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Xuanzang

August 09, 2023

This article is about the historical Buddhist monk. For the fictional character based on him, see Tang Sanzang. For the 2016 film, see Xuanzang (film).
"Hun Sang" redirects here. For prime minister of Cambodia, see Hun Sen.

Xuanzang ([ɕɥɛ̌n.tsâŋ], Chinese: 玄奘; 6 April 602 – 5 February 664), born Chen Hui / Chen Yi (陳禕), also known by his Sanskrit Dharma name Mōkṣadeva,[1] was a 7th-century Chinese Buddhist monk, scholar, traveler, and translator. He is known for the epoch-making contributions to Chinese Buddhism, the travelogue of his journey to India in 629–645 CE, his efforts to bring over 657 Indian texts to China, and his translations of some of these texts.[2] He was only able to translate 75 distinct sections of a total of 1335 chapters, "but his translations included some of the most important Mahayana scriptures."[1]

Xuanzang
Painting of Xuanzang. Japan, Kamakura period (14th century).
Personal
Born(602-04-06)6 April 602
Luoyang, Henan, China
Died5 February 664(664-02-05) (aged 61)
Tongchuan, Shaanxi, China
ReligionBuddhism
SchoolEast Asian Yogācāra
Senior posting
Students
Xuanzang
Chinese name
Chinese玄奘
Chen Hui[a]
Traditional Chinese陳褘
Simplified Chinese陈袆
Transcriptions
Standard Mandarin
Hanyu PinyinChén Huī
Wade–GilesCh'en2 Hui1
Chen Yi
Traditional Chinese陳禕
Simplified Chinese陈祎
Transcriptions
Standard Mandarin
Hanyu PinyinChén Yī
Wade–GilesCh'en2 I1
Sanskrit name
Sanskritह्वे॒न् साङ् , मोक्षदेवः

Xuanzang was born on 6 April 602 in Chenliu, what is now Kaifeng municipality in Henan province. As a boy, he took to reading religious books, and studying the ideas therein with his father. Like his elder brother, he became a student of Buddhist studies at Jingtu monastery. Xuanzang was ordained as a śrāmaṇera (novice monk) at the age of thirteen. Due to the political and social unrest caused by the fall of the Sui dynasty, he went to Chengdu in Sichuan, where he was ordained as a bhikṣu (full monk) at the age of twenty. He later travelled throughout China in search of sacred books of Buddhism. At length, he came to Chang'an, then under the peaceful rule of Emperor Taizong of Tang, where Xuanzang developed the desire to visit India.[3] He knew about Faxian's visit to India and, like him, was concerned about the incomplete and misinterpreted nature of the Buddhist texts that had reached China. He was also concerned about the competing Buddhist theories in variant Chinese translations. He sought original untranslated Sanskrit texts from India to help resolve some of these issues.[2]

At age 27, he began his seventeen-year overland journey to India. He defied his nation's ban on travel abroad, making his way through central Asian cities such as Khotan to India. He visited, among other places, the famed Nalanda monastery in modern day Bihar, India where he studied with the monk, Śīlabhadra. He departed from India with numerous Sanskrit texts on a caravan of twenty packhorses. His return was welcomed by Emperor Taizong in China, who encouraged him to write a travelogue.[2] This Chinese travelogue, titled the Great Tang Records on the Western Regions, is a notable source about Xuanzang, and also for scholarship on 7th-century India and Central Asia.[4] His travelogue is a mix of the implausible, the hearsay and a firsthand account.[5] Selections from it are used, and disputed,[6] as a terminus ante quem of 645 CE for events, names and texts he mentions. His text in turn provided the inspiration for the novel Journey to the West written by Wu Cheng'en during the Ming dynasty, around nine centuries after Xuanzang's death.[7]

Nomenclature, orthography and etymology

Names Xuanzang Tang Sanzang Xuanzang Sanzang Xuanzang Dashi Tang Seng
Traditional
Chinese		 玄奘 唐三藏 玄奘三藏 玄奘大師 唐僧
Simplified
Chinese		 玄奘 唐三藏 玄奘三藏 玄奘大师 唐僧
Pinyin
(Mandarin)		 Xuánzàng Táng Sānzàng Xuánzàng Sānzàng Xuánzàng Dàshī Táng Sēng
Wade–Giles
(Mandarin)		 Hsüan-tsang T'ang San-tsang Hsüan-tsang
San-tsang		 Hsüan-tsang
Ta-shih		 T'ang Seng
Jyutping
(Cantonese)		 Jyun4 Zong6 Tong4 Saam1
Zong6		 Jyun4 Zong6
Saam1 Zong6		 Jyun4 Zong6
Daai6 Si1		 Tong4 Zang1
Vietnamese Huyền Trang Đường Tam
Tạng		 Huyền Trang
Tam Tạng		 Huyền Trang
Đại Sư		 Đường Tăng
Japanese Genjō Tō-Sanzō Genjō-sanzō Genjō-daishi Tōsō
Korean Hyeonjang Dang-samjang Hyeonjang-samjang Hyeonjang-daesa Dangseung
Meaning Tang Dynasty
Tripiṭaka Master		 Tripiṭaka Master
Xuanzang		 Great Master
Xuanzang		 Tang Dynasty Monk

Less common romanizations of "Xuanzang" include Hyun Tsan, Hhuen Kwan, Hiuan Tsang, Hiouen Thsang, Hiuen Tsang, Hiuen Tsiang, Hsien-tsang, Hsyan-tsang, Hsuan Chwang, Huan Chwang, Hsuan Tsiang, Hwen Thsang, Hsüan Chwang, Hhüen Kwān, Xuan Cang, Xuan Zang, Shuen Shang, Yuan Chang, Yuan Chwang, and Yuen Chwang. Hsüan, Hüan, Huan and Chuang are also found. The sound written x in pinyin and hs in Wade–Giles, which represents the s- or sh-like [ɕ] in today's Mandarin, was previously pronounced as the h-like [x] in early Mandarin, which accounts for the archaic transliterations with h.

Another form of his official style was "Yuanzang," written 元奘. It is this form that accounts for such variants as Yuan Chang, Yuan Chwang, and Yuen Chwang.[8]

Tang Monk (Tang Seng) is also transliterated /Thang Seng/.[9]

Another of Xuanzang's standard aliases is Sanzang Fashi (simplified Chinese: 三藏法师; traditional Chinese: 三藏法師; pinyin: Sānzàngfǎshī; lit. 'Sanzang Dharma (or Law) Teacher'): 法 being a Chinese translation for Sanskrit "Dharma" or Pali/Prakrit Dhamma, the implied meaning being "Buddhism".

"Sanzang" is the Chinese term for the Buddhist canon, or Tripiṭaka ("Three Baskets"), and in some English-language fiction and English translations of Journey to the West, Xuanzang is addressed as "Tripitaka."[citation needed]

Early life

Xuanzang was born Chen Hui (or Chen Yi) on 6 April 602 in Chenhe Village, Goushi Town (Chinese: 緱氏鎮), Luozhou (near present-day Luoyang, Henan) and died on 5 February 664[10] in Yuhua Palace (玉華宮, in present-day Tongchuan, Shaanxi). His family was noted for its erudition for generations, and Xuanzang was the youngest of four children.[2] His ancestor was Chen Shi (104-186), a minister of the Eastern Han dynasty. His great-grandfather Chen Qin (陳欽) served as the prefect of Shangdang (上黨; present-day Changzhi, Shanxi) during the Eastern Wei; his grandfather Chen Kang (陳康) was a professor in the Taixue (Imperial Academy) during the Northern Qi. His father Chen Hui (陳惠) served as the magistrate of Jiangling County during the Sui dynasty. According to traditional biographies, Xuanzang displayed a superb intelligence and earnestness, studied with his father, and amazed him by his careful observance of filial piety after one such study about that topic.[11]

His elder brother was already a monk in a Buddhist monastery. Inspired, at a young age, Xuanzang expressed interest in becoming a Buddhist monk like his brother. After the death of his father in 611, he lived with his older brother Chen Su (Chinese: 陳素), later known as Zhangjie (Chinese: 長捷), for five years at Jingtu Monastery (Chinese: 淨土寺) in Luoyang, supported by the Sui state. During this time he studied Mahayana as well as various early Buddhist schools.[11]

In 618, the Sui Dynasty collapsed and Xuanzang and his brother fled to Chang'an, which had been proclaimed as the capital of the Tang dynasty, and thence southward to Chengdu, Sichuan. Here the two brothers spent two or three years in further study in the monastery of Kong Hui, including the Abhidharma-kośa Śāstra. The abbot Zheng Shanguo allowed Xuanzang to study these advanced subjects though he was young.[12]

Taking the monastic name Xuanzang, he was fully ordained as a monk in 622, at the age of twenty.[13] The myriad contradictions and discrepancies in the Chinese translations at that time prompted Xuanzang to decide to go to India and study in the cradle of Buddhism. He knew about Faxian's visit to India and, like him, sought original untranslated Sanskrit texts from India to help resolve some of these issues.[2]

Pilgrimage

Dates

Xuanzang started his pilgrimage to India in either 627 or 629 CE, according to two East Asian versions. The 627 CE version is found in Guang hongming ji from Daoxun and is also in Japanese and Korean texts. The 629 CE is found in Chinese and western versions. This confusion, though merely of two years, is of significance to western history.[14]

The date when Xuanzang's pilgrimage started is not resolved in any of the texts that Xuanzang himself wrote. Further, he did not write his own biography or travelogue, rather he recited it to his fellow monks after his return from India. Three of his immediate collaborators wrote his biography, and thus leaving three versions and with variant details. All three of these versions begin his pilgrimage in 629 CE. Yet, one version by Huili, states that Xuanzang met Yabghu Qaghan, someone who died in 628 CE according to Persian and Turkish records. If this detail in Xuanzang's biography and Persian-Turkish records are true, then Xuanzang must have left before Qaghan's death, or in 627 CE. In other words, some of the details in the surviving versions of Xuanzang biography were invented or a paleographic confusion introduced an error, or the Persian-Turkish records are unreliable. The Japanese version is based on 8th to 10th-century translations of texts that ultimately came from Xuanzang's monastery, which unfortunately has added to the confusion. Most sources state that Xuanzang started his pilgrimage in 629 CE.[14]

Travel through Central Asia

Purpose of journey

The purpose of my journey is not to obtain personal
offerings. It is because I regretted, in my country,
the Buddhist doctrine was imperfect and the scriptures were
incomplete. Having many doubts, I wish to go and find out
the truth, and so I decided to travel to the West at the
risk of my life in order to seek for the teachings of
which I have not yet heard, so that the Dew of
the Mahayana sutras would have not only been sprinkled at
Kapilavastu, but the sublime truth may also be known in
the eastern country.

