climate change 131 12 August 2008 The Ardrossan Wind Farm in Scotland has been overwhelmingly accepted by local people Instead of spoiling the landscape they believe it has enhanced the area The turbines are impressive looking bring a calming effect to the town and contrary to the belief that they would be noisy we have found them to be silent workhorses 4 22 March 2009 Some rural communities in Alberta Canada want wind power companies to be allowed to develop wind farms on leased Crown land 132 28 April 2009 After the McGuinty government opposed calls for a moratorium on the construction of new turbines in Ontario several protests took place around the province especially at Queen s Park in Toronto Residents insist that more studies take place before continuing construction of the devices in their communities 133 134 135 136 In March 2010 the Toronto Renewable Energy Co operative TREC incorporated in 1998 began organizing a new co operative called The Lakewind Project 137 138 Its initial project WindShare completed in 2002 on the grounds of Exhibition Place in central downtown Toronto was the first wind turbine installed in a major North American urban city centre 139 and the first community owned wind power project in Ontario 140 20 July 2023 Nick Cater released a documentary showing how wind turbine blades are left abandoned in the forests of Chalumbin in Queensland on the site of a proposed large scale wind farm and discussed the difficulty of recycling them and the pollution caused as a result 141 Longevity issues editEven though a source of renewable energy may last for billions of years renewable energy infrastructure like hydroelectric dams will not last forever and must be removed and replaced at some point Events like the shifting of riverbeds or changing weather patterns could potentially alter or even halt the function of hydroelectric dams lowering the amount of time they are available to generate electricity A reservoirs capacity may also be affected by silting which may not be cost effective to remove Wind turbines suffer from wear and fatigue and are scheduled to last 25 years before being replaced often by much taller units Some have claimed that geothermal being a renewable energy source depends on the rate of extraction being slow enough such that depletion does not occur If depletion does occur the temperature can regenerate if given a long period of non use 142 143 The government of Iceland states It should be stressed that the geothermal resource is not strictly renewable in the same sense as the hydro resource It estimates that Iceland s geothermal energy could provide 1700 MW for over 100 years compared to the current production of 140 MW 144 Radioactive elements in the Earth s crust continuously decay replenishing the heat The International Energy Agency classifies geothermal power as renewable 145 Geothermal power in Iceland is developed in a stepwise development method to ensure that it is sustainable instead of excessive which would deplete the resource 146 Diversification editThe examples and perspective in this section deal primarily with the United States and do not represent a worldwide view of the subject You may improve this section discuss the issue on the talk page or create a new section as appropriate December 2010 Learn how and when to remove this template message The U S electric power industry now relies on large central power stations including coal natural gas nuclear and hydropower plants that together generate more than 95 of the nation s electricity Over the next few decades uses of renewable energy could help to diversify the nation s bulk power supply In 2016 renewable hydro solar wind geothermal and biomass produced 39 of California s electricity 147 Although most of today s electricity comes from large central station power plants renewable energy technologies offer a range of options for generating electricity nearer to where it is needed saving on the cost of transmitting and distributing power and improving the overall efficiency and reliability of the system 148 Improving energy efficiency represents the most immediate and often the most cost effective way to reduce oil dependence improve energy security and reduce the health and environmental impact of the energy system By reducing the total energy requirements of