Growth of photovoltaics

Worldwide growth of photovoltaics has been close to exponential between 1992 and 2018. During this period of time, photovoltaics (PV), also known as solar PV, evolved from a niche market of small-scale applications to a mainstream electricity source.^[12]

Worldwide growth of photovoltaics Global growth of cumulative PV capacity in gigawatts (GWp)^[1]^[2]^[3]^[4]^[5] with regional shares (IEA estimates).^[6] 250 500 750 1,000 1,250 1,500 2006 2008 2010 2012 2014 2016 2018 '20 '22   Europe   North America   Middle East and Africa   World total   Asia-Pacific   China   Rest of the world *(2021, 2022 tentative figures)^[7] Recent and estimated capacity (GWp) Year-end 2016^[8] 2017^[9] 2018^[7] 2019^[7] 2020^[7] 2021E^[7] 2022F^[7] Cumulative 306.5 403.3 512 630 774 957 1185 Annual new 76.8 99 109^[10] 118 144^[7] 183^[7] 228^[7] Cumulative growth 32% 32% 27% 24% 23% 24% 24% Installed PV in watts per capita    none or unknown    0.1–10 watts    10–100 watts    100–200 watts    200–400 watts    400–600 watts History of cumulative PV capacity worldwide

Added PV capacity by country in 2019 (by percent of world total, clustered by region)^[11]

  China (39.16%)

  Vietnam (9.23%)

  Japan (4.35%)

  South Korea (2.08%)

  India (3.29%)

  Australia (3.48%)

  United States (11.72%)

  Brazil (2.60%)

  Germany (3.76%)

  Netherlands (2.49%)

  Spain (2.24%)

  Poland (1.90%)

  Rest of Europe (6.22%)

  Rest of the World (7.56%)

When solar PV systems were first recognized as a promising renewable energy technology, subsidy programs, such as feed-in tariffs, were implemented by a number of governments in order to provide economic incentives for investments. For several years, growth was mainly driven by Japan and pioneering European countries. As a consequence, cost of solar declined significantly due to experience curve effects like improvements in technology and economies of scale. Several national programs were instrumental in increasing PV deployment, such as the Energiewende in Germany, the Million Solar Roofs project in the United States, and China's 2011 five-year-plan for energy production.^[13] Since then, deployment of photovoltaics has gained momentum on a worldwide scale, increasingly competing with conventional energy sources. In the early 21st century a market for utility-scale plants emerged to complement rooftop and other distributed applications.^[14] By 2015, some 30 countries had reached grid parity.^[15]: 9

Since the 1950s, when the first solar cells were commercially manufactured, there has been a succession of countries leading the world as the largest producer of electricity from solar photovoltaics. First it was the United States, then Japan,^[16] followed by Germany, and currently China.

By the end of 2018, global cumulative installed PV capacity reached about 512 gigawatts (GW), of which about 180 GW (35%) were utility-scale plants.^[17] Solar power supplied about 3% of global electricity demand in 2019.^[18] In 2018, solar PV contributed between 7% and 8% to the annual domestic consumption in Italy, Greece, Germany, and Chile. The largest penetration of solar power in electricity production is found in Honduras (14%). Solar PV contribution to electricity in Australia is edging towards 11%, while in the United Kingdom and Spain it is close to 4%. China and India moved above the world average of 2.55%, while, in descending order, the United States, South Korea, France and South Africa are below the world's average.^[9]: 76

Projections for photovoltaic growth are difficult and burdened with many uncertainties.^{[citation needed]} Official agencies, such as the International Energy Agency (IEA) have consistently increased their estimates for decades, while still falling far short of projecting actual deployment in every forecast.^[19][20][21] Bloomberg NEF projects global solar installations to grow in 2019, adding another 125–141 GW resulting in a total capacity of 637–653 GW by the end of the year.^[22] By 2050, the IEA foresees solar PV to reach 4.7 terawatts (4,674 GW) in its high-renewable scenario, of which more than half will be deployed in China and India, making solar power the world's largest source of electricity.^[23][24]

Solar PV nameplate capacity

Nameplate capacity denotes the peak power output of power stations in unit watt prefixed as convenient, to e.g. kilowatt (kW), megawatt (MW) and gigawatt (GW). Because power output for variable renewable sources is unpredictable, a source's average generation is generally significantly lower than the nameplate capacity. In order to have an estimate of the average power output, the capacity can be multiplied by a suitable capacity factor, which takes into account varying conditions - weather, nighttime, latitude, maintenance. Worldwide, the average solar PV capacity factor is 11%.^[25] In addition, depending on context, the stated peak power may be prior to a subsequent conversion to alternating current, e.g. for a single photovoltaic panel, or include this conversion and its loss for a grid connected photovoltaic power station.^{[3]: 15 [26]: 10}

Wind power has different characteristics, e.g. a higher capacity factor and about four times the 2015 electricity production of solar power. Compared with wind power, photovoltaic power production correlates well with power consumption for air-conditioning in warm countries. As of 2017^[update] a handful of utilities have started combining PV installations with battery banks, thus obtaining several hours of dispatchable generation to help mitigate problems associated with the duck curve after sunset.^[27][28]

Current status

Worldwide

In 2017, photovoltaic capacity increased by 95 GW, with a 29% growth year-on-year of new installations. Cumulative installed capacity exceeded 401 GW by the end of the year, sufficient to supply 2.1 percent of the world's total electricity consumption.^[29]

Regions

As of 2018, Asia was the fastest growing region, with almost 75% of global installations. China alone accounted for more than half of worldwide deployment in 2017. In terms of cumulative capacity, Asia was the most developed region with more than half of the global total of 401 GW in 2017.^[30] Europe continued to decline as a percentage of the global PV market. In 2017, Europe represented 28% of global capacity, the Americas 19% and Middle East 2%.^[30] However, with respect to per capita installation the European Union has more than twice the capacity compared to China and 25% more than the US.

Solar PV covered 3.5% and 7% of European electricity demand and peak electricity demand, respectively in 2014.^[4]: 6

Countries and territories

Main article: Solar power by country

Worldwide growth of photovoltaics is extremely dynamic and varies strongly by country. The top installers of 2019 were China, the United States, and India.^[31] There are 37 countries around the world with a cumulative PV capacity of more than one gigawatt. The available solar PV capacity in Honduras is sufficient to supply 14.8% of the nation's electrical power while 8 countries can produce between 7% and 9% of their respective domestic electricity consumption.

Solar PV capacity by country and territory (MW) and share of total electricity consumption

	2016^[29]		2017^[30]		2018^[32]^[33]		2019^[18]^[34]		2020^[35]^[36]		2021^[37]^[38]		W per capita 2019	W per capita 2021	Share of total consumption^1
Country or territory	New	Total	New	Total	New	Total	New	Total	New	Total	New	Total
China	34,540	78,070	53,000	131,000	45,000	175,018	30,100	204,700	49,655	254,355	52,618	306,973	147	217	6.2% (2020)^[35]
European Union		101,433	5,717	107,150	8,300	115,234	16,000	134,129	18,788	152,917	25,783	178,700	295	400	6.0% (2020)^[35]
United States	14,730	40,300	10,600	51,000	10,600	53,184	13,300	60,682	14,890	75,572	19,637	95,209	184	289	3.4% (2020)^[35]
Japan	8,600	42,750	7,000	49,000	6,500	55,500	7,000	63,000	4,000	67,000	7,191	74,191	498	590	8.3% (2020)^[35]
Germany	1,520	41,220	1,800	42,000	3,000	45,930	3,900	49,200	4,583	53,783	4,678	58,461	593	702	9.7% (2020)^[35]
India	3,970	9,010	9,100	18,300	10,800	26,869	9,900	35,089	4,122	39,211	10,473	49,684	32	36	6.5% (2020)^[35]
Italy	373	19,279	409	19,700	420	20,120	600	20,800	800	21,600	1,098	22,698	345	381	8.3% (2020)^[35]
Australia	839	5,900	1,250	7,200	3,800	11,300	3,700	15,928	1,699	17,627	1,449	19,076	637	742	10.7% (2020)^[35]
South Korea	850	4,350	1,200	5,600	2,000	7,862	3,100	11,200	3,375	14,575	3,586	18,161	217	350	3.8% (2020)^[35]
Vietnam		6	3	9	97	106	4,800	5,695	10,909	16,504	156	16,660	60	171
Spain^[39]		4,669	19	4,688	19	4,707	4,004	8,711	5,378	14,089	1,863	15,952	186	237	9.0% (2020)^[35]
France	559	7,130	870	8,000	1,483	9,483	417	9,900	1,833	11,733	2,985	14,718	148	218	2.8% (2020)^[35]
Netherlands	525	2,100	853	2,900	1,300	4,150	2,575	6,725	3,488	10,213	4,036	14,249	396	817	8.9% (2020)^[35]
United Kingdom	1,970	11,630	900	12,700	408	13,108	233	13,346	177	13,563	126	13,689	200	203	4.0% (2020)^[35]
Brazil^[40]^[41]		200	900	1,100	1,313	2,413	2,138	4,595	3,145	7,881	5,827	13,708^[42]	22	64	2.5% (2021)^[43]
Ukraine	99	531	211	742	1,200	2,003	1,557	3,560	1,800	5,360	2,702	8,062	114	183	5.0% (2020)^[44]
Turkey	584	832	2,600	3,400	1,600	5,063	932	5,995	673	6,668	1,149	7,817	73	92	5.9% (2020)^[35]
Taiwan						2,618	1,482	4,100	1,717	5,817	1,883	7,700	172	327
Mexico	150	320	150	539	2,700	3,200	1,226	4,426	1,218	5,644	1,396	7,040	35	55	3.2% (2020)^[35]
Belgium	170	3,422	284	3,800	226	4,026	505	4,531	1,115	5,646	939	6,585	394	569	6.6% (2020)^[35]
Poland						487	813	1,300	2,636	3,936	2,321	6,257	34	165
South Africa	536	1,450	13	1,800	759	2,559	2	2,561	3,429	5,990	231	6,221	44	105	2.0% (2020)^[35]
Chile	746	1,610	668	1,800	337	2,137	511	2,648	557	3,205	1,263	4,468	142	234	9.1% (2020)^[35]
Switzerland	250	1,640	260	1,900	346	2,246	332	2,498	493	2,973	683	3,655	295	412	5.8% (2021)^[45]
Canada	200	2,715	212	2,900	213	3,113	197	3,310	15	3,325	305	3,630	88	96	0.7% (2020)^[35]
Greece						2,652		2,763	484	3,247		3,530	258	329	9.3% (2020)^[35]
Thailand	726	2,150	251	2,700		2,720		2,982		2,988		3,049	43	44	2.9% (2020)^[35]
United Arab Emirates		42		255		494		1,783		2,539		2,705	185	273
Austria	154	1,077	153	1,250		1,431		1,578		2,220		2,692	178	302	3.4% (2020)^[35]
Israel	130	910	60	1,100		1,070		1,190		2,249		2,555	134	277	4.7% (2019)^[46]
Hungary						665		1,277		1,953		2,131	131	218
Czech Republic	48	2,131	63	2,193		2,078		2,070		2,073		2,119	194	198	3.5% (2020)^[35]
Portugal	58	513	57	577		670		828		1,025		1,801	81	174	3.4% (2020)^[35]
Malaysia	54	286	50	386		438		882		1,493		1,787	28	55	2.4% (2020)^[35]
Egypt		48		169		750		1,647		1,694		1,675	17	17
Russia	15	77	159	236	310	546		1,064		1,428		1,661	7	11
Sweden	60	175	93	303		421		644		1,417		1,577	63	152	0.7% (2020)^[35]
Denmark	70	900	60	910		998		1,079		1,300		1,540	186	264	4.1% (2020)^[35]
Jordan		298		471		829		998		1,359		1,521	100	149
Romania		1,372		1,374		1,377		1,386		1,387		1,398	71	74	3.4% (2020)^[35]
Philippines	756	900				886		922		1,048		1,370	9	13
Bulgaria		1,028		1,036	0	1,036		1,065		1,073		1,186	152	171	4.7% (2020)^[35]
Pakistan		589		655		679		713		737		1,083	6	6
Argentina		9		9		191		442		764		1,071		24	1.5% (2021)^[47]
Kazakhstan		58		58	152	210	332	542	370	912	126	1,037
Morocco		202		204		734		734		734		774	6	21	1.3% (2020)^[35]
Slovakia		533		528		472		472		593		535	87	98	2.4% (2020)^[35]
Honduras		414		451		485		511		514		514	53	53	12.9% (2020)^[35]
Puerto Rico		247		302		305		336		384		491		154
Dominican Republic		73		106		205		305		370		490		45
El Salvador		28		126		206		391		429		478		74
Panama		93		147		193		198		198		465		108
Iran	34	43	141	184	102	286	81	367	85	414		456	5	5	0.4% (2019)^[33]
Algeria		219		400		423		423		448		448	10	10
Saudi Arabia		24		34		84		409		409		439		13
Sri Lanka		63		131		185		285		371		434		20
Singapore		97		118		160		255		329		433	45	76	0.8% (2018)^[48]
Cambodia		18		29		29		99		208		428		26
Estonia		10		15		32		121		130		414		311
Finland^[49]	17	37	23	80	53.1	134		215		391		404	39	73	0.3% (2020)^[35]
Slovenia		232		247		247		264		267		367		175
Lithuania^[32]	1	70	4	74	10	84		103		148		338	37	121
Peru		146		298		325		331		331		336		10
Bangladesh		161		185		201		284		301		329	2	2
Cyprus	14	84	21	105		113		129		200		316	147	262	3.3% (2016)^[50]
Belarus		51		153		157		157		159		269		29
Uruguay		89		243		248		254		256		258		69
Yemen		80		100		250		250		253		253		8
Iraq		37		37		216		216		216		?
Cuba		37		65		128		159		163		246		22
Senegal		43		113		134		134		155		238	8	14
Norway	11	27	18	45	23	68		90		152		225	17	42	0.1% (2020)^[35]
Luxembourg		122		127		134		150		195		209	244	330
Indonesia		88		98		98		155		172		211		0.77
Malta	20	93	19	112		127		154		184		196	312	373	6.5% (2017)^[51]
Colombia		2		11		86		90		107		184		4
Armenia		1		2		17		50		95		183		62
Bolivia		6		8		70		120		120		170		15
Kenya		32		39		105		106		106		147		3
New Zealand		53		70		90		117		142		146		29
Namibia		36		70		88		135		145		145	55	57
Malawi		12		19		26		80		82		142		7
Oman		2		8		8		9		109		138		27
Sudan		26		36		59		80		117		136		3
Ireland		6		17		32		58		93		136		27
Croatia^[32]	8	56	4	60	1	61		69		85		109	17	27
Ghana		38		47		78		85		108		108		3
Uzbekistan		2		3		4		4		4		104		3
Guatemala		93		99		101		101		101		101		6
Mali		18		19		19		19		70		100		5
Nepal	2	3	25	28	10	38		45		70		93	17	3	0.1% (2020)^[35]
World total	76,800	306,500	95,000	401,500	108,500	510,000	70,760	580,760	133,210	713,970	135,503	849,473	83	108	3.7% (2020)^[35]
^1 Share of total electricity consumption for latest available year