—Xuanzang (Translator: Li Yung-hsi)[15]

Kingdom of Agni

In 630 CE, he arrived in the kingdom of Agni[16][17] (Yanqi, in a place called Turpan). Here he met the king, a Buddhist along with his uncle Jnanachandra and precept Mokshagupta, who tried to persuade him to quit his journey and teach them Buddhist knowledge. He declined and they equipped him further for his travels with letters of introduction and valuables to serve as funds. Xuanzang observed that the country of Agni had more than ten monasteries following the Sarvastivada school of Hinayana Buddhism, with two thousand monks who ate "three kinds of pure meat" with other foods, rather than vegetarian food only that would be consistent with Mahayana Buddhist teachings. Therefore, the Buddhists in this country had stagnated in their Buddhist teachings.[16][17]

Kingdom of Kuchi

Moving further westward, Xuanzang met about two thousand Turkish robbers on horses who had looted others. The robbers began fighting with each other on how to fairly divide the loot. After the loot had thus been lost, they dispersed.[16] Xuanzang thereafter reached the country of Kuchi. This country of 1000 li by 600 li, had over one hundred monasteries with five thousand monks following the Sarvastivada school of Hinayana Buddhism, and studying its texts in "original Indian language".[18] The biographies of Xuanzang then describe implausible tales of a dragon race. This region was created by dragons from the waters metamorphosing into horses to mate and create dragon-horses, also into men and mating with women near this region to create dragon-men who ran as fast as the dragon-horses. These were men who would massacre an entire city and leave a deserted place.[18]

Baluka and other kingdoms

Further west he passed Aksu before turning northwest to cross the Tian Shan and then Tokmak on its northwest. He met the great Khagan of the Göktürks. After a feast, Xuanzang continued west then southwest to Tashkent, capital of modern Uzbekistan. Xuanzang describes more monasteries, such as the Eastern Cakuri monastery and Ascarya monastery, with Buddha's footprints and Buddha idols. According to Xuanzang's accounts, mystical light emanated from Buddha's footprints on "fast days". In the country of Baluka, the Sarvastivada school of Hinayana Buddhism was in vogue. He crossed the countries of Samarkand, Mimohe, Kaputana, Kusanika, Bukhara, Betik, Horismika and Tukhara. These had cities near rivers or lakes, then vast regions with no inhabitants, little water or grass. He describes warring factions of Turk chieftains in control, with "illness and pestilence" rampant.[19][20]

From here, he crossed a desert, icy valleys and the Pamir range (which link Tian Shan, Karakoram, Kunlun, Hindu Kush and the Himalaya mountain ranges). Here, observed Xuanzang, the wind is cold and "blows with a piercing vehemence" (Li Rongxi translation). Ferocious dragons live here and trouble the travellers particularly those who wear "reddish brown" color clothes. Thereafter, he crossed past a salty sea, one narrow from north to south and long from east to west, he calls the Great Pure Lake. He describes supernatural monsters, fishes and dragons living in this lake. The Xuanzang travelogues then rush through the names of many countries, stating that more details are provided in the return part of his journey, as he crosses into country of Bactra (modern Balkh). He adds that the Hinayana Buddhist schools were followed in all these regions.[19]

In the capital of the country of Bactra, states Xuanzang, is a monastery with a Buddha's idol decorated with jewels and its halls studded with rare precious substances. The Buddhist monastery also has an image of Vaishravana deity as its guardian. The monastery and the capital attracts repeated raids from the Turk chieftains who seek to loot these precious jewels. This monastery has a large bathing pot that looks dazzlingly brilliant and has a Buddha's tooth relic and Buddha's broom made of "kasa grass". Outside is a vihara built ages ago, and many stupas to honor the arhats (Buddhist saints).[21][20]

Kingdom of Bamiyana

South of Bactra is the country of Kacik, then the Great Snow Mountains with valleys "infested with gangs of brigands" (Li Rongxi translation). Crossing this pass, thereafter is the country of Bamiyana (a part of modern Afghanistan).[21] There, state his travelogue is a colossal statue of standing Buddha, carved from a rock in the mountains, some one hundred and forty feet tall and decorated with gems. This valley has Buddhist monasteries, and also a colossal copper statue of the Buddha, that is over a hundred foot tall. He was told that it was cast in separate parts and then joined up together. To the east of a monastery in the Bamiyana valley was a Reclining Buddha entering Parinirvana that was over one thousand foot long. The people and the king of this valley serve the Buddhist monks, records Xuanzang.[21][22]

 
Xuanzang describes colossal Buddhas carved into the rocks of Bamiyan region (above: 19th-century sketch, destroyed by the Taliban in 2001).

Heading east and crossing the Black range, Xuanzang describes the country of Kapishi, where the Mahayana tradition of Buddhism had come in vogue. It had over 100 monasteries with stupas. More than 6000 monks, mostly Mahayana, studied here. Along with these Buddhist monasteries, states his travelogue, there were over ten Deva temples (Hindu) with "heretical believers who go about naked and smear dust over their bodies", translates Li Rongxi.[23] Furthermore, in the same capital region, there is a Hinayana monastery with 300 monks at the northern foothills. The citizens of this country, adds Xuanzang, fondly recall "King Kanishka of Gandhara" (2nd-century CE, Kushan empire). To its east are the "City of Svetavat temple" and the Aruna Mountain known for its frequent avalanches. His travelogue then describes several popular legends about a Naga king. He also describes miraculous events from a Buddhist stupa, such as raging flames bursting out of them leaving behind stream of pearls. The citizens here, states Xuanzang, worship pieces of Buddha's remains that were brought here in more ancient times. He mentions four stupas built in this area by king Ashoka.[23][24]

Travel through India

 
Reconstructed route of Xuanzang over 629–645 CE through India. Along with Nalanda in Bihar, he visited locations that are now in Kashmir, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Odisha, Tamil Nadu, and Bangladesh.

To Xuanzang, he entered India as he crossed the Black range and entered the country of Lampa. His travelogue presents India in fascicles separate from those for Central Asia. He, however, does not call it India, but the phonetic equivalent of what previously has been variously interpreted as "Tianzhu" or "Shengdu" or "Xiandou". More recent scholarship suggests the closest pronunciation of the 7th-century term in his travelogues would be "Indu".[25]

Xuanzang states that India is a vast country over ninety thousand li in circuit, with seventy kingdoms, sea on three sides and snow mountains to its north. It is a land that is rich and moist, cultivation productive, vegetation luxuriant.[25] He adds that it has its own ancient customs, such as measuring its distance as "yojana", equal to forty li, but varying between thirty and sixteen depending on the source. They divide day and night into kala, and substances into various divisions, all the way to a fineness that they call indivisible and emptiness. The country has three seasons: hot, cold, rainy according to some Buddhists; while others say it is four: three months each of spring, summer, monsoon, and autumn.[25]

The kingdoms of India have numerous villages and cities. Their towns and cities have square walls, streets are winding and narrow, with shops lined along these roads. Wine is sold in shops on the side streets. Those whose profession is butchering, fishing, executioners, scavengers (castes that kill living beings and deal with products derived from them) are not allowed to live inside the cities. The cities are built from bricks, while homes are either made mostly from bricks or from "wattled bamboo or wood". Cottages are thatched with straw and grass.[26] The residents of India clean their floor and then smear it with a preparation of cow dung, followed by decorating it with flowers, unlike Chinese homes. Their children go to school at age seven, where they begin learning a number of treatises of the five knowledges – first grammar, second technical skills which he states includes arts, mechanics, yin-yang and the calendar, third medicine, fourth being logic, and fifth field of knowledge taught is inner knowledge along with theory of cause and effect. After further similar introduction covering the diverse aspects of the Indian culture he observed, including fashion, hair styles, preference for being barefoot, ritual washing their hands after releasing bodily waste, cleaning teeth by chewing special tree twigs, taking baths before going to their temples, worshipping in their temples, their alphabet that contains forty seven letters, the diversity of languages spoken, how harmonious and elegant they sound when they speak their languages, Xuanzang presents the various kingdoms of India.[26][5][27]

Xuanzang includes a section on the differences between the Hinayana and Mahayana Buddhist communities. There are eighteen sects in Buddhism, according to Xuanzang. They stand against each other, debate "various viewpoints, as vehemently as crashing waves". Though they share the same goal, they study different subjects and use sharp words to argue. Each Buddhist sect has different set of rules and regulations for their monks.[26] The monks who cannot expound a single text must do the routine monastic duties (cleaning monastery and such). Those who can expound one Buddhist text flawlessly is exempt from such duties. Those who can recite two texts, get better quality rooms. Monks who can expound three Buddhist texts get attendants to serve them, while the few monks who can expound all four are provided with lay servants. Expounders of five texts have elephants for travel, while six texts entitles them to security retinue.[26]

Kingdom of Lampa, Nagarahara, and Gandhara

Xuanzang describes Lampaka (modern Laghman, near the source of Kabul river) as the territory of north India, one whose circuit is more than 1000 li and where all monasteries studied Mahayana Buddhism.[28] They have tens of Deva temples (Hindu) which heretics (non-Buddhists) frequent.[29] To its southeast is the country of Nagarahara [zh] (modern Nangarhar), with many Buddhist monasteries and five Deva temples. The number of monks here, however, are few. The stupa are deserted and in a dilapidated condition. The local Buddhists believe that the Buddha taught here while flying in the air, because were he to walk here, it caused many earthquakes. Nagarahara has a 300 feet high stupa built by Ashoka, with marvellous sculptures. Xuanzang paid homage by circling it. Both Lampaka and Nagarahara countries were independent with their own kings, but they have become a vassal of the Buddhist Kapishi kingdom found near Bamiyana.[28][29]

The monasteries in these kingdoms are splendid, with four corner towers and halls with three tiers. They have strange looking figures at the joints, rafters, eaves and roof beams. The Indians paint the walls, doors and windows with colors and pictures. People prefer to have home that look simple from outside, but is much decorated inside. They construct their homes such a way that they open towards the east.[26] Xuanzang also describes implausible events such as glowing rock footprints of Buddha, dragons, tales of Naga, a stupa in which is preserved the Buddha's eyeball as "large as a crabapple" and that is "brilliant and transparent" throughout, a white stone Buddha idol that worked miracles and "frequently emitted light".[30] The travelogue states that Xuanzang went into a dark cave here where dangerous beings lived, recited Srimaladevi Simhanadasutra, and they became Buddhists. Thereafter they all burnt incense and worshipped the Buddha with flowers.[31]

Some five hundred li (~200 kilometer in 7th-century) to the southeast is the country of Gandhara – which some historic Chinese texts phonetically transcribed as Qiantuowei. On its east, it is bordered by the Indus river, and its capital is Purusapura (now Peshawar, Pakistan). This is the land of ancient sages and authors of Indian sastras, and they include Narayanadeva, Asanga, Vasubandhu, Dharmatrata, Monaratha and Parshva.[30][32] To the southeast of Purusapura city is a 400 feet high stupa built by king Kanishka, one with nearly 2000 feet in diameter and a 25 layer wheel on the top. There is a large monastery near it. Gandhara has numerous holy Buddhist sites, and Xuanzang visited and worshipped all of them.[32] He calls the stupas and the Buddha images in this region as "magnificent" and made with "perfect craftmanship".[30]

Kingdom of Udayana, Kashmira

Heading north towards Kashmir, he arrived in the city of Pushkalavati, with many holy Buddhist sites. Xuanzang worshipped at these "great stupas and big monasteries". Thereafter he reached the country of Udayana, through which flowed the Subhavastu river (now called Swat river). It had 1400 monasteries of five early Buddhist schools (of 18 sub-traditions) – Sarvastivada, Mahāsāṃghika, Kasyapiya, Mahisasaka and Dharmagupta. These schools became unpopular, as the later form of Mahayana prospered. According to Xuanzang, these monasteries of early Buddhist schools are desolate and attract few monks. He then reached the city of Hi-lo and Manglaur. In all these places, he mentions how the Buddha lived here in one of his previous lives (Jataka legends) and illustrated compassion-strength through his actions. There is a Buddhist temple northeast of Manglaur with the Avalokitesvara Bodhusattva image, one is noted for "its miraculous manifestations". Crossing another 1000 li, he reached Darada valley – the old capital of Udayana, with a 100 feet golden wood statue of Maitreya Boddhisattva. This statue, states his travelogue, was built by an artist who went three times into heaven to see how he looks and then carve the realistic image of him on earth.[33]

 
Xuanzang describes thousands of monasteries and stupas in northwest India. Above: the ruins of Dharmarajika stupa, Taxila.