the economy improved energy efficiency could make increased reliance on renewable energy sources more practical and affordable 82 Institutionalized barriers and choice awareness theory editExisting organizations and conservative political groups are disposed to keep renewable energy proposals out of the agenda at many levels 149 Most Republicans do not support renewable energy investment because their framework is built on staying with current energy sources while promoting national drilling to reduce dependence on imports 150 In contrast progressives and libertarians tend to support renewable energy by encouraging job growth national investment and tax incentives 151 Thus polarized organizational frameworks that shape industrial and governmental policies for renewable energy tend to create barriers for implementing renewable energy According to an article by Henrik Lund the theory of Choice Awareness seeks to understand and explain why the descriptions of the best alternatives do not develop independently and what can be done about it 149 The theory argues that public participation and hence the awareness of choices has been an important factor in successful decision making processes 149 Choice Awareness theory emphasizes the fact that different organizations see things differently and that current organizational interests hinder passing renewable energy policies Given these conditions leaves the public with a situation of no choice 149 Consequently this leaves the general public in a state to abide by conventional energy sources such as coal and oil In a broad sense most individuals especially those that do not engage in public discourse of current economic policies have little to no awareness of renewable energy Enlightening communities on the socioeconomic implications of fossil fuel use is a potent mode of rhetoric that can promote the implementation of renewable energy sources 152 Transparent local planning also proves useful in public discourse when used to determine the location of wind farms in communities supporting renewable energy 153 According to an article by John Barry et al a crucial factor communities need to engage discourse on is the principle of assumption of and imperative towards consensus 152 This principle claims that a community cannot neglect its energy or climate change responsibilities and that it must do its part in helping to decrease carbon emissions through renewable energy reformation 152 Hence communities that continually engage in mutual learning and discourse by conflict resolution will help progress renewable energy 152 Nuclear power proposed as renewable energy editMain article Nuclear power proposed as renewable energy Legislative definitions of renewable energy used when determining energy projects eligible for subsidies or tax breaks usually exclude conventional nuclear reactor designs Physicist Bernard Cohen elucidated in 1983 that uranium dissolved in seawater when used in Breeder reactors which are reactors that breed more fissile nuclear fuel than they consume from base fertile material is effectively inexhaustible with the seawater bearing uranium constantly replenished by river erosion carrying more uranium into the sea and could therefore be considered a renewable source of energy 154 155 In 1987 the World Commission on Environment and Development WCED an organization independent from but created by the United Nations published Our Common Future in which breeder reactors and when it is developed fusion power are both classified within the same category as conventional renewable energy sources such as solar and falling water 156 See also editEnvironmental impact of renewable energy Environmental effects of wind power Fossil fuel phase out Nuclear power debate Renewable energy commercialization Energy transition International Renewable Energy Agency Lists about renewable energy Renewable energy in the European Union Renewable energy power station Sustainable energy Low carbon powerReferences edit Ipsos 23 June 2011 Global Citizen Reaction to the Fukushima Nuclear Plant Disaster theme environment climate Ipsos Global dvisor PDF p 3 Archived from the original PDF on 24 December 2014 International Energy Agency 2007 Contribution of Renewables to Energy Security IEA Information Paper p 5 a b Whatever Happened to Wind Energy