25

50

75

100

125

150

2007

2009

2011

2013

2015

2017

2019

2021

Historical and projected global demand for solar PV (new installations, GW).
Source: GTM Research, Q2 2017^[52]

 

PV capacity growth in China

 

Growth of PV in Europe 1992-2014

History of leading countries

See also: Timeline of solar cells

The United States was the leader of installed photovoltaics for many years, and its total capacity was 77 megawatts in 1996, more than any other country in the world at the time. From the late 1990s, Japan was the world's leader of solar electricity production until 2005, when Germany took the lead and by 2016 had a capacity of over 40 gigawatts. In 2015, China surpassed Germany to become the world's largest producer of photovoltaic power,^[53] and in 2017 became the first country to surpass 100 GW of installed capacity.

United States (1954–1996)

The United States, where modern solar PV was invented, led installed capacity for many years. Based on preceding work by Swedish and German engineers, the American engineer Russell Ohl at Bell Labs patented the first modern solar cell in 1946.^[54][55][56] It was also there at Bell Labs where the first practical c-silicon cell was developed in 1954.^[57][58] Hoffman Electronics, the leading manufacturer of silicon solar cells in the 1950s and 1960s, improved on the cell's efficiency, produced solar radios, and equipped Vanguard I, the first solar powered satellite launched into orbit in 1958.

In 1977 US-President Jimmy Carter installed solar hot water panels on the White House (later removed by President Reagan) promoting solar energy^[59] and the National Renewable Energy Laboratory, originally named Solar Energy Research Institute was established at Golden, Colorado. In the 1980s and early 1990s, most photovoltaic modules were used in stand-alone power systems or powered consumer products such as watches, calculators and toys, but from around 1995, industry efforts have focused increasingly on developing grid-connected rooftop PV systems and power stations. By 1996, solar PV capacity in the US amounted to 77 megawatts–more than any other country in the world at the time. Then, Japan moved ahead.

Japan (1997–2004)

Japan took the lead as the world's largest producer of PV electricity, after the city of Kobe was hit by the Great Hanshin earthquake in 1995. Kobe experienced severe power outages in the aftermath of the earthquake, and PV systems were then considered as a temporary supplier of power during such events, as the disruption of the electric grid paralyzed the entire infrastructure, including gas stations that depended on electricity to pump gasoline. Moreover, in December of that same year, an accident occurred at the multibillion-dollar experimental Monju Nuclear Power Plant. A sodium leak caused a major fire and forced a shutdown (classified as INES 1). There was massive public outrage when it was revealed that the semigovernmental agency in charge of Monju had tried to cover up the extent of the accident and resulting damage.^[60][61] Japan remained world leader in photovoltaics until 2004, when its capacity amounted to 1,132 megawatts. Then, focus on PV deployment shifted to Europe.

Germany (2005–2014)

In 2005, Germany took the lead from Japan. With the introduction of the Renewable Energy Act in 2000, feed-in tariffs were adopted as a policy mechanism. This policy established that renewables have priority on the grid, and that a fixed price must be paid for the produced electricity over a 20-year period, providing a guaranteed return on investment irrespective of actual market prices. As a consequence, a high level of investment security lead to a soaring number of new photovoltaic installations that peaked in 2011, while investment costs in renewable technologies were brought down considerably. In 2016 Germany's installed PV capacity was over the 40 GW mark.

China (2015–present)

China surpassed Germany's capacity by the end of 2015, becoming the world's largest producer of photovoltaic power.^[62] China's rapid PV growth continued in 2016 – with 34.2 GW of solar photovoltaics installed.^[63] The quickly lowering feed in tariff rates^[64] at the end of 2015 motivated many developers to secure tariff rates before mid-year 2016 – as they were anticipating further cuts (correctly so^[65]). During the course of the year, China announced its goal of installing 100 GW during the next Chinese Five Year Economic Plan (2016–2020). China expected to spend ¥1 trillion ($145B) on solar construction^[66] during that period. Much of China's PV capacity was built in the relatively less populated west of the country whereas the main centres of power consumption were in the east (such as Shanghai and Beijing).^[67] Due to lack of adequate power transmission lines to carry the power from the solar power plants, China had to curtail its PV generated power.^[67][68][69]

History of market development

Prices and costs (1977–present)

 

Swanson's law – the PV learning curve

 

Price decline of c-Si solar cells

Type of cell or module	Price per Watt
Multi-Si Cell (≥18.6%)	$0.071
Mono-Si Cell (≥20.0%)	$0.090
G1 Mono-Si Cell (>21.7%)	$0.099
M6 Mono-Si Cell (>21.7%)	$0.100
275W - 280W (60P) Module	$0.176
325W - 330W (72P) Module	$0.188
305W - 310W Module	$0.240
315W - 320W Module	$0.190
>325W - >385W Module	$0.200
Source: EnergyTrend, price quotes, average prices, 13 July 2020^[70]

The average price per watt dropped drastically for solar cells in the decades leading up to 2017. While in 1977 prices for crystalline silicon cells were about $77 per watt, average spot prices in August 2018 were as low as $0.13 per watt or nearly 600 times less than forty years ago. Prices for thin-film solar cells and for c-Si solar panels were around $.60 per watt.^[71] Module and cell prices declined even further after 2014 (see price quotes in table).

This price trend was seen as evidence supporting Swanson's law (an observation similar to the famous Moore's Law) that states that the per-watt cost of solar cells and panels fall by 20 percent for every doubling of cumulative photovoltaic production.^[72] A 2015 study showed price/kWh dropping by 10% per year since 1980, and predicted that solar could contribute 20% of total electricity consumption by 2030.^[73]

In its 2014 edition of the Technology Roadmap: Solar Photovoltaic Energy report, the International Energy Agency (IEA) published prices for residential, commercial and utility-scale PV systems for eight major markets as of 2013 (see table below).^[23] However, DOE's SunShot Initiative report states lower prices than the IEA report, although both reports were published at the same time and referred to the same period. After 2014 prices fell further. For 2014, the SunShot Initiative modeled U.S. system prices to be in the range of $1.80 to $3.29 per watt.^[74] Other sources identified similar price ranges of $1.70 to $3.50 for the different market segments in the U.S.^[75] In the highly penetrated German market, prices for residential and small commercial rooftop systems of up to 100 kW declined to $1.36 per watt (€1.24/W) by the end of 2014.^[76] In 2015, Deutsche Bank estimated costs for small residential rooftop systems in the U.S. around $2.90 per watt. Costs for utility-scale systems in China and India were estimated as low as $1.00 per watt.^[15]: 9

Typical PV system prices in 2013 in selected countries (USD)

USD/W	Australia	China	France	Germany	Italy	Japan	United Kingdom	United States
Residential	1.8	1.5	4.1	2.4	2.8	4.2	2.8	4.9^1
Commercial	1.7	1.4	2.7	1.8	1.9	3.6	2.4	4.5^1
Utility-scale	2.0	1.4	2.2	1.4	1.5	2.9	1.9	3.3^1
Source: IEA – Technology Roadmap: Solar Photovoltaic Energy report, September 2014'^[23]^: 15 ^1U.S figures are lower in DOE's Photovoltaic System Pricing Trends^[74]

According to the International Renewable Energy Agency, a "sustained, dramatic decline" in utility-scale solar PV electricity cost driven by lower solar PV module and system costs continued in 2018, with global weighted average levelized cost of energy of solar PV falling to US$0.085 per kilowatt-hour, or 13% lower than projects commissioned the previous year, resulting in a decline from 2010 to 2018 of 77%.^[77]

Technologies (1990–present)

 

Global photovoltaics market share by technology 1980-2021. ^{[78]: 24, 25}

There were significant advances in conventional crystalline silicon (c-Si) technology in the years leading up to 2017. The falling cost of the polysilicon since 2009, that followed after a period of severe shortage (see below) of silicon feedstock, pressure increased on manufacturers of commercial thin-film PV technologies, including amorphous thin-film silicon (a-Si), cadmium telluride (CdTe), and copper indium gallium diselenide (CIGS), led to the bankruptcy of several thin-film companies that had once been highly touted.^[79] The sector faced price competition from Chinese crystalline silicon cell and module manufacturers, and some companies together with their patents were sold below cost.^[80]

Global PV market by technology in 2021.^{[78]: 24, 25}

  CdTe (4.1%)

  a-Si (0.1%)

  CIGS (0.8%)

  mono-Si (82%)

  multi-Si (13%)