Xuanzang arrived in Taxila, after crossing a river with "poisonous dragons and evil animals". There, he visited a major Buddhist monastery of the Sautrantika school. From there, after covering some 2200 li, he passed through the country of Simhapura (Kalabagh), of Urasa (now Hazara), and then into Kashmira.[34][35] He was received by the king, and numerous monks from the Jayendra monastery.[34] Kashmira is land with a very cold climate and is often calm without any wind. The region has lakes, grows plenty of flowers and fruit, saffron and medicinal herbs. Kashmira has over 100 monasteries and more than 5000 monks. The residents revere four large stupas that were built in ancient times by Ashoka. King Kanishika too built many Buddhist monasteries here. He also had treatises with 960,000 words written on copper plates and had them stored in a newly built great stupa. The Kashmira region has numerous monks well versed with the Tripitaka, states Xuanzang. He stays in Kashmira for two years and studies the treatises with them.[35]

Xuanzang describes many events where he is helped by both Buddhists and non-Buddhists. For example, he describes leaving the city of Sakala and Narasimha, then passing with his companions through the Great Palasha forest. They get robbed and are walked towards some dry pond to be killed. A monk and he slip away. They hurry towards a village. Near it, they meet a Brahmin who is tilling his land. They tell him that robbers attacked them and their companions. The Brahmin goes to the village and beats a drum and blows a conch. About 80 men gather, and together they proceed to rescue the companions of Xuanzang. While other rescued companions of his wail about the loss of all their property, Xuanzang reminds them that they should all be happy to be alive and not worry about the loss of property. The villagers help his companions and him by hosting them before the resume their journey.[36] Yet, elsewhere, Xuanzang also recites the implausible tale of meeting a Brahmin who was 700 years old and had two associates, each over a 100 year old, who had mastered all of the Hindu Vedas and the Buddhist Madhyamika sastra. He calls them heretics (non-Buddhists). These heretics help him and his companions get new garments and food. He stayed with this implausibly old Brahmin for a month, and studied the Madhyamika sastra with him.[37]

The memorial of Pāṇini

To the northeast of Varsha country, states Xuanzang, there is a lofty mountain with a bluish stone image of Bhimadevi. She is the wife of Mahesvara (Shiva). It is a great site of pilgrimage, where Indians from very far come with prayers. At the foot of this mountain is another temple for Mahesvara where ceremonies are performed by naked heretics who smear ash on their body.[38] About 30 li (about 12 kilometers in 7th-century) southeast from these temples is Salatura, which says Xuanzang was the birthplace of rishi Pāṇini and the author of "Sabda-vidya-sastra".[38] Inspired by Mahesvara, this rishi set out to "make inquiries into the way of learning" (Li Rongxi translation). He thoroughly studied all written and spoken language, words in ancient and his times, then created a treatise of one thousand stanzas. The heretics (Hindus) transmit this text orally from teacher to pupil, and it is this that makes the Brahmins of this city "great scholars of high talent with knowledge of wide scope". They have an image of Pāṇini installed in reverence of him in this city of Salatura.[38]

Kingdoms of Takka, Jalamdhara, Sthanesvara, Mathura, Matipura, Kapitha

The country of Takka is south of Kashmira, extending from the Indus river to its west and Vipasha river to its east. They produce abundant quantities of non-sticky rice and wheat, also gold, brass, iron and other metals. They do not believe in Buddhism, and pray in several hundred deva temples. This country has ten Buddhist monasteries left. There were many more before, states Xuanzang. These were destroyed few hundred years ago, during the rule of a king named Mahirakula (Mihirakula). The king did this in anger because when he asked the monasteries in his domain for a Buddhist teacher to teach him Buddhism, the Buddhists did not send to him any learned scholar. Mahirakula cruel deed against the Buddhists triggered the king of Magadha to go to war with him. Mahirakula is defeated, forgiven but returns to power by assassinating the king of Kashmira and Gandhara. Xuanzang recites the hearsay stories he heard about Mahirakula's continued cruelty and destruction of 1600 stupas and monasteries. Xuanzang then describes the surviving monasteries in Sagala with hundreds of Buddhist monks, along with its three colossal stupas, each over 200 feet tall, two built by Ashoka.[39]

Xuanzang visited the country of Chinabhukti next, which he states got its name because a region west of the Yellow river was a vassal state of king Kanishka. From there, during Kanisha's reign, peaches and pears plantations were imported into Chinabhukti, north India. Further northeast, he visited a Buddhist monastery of the Sarvastivada school with 300 monks. He describes another colossal stupa that is over 200 feet tall built by Ashoka. Near this, states Xuanzang, are numerous small stupas and large Buddhist caves. Around this monastery in the Himalayan hills are "hundreds and thousands of stupas, built so closely together than their shadows touch one another" (Li Rongxi translation). From there, he visited Jalamdhara. It grows non-sticky rice and cereals, its forest are luxuriant, the region is lush with flowers and fruits. They have 50 monasteries with over 2000 monks studying Mahayana and Hinayana traditions of Buddhism. They also have deva temples where heretics smear their bodies with ashes (Shiva-Hinduism).[40]

From Jalambhara, Xuanzang travelled northeast through jagged peaks, deep valleys and dangerous trails into the Himalayan country of Kuluta. It is surrounded by mountains, and has abundant fruits, flowers and trees. It has twenty monasteries and over a thousand Buddhist monks studying mostly Mahayana Buddhism. It has fifteen deva temples frequented by heretics (Hindus). This region has many caves where Buddhist arhats and Hindu rishis live.[41] He then headed south, into the country of Shatadru. Here, writes Xuanzang, people wear "gorgeous, extravagant" clothes, the climate is hot and citizens are honest and friendly by custom. It has ten monasteries, but ruined and with few monks.[41] He visits the country of Pariyatra, where they have plenty of cattle and sheep, as well as a type of rice that they harvest in sixty days after planting. This region has eight ruined monasteries and ten deva temples. The monks study Hinayana Buddhism here.[41]

 
Xuanzang describes Ganges river with blue waters, who heretics believe carries "waters of blessedness", and in which a dip leads to expiation of sins.[42]

Xuangzang next arrived in the country of Mathura, calling it a part of central India.[41] This region is fertile, people love mangoes, they produce cloth and gold. The climate is hot, the people are genial and good by custom, they advocate learning and virtue, states Xuanzang.[41] This country has over twenty monasteries with over two thousand monks studying Hinayana and Mahayana Buddhism. Many deva temples are also found in this country. He describes the ritual carrying and worship of the Buddha and Buddhist deities in this country with incense and flowers scattered in streets. He visits and praises the Govinda monastery in the Mathura country.[41] Next he visits the country of Sthanesvara, which has wealthy but unkind citizens who show off their wealth. It has three Buddhist monasteries with over seven hundred monks, a lustrous and clean colossal stupa which witnesses "many divine manifestations". It also has well over hundred deva temples and numerous heretics.[41]

The country of Shrughna has Ganges river to its east and Yamuna river in the middle of it. These people are like those in Sthanesvara country. They believe in heretical ideas (Hindu) and are honest by nature, states Xuanzang. They cherish learning, arts and crafts, and cultivate wisdom, blessedness. In this country are five Buddhist monasteries, over thousand monks mostly studying Hinayana, and over one hundred deva temples with numerous heretics.[42] East of this region is the Ganges river with dark blue waters and strange creatures living in it, but these creatures do not harm people. The water of Ganges is sweet in taste, and the heretics believe it to contain the "water of blessedness", and that bathing in it causes sins to be expiated.[42]

After crossing Ganges, he entered into the country of Matipura. Here, according to Xuanzang, half of the population is Buddhist and the other believe in heterodox religions. The climate is cooler and more temperate, its people are honest and esteem learning. The king is Shudra by caste and worships at the deva temples. The Matipura country has ten monasteries and over eight hundred monks, mostly studying Hinayana. Over fifty deva temples are frequented by the heretics here. Xuanzang describes the sastras composed and under study at the major Buddhist monasteries of Matipura.[42] This region has the city of Mayura, densely populated and with a great deva temple near the Ganges river. The heretics call it the "Gate of the Ganges". People from all five parts of India – east, north, west, south, central – come here crossing long distances on pilgrimage and to bathe at these gates. This place has numerous rest and almshouses, where the "isolated, solitary and needy people get free food and medical service".[42] North of this place is the country of Brahmapura, densely populated with prosperous and rich people. Colder in climate, here people are rude and violent by custom. This region has five Buddhist monasteries and ten deva temples.[42] Southeast of here, states Xuanzang, is the country of Ahicchattra with ten monasteries and a thousand monks belonging to the Sammitiya sect of Hinayana Buddhism. It has five deva temples where heretics smear their bodies with ashes. The country of Vilashana and Kapitha are south and southeast of Ahicchattra. Most people in Vilashana are non-Buddhists, and there are two monasteries here with three hundred Buddhist monks. In Kapitha, there are four monasteries teaching Hinayana Buddhism, and they have over a thousand monks. Along with these Buddhist institution, Kapitha has ten deva temples. Kapitha, states Xuanzang, has a "beautifully constructed monastery with many lofty and spacious buildings adoerned with exquisite carvings" (Li Rongxi translation). It has Buddha statue at the top, Indra statue at left of the entrance and Brahma statue to the right.[42][43]

Kingdoms of Kanyakubja, Ayodhya, Prayaga, Kausambi, Visaka

The country of Kanyākubja, also called Kusumapura, has the Ganges River to its west, with flowery forests of brilliant colors, transparent waters and prosperous people. They are simple and honest by custom, states Xuanzang, with handsome and graceful features. They cherish arts and literature, speak lucidly. Half of the population is Buddhist, half heretics. The Buddhists study both Mahayana and Hinayana teachings. The heretics have over two hundred deva temples.[44]

The current king is Harshavardhana, a Hindu of Bais kshatriya caste descent. Three of his ancestors were also kings, and they were all known to the Chinese kings as virtuous. Xuanzang then recites, at length, the story of prince Shiladitya and how he constructed both major monasteries and temples, feeding hundreds of Buddhist monks and hundreds of Hindu Brahmins on festive days. He describes numerous monasteries in the southeast of its capital, along with large Buddhist temple made of stone and brocks, with a thirty feet tall Buddha statue. To the south of this is temple, states Xuanzang, is a Surya temple built from bluestone. Next to the Surya temple is a Mahesvara (Shiva) temple also made from bluestone. Both are profusely carved with sculptures.[45] About 100 li to the southeast of Shiladitya's capital, states Xuanzang, is the Navadevakula city on the eastern bank of Ganges eiver. It is surrounded by flowery wood, has three monasteries with five hundred monks, and a multitiered terraced deva temple that is "exquisitely constructed" (Li Rongxi translation).[45]

About 600 li to the southeast is the country of Ayodhya. It grows abundant amounts of cereals, is blessed with fruits and flowers. People are benign and dedicate themselves to arts and crafts. Ayodhya has over a hundred monasteries and three thousand monks studying Hinayana and Mahayana Buddhism. Its capital has ten deva temples. This is the country where some of the key sastras of the Sautrantika school of Buddhism were composed.[45] A few hundred li east of Ayodhya is the country of Ayamukha. Here too, states Xuanzang, people are honest and simple. They have five monasteries with over one thousand monks, mostly studying Hinayana. Near them are ten deva temples.[46]

 
Xuanzang describes Prayaga as a great city where Ganges and Yamuna meet, one where people ritually fast, bathe and give away alms.