LiveScience 14 January 2008 Retrieved 17 January 2012 a b c Gourlay Simon 12 August 2009 Wind farms are not only beautiful they re absolutely necessary The Guardian UK Retrieved 17 January 2012 United Nations Environment Programme Global Trends in Sustainable Energy Investment 2007 Analysis of Trends and Issues in the Financing of Renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency in OECD and Developing Countries Archived 25 March 2009 at the Wayback Machine PDF p 3 Clean Edge 2009 Clean Energy Trends 2009 Archived 18 March 2009 at the Wayback Machine pp 1 4 Foramitti Joel Tsagkari Marula Zografos Christos Why degrowth is the only responsible way forward Open Democracy Retrieved 23 September 2019 a b IEA Renewable Energy Working Party 2002 Renewable Energy into the mainstream p 9 Cartlidge Edwin 18 November 2011 Saving for a rainy day Science 334 6058 922 924 Bibcode 2011Sci 334 922C doi 10 1126 science 334 6058 922 PMID 22096185 S2CID 207761955 Biello David How to Use Solar Energy at Night Scientific American Retrieved 15 September 2016 Variability of Wind Power and other Renewables Management Options and Strategies PDF IEA 2005 Retrieved 15 October 2008 Capacity factors at Danish offshore wind farms Retrieved 15 September 2016 a b Contribution of Renewables to Energy Security http www wind energy the facts org variability versus predictability of wind power production html a b c d e f Amory Lovins 2011 Reinventing Fire Chelsea Green Publishing p 199 IPCC 2011 Special Report on Renewable Energy Sources and Climate Change Mitigation PDF Cambridge University Press Cambridge United Kingdom and New York NY USA p 17 IPCC 2011 Special Report on Renewable Energy Sources and Climate Change Mitigation PDF Cambridge University Press Cambridge United Kingdom and New York NY USA p 22 a b Harvey Fiona 9 May 2011 Renewable energy can power the world says landmark IPCC study The Guardian London Jacobson Mark Z Delucchi M A November 2009 A Path to Sustainable Energy by 2030 PDF Scientific American 301 5 58 65 Bibcode 2009SciAm 301e 58J doi 10 1038 scientificamerican1109 58 PMID 19873905 Amory Lovins Rocky Mountain Institute warm to PHEVs Calcars org Retrieved 17 January 2012 Energy Revolution Hiccups Grid Instability Has Industry Scrambling for Solutions Spiegel Online 16 August 2012 Retrieved 15 September 2016 a b Delucchi Mark A and Mark Z Jacobson 2010 Providing all Global Energy with Wind Water and Solar Power Part II Reliability System and Transmission Costs and Policies PDF Energy policy Folbre Nancy 28 March 2011 Renewing Support for Renewables The New York Times a b Benjamin K Sovacool A Critical Evaluation of Nuclear Power and Renewable Electricity in Asia Journal of Contemporary Asia Vol 40 No 3 August 2010 p 387 Staudt Amanda 20 April 2011 Climate Risk Yet Another Reason to Choose Renewable Energy Renewable Energy World Statistical Review of World Energy Workbook xlsx London 2016 Gloystein Henning 23 November 2011 Renewable energy becoming cost competitive IEA says Reuters Renewables Investment Breaks Records Renewable Energy World 29 August 2011 a b c International Renewable Energy Agency 2012 Renewable Power Generation Costs in 2012 An Overview PDF http www eia gov forecasts aeo electricity generation cfm Levelized Cost of New Generation Resources in the Annual Energy Outlook 2014 Released April 2014 Report of the US Energy Information Administration EIA of the U S Department of Energy DOE Historical Data Workbook 2013 calendar year Race Heats Up For Title of Cheapest Solar Energy in the World Forbes Retrieved 28 October 2019 Elon Musk Should Build Pumped Hydro With Tesla Energy The Boring Co amp Coal Miners Retrieved 27 October 2019 Interactive world map showing the feasible locations of pumped storage hydro power projects Retrieved 19 November 2019 Transition towards a decarbonised electricity sector PDF Retrieved 28 October 2019 An entirely renewable energy future is possible Retrieved 13 September 2019 The Death of the World s Most Popular Battery Retrieved 28 October 2019 van Zalk John Behrens Paul 1 December 2018 The spatial extent of renewable and non renewable power generation A review and meta analysis of power densities and their application in the U S Energy Policy 123 83 91 doi 10 1016 j enpol 2018 08 023 hdl 1887 64883 ISSN 0301 4215 Manberger Andre