In 2013 thin-film technologies accounted for about 9 percent of worldwide deployment, while 91 percent was held by crystalline silicon (mono-Si and multi-Si). With 5 percent of the overall market, CdTe held more than half of the thin-film market, leaving 2 percent to each CIGS and amorphous silicon.^{[81]: 24–25}

• CIGS technology

Copper indium gallium selenide (CIGS) is the name of the semiconductor material on which the technology is based. One of the largest producers of CIGS photovoltaics in 2015 was the Japanese company Solar Frontier with a manufacturing capacity in the gigawatt-scale. Their CIS line technology included modules with conversion efficiencies of over 15%.^[82] The company profited from the booming Japanese market and attempted to expand its international business. However, several prominent manufacturers could not keep up with the advances in conventional crystalline silicon technology. The company Solyndra ceased all business activity and filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy in 2011, and Nanosolar, also a CIGS manufacturer, closed its doors in 2013. Although both companies produced CIGS solar cells, it has been pointed out, that the failure was not due to the technology but rather because of the companies themselves, using a flawed architecture, such as, for example, Solyndra's cylindrical substrates.^[83]

• CdTe technology

The U.S.-company First Solar, a leading manufacturer of CdTe, built several of the world's largest solar power stations, such as the Desert Sunlight Solar Farm and Topaz Solar Farm, both in the Californian desert with 550 MW capacity each, as well as the 102 MW_AC Nyngan Solar Plant in Australia (the largest PV power station in the Southern Hemisphere at the time) commissioned in mid-2015.^[84] The company was reported in 2013 to be successfully producing CdTe-panels with a steadily increasing efficiency and declining cost per watt.^{[85]: 18–19} CdTe was the lowest energy payback time of all mass-produced PV technologies, and could be as short as eight months in favorable locations.^[81]: 31 The company Abound Solar, also a manufacturer of cadmium telluride modules, went bankrupt in 2012.^[86]

• a-Si technology

In 2012, ECD solar, once one of the world's leading manufacturer of amorphous silicon (a-Si) technology, filed for bankruptcy in Michigan, United States. Swiss OC Oerlikon divested its solar division that produced a-Si/μc-Si tandem cells to Tokyo Electron Limited.^[87][88] Other companies that left the amorphous silicon thin-film market include DuPont, BP, Flexcell, Inventux, Pramac, Schuco, Sencera, EPV Solar,^[89] NovaSolar (formerly OptiSolar)^[90] and Suntech Power that stopped manufacturing a-Si modules in 2010 to focus on crystalline silicon solar panels. In 2013, Suntech filed for bankruptcy in China.^[91][92]

Silicon shortage (2005–2008)

 

Polysilicon prices since 2004. As of July 2020, the ASP for polysilicon stands at $6.956/kg^[70]

In the early 2000s, prices for polysilicon, the raw material for conventional solar cells, were as low as $30 per kilogram and silicon manufacturers had no incentive to expand production.

However, there was a severe silicon shortage in 2005, when governmental programmes caused a 75% increase in the deployment of solar PV in Europe. In addition, the demand for silicon from semiconductor manufacturers was growing. Since the amount of silicon needed for semiconductors makes up a much smaller portion of production costs, semiconductor manufacturers were able to outbid solar companies for the available silicon in the market.^[93]

Initially, the incumbent polysilicon producers were slow to respond to rising demand for solar applications, because of their painful experience with over-investment in the past. Silicon prices sharply rose to about $80 per kilogram, and reached as much as $400/kg for long-term contracts and spot prices. In 2007, the constraints on silicon became so severe that the solar industry was forced to idle about a quarter of its cell and module manufacturing capacity—an estimated 777 MW of the then available production capacity. The shortage also provided silicon specialists with both the cash and an incentive to develop new technologies and several new producers entered the market. Early responses from the solar industry focused on improvements in the recycling of silicon. When this potential was exhausted, companies have been taking a harder look at alternatives to the conventional Siemens process.^[94]

As it takes about three years to build a new polysilicon plant, the shortage continued until 2008. Prices for conventional solar cells remained constant or even rose slightly during the period of silicon shortage from 2005 to 2008. This is notably seen as a "shoulder" that sticks out in the Swanson's PV-learning curve and it was feared that a prolonged shortage could delay solar power becoming competitive with conventional energy prices without subsidies.

In the meantime the solar industry lowered the number of grams-per-watt by reducing wafer thickness and kerf loss, increasing yields in each manufacturing step, reducing module loss, and raising panel efficiency. Finally, the ramp up of polysilicon production alleviated worldwide markets from the scarcity of silicon in 2009 and subsequently lead to an overcapacity with sharply declining prices in the photovoltaic industry for the following years.

Solar overcapacity (2009–2013)

Solar module production

utilization of production capacity in %

Utilization rate of solar PV module production capacity in % since 1993^[95]: 47

As the polysilicon industry had started to build additional large production capacities during the shortage period, prices dropped as low as $15 per kilogram forcing some producers to suspend production or exit the sector. Prices for silicon stabilized around $20 per kilogram and the booming solar PV market helped to reduce the enormous global overcapacity from 2009 onwards. However, overcapacity in the PV industry continued to persist. In 2013, global record deployment of 38 GW (updated EPIA figure^[3]) was still much lower than China's annual production capacity of approximately 60 GW. Continued overcapacity was further reduced by significantly lowering solar module prices and, as a consequence, many manufacturers could no longer cover costs or remain competitive. As worldwide growth of PV deployment continued, the gap between overcapacity and global demand was expected in 2014 to close in the next few years.^[96]

IEA-PVPS published in 2014 historical data for the worldwide utilization of solar PV module production capacity that showed a slow return to normalization in manufacture in the years leading up to 2014. The utilization rate is the ratio of production capacities versus actual production output for a given year. A low of 49% was reached in 2007 and reflected the peak of the silicon shortage that idled a significant share of the module production capacity. As of 2013, the utilization rate had recovered somewhat and increased to 63%.^[95]: 47

Anti-dumping duties (2012–present)

After anti-dumping petition were filed and investigations carried out,^[97] the United States imposed tariffs of 31 percent to 250 percent on solar products imported from China in 2012.^[98] A year later, the EU also imposed definitive anti-dumping and anti-subsidy measures on imports of solar panels from China at an average of 47.7 percent for a two-year time span.^[99]

Shortly thereafter, China, in turn, levied duties on U.S. polysilicon imports, the feedstock for the production of solar cells.^[100] In January 2014, the Chinese Ministry of Commerce set its anti-dumping tariff on U.S. polysilicon producers, such as Hemlock Semiconductor Corporation to 57%, while other major polysilicon producing companies, such as German Wacker Chemie and Korean OCI were much less affected. All this has caused much controversy between proponents and opponents and was subject of debate.

History of deployment

 

2016-2020 development of the Bhadla Solar Park (India), documented on Sentinel-2 satellite imagery

Deployment figures on a global, regional and nationwide scale are well documented since the early 1990s. While worldwide photovoltaic capacity grew continuously, deployment figures by country were much more dynamic, as they depended strongly on national policies. A number of organizations release comprehensive reports on PV deployment on a yearly basis. They include annual and cumulative deployed PV capacity, typically given in watt-peak, a break-down by markets, as well as in-depth analysis and forecasts about future trends.

Timeline of the largest PV power stations in the world

Year^(a)	Name of PV power station	Country	Capacity MW
1982	Lugo	United States	1
1985	Carrisa Plain	United States	5.6
2005	Bavaria Solarpark (Mühlhausen)	Germany	6.3
2006	Erlasee Solar Park	Germany	11.4
2008	Olmedilla Photovoltaic Park	Spain	60
2010	Sarnia Photovoltaic Power Plant	Canada	97
2011	Huanghe Hydropower Golmud Solar Park	China	200
2012	Agua Caliente Solar Project	United States	290
2014	Topaz Solar Farm^(b)	United States	550
2015	Longyangxia Dam Solar Park	China	850
2016	Tengger Desert Solar Park	China	1547
2019	Pavagada Solar Park	India	2050
2020	Bhadla Solar Park	India	2245
Also see list of photovoltaic power stations and list of noteworthy solar parks (a) year of final commissioning (b) capacity given in  MWAC otherwise in MWDC

Worldwide annual deployment

 

•   2018: 103,000 MW (20.4%)
•   2017: 95,000 MW (18.8%)
•   2016: 76,600 MW (15.2%)
•   2015: 50,909 MW (10.1%)
•   2014: 40,134 MW (8.0%)
•   2013: 38,352 MW (7.6%)
•   2012: 30,011 MW (5.9%)
•   2011: 30,133 MW (6.0%)
•   2010: 17,151 MW (3.4%)
•   2009: 7,340 MW (1.5%)
•   2008: 6,661 MW (1.3%)
•   before: 9,183 MW (1.8%)

Annual PV deployment as a %-share of global total capacity (estimate for 2018).^[2][101]

Due to the exponential nature of PV deployment, most of the overall capacity has been installed in the years leading up to 2017 (see pie-chart). Since the 1990s, each year has been a record-breaking year in terms of newly installed PV capacity, except for 2012. Contrary to some earlier predictions, early 2017 forecasts were that 85 gigawatts would be installed in 2017.^[102] Near end-of-year figures however raised estimates to 95 GW for 2017-installations.^[101]

50,000

100,000

150,000

200,000

250,000

300,000

2002

2006

2010

2014

2018

2022

Global annual installed capacity since 2002, in megawatts (hover with mouse over bar).

  annual deployment since 2002    2022: 268 GW (estimate) ^[103]

Worldwide cumulative

 

Worldwide cumulative PV capacity on a semi log chart since 1992

Worldwide growth of solar PV capacity was an exponential curve between 1992 and 2017. Tables below show global cumulative nominal capacity by the end of each year in megawatts, and the year-to-year increase in percent. In 2014, global capacity was expected to grow by 33 percent from 139 to 185 GW. This corresponded to an exponential growth rate of 29 percent or about 2.4 years for current worldwide PV capacity to double. Exponential growth rate: P(t) = P₀e^rt, where P₀ is 139 GW, growth-rate r 0.29 (results in doubling time t of 2.4 years).

The following table contains data from multiple different sources. For 1992–1995: compiled figures of 16 main markets (see section All time PV installations by country), for 1996–1999: BP-Statistical Review of world energy (Historical Data Workbook)^[104] for 2000–2013: EPIA Global Outlook on Photovoltaics Report^[3]: 17

1990s

Year	Capacity^A MWp	Δ%^B	Refs
1991	n.a.	—	^C
1992	105	n.a.	^C
1993	130	24%	^C
1994	158	22%	^C
1995	192	22%	^C
1996	309	61%	^[104]
1997	422	37%	^[104]
1998	566	34%	^[104]
1999	807	43%	^[104]
2000	1,250	55%	^[104]

2000s

Year	Capacity^A MWp	Δ%^B	Refs
2001	1,615	27%	^[3]
2002	2,069	28%	^[3]
2003	2,635	27%	^[3]
2004	3,723	41%	^[3]
2005	5,112	37%	^[3]
2006	6,660	30%	^[3]
2007	9,183	38%	^[3]
2008	15,844	73%	^[3]
2009	23,185	46%	^[3]
2010	40,336	74%	^[3]

2010s

Year	Capacity^A MWp	Δ%^B	Refs
2011	70,469	75%	^[3]
2012	100,504	43%	^[3]
2013	138,856	38%	^[3]
2014	178,391	28%	^[2]
2015	221,988	24%	^[105]
2016	295,816	33%	^[105]
2017	388,550	31%	^[105]
2018	488,741	26%	^[105]
2019	586,421	20%	^[105]
2020	713,970	21%	^[106]

2020s

Year	Capacity^A MWp	Δ%^B	Refs
2021	849,473	19%	^[107]

Legend:

^A Worldwide, cumulative nameplate capacity in megawatt-peak MW_p, (re-)calculated in DC power output.