About 700 li southeast is the country of Prayaga, on the banks of Yamuna river. It has luxuriant fruit trees and cereal crops, its people are kind and helpful. Most of them believe in heretical religions, and Prayaga has several hundreds of deva temples.[46] At the south of this great city here is a forest full of champaka flowers with a 100 foot ancient stupa with collapsed foundation, originally built by Ashoka. The city has a great temple with decorated buildings. At the east of this great city two rivers meet forming a dune that is over ten li wide, and it is this place that wealthy people and kings such as Shaliditya come on pilgrimage from ancient times and give alms. It is called the Grand Place of Almsgiving. Numerous people gather here and bathe at the confluence of two rivers, some drown themselves, believing that this washes away their sins and that it will give them a better rebirth.[47]

Five hundred li from Prayaga is the country of Kausambi. It produces abundant quantities of non-sticky rice and sugarcane. The citizens are bold, furious and dedicated to good deeds by custom. It has ten deserted and dilapidated Buddhist monasteries, attended by about three hundred monks. The country has fifty deva temples and numerous non-Buddhists. In the capital, within the palace is a Buddhist temple with a Buddha statue made from sandalwood. This Buddha image "emits divine light" sometimes, states Xuanzang. He adds that Kausambi is the place that Buddhists text predict is where the Buddha Dharma will come to an end in a distant future, therefore anyone who comes to this place feels sad and "sheds tears" (Li Rongxi translation).[48]

He headed northeast, crossed Ganges river again, and this came to the country of Vishaka. He calls its people sincere and honest by custom, fond of learning. It has twenty monasteries and three thousand monks studying Hinayana Buddhism. Vishaka has numerous non-Buddhists and over fifty deva temples.[48]

Kingdoms of Sravasti Kushinagara, Baranasi, Nepala

In Fascicle 6 of the travelogue manuscript, Xuanzang focuses on some of the holiest sites in Buddhism. He begins with Shravasti (now northeast Uttar Pradesh), describing it to be a country of over six thousand li in circuit. The capital city is desolate, states Xuanzang, though some residents still live here. There are over hundred monasteries in its capital city, many dilapidated, where monks study Hinayana Buddhism. The country has hundred deva temples.[49][50] He saw the decaying remains of Prasenajit's palace, then to its east the Great Dhamma Hall stupa, another stupa and a temple for the maternal aunt of the Buddha. Next to these, states Xuanzang, is the great stupa of Angulimala. About five li (~2 kilometers in 7th century) south of the city is the Jetavana garden with two 70 feet high pillars standing, but the monastery there is in ruins. One pillar has a wheel carved at its top, the other a bull. Xuanzang saw all the monuments associated with the Sravasti legends with the Buddha, though many of these were in dilapidated condition. He also a Buddhist temple 60 feet high with a seated Buddha image, and a deva temple about the same size as the Buddha temple, both in good condition. Over sixty li to the northwest of Sravasti capital, he saw a series of stupas built by Ashoka for Kasyapa Buddha, one who lived for "twenty thousand" years, states Xuanzang.[49][50]

 
Xuanzang visited Sravasti site (above), the place where the Buddha spent most of his time after enlightenment.

From Sravasti, Xuanzang travelled southeast to the country of Kapilavastu. This country has no ruler, he states, and every city has its own lord. Well over a thousand monasteries were in this region, but most are dilapidated. Some three thousand monks continue to study Hinayana Buddhism in many of these monasteries. This country has two deva temples. He also describes a Buddhist temple with painting of a prince riding on a white horse, as well many Buddhist monuments and legends about the Buddha's early life in this region, as well as those of the Sakya clan.[51]

After Kapilavastu, he went eastward to the country of Ramagrama (Rama). The region is sparsely populated, the towns and villages in a dilapidated condition. He mentions a stupa where a snake-dragon comes out of the pond to circumambulate it, as well as elephants pick flowers and come to scatter on this stupa, according to Xuanzang. There is a monastery near this special stupa, where monks study Hinayana. Some hundred li to the east is another colossal stupa in good condition, one built by Ashoka.[52][53] Past this forest is the country of Kushinagara, where towns and villages are deserted and in a dilapidated condition. He describes a large brick temple with reclining Buddha. He describes many monuments and sites he was able to see where numerous legends of the Buddha played out, including the site where he was cremated.[52]

In Fascicle 7, Xuanzang describes five countries. He starts with Baranasi (now Varanasi), stating the country has Ganges river to its west. The city is densely populated, with tightly packed homes in its lanes. The people are "enormously wealthy", mild and courteous by nature. Few here believe in Buddhism, most are heretics (Hindus). The country has over thirty Buddhist monasteries with three thousand monks studying Hinayana. There are over one hundred deva temples, most dedicated to Mahesvara (Shiva). Some of these heretic followers go naked and smear their bodies with ash.[54] On the west bank of Varana river near Baranasi, is a great stupa that is 100 feet tall and was built by Ashoka. Before it is a standing green-stone pillar polished as smooth as a mirror, states Xuanzang. He describes many more stupas, pillars and monasteries in Baranasi country.[54][55]

After Baranasi, he visits the country of Garjanapati, where he finds the Aviddhakarna monastery that is "very exquisitely" carved with decorative sculptures. It is lush with flowers, with reflections in the pond nearby. From there he heads north of Ganges and visits a large Narayana temple (Vishnu). It has storied pavilions and terraces, the numerous deva statues are "carved from stone with the most exquisite craftsmanship". About thirty li to the east of this Narayana temple is a Ashoka built stupa, with a twenty feet high pillar and lion image on its top.[56] From there he walked to Vaishali, where says Xuanzang, people are honest and simple by custom. They study both orthodox Buddhist and heterodox non-Buddhist doctrines. The country of Vaishali has hundreds of monasteries, but only a few have monks and are in good condition. He describes the Svetapura monastery with lofty buildings and magnificent pavilions.[56][57]

After Vaishali, he headed north and reached the country of Vriji. This country mostly venerates the non-Buddhist deva temples and doctrines, states Xuanzang. It has over ten monasteries with less than a thousand Buddhist monks.[58] He then travelled to the country of Nepala, near the Snow Mountains. It has many flowers and fruits, yaks and two-headed birds. The people here, says Xuanzang, are rude and disparaging by nature, but skilled in craftsmanship. Their Buddhist monasteries and deva temples touch each other, and people simultaneously believe in Buddhist and non-Buddhist doctrines. The country has two thousand monks who study Hinayana and Mahayana teachings.[58]

Kingdoms of Magadha, Iranaparvata, Champa, Kajangala, Kamarupa

In Fascicle 8 of the travelogue, Xuanzang begins with the country of Magadha. The country and its capital is sparsely populated. A fertile land, it produces a fragrant form of rice with extraordinary lustre. It regularly floods during the monsoon season, and during these months one can use a boat to travel. People are honest and simple here, and they revere Buddhism. Magadha has fifty monasteries and over ten thousand monks. It also has tens of deva' temples.[59][60]

According to Xuanzang, there is city south of river Ganges in Magadha. It is very ancient. When human life was "innumerable years" long, it was called Kusumapura. One can see the very ancient foundations of Kusumapura. Later, when human life span reduced to "several thousand years", its name was changed to Pataliputra. Towards the north of his royal city is a huge standing pillar of Ashoka. There once were many monasteries, deva temples and stupas here, but several hundred such Buddhist and non-Buddhist monuments are in dilapidated and ruined condition, states Xuanzang. He then describes several legends associated with Ashoka, along with several stupas and monasteries he found in good condition.[59] For example, he describes the Tiladhaka monastery about 300 li southeast of the Magadha capital. It has four courts, lofty terraces, multi-storied pavilions where thousands of monks continue to study Mahayana Buddhism. Within this monastery complex, states Xuanzang, there are three temples, the center one with a thirty foot tall Buddha idol, another has a statue of Tara Bodhisattva, the third has Avalokitesvara Bodhisattva statue.[61] He visits Gaya and the Bodhi tree. Near the tree, he states there is the Mahabodhi monastery with many buildings and courtyards. Inside these buildings are "most wonderful, and exquisitely done decorative paintings", states Xuanzang. It is painted in gold, silver, pinkish blue, lustrous white and semitransparent pigments, with the Buddha's ornaments in the panel embedded with gems and jewels.[62]

After crossing the Maha river, visiting many stupas, monasteries, rishi Vyasa hill, Vipula hill, Pippala Cave, Bamboo temple and other monuments, Xuanzang arrived in Rajagriha city (Rajgir) and Nalanda monastery.[63] He stayed and studied at Nalanda.[64]

At Nalanda, he was in the company of several thousand monks. Xuanzang studied logic, grammar, Sanskrit, and the Yogacara school of Buddhism during his time at Nalanda with Silabhadra. He describes Nalanda as a place with "azure pool winds around the monasteries, adorned with the full-blown cups of the blue lotus; the dazzling red flowers of the lovely kanaka hang here and there, and outside groves of mango trees offer the inhabitants their dense and protective shade" (translation of Rene Grousset).[65]

According to Grousset, the founders of Mahayana idealism, Asanga and Vasubandhu trained Dignaga, who trained Dharmapala and whose student was Silabhadra. Thus Xuanzang had reached his teacher Silabhadra, who made available to Xuanzang and through him to the Sino-Japanese world the entire heritage of Buddhist Mahayana thought, and the Cheng Weishi Lun, Xuanzang's great philosophical treatise, is none other than the Summa of this doctrine, "the fruit of seven centuries of Indian Buddhist thought."[66] In this scripture, Xuanzang appears to a certain extent as the continuator of both Asanga and Vasubandhu.[67]

From Nalanda, Xuanzang travelled through several kingdoms, including Iranaparvata, Champa, from there to Pundravardhana and Sylhet (in present-day Bangladesh. There Xuanzang found 20 monasteries with over 3,000 monks studying both the Hinayana and the Mahayana. One of them was the Vāśibhã Monastery, where he found over 700 Mahayana monks from all over East India.[68][69] He visited Kamarupa (Assam and northeastern India), Samatata, Tamralipti, Kalinga and other regions, which Xuanzang calls as "domain of east India".[70]

Kingdoms of Kalinga, Andhra, Chola, Dravida and Malakuta

Xuanzang turned southward and travelled towards Andhradesa to visit the viharas at Amaravati Stupa and Nagarjunakonda. He stayed at Amaravati and studied the 'Abhidhammapitakam' texts.[71] He observed that there were many Viharas at Amaravati and some of them were deserted. He later proceeded to Kanchi, the imperial capital of Pallavas, and a strong center of Buddhism. He continued traveling to Nasik, Ajanta, Malwa; from there he went to Multan and Pravata before returning to Nalanda again.[72]

Kingdoms of Konkanapura, Maharashtra, Malawa, Valabhi, Gurjara, Ujjayani, Sindhu, Langala, Avanda, Varnu

Xuanzang was welcomed to Kannauj at the request of the king Harshavardhana, who was an ally of Kumar Bhaskar Varman, to attend a great Buddhist Assembly there which was attended by both of the kings as well as several other kings from neighboring kingdoms, Buddhist monks, Brahmans, and Jains. King Harsha invited Xuanjang to Kumbh Mela in Prayag where he witnessed king Harsha's generous distribution of gifts to the poor.