Stenqvist Bjorn 1 August 2018 Global metal flows in the renewable energy transition Exploring the effects of substitutes technological mix and development Energy Policy 119 226 241 doi 10 1016 j enpol 2018 04 056 ISSN 0301 4215 Thomas Tobi 1 September 2020 Mining needed for renewable energy could harm biodiversity Nature Communications The Guardian Archived from the original on 6 October 2020 Retrieved 18 October 2020 Nayar Jaya 12 August 2021 Not So Green Technology The Complicated Legacy of Rare Earth Mining Harvard International Review Retrieved 13 July 2022 Law Yao Hua 1 April 2019 Radioactive waste standoff could slash high tech s supply of rare earth elements Science AAAS Archived from the original on 1 April 2020 Retrieved 23 April 2020 Small Scale Wind Energy Factsheet Thames Valley Energy 14 February 2007 Archived from the original on 23 August 2007 Retrieved 19 September 2007 Denis Du Bois 22 May 2006 Thin Film Could Soon Make Solar Glass and Facades a Practical Power Source Energy Priorities Archived from the original on 12 October 2007 Retrieved 19 September 2007 What is the worst eyesore in the UK BBC News 21 November 2003 Retrieved 19 September 2007 I really wish people wouldn t criticize wind farms I would much rather have 12 hills full of wind turbines than 1 single nuclear power station Archived copy PDF www ren21 net Archived from the original PDF on 12 August 2016 Retrieved 13 January 2022 a href Template Cite web html title Template Cite web cite web a CS1 maint archived copy as title link Hydro Power for the Future Archived from the original on 12 June 2013 Retrieved 15 September 2016 a b Worldwatch Institute January 2012 Use and Capacity of Global Hydropower Increases Hydropower A Way of Becoming Independent of Fossil Energy Archived 28 May 2008 at the Wayback Machine Rabl A et al August 2005 Final Technical Report Version 2 PDF Externalities of Energy Extension of Accounting Framework and Policy Applications European Commission Archived from the original PDF on 7 March 2012 a b External costs of electricity systems graph format ExternE Pol Technology Assessment GaBE Paul Scherrer Institut 2005 Wehrli Bernhard 1 September 2011 Climate science Renewable but not carbon free Nature Geoscience 4 9 585 586 Bibcode 2011NatGe 4 585W doi 10 1038 ngeo1226 Atkins William 2003 Hydroelectric Power Water Science and Issues 2 187 191 Robbins Paul 2007 Hydropower Encyclopedia of Environment and Society 3 Briefing of World Commission on Dams Internationalrivers org 29 February 2008 Archived from the original on 13 September 2008 Retrieved 11 November 2013 Patrick James H Chansen 1998 Teaching Case Studies in Reservoir Siltation and Catchment Erosion PDF Great Britain TEMPUS Publications pp 265 275 Archived from the original PDF on 2 September 2009 Șenturk Fuat 1994 Hydraulics of dams and reservoirs reference ed Highlands Ranch Colo Water Resources Publications p 375 ISBN 978 0 918334 80 0 Download the official WCD Report RiverNet org 16 November 2000 Graham Rowe Duncan 24 February 2005 Hydroelectric power s dirty secret revealed NewScientist com Hydropower and the Environment Managing the Carbon Balance in Freshwater Reservoirs PDF International Energy Agency 22 October 2012 Rediscovered Wood amp The Triton Sawfish Inhabitat com 16 November 2006 References may be found in the list of Dam failures Toccoa Flood USGS Historical Site retrieved 02sep2009 Sedimentation Problems with Dams Internationalrivers org Archived from the original on 1 October 2010 Retrieved 16 July 2010 Topinka Lyn 2005 The Columbia River Bonneville Dam Fish Ladders Retrieved 15 September 2016 Stober Quentin J 1982 Effects of hydroelectric discharge fluctuation on salmon and steelhead in the Skagit River Washington University of Washington School of Fisheries Fisheries Research Institute OCLC 09837591 Andrew Blakers and Klaus Weber The Energy Intensity of Photovoltaic Systems Centre for Sustainable Energy Systems Australian National University 2000 a b c Alsema E A Wild Scholten M J de Fthenakis V M Environmental impacts of PV electricity generation a critical comparison of energy supply options ECN September 2006 7p Presented at the 21st European Photovoltaic Solar Energy Conference and Exhibition Dresden Germany 4 8 September 2006 C Reich Weiser D Dornfeld and S Horne Environmental assessment