^B annual increase of cumulative worldwide PV nameplate capacity in percent.

^C figures of 16 main markets, including Australia, Canada, Japan, Korea, Mexico, European countries, and the United States.

Deployment by country

Further information: History of photovoltaic growth and Solar power by country

 

Grid parity for solar PV systems around the world
  Reached grid-parity before 2014
  Reached grid-parity after 2014
  Reached grid-parity only for peak prices
  U.S. states poised to reach grid-parity
Source: Deutsche Bank, as of February 2015

Number of countries with PV
capacities in the gigawatt-scale

Growing number of solar gigawatt-markets

  Over 1 GW

• 2021
  2020
  2019
  2018
  2017
  2016
  2015
  2014
  2013
  2012
  2011
  2010
  2009
  2008
  2004

  Over 10 GW

• 2021
  2020
  2019
  2018
  2017
  2016
  2013
  2011
  2010

  Over 100 GW

• 2021	^[108]
  2017

All time PV installations by country

IEA and other sources (1992-2015)

Historical cumulative installed photovoltaic capacity by country (MW_p)

Country	1992	1993	1994	1995	1996	1997	1998	1999	2000	2001	2002	2003	2004	2005	2006	2007	2008	2009	2010	2011	2012	2013	2014	2015
Algeria																							30	300
Australia	7.3	8.9	10.7	12.7	15.9	18.7	22.5	25.3	29.2	33.6	39.1	45.6	52.3	60.6	70.3	82.5	105	188	571	1377	2415	3226	4136	5109
Austria	0.6	0.8	1.1	1.4	1.7	2.2	2.9	3.7	4.9	6.1	10.3	16.8	21.1	24.0	25.6	28.7	32.4	52.6	95.5	187	363	626	766	935
Belgium																23.7	108	649	1067	2088	2722	3009	3074	3228
Brazil																				5	^D17	^D32	^F54
Bulgaria																		5.7	35	141	1010	1020	1020	1021
Canada	1.0	1.1	1.5	1.9	2.6	3.4	4.5	5.8	7.2	8.8	10.0	11.8	13.9	16.8	20.5	25.8	32.7	94.6	281	558	766	1211	1710	2579
Chile																				^C<1	^C2	3	368	848
China									19	23.5	42	52	62	70	80	100	140	300	800	3300	6800	19720	28199	43530
Croatia																					0.2	20	34	45
Cyprus																		3.3	6.2	9	17	32	65	70
Czech																		463.3	1952	1959	2087	2175	2134	2083
Denmark		0.1	0.1	0.1	0.2	0.4	0.5	1.1	1.5	1.5	1.6	1.9	2.3	2.7	2.9	3.1	3.2	4.6	7.1	16.7	408	563	603	783
Estonia																		0.05	0.08	0.2	0.2	0.2	0.1	4.1
Finland																			0.1	1	11	11	11.2	14.7
France	1.8	2.1	2.4	2.9	4.4	6.1	7.6	9.1	11.3	13.9	17.2	21.1	26.0	33.0	36.5	74.5	179	369	1204	2974	4090	4733	5660	6589
Germany	2.9	4.3	5.6	6.7	10.3	16.5	21.9	30.2	89.4	207	324	473	1139	2072	2918	4195	6153	9959	17372	24858	32462	35766	38200	39763
Greece																		55	205	624	1536	2579	2595	2613
Guatemala																						n/a	^F+6
Honduras																						n/a	^F+5	389
Hungary																		0.65	1.75	4	12	35	78	137
India																			161	461	1205	2320	2936	5050
Ireland																	0.4	0.6	0.7	0.7	0.9	1.0	1.1	2.1
Israel													0.9	1.0	1.3	1.8	3.0	24.5	69.9	190	237	481	731	886
Italy	8.5	12.1	14.1	15.8	16.0	16.7	17.7	18.5	19.0	20.0	22.0	26.0	30.7	37.5	50.0	120	458	1181	3502	12809	16454	18074	18460	18924
Japan	19.0	24.3	31.2	43.4	59.6	91.3	133	209	330	453	637	860	1132	1422	1709	1919	2144	2627	3618	4914	6632	13599	23300	34151
Latvia																			0	0.2	0.2	0.2	1.5	1.5
Lithuania																		0.07	0.2	0.3	6.2	68	68	73
Luxembourg																		26.4	27.3	30	^A30	^A30	^A45	125
Malaysia															5.5	7.0	8.8	11.1	12.6	13.5	35	73	160	231
Malta																		1.53	1.67	12	16	23	54	73
Mexico	5.4	7.1	8.8	9.2	10.0	11.0	12.0	12.9	13.9	^G13.9	^G13.9	^G13.9	^G15.9	^G16.9	^G17.9	^G18.9	^G19.9	^G24.9	^G38.9	^G29.9	^G34.9	^G65.9	^G114.1	^G170.1
Netherlands		0.1	0.1	0.3	0.7	1.0	1.0	5.3	8.5	16.2	21.7	39.7	43.4	45.4	47.5	48.6	52.8	63.9	84.7	143	^I365	^I739	^I1048	^I1405
Norway											^B6.4	^B6.6	^B6.9	^B7.3	^B7.7	^B8.0	^B8.3	^B8.7	^B9.1	^B9.5	^B10	^B11	13	15.3
Pakistan																						?	400	1000
Peru																				0	^D22	n/a	n/a
Philippines																						?	33	155
Poland																		1.38	1.75	3	7	7	24	87
Portugal	0.2	0.2	0.3	0.3	0.4	0.5	0.6	0.9	1.1	1.3	1.7	2.0	2.0	2.0	4.0	15	56	99	135	169	228	281	391	460
Romania																		0.64	1.94	4	51	1151	1219	1325
Slovakia																		0.19	148	508	523	524	533	591
Slovenia																		9.0	35	81	201	212	256	257
South Africa																				1	30	122	922	1120
South Korea	1.5	1.6	1.7	1.8	2.1	2.5	3.0	3.5	4.0	4.7	10.0	11.0	13.8	19.2	41.8	87.2	363	530	656	735	1030	1475	2384	3493
Spain			1.0	1.0	1.0	1.0	1.0	2.0	2.0	4.0	7.0	12.0	23.0	48	145	693	^H3421	^H3438	^H3859	^H4322	^H4603	^H4766	^H4872	^H4921
Sweden	0.8	1.0	1.3	1.6	1.8	2.1	2.4	2.6	2.8	3.0	3.3	3.6	3.9	4.2	4.8	6.2	7.9	8.8	11	11	24	43	79	130
Switzerland	4.7	5.8	6.7	7.5	8.4	9.7	11.5	13.4	15.3	17.6	19.5	21.0	23.1	27.1	29.7	36.2	47.9	73.6	111	211	437	756	1076	1394
Taiwan																			32	102	206	376	776	1010
Thailand											2.9	4.2	10.8	23.9	30.5	32.5	33.4	43.2	49.2	243	388	824	1299	1420
Turkey							0.2	0.3	0.4	0.6	0.9	1.3	1.8	2.3	2.8	3.3	4.0	5.0	6	7	8.5	18	58	266
Ukraine																			3	191	326	616	819	432
UK	0.2	0.3	0.3	0.4	0.4	0.6	0.7	1.1	1.9	2.7	4.1	5.9	8.2	10.9	14.3	18.1	22.5	29.6	77	904	^E1901	^E3377	5104	8917
USA	43.5	50.3	57.8	66.8	76.5	88.2	100	117	139	168	212	275	376	479	624	831	1169	1256	2528	4383	7272	12079	18280	25600
References																	^[109]	^[110]	^[111]	^[112]^[113]	^[114]^[115]	^[3]^[95]	^[4]^[116]	^[5]^[117]^[118]
Year	1992	1993	1994	1995	1996	1997	1998	1999	2000	2001	2002	2003	2004	2005	2006	2007	2008	2009	2010	2011	2012	2013	2014	2015
Notes: ^A Strong discrepancy for Luxembourg: EPIA-figures report unchanged capacity of 30 MW for Y2011-2013 (source listed in row "References"), while Photovoltaic Barometer^[119] reports a capacity of 76.7 MW for Y2012 and 100 MW for Y2013. Table displays EPIA figures. ^B Strong discrepancy for Norway: Figures based on BP-Statistical Review of world energy^[104] and IEA-PVPS trend report|^[95] as EIPA outlook report^[3]^: 24 mentions virtually zero deployment (as 0.02 watt per capita results in 0.07 MW). ^C Different data source for Chile, figures based on reports^[120] published by the Chilean Ministry of Energy—Centro de Energías Renovables (CER) and CORFO. Monthly reports revise figures retroactively. Distinction between solar PV and CSP is missing, however. ^D Figures for Brazil and Peru need to be checked, as sources are unclear. Peru's 22 MW reflects capacity of one solar farm opened in 2012^[121]^[122] Historical data for these countries may be verifiable when new reports are released. ^E Displayed IEA-PVPS/EPIA figures for the United Kingdom differ significantly from those published by DECC.^[123]^[124] ^F Only fragmented figures for all Central American and some Latin American countries available. Based on public figures from GTM's Latin America PV Playbook^[125] ^G There's a strong discrepancy between the Trends 2014,^[95] Trends 2015 and Trends 2016 report.^[118] The cumulative capacity was revised downwards significantly for previous years in the 2016 report. ^H There's a discrepancy between Eur'Observ^[116]^[126]^[127]^[113]^[128]^[129]^[117] data IEA^[118] data where Eur'Observer reports about 10% less installed capacity. Eur'Observ data is used here. ^I There's a discrepancy between Eur'Observ and IEA. Eur'Observ data used here.

IRENA (2000-2020)

Solar Photovoltaic Capacity (MW) by Country/Region each year^[130]