After visiting Prayag he returned to Kannauj where he was given a grand farewell by king Harsha. Travelling through the Khyber Pass of the Hindu Kush, Xuanzang passed through Kashgar, Khotan, and Dunhuang on his way back to China. He arrived in the capital, Chang'an, on the seventh day of the first month of 645, 16 years after he left Chinese territory, and a great procession celebrated his return.[73]

Return journey
Kingdoms of Jaguda, Andarab, Alini, Rahu, Krisma, Himatala, Badakshan, Sikni, Cukuka, Gostana
Other sites

Return to China

On his return to China in 645 CE, Xuanzang was greeted with much honor but he refused all high civil appointments offered by the still-reigning emperor, Emperor Taizong of Tang. Instead, he retired to a monastery and devoted his energy to translating Buddhist texts until his death in 664 CE. According to his biography, he returned with "over six hundred Mahayana and Hinayana texts, seven statues of the Buddha and more than a hundred sarira relics."[74] In celebration of Xuanzang's extraordinary achievement in translating the Buddhist texts, Emperor Gaozong of Tang ordered renowned Tang calligrapher Chu Suiliang (褚遂良) and inscriber Wan Wenshao (萬文韶) to install two stele stones, collectively known as The Emperor's Preface to the Sacred Teachings (雁塔聖教序), at the Giant Wild Goose Pagoda.[75]

Chinese Buddhism (influence)

 
Statue of Xuanzang at Longmen Grottoes, Luoyang

During Xuanzang's travels, he studied with many famous Buddhist masters, especially at the famous center of Buddhist learning at Nalanda. When he returned, he brought with him some 657 Sanskrit texts. With the emperor's support, he set up a large translation bureau in Chang'an (present-day Xi'an), drawing students and collaborators from all over East Asia. He is credited with the translation of some 1,330 fascicles of scriptures into Chinese. His strongest personal interest in Buddhism was in the field of Yogācāra (瑜伽行派), or Consciousness-only (唯識), and he founded a school taking after that tradition in China.[1] His 7th-century scholarship on Yogacara has a major influence on Chinese Buddhism, and then on East Asian Buddhism.[76]

The force of his own study, translation, and commentary of the texts of these traditions initiated the development of the Faxiang school (法相宗) in East Asia. Some of Xuanzang's students, such as Kuiji (窺基, 632–682) and Wŏnch'ŭk (613–696), become influential authors in their own right.[77][78] Although the Faxiang school itself did not thrive for a long time, its theories regarding perception, consciousness, Karma, rebirth, etc. found their way into the doctrines of other more successful schools. Xuanzang's closest and most eminent student was Kuiji (窺基) who became recognized as the first patriarch of the Faxiang school. Xuanzang's logic, as described by Kuiji, was often misunderstood by scholars of Chinese Buddhism because they lacked the necessary background in Indian logic.[78]

Xuanzang was known for his extensive but careful translations of Indian Buddhist texts to Chinese, which have enabled subsequent recoveries of lost Indian Buddhist texts from the translated Chinese copies. He is credited with writing or compiling the Cheng Weishi Lun as a commentary on these texts. His translation of the Heart Sutra became and remains an important milestone in all East Asian Buddhist sects.[79]

The Perfection of Wisdom Sutra

Xuanzang returned to China with three copies of the Mahaprajnaparamita Sutra.[80] Xuanzang, with a team of disciple translators, commenced translating the voluminous work in 660 CE, using all three versions to ensure the integrity of the source documentation.[80] Xuanzang was being encouraged by a number of his disciple translators to render an abridged version. After a suite of dreams quickened his decision, Xuanzang determined to render an unabridged, complete volume, faithful to the original of 600 chapters.[81]

Original Works

Though Xuanzang is mainly known for his translation work, he also wrote a few original works.

In 646, under the Emperor's request, Xuanzang completed his book, The Great Tang Records on the Western Regions, which has become one of the primary sources for the study of medieval Central Asia and India.[82] This book was first translated into French by the Sinologist Stanislas Julien in 1857.

Xuanzang also wrote a large treatise on Yogacara Buddhist philosophy, the Cheng Weishi Lun.[83]

There is also another original text called Bashi guiju song 八識規矩頌 (Verses on the Structure of the Eight Consciousnesses).[83]

There was also a biography of Xuanzang written by the monk Huili (慧立). Both books were first translated into English by Samuel Beal, in 1884 and 1911 respectively.[84][85] An English translation with copious notes by Thomas Watters was edited by T.W. Rhys Davids and S.W. Bushell, and published posthumously in London in 1905.

Legacy

 
Xuanzang Temple in Taiwan

Xuanzang's work, the Great Tang Records on the Western Regions, is the longest and most detailed account of the countries of Central and South Asia that has been bestowed upon posterity by a Chinese Buddhist pilgrim. While his main purpose was to obtain Buddhist books and to receive instruction on Buddhism while in India, he ended up doing much more. He has preserved the records of the political and social aspects of the lands he visited.

His record of the places visited by him in Bengal — mainly Raktamrittika near Karnasuvarna, Pundranagara and its environs, Samatata, Tamralipti and Harikela— have been very helpful in the recording of the archaeological history of Bengal. His account has also shed welcome light on the history of 7th century Bengal, especially the Gauda kingdom under Shashanka, although at times he can be quite partisan.

Xuanzang obtained and translated 657 Sanskrit Buddhist works. He received the best education on Buddhism he could find throughout India. Much of this activity is detailed in the companion volume to Xiyu Ji, the Biography of Xuanzang written by Huili, entitled the Life of Xuanzang.

His version of the Heart Sutra is the basis for all Chinese commentaries on the sutra, and recitations throughout China, Korea, and Japan.[86] His style was, by Chinese standards, cumbersome and overly literal, and marked by scholarly innovations in terminology; usually, where another version by the earlier translator Kumārajīva exists, Kumārajīva's is more popular.[86]

In fiction

Xuanzang's journey along the Silk Road, and the legends that grew up around it, inspired the Ming novel Journey to the West, one of the great classics of Chinese literature. The fictional counterpart Tang Sanzang is the reincarnation of the Golden Cicada, a disciple of Gautama Buddha, and is protected on his journey by four powerful disciples. One of them, the monkey, was a popular favorite and profoundly influenced Chinese culture and contemporary Japanese manga and anime (including the popular Dragon Ball and Saiyuki series), and became well known in the West by Arthur Waley's translation and later the cult TV series Monkey.

In the Yuan Dynasty, there was also a play by Wu Changling (吳昌齡) about Xuanzang obtaining scriptures.

The movie Da Tang Xuan Zang was released in 2016 as an official Chinese and Indian production. It was offered as candidate for Best Foreign Language Film at the 89th Academy Awards due to its camera work, but ultimately was not nominated.

Relics

A skull relic purported to be that of Xuanzang was held in the Temple of Great Compassion, Tianjin until 1956 when it was taken to Nalanda - allegedly by the Dalai Lama - and presented to India. The relic was in the Patna Museum for a long time but was moved to a newly built memorial hall in Nalanda in 2007.[87] The Wenshu Monastery in Chengdu, Sichuan province also claims to have part of Xuanzang's skull.

Part of Xuanzang's remains were taken from Nanjing by soldiers of the Imperial Japanese Army in 1942, and are now enshrined at Yakushi-ji in Nara, Japan.[88] In November 1965, the relic of Xuanzang was returned by the Japanese government to Taiwanese government and eventually enshrined in Xuanzang Temple, Taiwan.

References

  • Watters, Thomas (1904). On Yuan Chwang's Travels in India, 629-645 A.D. Vol.1. Royal Asiatic Society, London. Volume 2. Reprint. Hesperides Press, 1996. ISBN 978-1-4067-1387-9.
  • Beal, Samuel (1884). Si-Yu-Ki: Buddhist Records of the Western World, by Hiuen Tsiang. 2 vols. Translated by Samuel Beal. London. 1884. Reprint: Delhi. Oriental Books Reprint Corporation. 1969. Vol. 1, Vol. 2
  • Julien, Stanislas, (1857/1858). Mémoires sur les contrées occidentales, L'Imprimerie impériale, Paris. Vol.1 Vol.2
  • Li, Rongxi (translator) (1995). The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions. Numata Center for Buddhist Translation and Research. Berkeley, California. ISBN 1-886439-02-8

Gallery

  •  

    An illustration of Xuanzang from Journey to the West, a fictional account of travels.

  •  

    Golden statue of Xuanzang. Giant Wild Goose Pagoda, Xi'an

  •  

    Xuanzang Memorial Hall in Nalanda, Bihar, India.

  •  

    Statue of Xuanzang. Great Wild Goose Pagoda, Xi'an.

  •  

    Statue of Xuanzang in front of Giant Wild Goose Pagoda, Xi'an

See also

Notes

  1. ^ There is some dispute over the Chinese character for Xuanzang's given name at birth. Historical records provide two different Chinese characters, 褘 and 禕; both are similar in writing except that the former has one more stroke than the latter. Their pronunciations in pinyin are also different: the former is pronounced as Huī while the latter is pronounced as Yī. See here and here. (Both sources are in Chinese.)