and metrics for solar Case study of solfocus solar concentrator systems UC Berkeley Laboratory for Manufacturing and Sustainability 8 May 2008 Joshua Pearce and Andrew Lau Net Energy Analysis For Sustainable Energy Production From Silicon Based Solar Cells Proceedings of American Society of Mechanical Engineers Solar 2002 Sunrise on the Reliable Energy Economy editor R Campbell Howe 2002 CdTe PV Real and Perceived EHS Risks Solar Applications and Authorizations PDF United States Bureau of Land Management Retrieved 3 December 2011 Seltenrich Nate A Matter of Survival Sierra Magazine Retrieved 3 December 2011 A Mojave power failure A shortfall in Mojave protection bill Los Angeles Times editorial 26 December 2009 Ayre Maggie 3 October 2007 Will biofuel leave the poor hungry BBC News Retrieved 28 April 2008 Wilson Mike 8 February 2008 The Biofuel Smear Campaign Farm Futures Archived from the original on 9 February 2008 Retrieved 28 April 2008 Grundwald Michael 27 March 2008 The Clean Energy Scam Time Archived from the original on 30 March 2008 Retrieved 28 April 2008 The Impact of US Biofuel Policies on Agricultural Price Levels and Volatility By Bruce A Babcock Center for Agricultural and Rural Development Iowa State University for ICTSD Issue Paper No 35 June 2011 HLPE June 2013 Biofuels and food security PDF International Energy Agency World Energy Outlook 2006 Archived 28 September 2007 at the Wayback Machine PDF page 8 Industrial Biotechnology Is Revolutionizing the Production of Ethanol Transportation Fuel Archived 12 February 2006 at the Wayback Machine PDF pages 3 4 a b American Energy The Renewable Path to Energy Security PDF Worldwatch Institute September 2006 Retrieved 11 March 2007 Archived copy PDF www who int Archived from the original PDF on 9 July 2012 Retrieved 13 January 2022 a href Template Cite web html title Template Cite web cite web a CS1 maint archived copy as title link WHO Ambient outdoor air quality and health a b Diesendorf Mark 2003 Why Australia needs wind power PDF Dissent Archived from the original PDF on 1 January 2007 Retrieved 29 April 2010 Thomas Kirchhoff 2014 Energiewende und Landschaftsasthetik Versachlichung asthetischer Bewertungen von Energieanlagen durch Bezugnahme auf drei intersubjektive Landschaftsideale Archived 18 April 2016 at the Wayback Machine in Naturschutz und Landschaftsplanung 46 1 10 16 a b Nathan F Jones Liba Pejchar Joseph M Kiesecker The Energy Footprint How Oil Natural Gas and Wind Energy Affect Land for Biodiversity and the Flow of Ecosystem Services BioScience Volume 65 Issue 3 March 2015 pp 290 301 What are the pros and cons of onshore wind energy Grantham Research Institute on Climate Change and the Environment Archived from the original on 22 June 2019 Retrieved 12 December 2020 The Germans fighting wind farms close to their homes DW 26 11 2019 Deutsche Welle Archived from the original on 12 November 2020 Retrieved 12 December 2020 Szarka Joseph 2007 Wind Power in Europe Politics Business and Society Springer p 176 Gordon Dr David Wind farms and tourism in Scotland Archived 21 September 2020 at the Wayback Machine Mountaineering Council of Scotland November 2017 p 3 newscientist com June 2005 Wind turbines a breeze for migrating birds Chapman Andrew 15 November 2003 Renewable energy industry environmental impacts Country Guardian Retrieved 19 September 2007 Evaluations of the bird kills at Altamont suggested that the small 18 metre diameter rotor turbines rotating a high speed 60 revolutions per minute were a major contributor What about offshore wind farms and birds Capewind org Retrieved 17 January 2012 Fears Donegal landslide has devastated EU protected salmon site RTE News 18 November 2020 Retrieved 18 January 2022 Donegal Peat landslide linked to wind farm raised in Dail BBC News 18 November 2020 Retrieved 18 January 2022 Chiu Allyson Guskin Emily Clement Scott 3 October 2023 Americans don t hate living near solar and wind farms as much as you might think The Washington Post Archived from the original on 3 October 2023 a b American Wind Energy Association 2009 Annual Wind Industry Report Year Ending 2008 Archived 20 April 2009 at the Wayback Machine pp 9 10 Wind Farms in Cumbria Retrieved 3 October 2008 Arnold James 20 September 2004 Wind Turbulence over turbines in Cumbria BBC News Retrieved 3 October 