ISO_A3	Country/Region	2000	2001	2002	2003	2004	2005	2006	2007	2008	2009	2010	2011	2012	2013	2014	2015	2016	2017	2018	2019	2020
AFG	Afghanistan	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0.1	0.1	16.1	16.8	18.4	18.9	20.2	22	21.6	31.1	30.5
ALB	Albania	0	0.1	0.2	0.2	0.2	0.2	0.2	0.2	0.2	0.3	0.4	0.6	0.7	0.8	0.9	1.1	1	1	1	14	16.9
DZA	Algeria	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	1.1	49.1	219	400	423	423	423
ASM	American Samoa	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	2.4	2.4	2.4	2.4	3.8	4.2	5.1	5.1	5.1
AND	Andorra	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0.2	0.2	0.2	0.5	1.1	2	2.9
AGO	Angola	0	0	0.2	0.2	0.4	0.6	0.8	2.7	4.8	5.3	7.1	7.7	9.6	10.8	12	12.9	13.4	13.4	13.4	13.4	13.4
AIA	Anguilla	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0.1	0.1	1.1	1.1	2.1	2.1	1.1	1.5	1.5
ATG	Antigua and Barbuda	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0.1	0.1	0.3	0.3	0.4	0.4	3.4	3.5	3.9	8.3	8.3	12.5
ARG	Argentina	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	1.2	6.2	8.3	8.3	8.6	8.8	8.8	191	442	761
ARM	Armenia	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	1	2.4	17.3	50	95
ABW	Aruba	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0.1	0.3	1	1.6	4.9	6.1	6.1	6.1	6.1	6.1	6.1
AUS	Australia	25	29	34	39	46	52	61	70	82	329	1,088	2,470	3,796	4,565	5,284	5,943	6,686	7,352	8,623	12,967	17,342
AUT	Austria	5	7	9	23	27	21	22.4	24.2	30.1	48.9	88.8	174	337	626	785	937	1,096	1,269	1,455	1,702	2,220
AZE	Azerbaijan	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0.1	0.1	0.1	0.3	1	1	1	2.4	4.8	24.9	28.4	34.9	35.4	35.4
BHS	Bahamas (the)	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0.1	0.1	0.2	0.3	0.4	0.6	0.6	1.3	1.3	1.5	1.4	1.4	2.3	2.2
BHR	Bahrain	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0.5	0.5	5	5	6	6	6.3	9.3	9.8
BGD	Bangladesh	0	0	0	0.6	1.4	2.5	4	6.6	11.1	18.3	32.3	42.6	66.1	94	119	145	161	185	201	239	276
BRB	Barbados	0	0.1	0.1	0.1	0.1	0.2	0.2	0.6	0.6	0.8	1	1.3	1.5	1.7	6.5	9	20	21	22	35	50
BLR	Belarus	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	4	6	47	80	154	154	160
BEL	Belgium	0	0	1	1	1	2	2	20	62	386	1,007	1,979	2,647	2,902	3,015	3,132	3,329	3,621	4,000	4,637	5,646
BLZ	Belize	0	0.1	0.1	0.1	0.2	0.3	0.3	0.4	0.5	0.6	0.7	0.8	1.9	1.9	2.6	3.9	3.9	3.9	4.2	6.3	6.6
BEN	Benin	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0.2	1.2	2.9	2.9	2.9	2.9	2.9
	BES Islands	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0.3	2.2	4.5	5.6	6.6	6.6
BTN	Bhutan	0	0	0	0	0	0.1	0.3	0.3	0.3	0.3	0.3	0.3	0.3	0.3	0.3	0.3	0.3	0.3	0.3	0.3	0.3
BOL	Bolivia (Plurinational State of)	0.3	0.4	0.5	0.7	0.8	0.8	1.1	1.4	2.4	2.8	3	3.4	4.1	5.5	5.5	5.5	5.5	7.5	69.9	120	120
BIH	Bosnia and Herzegovina	0	0	0	0.1	0.2	0.3	0.3	0.3	0.3	0.3	0.3	0.3	0.3	1.3	7.2	8.2	14.1	16	18.2	22.4	34.9
BWA	Botswana	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0.1	0.2	1.6	1.7	1.9	2.2	3.3	3.4	3.9	6.1	6.1
VGB	Virgin Islands (British)	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0.1	0.1	0.1	0.1	0.1	0.2	0.2	0.2	0.2	0.2	0.2
BRA	Brazil	0	0	0	0.7	0.7	0.7	0.7	0.7	0.8	0.8	0.9	6.1	6.6	12.5	20.7	45.6	128	1,207	2,435	4,613	7,879
BRN	Brunei Darussalam	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	1.2	1.2	1.2	1.2	1.2	1.2	1.2	1.2	1.2	1.2	1.4
BGR	Bulgaria	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0.1	2	25	154	1,013	1,020	1,026	1,029	1,028	1,036	1,033	1,048	1,073
BFA	Burkina Faso	0.5	0.5	0.5	0.7	1.1	1.2	1.2	1.6	2.3	3	3.6	5.8	5.8	6.3	7	8	10	46.8	61.8	62.4	62.4
BDI	Burundi	0	0	0	0	0	0.1	0.2	0.3	0.4	0.4	0.6	0.8	1.6	2.6	2.8	3.1	4.1	5.1	5.1	5.1	5.1
CPV	Cabo Verde	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	5.5	5.5	5.6	5.7	5.8	6.1	6.2	6.2	7.5	7.6	7.6
KHM	Cambodia	0.1	0.2	0.3	0.3	0.4	0.5	0.7	1.6	1.9	2.1	2.2	3.9	4.7	5.9	9.2	12.2	18.4	29.4	28.8	124	208
CMR	Cameroon	0	0	0	0.1	0.1	0.1	0.1	0.2	0.2	0.5	1	2.4	2.8	3.6	5.6	7.4	9	11.6	14.2	14.2	14.3
CAN	Canada	7	9	10	12	14	18	22	29	38	107	249	628	766	1,210	1,843	2,519	2,665	2,932	3,095	3,327	3,342
CYM	Cayman Islands (the)	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	2.8	8.8	9.9	11.1	12.7
CAF	Central African Republic (the)	0	0	0	0	0	0.1	0.1	0.1	0.1	0.1	0.1	0.2	0.3	0.3	0.3	0.3	0.3	0.3	0.3	0.3	0.3
TCD	Chad	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0.1	0.1	0.2	0.2	0.2	0.2	0.2	0.2
CHL	Chile	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	2	15	221	576	1,125	1,809	2,137	2,555	3,106
CHN	China	33.5	38	56.5	66.6	76.6	141	160	199	253	415	1,022	3,108	6,718	17,748	28,388	43,538	77,788	130,801	175,016	204,575	253,834
TWN	Taiwan	0.1	0.2	0.3	0.5	0.6	1	1.4	2.4	5.6	9.5	34.6	130	231	410	636	884	1,245	1,768	2,738	4,150	5,817
COL	Colombia	0.6	1	1	1.1	1.1	1.1	1.2	1.2	1.2	1.3	1.3	1.3	1.3	1.4	1.4	1.5	1.5	11.3	88.4	92.4	110
COD	Congo (the Democratic Republic of the)	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0.1	0.4	0.6	0.7	3.2	5.2	19.9	19.9	19.9
COG	Congo (the)	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0.1	0.1	0.2	0.5	0.5	0.5	0.6	0.7	0.7	0.7
COK	Cook Islands (the)	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0.7	1.7	3.2	4.1	4.1	6	7.3	7.3
CRI	Costa Rica	0.2	0.6	1.1	1.7	2	2.6	3.2	3.8	4.6	5	6.2	6.8	9.9	12.7	16.7	22.5	23.6	28	28	48.4	56.8
CIV	Côte d'Ivoire	0	0.1	0.1	0.1	0.1	0.2	0.2	0.4	1.1	1.4	1.6	1.7	2	2.9	3.8	5.1	5.1	8.3	13.1	13.1	13.1
HRV	Croatia	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0.3	0.3	0.3	4	19	33	47.8	55.8	60	67.7	84.8	84.8
CUB	Cuba	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0.6	11	22	23.8	37	65.5	128	159	163
CUW	Curaçao	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0.1	3.1	7.7	10.1	11.1	11.1	11.9	11.9	11.9
CYP	Cyprus	0	0	0	0	1	1	1	1	2	4	7	10	17	35	64	76	84	110	118	151	200
CZE	Czechia	0.1	0.1	0.2	0.3	0.4	0.6	0.8	4	39.5	465	1,727	1,913	2,022	2,064	2,067	2,075	2,068	2,070	2,075	2,086	2,073
DNK	Denmark	1	1	2	2	2	3	3	3	3	5	7	17	402	571	607	782	851	906	998	1,080	1,300
DJI	Djibouti	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0.3	0.3	0.3	0.3	0.4	0.4	0.4	0.4	0.4
DMA	Dominica	0.1	0.1	0.1	0.1	0.1	0.1	0.1	0.2	0.2	0.2	0.2	0.2	0.2	0.2	0.2	0.2	0.6	0.6	0.3	0.3	0.3
DOM	Dominican Republic (the)	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	1.6	8.9	15.3	25.8	71.1	103	203	196	267
ECU	Ecuador	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0.1	3.9	26.4	25.5	25.6	25.6	26.7	27.6	27.6
EGY	Egypt	0.1	0.5	0.6	0.6	0.6	0.6	0.6	0.7	0.9	1.3	15	15	15	15	15	25	39	160	744	1,627	1,659
SLV	El Salvador	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	12.5	12.5	23.6	24.8	121	198	403	429
GNQ	Equatorial Guinea	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0.1
ERI	Eritrea	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	7.9	7.9	8.2	10.2	17.7	20	22.2
EST	Estonia	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0.1	0.1	0.2	0.4	1.5	3.3	6.5	10	15	31.9	121	130
SWZ	Eswatini	0	0	0	0	0	0.1	0.2	0.2	0.2	0.3	0.6	0.7	0.8	0.8	0.8	0.8	0.9	0.9	0.9	0.9	0.9
ETH	Ethiopia	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0.3	1.1	3.3	9.1	9.9	14	12.5	12.3	12.3	20.2
E28	European Union (28)	178	276	360	596	1 305	2 281	3 235	5 006	10 420	16 816	30 148	53 393	71 206	80 659	87 190	95 370	101 490	107 073	115 223	131 813	150 502
FLK	Falkland Islands (the) [Malvinas]	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0.1	0.1	0.1	0.1	0.1	0.1
FRO	Faroe Islands (the)	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0.3	0.3
FJI	Fiji	0.1	0.1	0.1	0.1	0	0.1	0.1	0.1	0.2	0.2	0.3	0.3	0.9	1.4	1.9	3.3	5.3	7.1	9.5	9.5	9.7
FIN	Finland	2	3	3	3	4	4	5	5	6	6	7	7	8	9	11	17	39	82	140	222	391
GUF	French Guiana	0.1	0.1	0.1	0.1	0.1	0.2	0.2	0.2	0.6	2.5	23.2	35.9	36.3	36.6	36.7	46.5	46.5	46.6	46.7	46.7	54.9
PYF	French Polynesia	0.5	0.7	0.8	1	1.2	1.5	1.8	1.9	2.1	2.4	2.9	11	13.5	16.9	24.6	27.9	31.6	35.2	37.4	41	41