References

  1. ^ a b c "Xuanzang". Encyclopedia Britannica. 1 January 2023. from the original on 16 March 2023. Retrieved 22 May 2023.
  2. ^ a b c d e Li Rongxi (1996), The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions, Bukkyo Dendo Kyokai and Numata Center for Buddhist Translation and Research, Berkeley, ISBN 978-1-886439-02-3, pp. xiii-xiv
  3. ^ Wriggins, Sally (27 November 2003). The Silk Road Journey With Xuanzang. New York: Westview (Penguin). ISBN 978-0813365992.
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  6. ^ Max Deeg (2020), How to Create a Great Monastery: Xuanzang's Foundation Legend of Nālandā in Its Indian Context, Hualin International Journal of Buddhist Studies, Vol 3, Issue 1, pp. 228–258, Quote: "Xuanzang's Datang Xiyu ji has been and is notoriously used for the reconstruction of South Asian history and the history of Buddhism in India. Very often Xuanzang's information is either dismissed because it does not corroborate or even contradicts the facts in Indian sources, or is used to overwrite these sources."
  7. ^ Cao Shibang (2006). "Fact versus Fiction: From Record of the Western Regions to Journey to the West". In Wang Chichhung (ed.). Dust in the Wind: Retracing Dharma Master Xuanzang's Western Pilgrimage. p. 62. ISBN 9789868141988. Retrieved 2 February 2014.
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  43. ^ Yung-hsi 1959, pp. 79–81.
  44. ^ Li Rongxi (1996), The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions, Bukkyo Dendo Kyokai and Numata Center for Buddhist Translation and Research, Berkeley, pp. 121–124
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Works cited

  • Beal, Samuel, trans. (1911). The Life of Hiuen-Tsiang. Translated from the Chinese of Shaman (monk) Hwui Li. London. 1911. Reprint Munshiram Manoharlal, New Delhi. 1973. (a dated, abridged translation)
  • Bernstein, Richard (2001). Ultimate Journey: Retracing the Path of an Ancient Buddhist Monk (Xuanzang) who crossed Asia in Search of Enlightenment. Alfred A. Knopf, New York. ISBN 0-375-40009-5.
  • Christie, Anthony (1968). Chinese Mythology. Feltham, Middlesex: Hamlyn Publishing. ISBN 0600006379.
  • Gordon, Stewart. When Asia was the World: Traveling Merchants, Scholars, Warriors, and Monks who created the "Riches of the East" Da Capo Press, Perseus Books, 2008. ISBN 0-306-81556-7.
  • Julien, Stanislas (1853). Histoire de la vie de Hiouen-Thsang, par Hui Li et Yen-Tsung, Paris.
  • Yung-hsi, Li (1959). The Life of Hsuan Tsang by Huili (Translated). Chinese Buddhist Association, Beijing. (a more recent, abridged translation)
  • Li, Rongxi, trans. (1995). A Biography of the Tripiṭaka Master of the Great Ci'en Monastery of the Great Tang Dynasty. Numata Center for Buddhist Translation and Research. Berkeley, California. ISBN 1-886439-00-1 (a recent, full translation)
  • Nattier, Jan. "The Heart Sutra: A Chinese Apocryphal Text?". Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies Vol. 15 (2), p. 153-223. (1992) PDF 29 October 2013 at the Wayback Machine
  • Saran, Mishi (2005). Chasing the Monk's Shadow: A Journey in the Footsteps of Xuanzang. Penguin Books. ISBN 978-0-14-306439-8
  • Sun Shuyun (2003). Ten Thousand Miles Without a Cloud (retracing Xuanzang's journeys). Harper Perennial. ISBN 0-00-712974-2
  • Waley, Arthur (1952). The Real Tripitaka, and Other Pieces. London: G. Allen and Unwin.
  • Watters, Thomas (1904–05). On Yuan Chwang's Travels in India. London, Royal Asiatic Society. Reprint, Delhi, Munshiram Manoharlal, 1973.
  • Wriggins, Sally Hovey. Xuanzang: A Buddhist Pilgrim on the Silk Road. Westview Press, 1996. Revised and updated as The Silk Road Journey With Xuanzang. Westview Press, 2003. ISBN 0-8133-6599-6.
  • Wriggins, Sally Hovey (2004). The Silk Road Journey with Xuanzang. Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press. ISBN 0-8133-6599-6.
  • Yu, Anthony C. (ed. and trans.) (1980 [1977]). The Journey to the West. Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-97150-6 (fiction)

Further reading

  • Bhat, R. B. & Wu, C. (2014). Xuan Zhang's mission to the West with Monkey King. New Delhi: Aditya Prakashan, 2014.
  • Sen, T. (2006). , Education About Asia 11 (3), 24-33
  • Weerawardane, Prasani (2009). , biblioasia 5 (2), 14-18
  • Kahar Barat (2000). The Uygur-Turkic Biography of the Seventh-Century Chinese Buddhist Pilgrim Xuanzang: Ninth and Tenth Chapters. Indiana University, Research Institute for Inner Asian Studies. ISBN 978-0-933070-46-2.
  • Jain, Sandhya & Jain, Meenakshi (2011). The India they saw: Foreign accounts. New Delhi: Ocean Books.

External links

 
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Xuanzang.
 
Wikiquote has quotations related to Xuanzang.
  • Xuanzang Memorial, Nava Nalanda Mahavihara on Google Cultural Institute
  • Details of Xuanzang's life and works Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
  • . Archived from the original on 13 February 2005. Chinese text of The Life of Hiuen-Tsiang, by Shaman (monk) Hwui Li (Hui Li) (沙门慧立)
  • by Tripitaka Master Xuanzang of the Tang Dynasty, translation, and explanation by Ronald Epstein (1986)