2008 Dodd Eimear 27 March 2021 Permission to build five turbine wind farm at Kilranelagh refused Irish Independent Retrieved 18 January 2022 Kula Adam 9 April 2021 Department defends 500ft windfarm in protected Area of Outstanding Beauty The News Letter Retrieved 18 January 2022 Building wind farms could destroy Welsh landscape BBC News 4 November 2019 Retrieved 18 January 2022 Glenn Cramer Sheldon Town Councilman 30 October 2009 Town Councilor regrets High Sheldon Wind Farm Sheldon NY Retrieved 4 September 2015 Broadcast Wind LLC Solutions for the Broadcasting and Wind Energy Industries Retrieved 4 September 2015 IMPACT OF WIND FARMS ON RADIOCOMMUNICATION SERVICES TSR grupo Tratamiento de Senal y Radiocomunicaciones de la UPV EHU Archived from the original on 23 September 2015 Retrieved 4 September 2015 a b c d e Scott Victor Valentine 2011 Sheltering wind power projects from tempestuous community concerns PDF Energy Policy Natarajan L Rydin Y Lock S J Lee M 1 March 2018 Navigating the participatory processes of renewable energy infrastructure regulation A local participant perspective on the NSIPs regime in England and Wales Energy Policy 114 201 210 doi 10 1016 j enpol 2017 12 006 ISSN 0301 4215 Group Dedicates Opening of 200 MW Big Horn Wind Farm Farm incorporates conservation efforts that protect wildlife habitat Renewableenergyaccess com Archived from the original on 12 October 2007 Retrieved 17 January 2012 Fisher Jeanette Wind Power MidAmerican s Intrepid Wind Farm Environmentpsychology com Retrieved 17 January 2012 Stakeholder Engagement Agl com au 19 March 2008 Retrieved 17 January 2012 a b Wind Energy and the Environment PDF Retrieved 17 January 2012 National Code for Wind Farms PDF Environment gov au Archived from the original PDF on 5 September 2008 Retrieved 17 January 2012 New standard and big investment for wind energy PDF Publish csiro au 17 December 2007 Retrieved 17 January 2012 National Wind Watch Wind Energy Opposition and Action Groups National Wind Watch Retrieved 15 September 2016 The Australia Institute 2006 Wind Farms The facts and the fallacies Archived 25 February 2012 at the Wayback Machine Discussion Paper Number 91 October ISSN 1322 5421 p 28 Community Power Empowers Dsc discovery com 26 May 2009 Retrieved 17 January 2012 Community Wind Farms Archived 20 July 2008 at the Wayback Machine A Summary of Opinion Surveys on Wind Power PDF Retrieved 17 January 2012 Public attitudes to wind farms Eon uk com 28 February 2008 Archived from the original on 14 March 2012 Retrieved 17 January 2012 The Harris Poll 119 13 October 2010 Large Majorities in U S and Five Largest European Countries Favor More Wind Farms and Subsidies for Bio fuels but Opinion is Split on Nuclear Power PRNewswire a href Template Cite web html title Template Cite web cite web a CS1 maint numeric names authors list link Wind Power MidAmerican s Intrepid Wind Farm Environmental Psychology 2006 Lawsuit Seeks Redress for Massive Illegal Bird Kills at Altamont Pass CA Wind Farms Center for Biological Diversity 12 January 2004 Appeals court dismisses lawsuit over bird deaths at Altamont Pass Mercurynews com Retrieved 17 January 2012 Green Energy press release greenenergy uk com 26 January 2005 Archived from the original on 21 December 2006 Retrieved 1 February 2007 Warren Charles R McFadyen Malcolm 2010 Does community ownership affect public attitudes to wind energy A case study from south west Scotland Land Use Policy 27 2 204 213 doi 10 1016 j landusepol 2008 12 010 O Malley weighs western windmills The Washington Times After Years of Study Power Generating Wind Farms on Horizon in State Newsline umd edu 3 December 2004 Retrieved 17 January 2012 O Neill Sean 17 January 2012 Wind farms a threat to national security The Times UK Retrieved 17 January 2012 Saying wind power plan endangers bat groups notify company of intent to sue Pittsburgh Post Gazette 16 April 2008 Victorian community goes it alone on wind farm Australia ABC 25 July 2008 Retrieved 17 January 2012 Rural communities want Alberta to allow wind power farms on leased Crown land The Canadian Press 22 March 2009 Wind Turbine Opponents Claim Health Concerns Ignored CityNews Citytv com 28 April 2010 Retrieved 17 January 2012 Talaga Tanya 28 April 2010 Wind turbines making us sick Protesters The Star Toronto Wind turbine