FRA	France	7	7	8	9	11	13	15	26	80	277	1,044	3,004	4,359	5,277	6,034	7,138	7,702	8,610	9,691	10,795	11,724
GAB	Gabon	0	0	0.1	0.1	0.1	0.1	0.2	0.2	0.4	1.4	1.4	1.4	1.4	1.4	1.4	1.4	1.4	1.4	1.4	1.4	1.4
GMB	Gambia (the)	0	0	0.1	0.2	0.4	0.6	0.7	1.2	1.4	1.6	1.8	1.9	2	2	2.1	2.2	2.2	2.2	2.2	2.2	2.2
GEO	Georgia	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0.3	0.3	0.3	0.7	0.7
DEU	Germany	114	195	260	435	1,105	2,056	2,899	4,170	6,120	10,564	18,004	25,914	34,075	36,708	37,898	39,222	40,677	42,291	45,156	49,045	53,781
GHA	Ghana	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	3.5	5.7	31.4	37.9	47.1	80.9	87.7	94.2
GRC	Greece	0	1	1	1	1	1	5	9	12	46	202	612	1,536	2,579	2,596	2,604	2,604	2,606	2,652	2,834	3,247
GRL	Greenland	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0.1	0.1	0.1
GRD	Grenada	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0.1	0.1	0.2	0.3	0.3	0.5	0.7	1	2.2	2.3	2.7	3.3	3.3
GLP	Guadeloupe	0	0	0	0	0	0.4	1.2	2.5	3.7	10.9	22.4	28.5	60	66.6	66.6	67.1	68	70	70	81	85.4
GUM	Guam	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0.1	0.1	0.3	0.8	1.4	32	34.7	34.7	34.8	34.8	34.8
GTM	Guatemala	0.1	0.1	0.2	0.2	0.2	0.2	0.3	0.3	0.4	0.5	0.6	0.8	1.5	2.6	10.4	93.3	93.3	99.3	101	101	101
GIN	Guinea	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0.6	0.6	0.6	0.6	3.4	3.4	13.3	13.3	13.3	13.4	13.4	13.4
GNB	Guinea-Bissau	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0.3	0.3	0.3	1.2	1.2	1.2
GUY	Guyana	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0.1	0.1	0.2	0.9	1	1	1.1	1.5	2	3.5	6.3	8.4	8.4
HTI	Haiti	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0.5	0.6	1.1	1.4	1.5	1.9	1.9	2.4	2.6	2.6	2.6
HND	Honduras	1.6	1.8	2	2.1	2.4	2.7	2.9	3.2	3.2	3.5	3.7	4.5	5.2	5.2	5.2	393	414	454	514	516	516
HUN	Hungary	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0.4	1	1	2	4	12	35	89	172	235	344	728	1,400	1,953
ISL	Iceland	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0.6	0.9	1.1	2.5	3.5	4.3	5.3	7	7
IND	India	1.1	5.5	6.7	7.9	7.8	11.6	9.6	25.1	27.7	39.4	65.4	563	979	1,446	3,444	5,365	9,651	17,923	27,125	34,861	38,983
IDN	Indonesia	0.3	0.6	0.9	1.3	1.3	1.4	2.2	5.7	9.5	13.4	14.6	17	26.4	38.4	41.6	78.6	88.4	97.5	69.1	155	172
IRN	Iran (Islamic Republic of)	0	0	0	0	0	0	0.1	0.1	0.1	0.2	0.4	0.4	0.4	1	9.4	9.4	43.2	184	286	346	430
IRQ	Iraq	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	29.5	36.5	36.5	36.5	36.5	216	216	216
IRL	Ireland	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0.6	0.7	0.8	0.9	1	1.6	2.4	5.9	15.7	24.2	31.1	40.2
ISR	Israel	0	0	0	0	0	1	1.3	1.8	3	24.5	69.9	190	237	420	670	766	866	969	1,070	1,190	2,230
ITA	Italy	19	20	22	26	31	34	45	110	483	1,264	3,592	13,131	16,785	18,185	18,594	18,901	19,283	19,682	20,108	20,865	21,594
JAM	Jamaica	0	0.1	0.1	0.1	0.2	0.2	0.2	0.4	0.6	0.7	1	1.5	1.8	2.1	4.1	6.5	27.5	55.5	55.5	92.5	92.5
JPN	Japan	330	453	637	860	1,132	1,422	1,708	1,919	2,144	2,627	3,618	4,914	6,632	13,599	23,339	34,150	42,040	49,500	56,162	63,192	68,665
JOR	Jordan	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0.1	0.1	0.2	5.5	296	406	809	1,101	1,359
KAZ	Kazakhstan	0	0	0	0	0	0.1	0.1	0.7	1.1	1.3	2.6	3.6	6	15.8	76.3	144	157	175	490	1,150	1,719
KEN	Kenya	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0.2	0.2	0.2	1.4	3.4	7.2	16.7	30.8	31.9	39.1	105	106	106
KIR	Kiribati	0.1	0.1	0.1	0.1	0.2	0.2	0.2	0.3	0.3	0.3	0.4	0.4	0.5	0.5	0.8	2.3	2.9	2.9	2.9	2.9	2.9
PRK	Korea (the Democratic People's Republic of)	0	0	0	0.3	0.3	0.4	0.4	0.5	0.5	0.6	1	1.7	2.3	6.1	11	22.8	31.5	34.8	37.8	41.8	41.8
KOR	Korea (the Republic of)	4	5	5	6	9	14	36	81	357	524	650	730	1,024	1,555	2,481	3,615	4,502	5,835	8,099	11,952	14,575
XKO	Kosovo	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0.1	2	6.6	6.6	10	10
KWT	Kuwait	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0.1	2	3.2	30.5	32	43.1	43.3	43.3
LAO	Lao People's Democratic Republic (the)	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0.5	2.9	3.3	3.6	21.6	21.6	21.6	21.6
LVA	Latvia	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0.2	0.2	0.2	0.2	0.7	0.7	2	3.3	7.2
LBN	Lebanon	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0.3	0.5	0.8	1.9	4.8	11.4	24.6	37.4	56.5	78.7	78.7
LSO	Lesotho	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0.4	0.4	0.4	0.4	0.4	0.4	0.4	0.4
LBR	Liberia	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0.1	0.1	2.4	2.6	2.6	2.6
LBY	Libya	0	0	0	0.2	0.7	1.2	1.7	2.2	2.7	3.2	3.7	4.2	4.9	4.9	4.9	4.9	4.9	5.1	5.1	5.1	5.1
LTU	Lithuania	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0.1	0.1	0.1	0.3	7	68	69	69	70	73.8	82	82	148
LUX	Luxembourg	0	0.2	1.6	14.2	23.6	23.6	23.7	23.9	24.6	26.4	29.5	40.7	74.7	95	110	116	122	128	131	160	195
MDG	Madagascar	0	0	0	0	0.1	0.1	0.3	0.4	0.8	1.1	1.5	2	2.6	5	7	9	11	13	33.4	34.2	33
MWI	Malawi	0	0	0	0	0	0	0.1	0.2	0.3	0.5	0.7	1.8	2.7	5.4	7.7	12.1	12.1	19.2	22.7	22.7	24
MYS	Malaysia	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0.5	0.5	0.5	0.5	0.5	25.1	97.1	166	229	279	370	536	882	1,493
MDV	Maldives	0	0	0	0	0	0	0.1	0.1	0.1	0.2	0.3	0.3	1.4	1.8	4.1	4.1	6.8	9.5	9.5	13.2	15.2
MLI	Mali	0.1	0.3	0.4	0.8	1.4	1.7	2.5	3.4	3.9	3.9	6.4	9.9	15.7	15.7	16.2	17.2	17.6	19.3	19.3	19.3	69.5
MLT	Malta	0	0	0	0	0	0.1	0.1	0.1	0.2	0.9	0.8	5.3	15.7	28.5	54.6	74.8	93.6	112	131	154	184
MHL	Marshall Islands (the)	0	0	0	0	0.1	0.1	0.1	0.1	0.2	0.3	0.3	0.3	0.5	0.7	1	1	1.6	1.6	1.6	1.6	1.6
MTQ	Martinique	0	0	0	0	0	0	2.5	4	7.3	14.2	26.4	48	60	62	62.5	65.4	66.9	68.4	71	75.8	76
MRT	Mauritania	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	18	18.2	18.2	34.8	34.8	86.8	87.5	87.5
MUS	Mauritius	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	1.4	2.5	18.2	18.7	27.3	28.8	67.5	83.5	83.5
MYT	Mayotte	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0.5	1.8	8.3	12.4	13.1	13.1	13.2	13.2	13.3	15.1	15.1	15.1	15.1
MEX	Mexico	14	15	16	16	16	16	16	19	19	25	29	39	60	82	116	173	389	674	2,541	4,426	5,630
FSM	Micronesia (Federated States of)	0.1	0.1	0.1	0.1	0.1	0.1	0.1	0.2	0.2	0.5	0.5	0.5	0.5	0.7	0.7	0.7	1.3	1.3	1.9	1.9	1.9
MDA	Moldova (the Republic of)	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	1	1	2.3	2.1	3	5	5
MNG	Mongolia	0	0	0	0.2	0.2	0.2	0.2	0.2	3.8	3.8	4.6	4.6	4.6	5	5	5	15	47.7	64.2	89.2	89.6
MNE	Montenegro	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0.2	0.4	0.4	0.6	0.8	0.9	1.1	2.1	2.7	3.1	3.4	4.5	5.3	6.2
MSR	Montserrat	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0.3	0.3
MAR	Morocco	6.7	7	7.7	8.4	9.1	10	10.8	11.9	12.8	13.4	13.5	14.2	15.2	15.2	19.6	19.8	21.9	23.9	194	194	194
MOZ	Mozambique	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0.5	1.5	4.9	7	10	13	15	55	95	95
MMR	Myanmar	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0.1	0.1	0.2	0.4	1.4	2.8	4.2	6.3	20.8	32	43.8	47.5	88.5	84.5
NAM	Namibia	1	1.2	1.5	1.6	1.6	1.6	1.9	2.4	3	3.6	4.2	7.4	11.1	14.6	16.5	21	36	74.8	92.5	145	145
NRU	Nauru	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0.1	0.2	0.2	0.2	0.7	0.7	0.8	1.9	1.9
NPL	Nepal	0	0.3	0.6	1	1.4	1.9	1.8	1.6	2	3.8	4.3	8.5	9.3	10.8	11.5	13.4	13.6	54.3	52.5	50.7	60.5
NLD	Netherlands (the)	13	21	26	46	50	51	53	54	59	69	90	149	287	650	1,007	1,526	2,135	2,911	4,608	7,177	10,213
NCL	New Caledonia	0.2	0.2	0.2	0.3	0.3	0.3	0.3	0.5	0.5	0.6	2.7	3.2	3.2	3.2	3.4	6.8	8.8	26.2	28.6	61.8	80
NZL	New Zealand	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	3	3	3	3	3	4	8	22	37	53	70	90	116	142
NIC	Nicaragua	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	1.4	1.4	1.4	1.4	14	14	16.4	16.4
NER	Niger (the)	0.5	0.6	0.6	0.7	0.8	1	1.1	1.1	1.2	1.2	2.1	3	4	5	6	7	8	9	27	27	27
NGA	Nigeria	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	15.2	15.4	15.6	17	18.4	18.9	19.1	28	28.4
NIU	Niue	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0.1	0.1	0.1	0.1	0.1	0.3	0.3	0.3	0.3	0.3	0.9	0.9