August 09, 2023
xuanzang, this, article, about, historical, buddhist, monk, fictional, character, based, tang, sanzang, 2016, film, film, sang, redirects, here, prime, minister, cambodia, ɕɥɛ, chinese, 玄奘, april, february, born, chen, chen, 陳禕, also, known, sanskrit, dharma, . This article is about the historical Buddhist monk For the fictional character based on him see Tang Sanzang For the 2016 film see Xuanzang film Hun Sang redirects here For prime minister of Cambodia see Hun Sen Xuanzang ɕɥɛ n tsa ŋ Chinese 玄奘 6 April 602 5 February 664 born Chen Hui Chen Yi 陳禕 also known by his Sanskrit Dharma name Mōkṣadeva 1 was a 7th century Chinese Buddhist monk scholar traveler and translator He is known for the epoch making contributions to Chinese Buddhism the travelogue of his journey to India in 629 645 CE his efforts to bring over 657 Indian texts to China and his translations of some of these texts 2 He was only able to translate 75 distinct sections of a total of 1335 chapters but his translations included some of the most important Mahayana scriptures 1 XuanzangPainting of Xuanzang Japan Kamakura period 14th century PersonalBorn 602 04 06 6 April 602Luoyang Henan ChinaDied5 February 664 664 02 05 aged 61 Tongchuan Shaanxi ChinaReligionBuddhismSchoolEast Asian YogacaraSenior postingStudents KuijiXuanzangChinese nameChinese玄奘TranscriptionsStandard MandarinHanyu PinyinXuanzangWade GilesHsuan2 tsang4IPA ɕɥɛ n tsa ŋ WuRomanizationYeu tsaoHakkaRomanizationHian2 tsong4Yue CantoneseYale RomanizationYuhn chohngJyutpingJyun4 zong6IPA jyːn tsɔːŋ Southern MinTai loHian tsongMiddle ChineseMiddle Chineseɣwen dzangChen Hui a Traditional Chinese陳褘Simplified Chinese陈袆TranscriptionsStandard MandarinHanyu PinyinChen HuiWade GilesCh en2 Hui1Chen YiTraditional Chinese陳禕Simplified Chinese陈祎TranscriptionsStandard MandarinHanyu PinyinChen YiWade GilesCh en2 I1Sanskrit nameSanskritह व न स ङ म क षद व Xuanzang was born on 6 April 602 in Chenliu what is now Kaifeng municipality in Henan province As a boy he took to reading religious books and studying the ideas therein with his father Like his elder brother he became a student of Buddhist studies at Jingtu monastery Xuanzang was ordained as a sramaṇera novice monk at the age of thirteen Due to the political and social unrest caused by the fall of the Sui dynasty he went to Chengdu in Sichuan where he was ordained as a bhikṣu full monk at the age of twenty He later travelled throughout China in search of sacred books of Buddhism At length he came to Chang an then under the peaceful rule of Emperor Taizong of Tang where Xuanzang developed the desire to visit India 3 He knew about Faxian s visit to India and like him was concerned about the incomplete and misinterpreted nature of the Buddhist texts that had reached China He was also concerned about the competing Buddhist theories in variant Chinese translations He sought original untranslated Sanskrit texts from India to help resolve some of these issues 2 At age 27 he began his seventeen year overland journey to India He defied his nation s ban on travel abroad making his way through central Asian cities such as Khotan to India He visited among other places the famed Nalanda monastery in modern day Bihar India where he studied with the monk Silabhadra He departed from India with numerous Sanskrit texts on a caravan of twenty packhorses His return was welcomed by Emperor Taizong in China who encouraged him to write a travelogue 2 This Chinese travelogue titled the Great Tang Records on the Western Regions is a notable source about Xuanzang and also for scholarship on 7th century India and Central Asia 4 His travelogue is a mix of the implausible the hearsay and a firsthand account 5 Selections from it are used and disputed 6 as a terminus ante quem of 645 CE for events names and texts he mentions His text in turn provided the inspiration for the novel Journey to the West written by Wu Cheng en during the Ming dynasty around nine centuries after Xuanzang s death 7 Contents 1 Nomenclature orthography and etymology 2 Early life 3 Pilgrimage 3 1 Dates 3 2 Travel through Central Asia 3 2 1 Kingdom of Agni 3 2 2 Kingdom of Kuchi 3 2 3 Baluka and other kingdoms 3 2 4 Kingdom of Bamiyana 3 3 Travel through India 3 3 1 Kingdom of Lampa Nagarahara and Gandhara 3 3 2 Kingdom of Udayana Kashmira 3 3 3 The memorial of Paṇini 3 3 4 Kingdoms of Takka Jalamdhara Sthanesvara Mathura Matipura Kapitha 3 3 5 Kingdoms of Kanyakubja Ayodhya Prayaga Kausambi Visaka 3 3 6 Kingdoms of Sravasti Kushinagara Baranasi Nepala 3 3 7 Kingdoms of Magadha Iranaparvata Champa Kajangala Kamarupa 3 3 8 Kingdoms of Kalinga Andhra Chola Dravida and Malakuta 3 3 9 Kingdoms of Konkanapura Maharashtra Malawa Valabhi Gurjara Ujjayani Sindhu Langala Avanda Varnu 3 4 Return to China 4 Chinese Buddhism influence 4 1 The Perfection of Wisdom Sutra 5 Original Works 6 Legacy 6 1 In fiction 7 Relics 8 References 9 Gallery 10 See also 11 Notes 12 References 12 1 Works cited 13 Further reading 14 External linksNomenclature orthography and etymology EditNames Xuanzang Tang Sanzang Xuanzang Sanzang Xuanzang Dashi Tang SengTraditionalChinese 玄奘 唐三藏 玄奘三藏 玄奘大師 唐僧SimplifiedChinese 玄奘 唐三藏 玄奘三藏 玄奘大师 唐僧Pinyin Mandarin Xuanzang Tang Sanzang Xuanzang Sanzang Xuanzang Dashi Tang SengWade Giles Mandarin Hsuan tsang T ang San tsang Hsuan tsangSan tsang Hsuan tsangTa shih T ang SengJyutping Cantonese Jyun4 Zong6 Tong4 Saam1Zong6 Jyun4 Zong6Saam1 Zong6 Jyun4 Zong6Daai6 Si1 Tong4 Zang1Vietnamese Huyền Trang Đường TamTạng Huyền TrangTam Tạng Huyền TrangĐại Sư Đường TăngJapanese Genjō Tō Sanzō Genjō sanzō Genjō daishi TōsōKorean Hyeonjang Dang samjang Hyeonjang samjang Hyeonjang daesa DangseungMeaning Tang DynastyTripiṭaka Master Tripiṭaka MasterXuanzang Great MasterXuanzang Tang Dynasty MonkLess common romanizations of Xuanzang include Hyun Tsan Hhuen Kwan Hiuan Tsang Hiouen Thsang Hiuen Tsang Hiuen Tsiang Hsien tsang Hsyan tsang Hsuan Chwang Huan Chwang Hsuan Tsiang Hwen Thsang Hsuan Chwang Hhuen Kwan Xuan Cang Xuan Zang Shuen Shang Yuan Chang Yuan Chwang and Yuen Chwang Hsuan Huan Huan and Chuang are also found The sound written x in pinyin and hs in Wade Giles which represents the s or sh like ɕ in today s Mandarin was previously pronounced as the h like x in early Mandarin which accounts for the archaic transliterations with h Another form of his official style was Yuanzang written 元奘 It is this form that accounts for such variants as Yuan Chang Yuan Chwang and Yuen Chwang 8 Tang Monk Tang Seng is also transliterated Thang Seng 9 Another of Xuanzang s standard aliases is Sanzang Fashi simplified Chinese 三藏法师 traditional Chinese 三藏法師 pinyin Sanzangfǎshi lit Sanzang Dharma or Law Teacher 法 being a Chinese translation for Sanskrit Dharma or Pali Prakrit Dhamma the implied meaning being Buddhism Sanzang is the Chinese term for the Buddhist canon or Tripiṭaka Three Baskets and in some English language fiction and English translations of Journey to the West Xuanzang is addressed as Tripitaka citation needed Early life EditXuanzang was born Chen Hui or Chen Yi on 6 April 602 in Chenhe Village Goushi Town Chinese 緱氏鎮 Luozhou near present day Luoyang Henan and died on 5 February 664 10 in Yuhua Palace 玉華宮 in present day Tongchuan Shaanxi His family was noted for its erudition for generations and Xuanzang was the youngest of four children 2 His ancestor was Chen Shi 104 186 a minister of the Eastern Han dynasty His great grandfather Chen Qin 陳欽 served as the prefect of Shangdang 上黨 present day Changzhi Shanxi during the Eastern Wei his grandfather Chen Kang 陳康 was a professor in the Taixue Imperial Academy during the Northern Qi His father Chen Hui 陳惠 served as the magistrate of Jiangling County during the Sui dynasty According to traditional biographies Xuanzang displayed a superb intelligence and earnestness studied with his father and amazed him by his careful observance of filial piety after one such study about that topic 11 His elder brother was already a monk in a Buddhist monastery Inspired at a young age Xuanzang expressed interest in becoming a Buddhist monk like his brother After the death of his father in 611 he lived with his older brother Chen Su Chinese 陳素 later known as Zhangjie Chinese 長捷 for five years at Jingtu Monastery Chinese 淨土寺 in Luoyang supported by the Sui state During this time he studied Mahayana as well as various early Buddhist schools 11 In 618 the Sui Dynasty collapsed and Xuanzang and his brother fled to Chang an which had been proclaimed as the capital of the Tang dynasty and thence southward to Chengdu Sichuan Here the two brothers spent two or three years in further study in the monastery of Kong Hui including the Abhidharma kosa Sastra The abbot Zheng Shanguo allowed Xuanzang to study these advanced subjects though he was young 12 Taking the monastic name Xuanzang he was fully ordained as a monk in 622 at the age of twenty 13 The myriad contradictions and discrepancies in the Chinese translations at that time prompted Xuanzang to decide to go to India and study in the cradle of Buddhism He knew about Faxian s visit to India and like him sought original untranslated Sanskrit texts from India to help resolve some of these issues 2 Pilgrimage EditDates Edit Xuanzang started his pilgrimage to India in either 627 or 629 CE according to two East Asian versions The 627 CE version is found in Guang hongming ji from Daoxun and is also in Japanese and Korean texts The 629 CE is found in Chinese and western versions This confusion though merely of two years is of significance to western history 14 The date when Xuanzang s pilgrimage started is not resolved in any of the texts that Xuanzang himself wrote Further he did not write his own biography or travelogue rather he recited it to his fellow monks after his return from India Three of his immediate collaborators wrote his biography and thus leaving three versions and with variant details All three of these versions begin his pilgrimage in 629 CE Yet one version by Huili states that Xuanzang met Yabghu Qaghan someone who died in 628 CE according to Persian and Turkish records If this detail in Xuanzang s biography and Persian Turkish records are true then Xuanzang must have left before Qaghan s death or in 627 CE In other words some of the details in the surviving versions of Xuanzang biography were invented or a paleographic confusion introduced an error or the Persian Turkish records are unreliable The Japanese version is based on 8th to 10th century translations of texts that ultimately came from Xuanzang s monastery which unfortunately has added to the confusion Most sources state that Xuanzang started his pilgrimage in 629 CE 14 Travel through Central Asia Edit Purpose of journey The purpose of my journey is not to obtain personal offerings It is because I regretted in my country the Buddhist doctrine was imperfect and the scriptures were incomplete Having many doubts I wish to go and find out the truth and so I decided to travel to the West at the risk of my life in order to seek for the teachings of which I have not yet heard so that the Dew of the Mahayana sutras would have not only been sprinkled at Kapilavastu but the sublime truth may also be known in the eastern country Xuanzang Translator Li Yung hsi 15 Kingdom of Agni Edit In 630 CE he arrived in the kingdom of Agni 16 17 Yanqi in a place called Turpan Here he met the king a Buddhist along with his uncle Jnanachandra and precept Mokshagupta who tried to persuade him to quit his journey and teach them Buddhist knowledge He declined and they equipped him further for his travels with letters of introduction and valuables to serve as funds Xuanzang observed that the country of Agni had more than ten monasteries following the Sarvastivada school of Hinayana Buddhism with two thousand monks who ate three kinds of pure meat with other foods rather than vegetarian food only that would be consistent with Mahayana Buddhist teachings Therefore the Buddhists in this country had stagnated in their Buddhist teachings 16 17 Kingdom of Kuchi Edit Moving further westward Xuanzang met about two thousand Turkish robbers on horses who had looted others The robbers began fighting with each other on how to fairly divide the loot After the loot had thus been lost they dispersed 16 Xuanzang thereafter reached the country of Kuchi This country of 1000 li by 600 li had over one hundred monasteries with five thousand monks following the Sarvastivada school of Hinayana Buddhism and studying its texts in original Indian language 18 The biographies of Xuanzang then describe implausible tales of a dragon race This region was created by dragons from the waters metamorphosing into horses to mate and create dragon horses also into men and mating with women near this region to create dragon men who ran as fast as the dragon horses These were men who would massacre an entire city and leave a deserted place 18 Baluka and other kingdoms Edit Further west he passed Aksu before turning northwest to cross the Tian Shan and then Tokmak on its northwest He met the great Khagan of the Gokturks After a feast Xuanzang continued west then southwest to Tashkent capital of modern Uzbekistan Xuanzang describes more monasteries such as the Eastern Cakuri monastery and Ascarya monastery with Buddha s footprints and Buddha idols According to Xuanzang s accounts mystical light emanated from Buddha s footprints on fast days In the country of Baluka the Sarvastivada school of Hinayana Buddhism was in vogue He crossed the countries of Samarkand Mimohe Kaputana Kusanika Bukhara Betik Horismika and Tukhara These had cities near rivers or lakes then vast regions with no inhabitants little water or grass He describes warring factions of Turk chieftains in control with illness and pestilence rampant 19 20 From here he crossed a desert icy valleys and the Pamir range which link Tian Shan Karakoram Kunlun Hindu Kush and the Himalaya mountain ranges Here observed Xuanzang the wind is cold and blows with a piercing vehemence Li Rongxi translation Ferocious dragons live here and trouble the travellers particularly those who wear reddish brown color clothes Thereafter he crossed past a salty sea one narrow from north to south and long from east to west he calls the Great Pure Lake He describes supernatural monsters fishes and dragons living in this lake The Xuanzang travelogues then rush through the names of many countries stating that more details are provided in the return part of his journey as he crosses into country of Bactra modern Balkh He adds that the Hinayana Buddhist schools were followed in all these regions 19 In the capital of the country of Bactra states Xuanzang is a monastery with a Buddha s idol decorated with jewels and its halls studded with rare precious substances The Buddhist monastery also has an image of Vaishravana deity as its guardian The monastery and the capital attracts repeated raids from the Turk chieftains who seek to loot these precious jewels This monastery has a large bathing pot that looks dazzlingly brilliant and has a Buddha s tooth relic and Buddha s broom made of kasa grass Outside is a vihara built ages ago and many stupas to honor the arhats Buddhist saints 21 20 Kingdom of Bamiyana Edit South of Bactra is the country of Kacik then the Great Snow Mountains with valleys infested with gangs of brigands Li Rongxi translation Crossing this pass thereafter is the country of Bamiyana a part of modern Afghanistan 21 There state his travelogue is a colossal statue of standing Buddha carved from a rock in the mountains some one hundred and forty feet tall and decorated with gems This valley has Buddhist monasteries and also a colossal copper statue of the Buddha that is over a