debate swirls The Whig Standard Ontario CA Thewhig com Retrieved 17 January 2012 Protest at Queen s Park UPDATE VIDEO MyKawartha Article Retrieved 17 January 2012 Lakewind Power Co operative Inc A Collaboration of two Co operatives PDF Archived from the original PDF on 4 March 2012 Retrieved 17 January 2012 WindShare The Lakewind Project WindShare website WindShare Archived from the original on 6 March 2010 Retrieved 9 March 2010 Canada s First Urban Wind Turbine Not Your Average Windmill Toronto Hydro 6 February 2006 Archived from the original on 30 March 2008 Retrieved 11 April 2008 Explace turbine information on the Windshare website Windshare ca Archived from the original on 3 January 2012 Retrieved 17 January 2012 Chalumbin windfarm trampling on indigenous heritage Thursday 20 July 2023 2023 ADH TV Retrieved 6 August 2023 Geothermal Energy Renewable or Not Jcmiras Net 01 Jcmiras net 12 January 2012 Retrieved 17 January 2012 Australian Broadcasting Company Critics say geo thermal power not renewable 20 August 2008 Response of Wairakei geothermal reservoir to 40 years of production Archived 7 July 2003 at the Wayback Machine 2006 pdf Allan Clotworthy Proceedings World Geothermal Congress 2000 accessed 30 March 5 Minutes 10 Minutes Geodynamics says it has the hottest rocks on earth Theaustralian news com au Retrieved 17 January 2012 a href Template Cite news html title Template Cite news cite news a CS1 maint numeric names authors list link Sustainable Utilization National Energy Authority of Iceland Retrieved 15 September 2016 Total System Electric Generation 100 Clean and Renewable Wind Water and Sunlight All Sector Energy Roadmaps for 139 Countries of the World PDF Jacobson September 2017 Retrieved 28 December 2019 a b c d Lund Henrik 2010 The implementation of renewable energy systems Lessons learned from the Danish case Energy 35 10 4003 4009 doi 10 1016 j energy 2010 01 036 Eilperin Juliet 28 March 2013 House GOP energy plan drill more mine more The Washington Post Archived from the original on 29 March 2013 Home progressiveea com a b c d Barry John 2008 Cool Rationalities and Hot Air A Rhetorical Approach to Understanding Debates on Renewable Energy Global Environmental Politics 8 2 67 98 CiteSeerX 10 1 1 564 968 doi 10 1162 glep 2008 8 2 67 S2CID 57572362 Mulvaney Kate 2013 Different Shades of Green A Case Study of Support for Wind Farms in the Rural Midwest Environmental Management 51 5 1012 1024 Bibcode 2013EnMan 51 1012M doi 10 1007 s00267 013 0026 8 PMID 23519901 S2CID 37099335 Cohen Bernard L January 1983 Breeder reactors A renewable energy source PDF American Journal of Physics 51 1 75 76 Bibcode 1983AmJPh 51 75C doi 10 1119 1 13440 Archived from the original PDF on 26 September 2007 Retrieved 3 August 2007 McCarthy John 12 February 1996 Facts from Cohen and others Progress and its Sustainability Stanford Archived from the original on 10 April 2007 Retrieved 3 August 2007 Brundtland Gro Harlem 20 March 1987 Chapter 7 Energy Choices for Environment and Development Our Common Future Report of the World Commission on Environment and Development Oslo Retrieved 27 March 2013 Today s primary sources of energy are mainly non renewable natural gas oil coal peat and conventional nuclear power There are also renewable sources including wood plants dung falling water geothermal sources solar tidal wind and wave energy as well as human and animal muscle power Nuclear reactors that produce their own fuel breeders and eventually fusion reactors are also in this categoryFurther reading editREN21 2016 Renewables 2016 Global Status Report key findings Renewable Energy Policy Network for the 21st century Clean Tech Nation How the U S Can Lead in the New Global Economy 2012 by Ron Pernick and Clint Wilder Deploying Renewables 2011 2011 by the International Energy Agency Reinventing Fire Bold Business Solutions for the New Energy Era 2011 by Amory Lovins Renewable Energy Sources and Climate Change Mitigation 2011 by the IPCC Solar Energy Perspectives 2011 by the International Energy Agency Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Renewable energy debate amp oldid 1193631323, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

article

, read, download, free, free download, mp3, video, mp4, 3gp, jpg, jpeg, gif, png, picture, music, song, movie, book, game, games.