MKD	North Macedonia	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	2	4	7	15	17	16.7	16.7	20.6	26.2	94.4
NOR	Norway	6	6	6	7	7	7	8	8	8.3	8.7	9.1	9.5	10	11	13	15	26.7	44.9	68.4	120	152
OMN	Oman	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0.7	0.7	2.2	2.2	8.2	8.3	8.7	109
PAK	Pakistan	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0.1	1.1	3.7	9.3	18.6	45.8	101	165	266	589	655	679	713	737
PLW	Palau	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0.3	0.3	0.3	0.6	0.7	0.7	0.9	0.9	1.3	1.3	1.7	1.7	1.7
PSE	Palestine, State of	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0.4	0.6	0.6	3	12	25	35	40	81.8	117
PAN	Panama	0.2	0.4	0.5	0.6	0.6	0.8	0.8	1	1.3	1.5	1.9	2.4	3	3.7	6.1	49.3	93	147	193	198	198
PNG	Papua New Guinea	0	0.3	0.3	0.3	0.3	0.3	0.3	0.3	0.3	0.3	0.3	0.3	0.3	0.3	0.3	0.9	1.2	1.2	1.3	1.3	1.3
PRY	Paraguay	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0.1	0.1	0.1	0.1	0.1	0.1	0.1	0.1
PER	Peru	0.9	1.9	3	3.5	4.3	5	5.8	6.8	8	9.8	12.5	17.5	103	109	134	139	146	298	325	331	331
PHL	Philippines (the)	0	0	0	0	2	2	2	2	2	2	2	2	2	3	27.7	173	784	908	914	973	1,048
POL	Poland	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	1.1	1.3	2.4	27.2	108	187	287	562	1,539	3,936
PRT	Portugal	1	1	1	2	2	2	3	24	59	115	134	172	238	296	415	447	513	579	667	901	1,025
PRI	Puerto Rico	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	3.8	3.8	3.8	6.9	57.9	72.9	88.4	133	165	165	165	158
QAT	Qatar	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0.7	0.7	2.3	4	4	5.1	5.1	5.1	5.1	5.1
REU	Réunion	0	0	0	0	0.3	0.5	3	5.8	10	42.5	89.3	131	153	156	167	187	186	188	190	191	191
ROM	Romania	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0.1	0.1	0.1	1	41	761	1,293	1,326	1,372	1,374	1,386	1,398	1,387
RUS	Russian Federation (the)	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0.1	1.3	5	61.3	76.3	225	535	1,276	1,428
RWA	Rwanda	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0.3	0.3	0.3	0.3	0.3	0.5	0.9	10	14	19.2	27.3	31	31	31
WSM	Samoa	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0.2	3.1	4.8	7.2	13.5	13.5	13.5	13.5
STP	São Tomé and Príncipe	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0.1	0.1	0.1	0.2	0.3	0.3	0.3	0.3
SAU	Saudi Arabia	0.4	0.4	0.4	0.4	0.4	0.4	0.4	0.4	0.4	0.4	2.4	2.9	13.6	22.5	24.3	24.3	24.3	34.4	34.4	359	359
SEN	Senegal	1	1.1	1.3	1.4	1.6	1.7	1.8	2	2.3	2.6	3.3	4.8	5.9	7	9	9	42	107	148	171	171
SRB	Serbia	0	0	0	0	0	0.7	0.9	0.9	2.3	3	3.3	3.7	7.1	9.7	13.4	15.8	17.2	18.4	20.8	23.4	28.8
SYC	Seychelles	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0.3	1	1.4	1.9	2.6	3.7	3.7	3.8
SLE	Sierra Leone	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0.1	0.1	0.2	0.2	0.4	0.4	0.4	0.5	3.8	4.4	4.4	4.4
SGP	Singapore	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0.3	1.5	3	4.6	7.8	11.8	25.3	45.7	96.6	116	160	272	329
SVK	Slovakia	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	19	496	513	533	533	533	533	528	472	590	593
SVN	Slovenia	1	1	1	1	1	1	1	1	1	4	12	57	142	187	223	238	233	247	247	264	267
SLB	Solomon Islands	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0.8	0.8	0.8	1.1	1.1	2.2	2.5	2.5	2.5	2.5
SOM	Somalia	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0.1	0.2	4.7	6.9	7.1	7.1	22.5
ZAF	South Africa	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	2	5.7	11.3	262	1,063	1,252	1,974	3,147	4,401	4,405	5,490
SSD	South Sudan	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0.2	0.2	0.2	0.2	0.4	0.4	0.6	0.6	0.6
ESP	Spain	10	13	17	22	33	52	130	494	3,384	3,423	3,873	4,283	4,569	4,690	4,697	4,704	4,713	4,723	4,764	8,973	11,785
LKA	Sri Lanka	0.3	0.9	1.6	2.3	2.9	3.6	4.2	4.9	5.6	6.3	7	9.6	9.7	13	19.6	31.2	62.5	131	185	215	230
BLM	Saint Barthélemy	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0
KNA	Saint Kitts and Nevis	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0.4	1.4	1.4	1.9	1.9	1.9	1.9	1.9
LCA	Saint Lucia	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0.1	0.1	0.1	0.8	0.8	0.8	3.8	3.8	3.8
MAF	Saint Martin (French part)	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	1.4	1.6	2.6	1.8	0.1	0.1	0.5	0.5
VCT	Saint Vincent and the Grenadines	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0.1	0.4	0.4	0.8	1.2	1.3	1.3	1.9	1.9
SDN	Sudan (the)	0	0	0	0	0.1	0.2	0.2	0.4	0.5	0.9	2.3	3.5	8	8	8	11.1	12.3	12.6	12.6	17.9	17.9
SUR	Suriname	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0.2	0.3	0.7	0.9	6.2	6.2	6.7	7.7	8.8	8.8	9.4
SWE	Sweden	3	3	3	4	4	4	5	6	8	9	11	12	24	43	60	104	153	244	428	714	1,417
CHE	Switzerland	16	18	20	22	24	28	30	37	49	79	125	223	437	756	1,061	1,394	1,664	1,906	2,173	2,498	2,943
SYR	Syrian Arab Republic (the)	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0.1	1.4	2.5	2.5
TZA	Tanzania, the United Republic of	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0.3	1.2	3.7	11.2	12.8	18.5	22.1	26.5	26.6	23.6
THA	Thailand	0	0	0	0	0	0	30.4	32.3	32.4	37	48.6	78.7	377	824	1,299	1,420	2,446	2,697	2,962	2,983	2,983
TMP	East Timor	0	0	0	0	0.1	0.1	0.1	0.1	0.1	0.1	0.1	0.1	0.1	0.7	0.7	0.7	0.7	0.7	0.7	0.7	0.7
TGO	Togo	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0.1	0.3	0.4	0.4	0.8	1.7	2.1	2.5	3.5	5.5	5.6
TKL	Tokelau	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	1	1	1	1	1	1	1	1	1
TON	Tonga	0.1	0.1	0.1	0.1	0.1	0.1	0.1	0.1	0.1	0.1	0.1	0.1	1.1	1.7	1.7	2.7	3.2	6.2	6.2	6.2	6.2
TTO	Trinidad and Tobago	0.3	0.7	0.9	1.2	1.7	1.8	2	2.1	2.3	2.5	2.8	2.8	2.8	2.8	3.1	3.6	3.6	3.6	3	3	3
TUN	Tunisia	0.8	1	1.1	1.1	1.2	1.2	1.2	1.2	1.3	1.4	1.8	2.9	5.6	9.5	17.1	27.5	41	50.8	63.7	80	94.9
TUR	Turkey	0.1	0.3	0.6	1	1.5	2	2.5	3	3.7	4.7	5.7	6.7	11.7	17.7	40	249	833	3,421	5,063	5,995	6,667
TCA	Turks and Caicos Islands (the)	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0.2	0.4	0.9	0.9
TUV	Tuvalu	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0.2	0.2	0.2	0.2	0.2	0.3	2.1	2.2	2.2	2.2	2.2	2.3
UGA	Uganda	0.2	0.8	1.1	1.7	2.3	3	5.4	7.7	11.7	14.2	14.9	16.2	17.3	18.5	20	22	24	43.6	66.8	77	77.3
GBR	United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland (the)	2	3	4	6	8	11	14	18	23	27	95	1,000	1,753	2,937	5,528	9,601	11,914	12,760	13,073	13,346	13,462
UKR	Ukraine	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	2.5	188	372	748	819	841	955	1,200	2,003	5,936	7,331
ARE	United Arab Emirates (the)	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	10.1	10.8	12.8	13.2	25.8	33.2	33.4	40.4	255	498	1,818	2,439
URY	Uruguay	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0.1	0.1	0.1	0.4	0.6	1.1	3.2	6	10.5	243	248	254	258
VIR	Virgin Islands (U.S.)	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0.5	0.6	0.9	5	9.2	9.2	5	5	5	5
USA	United States of America (the)	176	213	255	293	363	493	698	974	1,153	1,614	2,909	5,172	8,137	11,759	15,984	21,684	32,958	41,357	49,812	59,068	73,814
UZB	Uzbekistan	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	1	1.1	1.1	2.3	3.2	3.5	3.5	3.5
VUT	Vanuatu	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0.1	0.2	0.2	0.3	0.4	1.8	2.7	4.1	4.3	4.2
VEN	Venezuela (Bolivarian Republic of)	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	1.8	2	2.3	2.3	3.4	4.5	4.5	4.5	4	5.3	5.3
VNM	Viet Nam	0	0.1	0.2	0.4	0.7	1.9	3.4	3.4	3.4	3.5	4.5	4.5	4.5	4.5	5.3	5.3	5.3	8	105	4,898	16,504
YEM	Yemen	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0.9	1	1	1.3	1.4	2.4	5	60	80	100	250	250	253
ZMB	Zambia	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0.1	0.1	0.1	0.1	0.1	1.2	96.4	99.4
ZWE	Zimbabwe	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0.2	0.9	2	2.7	4.3	5.1	6.3	10.6	11.1	17
	WORLD TOTAL	987	1,369	1,798	2,562	4,358	6,830	9,329	13,513	25,150	39,659	70,482	125,593	172,860	217,837	262,783	318,307	396,289	496,651	598,134	715,685	860,175

See also

•  Renewable energy portal
•  Energy portal

• Growth of concentrated solar power (CSP)
• List of renewable energy topics by country and territory
• Solar power by country
• Timeline of solar cells
• Wind power by country

Notes

References

1. "Global Market Outlook for Solar Power 2016–2020" (PDF). Solar Power Europe (SPE), formerly known as EPIA – European Photovoltaic Industry Association. (PDF) from the original on 13 January 2017. Retrieved 11 January 2016.
2. (PDF). solarpowereurope.org. Solar Power Europe (SPE), formerly known as EPIA – European Photovoltaic Industry Association. Archived from the original (PDF) on 10 June 2015. Retrieved 9 June 2015.
3. "Global Market Outlook for Photovoltaics 2014–2018" (PDF). epia.org. EPIA – European Photovoltaic Industry Association. (PDF) from the original on 25 June 2014. Retrieved 12 June 2014.
4. "Snapshot of Global PV 1992–2014" (PDF). iea-pvps.org/index.php?id=32. International Energy Agency – Photovoltaic Power Systems Programme. 30 March 2015. from the original on 7 April 2015.
5. "Snapshot of Global PV 1992–2015" (PDF). iea-pvps.org. International Energy Agency – Photovoltaic Power Systems Programme. 2015.
6. "Snapshot of Global PV Markets 2016" (PDF). IEA-PVPS. p. 11. Retrieved 27 October 2017.
7. "Solar – 10 Predictions for 2022". BNEF – Bloomberg New Energy Finance. 1 February 2022. Retrieved 1 February 2022.
8. "Global Market Outlook 2017–2021" (PDF). SolarPower Europe. 13 June 2017. p. 7. Retrieved 13 November 2017.
9. "Trends in PV Application 2018" (PDF). IEA PVPS. Retrieved 14 December 2018.
10. "Clean Energy Investment Exceeded $300 Billion Once Again in 2018". BNEF – Bloomberg New Energy Finance. 16 January 2019. Retrieved 14 February 2019.
11. Renewable capacity statistics 2021 (PDF). International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA). 2021. ISBN 978-92-9260-342-7.
12. Jaeger, Joel (20 September 2021). "Explaining the Exponential Growth of Renewable Energy".
13. Lacey, Stephen (12 September 2011). "How China dominates solar power". Guardian Environment Network. Retrieved 29 June 2014.
14. Wolfe, Philip (2012). Solar Photovoltaic Projects in the mainstream power market. Routledge. p. 225. ISBN 9780415520485.
15. "Crossing the Chasm" (PDF). Deutsche Bank Markets Research. 27 February 2015. (PDF) from the original on 30 March 2015.
16. Wolfe, Philip (2018). The Solar Generation. Wiley - IEEE. p. 81. ISBN 9781119425588.
17. "Utility-scale solar in 2018 Still growing thanks to Australia and other later entrants" (PDF). Wiki-Solar. 14 March 2019. Retrieved 22 March 2019.
18. "Snapshot 2020 – IEA-PVPS". iea-pvps.org. Retrieved 10 May 2020.
19. (PDF). Energywatchgroup. September 2015. Archived from the original (PDF) on 15 September 2016.
20. Osmundsen, Terje (4 March 2014). "How the IEA exaggerates the costs and underestimates the growth of solar power". Energy Post. from the original on 13 November 2014. Retrieved 30 October 2014.
21. Whitmore, Adam (14 October 2013). "Why Have IEA Renewables Growth Projections Been So Much Lower Than the Out-Turn?". The Energy Collective. from the original on 30 October 2014. Retrieved 30 October 2014.
22. "Transition in Energy, Transport – 10 Predictions for 2019 – 2. Solar additions rise despite China". BNEF – Bloomberg New Energy Finance. 16 January 2019. Retrieved 15 February 2019.
23. International Energy Agency (2014). "Technology Roadmap: Solar Photovoltaic Energy" (PDF). iea.org. IEA. (PDF) from the original on 1 October 2014. Retrieved 7 October 2014.
24. "One Chart Shows How Solar Could Dominate Electricity in 30 Years". Business Insider. 30 September 2014.
25. "Electric generator capacity factors vary widely around the world". eia.gov. 6 September 2015. Retrieved 17 June 2018.
26. "Snapshot of Global PV 1992–2013" (PDF). iea-pvps.org/index.php?id=trends0. International Energy Agency – Photovoltaic Power Systems Programme. 31 March 2014. (PDF) from the original on 7 April 2014.
27. Alter, Lloyd (31 January 2017). "Tesla kills the duck with big batteries". TreeHugger. Retrieved 16 March 2017.
28. LeBeau, Phil (8 March 2017). "Tesla battery packs power the Hawaiian island of Kauai after dark". CNBC. Retrieved 16 March 2017.
29. "Snapshot of Global Photovoltaic Markets 2017" (PDF). report. International Energy Agency. 19 April 2018. Retrieved 11 July 2017.
30. "2018 Snapshot of Global Photovoltaic Markets" (PDF). International Energy Agency. 2018. Report IEA PVPS T1-33:2018.
31. IEA: Global Installed PV Capacity Leaps to 303 Gigawatts, greentechmedia, Eric Wesoff, 27 April 2017
32. Renewable Capacity Statistics (PDF). IRENA. 2019. pp. 24–26. ISBN 978-92-9260-123-2. Retrieved 3 May 2019.
33. "IEA PVPS Snapshot of Global PV 2019" (PDF). IEA.
34. "Renewable Capacity Statistics 2020". irena.org. Retrieved 23 May 2020.
35. "Snapshot 2021". IEA-PVPS. International Energy Agency.
36. "Renewable Capacity Statistics 2021" (PDF). irena.org. Retrieved 9 April 2021.
37. "Snapshot 2022". IEA-PVPS. International Energy Agency.
38. "RENEWABLE CAPACITY STATISTICS 2022, page 32" (PDF). irena.org. Retrieved 22 April 2022.
39. "Red Eléctrica de España | Series estadísticas nacionales". ree.es (in Spanish). Retrieved 4 July 2017.
40. "Brazil To Hit 2 Gigawatts Of Installed Solar By End Of 2018". CleanTechnia. 15 May 2018.
41. "Infografico da Absolar".
42. "Infografico da Absolar".
43. Brasil termina 2021 com maior acréscimo em potência instalada desde 2016^{[permanent dead link]}
44. "UA energy statistics 2020". ua.energy. UKRENERGO. 13 April 2021. Retrieved 14 April 2021.
45. "Schweiz verzeichnet 2020 Photovoltaik-Rekordzubau von knapp 500 Megawatt". pv-magazin Research. Retrieved 16 July 2021.
46. The Electricity Authority, Israel. "Report on state of electricity Sector 2019". GOV.IL (in English and Hebrew). Retrieved 28 December 2020.
47. "Informe Mensual: Diciembre 2021" (PDF). CAMMESA. p. 31.
48. "Publication_Singapore_Energy_Statistics, Energy Market Authority" (PDF) (Press release).
49. "IEA PVPS National Survey Report of PV Power Applications in Finland 2018". IEA PVPS. 23 July 2019. p. 6. Retrieved 30 July 2019. It refers to PDF National Survey Report of PV Power Applications in Finland 2018 visible from that page http://iea-pvps.org/index.php?id=93 that is viewed through Google Docs to prevent auto-downloading of PDF.
50. "Cyprus: Solar photovoltaic electricity production 2012-2018". Statista.com. 2019.
51. "Electricity Generation: 2008-2017" (PDF) (Press release). National Statistics Office, Malta. 8 October 2018.
52. "Global Solar Demand Monitor: Q2 2017". Greentech Media Research. Retrieved 25 August 2017.
53. "China's solar capacity overtakes Germany in 2015, industry data show". Reuters. 21 January 2016.
54. Wolfe, Philip (2018). The Solar Generation. Wiley - IEEE. p. 120. ISBN 9781119425588.
55. United States Patent and Trademark Office – Database
56. Magic Plates, Tap Sun For Power. Popular Science. June 1931. Retrieved 2 August 2013.
57. "Bell Labs Demonstrates the First Practical Silicon Solar Cell". aps.org.
58. D. M. Chapin-C. S. Fuller-G. L. Pearson (1954). "A New Silicon p–n Junction Photocell for Converting Solar Radiation into Electrical Power". Journal of Applied Physics. 25 (5): 676–677. Bibcode:1954JAP....25..676C. doi:10.1063/1.1721711.
59. Biello David (6 August 2010). "Where Did the Carter White House's Solar Panels Go?". Scientific American. Retrieved 31 July 2014.
60. Pollack, Andrew (24 February 1996). "REACTOR ACCIDENT IN JAPAN IMPERILS ENERGY PROGRAM". The New York Times.
61. wise-paris.org Sodium Leak and Fire at Monju
62. S Hill, Joshua (22 January 2016). "China Overtakes Germany To Become World's Leading Solar PV Country". Clean Technica. Retrieved 16 August 2016.
63. "NEA: China added 34.24 GW of solar PV capacity in 2016". solarserver.com. Retrieved 22 January 2017.
64. Reuters
65. "The Latest in Clean Energy News".
66. "China to plow $361 billion into renewable fuel by 2020". Reuters. 5 January 2017. Retrieved 22 January 2017.
67. Baraniuk, Chris (22 June 2017). "Future Energy: China leads world in solar power production". BBC News. Retrieved 27 June 2017.
68. "China wasted enough renewable energy to power Beijing for an entire year, says Greenpeace". 19 April 2017. Retrieved 19 April 2017.
69. "China to erect fewer farms, generate less solar power in 2017". 19 April 2017. Retrieved 19 April 2017.
70. "Price quotes updated weekly – PV Spot Prices". PV EnergyTrend. Retrieved 13 July 2020.
71. "PriceQuotes". pv.energytrend.com. from the original on 30 June 2014. Retrieved 26 June 2014.
72. "Sunny Uplands: Alternative energy will no longer be alternative". The Economist. 21 November 2012. Retrieved 28 December 2012.
73. J. Doyne Farmer, François Lafond (2 November 2015). "How predictable is technological progress?". Research Policy. 45 (3): 647–665. arXiv:1502.05274. doi:10.1016/j.respol.2015.11.001. S2CID 154564641. License: cc. Note: Appendix F. A trend extrapolation of solar energy capacity.
74. "Photovoltaic System Pricing Trends – Historical, Recent, and Near-Term Projections, 2014 Edition" (PDF). NREL. 22 September 2014. p. 4. (PDF) from the original on 26 February 2015.
75. "Solar PV Pricing Continues to Fall During a Record-Breaking 2014". GreenTechMedia. 13 March 2015.
76. [Solar PV price index]. PhotovoltaikGuide. Archived from the original on 10 July 2017. Retrieved 30 March 2015. Turnkey net-prices for a solar PV system of up to 100 kWp amounted to Euro 1,240 per kWp.
77. Renewable Power Generation Costs in 2018 (PDF). Abu Dhabi: International Renewable Energy Agency. 2019. pp. 20–22. Retrieved 25 November 2019.
78. "Photovoltaics Report" (PDF). Fraunhofer ISE. 22 September 2022. (PDF) from the original on 24 September 2022.
79. RenewableEnergyWorld.com How thin film solar fares vs crystalline silicon, 3 January 2011
80. Diane Cardwell; Keith Bradsher (9 January 2013). "Chinese Firm Buys U.S. Solar Start-Up". The New York Times. Retrieved 10 January 2013.
81. "Photovoltaics Report" (PDF). Fraunhofer ISE. 28 July 2014. (PDF) from the original on 9 August 2014. Retrieved 31 August 2014.
82. "Solar Frontier Completes Construction of the Tohoku Plant". Solar Frontier. 2 April 2015. Retrieved 30 April 2015.
83. Andorka, Frank (8 January 2014). "CIGS Solar Cells, Simplified". Solar Power World. from the original on 19 August 2014. Retrieved 16 August 2014.
84. "Nyngan Solar Plant". AGL Energy Online. Retrieved 18 June 2015.
85. CleanTechnica.com First Solar Reports Largest Quarterly Decline In CdTe Module Cost Per-Watt Since 2007, 7 November 2013
86. Raabe, Steve; Jaffe, Mark (4 November 2012). "Bankrupt Abound Solar of Colo. lives on as political football". The Denver Post.
87. "The End Arrives for ECD Solar". greentechmedia.com. Retrieved 27 January 2016.
88. "Oerlikon Divests Its Solar Business and the Fate of Amorphous Silicon PV". greentechmedia.com. Retrieved 27 January 2016.
89. GreenTechMedia.com Rest in Peace: The List of Deceased Solar Companies, 6 April 2013
90. "NovaSolar, Formerly OptiSolar, Leaving Smoking Crater in Fremont". greentechmedia.com. Retrieved 27 January 2016.
91. "Chinese Subsidiary of Suntech Power Declares Bankruptcy". The New York Times. 20 March 2013.
92. "Suntech Seeks New Cash After China Bankruptcy, Liquidator Says". Bloomberg News. 29 April 2014.
93. Wired.com Silicon Shortage Stalls Solar 28 March 2005
94. (PDF). SolarWeb. Lux Research Inc. p. 1. Archived from the original (PDF) on 18 October 2014. Retrieved 12 October 2014.
95. "IEA PVPS TRENDS 2014 in Photovoltaic Applications" (PDF). iea-pvps.org/index.php?id=trends. 12 October 2014. (PDF) from the original on 28 December 2014.
96. "Annual Report 2013/2014" (PDF). ISE.Fraunhofer.de. Fraunhofer Institute for Solar Energy Systems-ISE. 2014. p. 1. Archived (PDF) from the original on 5 November 2014. Retrieved 5 November 2014.
97. Europa.eu EU initiates anti-dumping investigation on solar panel imports from China
98. U.S. Imposes Anti-Dumping Duties on Chinese Solar Imports, 12 May 2012
99. Europa.eu EU imposes definitive measures on Chinese solar panels, confirms undertaking with Chinese solar panel exporters, 2 December 2013
100. "China to levy duties on US polysilicon imports". China Daily. 16 September 2013. from the original on 5 March 2016.
101. Global Solar Market Demand Expected To Reach 100 Gigawatts In 2017, Says SolarPower Europe, CleanTechnica, 27 October 2017
102. "GTM Forecasting More Than 85 Gigawatts Of Solar PV To Be Installed In 2017". CleanTechnica. 5 April 2017. Retrieved 28 June 2017.
103. "All I want for Christmas is 400 GW of solar installed in 2023". 23 December 2022.
104. "Statistical Review of World Energy – Historical Data Workbook BP". bp.com. BP. Retrieved 1 April 2015. downloadable XL-spread sheet
105. "Renewable energy - BP Statistical Review of World Energy 2020" (PDF). BP. 22 September 2020. (PDF) from the original on 21 September 2020.
106. "Renewable Capacity Statistics 2021" (PDF). IRENA. 22 March 2021. from the original on 5 April 2021.
107. "RENEWABLE CAPACITY STATISTICS 2022, page 32" (PDF). irena.org. Retrieved 22 April 2022.
108. Lewis, Michelle (15 June 2021). "US solar sets a Q1 record, but there may be trouble ahead". Electrek. Retrieved 18 June 2021.
109. "TRENDS IN PHOTOVOLTAIC APPLICATIONS – Survey report of selected IEA countries between 1992 and 2008". iea-pvps.org/. International Energy Agency – Photovoltaic Power Systems Programme. 2009. Retrieved 28 December 2014.
110. "TRENDS IN PHOTOVOLTAIC APPLICATIONS – Survey report of selected IEA countries between 1992 and 2009". iea-pvps.org/. International Energy Agency – Photovoltaic Power Systems Programme. 2010. Retrieved 28 December 2014.
111. "TRENDS IN PHOTOVOLTAIC APPLICATIONS – Survey report of selected IEA countries between 1992 and 2010". iea-pvps.org/. International Energy Agency – Photovoltaic Power Systems Programme. 2011. Retrieved 28 December 2014.
112. "Global Market Outlook for Photovoltaics until 2016" (PDF). epia.org. EPIA – European Photovoltaic Industry Association. (PDF) from the original on 20 March 2013. Retrieved 6 November 2014.
113. EUROBSER'VER. "Photovoltaic Barometer – installations 2010 and 2011" (PDF). energies-renouvelables.org. p. 6.

January 31, 2023