hundred foot tall He was told that it was cast in separate parts and then joined up together To the east of a monastery in the Bamiyana valley was a Reclining Buddha entering Parinirvana that was over one thousand foot long The people and the king of this valley serve the Buddhist monks records Xuanzang 21 22 Xuanzang describes colossal Buddhas carved into the rocks of Bamiyan region above 19th century sketch destroyed by the Taliban in 2001 Heading east and crossing the Black range Xuanzang describes the country of Kapishi where the Mahayana tradition of Buddhism had come in vogue It had over 100 monasteries with stupas More than 6000 monks mostly Mahayana studied here Along with these Buddhist monasteries states his travelogue there were over ten Deva temples Hindu with heretical believers who go about naked and smear dust over their bodies translates Li Rongxi 23 Furthermore in the same capital region there is a Hinayana monastery with 300 monks at the northern foothills The citizens of this country adds Xuanzang fondly recall King Kanishka of Gandhara 2nd century CE Kushan empire To its east are the City of Svetavat temple and the Aruna Mountain known for its frequent avalanches His travelogue then describes several popular legends about a Naga king He also describes miraculous events from a Buddhist stupa such as raging flames bursting out of them leaving behind stream of pearls The citizens here states Xuanzang worship pieces of Buddha s remains that were brought here in more ancient times He mentions four stupas built in this area by king Ashoka 23 24 Travel through India Edit Reconstructed route of Xuanzang over 629 645 CE through India Along with Nalanda in Bihar he visited locations that are now in Kashmir Gujarat Madhya Pradesh Odisha Tamil Nadu and Bangladesh To Xuanzang he entered India as he crossed the Black range and entered the country of Lampa His travelogue presents India in fascicles separate from those for Central Asia He however does not call it India but the phonetic equivalent of what previously has been variously interpreted as Tianzhu or Shengdu or Xiandou More recent scholarship suggests the closest pronunciation of the 7th century term in his travelogues would be Indu 25 Xuanzang states that India is a vast country over ninety thousand li in circuit with seventy kingdoms sea on three sides and snow mountains to its north It is a land that is rich and moist cultivation productive vegetation luxuriant 25 He adds that it has its own ancient customs such as measuring its distance as yojana equal to forty li but varying between thirty and sixteen depending on the source They divide day and night into kala and substances into various divisions all the way to a fineness that they call indivisible and emptiness The country has three seasons hot cold rainy according to some Buddhists while others say it is four three months each of spring summer monsoon and autumn 25 The kingdoms of India have numerous villages and cities Their towns and cities have square walls streets are winding and narrow with shops lined along these roads Wine is sold in shops on the side streets Those whose profession is butchering fishing executioners scavengers castes that kill living beings and deal with products derived from them are not allowed to live inside the cities The cities are built from bricks while homes are either made mostly from bricks or from wattled bamboo or wood Cottages are thatched with straw and grass 26 The residents of India clean their floor and then smear it with a preparation of cow dung followed by decorating it with flowers unlike Chinese homes Their children go to school at age seven where they begin learning a number of treatises of the five knowledges first grammar second technical skills which he states includes arts mechanics yin yang and the calendar third medicine fourth being logic and fifth field of knowledge taught is inner knowledge along with theory of cause and effect After further similar introduction covering the diverse aspects of the Indian culture he observed including fashion hair styles preference for being barefoot ritual washing their hands after releasing bodily waste cleaning teeth by chewing special tree twigs taking baths before going to their temples worshipping in their temples their alphabet that contains forty seven letters the diversity of languages spoken how harmonious and elegant they sound when they speak their languages Xuanzang presents the various kingdoms of India 26 5 27 Xuanzang includes a section on the differences between the Hinayana and Mahayana Buddhist communities There are eighteen sects in Buddhism according to Xuanzang They stand against each other debate various viewpoints as vehemently as crashing waves Though they share the same goal they study different subjects and use sharp words to argue Each Buddhist sect has different set of rules and regulations for their monks 26 The monks who cannot expound a single text must do the routine monastic duties cleaning monastery and such Those who can expound one Buddhist text flawlessly is exempt from such duties Those who can recite two texts get better quality rooms Monks who can expound three Buddhist texts get attendants to serve them while the few monks who can expound all four are provided with lay servants Expounders of five texts have elephants for travel while six texts entitles them to security retinue 26 Kingdom of Lampa Nagarahara and Gandhara Edit Xuanzang describes Lampaka modern Laghman near the source of Kabul river as the territory of north India one whose circuit is more than 1000 li and where all monasteries studied Mahayana Buddhism 28 They have tens of Deva temples Hindu which heretics non Buddhists frequent 29 To its southeast is the country of Nagarahara zh modern Nangarhar with many Buddhist monasteries and five Deva temples The number of monks here however are few The stupa are deserted and in a dilapidated condition The local Buddhists believe that the Buddha taught here while flying in the air because were he to walk here it caused many earthquakes Nagarahara has a 300 feet high stupa built by Ashoka with marvellous sculptures Xuanzang paid homage by circling it Both Lampaka and Nagarahara countries were independent with their own kings but they have become a vassal of the Buddhist Kapishi kingdom found near Bamiyana 28 29 The monasteries in these kingdoms are splendid with four corner towers and halls with three tiers They have strange looking figures at the joints rafters eaves and roof beams The Indians paint the walls doors and windows with colors and pictures People prefer to have home that look simple from outside but is much decorated inside They construct their homes such a way that they open towards the east 26 Xuanzang also describes implausible events such as glowing rock footprints of Buddha dragons tales of Naga a stupa in which is preserved the Buddha s eyeball as large as a crabapple and that is brilliant and transparent throughout a white stone Buddha idol that worked miracles and frequently emitted light 30 The travelogue states that Xuanzang went into a dark cave here where dangerous beings lived recited Srimaladevi Simhanadasutra and they became Buddhists Thereafter they all burnt incense and worshipped the Buddha with flowers 31 Some five hundred li 200 kilometer in 7th century to the southeast is the country of Gandhara which some historic Chinese texts phonetically transcribed as Qiantuowei On its east it is bordered by the Indus river and its capital is Purusapura now Peshawar Pakistan This is the land of ancient sages and authors of Indian sastras and they include Narayanadeva Asanga Vasubandhu Dharmatrata Monaratha and Parshva 30 32 To the southeast of Purusapura city is a 400 feet high stupa built by king Kanishka one with nearly 2000 feet in diameter and a 25 layer wheel on the top There is a large monastery near it Gandhara has numerous holy Buddhist sites and Xuanzang visited and worshipped all of them 32 He calls the stupas and the Buddha images in this region as magnificent and made with perfect craftmanship 30 Kingdom of Udayana Kashmira Edit Heading north towards Kashmir he arrived in the city of Pushkalavati with many holy Buddhist sites Xuanzang worshipped at these great stupas and big monasteries Thereafter he reached the country of Udayana through which flowed the Subhavastu river now called Swat river It had 1400 monasteries of five early Buddhist schools of 18 sub traditions Sarvastivada Mahasaṃghika Kasyapiya Mahisasaka and Dharmagupta These schools became unpopular as the later form of Mahayana prospered According to Xuanzang these monasteries of early Buddhist schools are desolate and attract few monks He then reached the city of Hi lo and Manglaur In all these places he mentions how the Buddha lived here in one of his previous lives Jataka legends and illustrated compassion strength through his actions There is a Buddhist temple northeast of Manglaur with the Avalokitesvara Bodhusattva image one is noted for its miraculous manifestations Crossing another 1000 li he reached Darada valley the old capital of Udayana with a 100 feet golden wood statue of Maitreya Boddhisattva This statue states his travelogue was built by an artist who went three times into heaven to see how he looks and then carve the realistic image of him on earth 33 Xuanzang describes thousands of monasteries and stupas in northwest India Above the ruins of Dharmarajika stupa Taxila Xuanzang arrived in Taxila after crossing a river with poisonous dragons and evil animals There he visited a major Buddhist monastery of the Sautrantika school From there after covering some 2200 li he passed through the country of Simhapura Kalabagh of Urasa now Hazara and then into Kashmira 34 35 He was received by the king and numerous monks from the Jayendra monastery 34 Kashmira is land with a very cold climate and is often calm without any wind The region has lakes grows plenty of flowers and fruit saffron and medicinal herbs Kashmira has over 100 monasteries and more than 5000 monks The residents revere four large stupas that were built in ancient times by Ashoka King Kanishika too built many Buddhist monasteries here He also had treatises with 960 000 words written on copper plates and had them stored in a newly built great stupa The Kashmira region has numerous monks well versed with the Tripitaka states Xuanzang He stays in Kashmira for two years and studies the treatises with them 35 Xuanzang describes many events where he is helped by both Buddhists and non Buddhists For example he describes leaving the city of Sakala and Narasimha then passing with his companions through the Great Palasha forest They get robbed and are walked towards some dry pond to be killed A monk and he slip away They hurry towards a village Near it they meet a Brahmin who is tilling his land They tell him that robbers attacked them and their companions The Brahmin goes to the village and beats a drum and blows a conch About 80 men gather and together they proceed to rescue the companions of Xuanzang While other rescued companions of his wail about the loss of all their property Xuanzang reminds them that they should all be happy to be alive and not worry about the loss of property The villagers help his companions and him by hosting them before the resume their journey 36 Yet elsewhere Xuanzang also recites the implausible tale of meeting a Brahmin who was 700 years old and had two associates each over a 100 year old who had mastered all of the Hindu Vedas and the Buddhist Madhyamika sastra He calls them heretics non Buddhists These heretics help him and his companions get new garments and food He stayed with this implausibly old Brahmin for a month and studied the Madhyamika sastra with him 37 The memorial of Paṇini Edit To the northeast of Varsha country states Xuanzang there is a lofty mountain with a bluish stone image of Bhimadevi She is the wife of Mahesvara Shiva It is a great site of pilgrimage where Indians from very far come with prayers At the foot of this mountain is another temple for Mahesvara where ceremonies are performed by naked heretics who smear ash on their body 38 About 30 li about 12 kilometers in 7th century southeast from these temples is Salatura which says Xuanzang was the birthplace of rishi Paṇini and the author of Sabda vidya sastra 38 Inspired by Mahesvara this rishi set out to make inquiries into the way of learning Li Rongxi translation He thoroughly studied all written and spoken language words in ancient and his times then created a treatise of one thousand stanzas The heretics Hindus transmit this text orally from teacher to pupil and it is this that makes the Brahmins of this city great scholars of high talent with knowledge of wide scope They have an image of Paṇini installed in reverence of him in this city of Salatura 38 Kingdoms of Takka Jalamdhara Sthanesvara Mathura Matipura Kapitha Edit The country of Takka is south of Kashmira extending from the Indus river to its west and Vipasha river to its east They produce abundant quantities of non sticky rice and wheat also gold brass iron and other metals They do not believe in Buddhism and pray in several hundred deva temples This country has ten Buddhist monasteries left There were many more before states Xuanzang These were destroyed few hundred years ago during the rule of a king named Mahirakula Mihirakula The king did this in anger because when he asked the monasteries in his domain for a Buddhist teacher to teach him Buddhism the Buddhists did not send to him any learned scholar Mahirakula cruel deed against the Buddhists triggered the king of Magadha to go to war with him Mahirakula is defeated forgiven but returns to power by assassinating the king of Kashmira and Gandhara Xuanzang recites the hearsay stories he heard about Mahirakula s continued cruelty and destruction of 1600 stupas and monasteries Xuanzang then describes the surviving monasteries in Sagala with hundreds of Buddhist monks along with its three colossal stupas each over 200 feet tall two built by Ashoka 39 Xuanzang visited the country of Chinabhukti next which he states got its name because a region west of the Yellow river was a vassal state of king Kanishka From there during Kanisha s reign peaches and pears plantations were imported into Chinabhukti north India Further northeast he visited a Buddhist monastery of the Sarvastivada school with 300 monks He describes another colossal stupa that is over 200 feet tall built by Ashoka Near this states Xuanzang are numerous small stupas and large Buddhist caves Around this monastery in the Himalayan hills are hundreds and thousands of stupas built so closely together than their shadows touch one another Li Rongxi translation From there he visited Jalamdhara It grows non sticky rice and cereals its forest are luxuriant the region is lush with flowers and fruits They have 50 monasteries with over 2000 monks studying Mahayana and Hinayana traditions of Buddhism They also have deva temples where heretics smear their bodies with ashes Shiva Hinduism 40 From Jalambhara Xuanzang travelled northeast through jagged peaks deep valleys and dangerous trails into the Himalayan country of Kuluta It is surrounded by mountains and has abundant fruits flowers and trees It has twenty monasteries and over a thousand Buddhist monks studying mostly Mahayana Buddhism It has fifteen deva temples frequented by heretics Hindus This region has many caves where Buddhist arhats and Hindu rishis live 41 He then headed south into the country of Shatadru Here writes Xuanzang people wear gorgeous extravagant clothes the climate is hot and citizens are honest and friendly by custom It has ten monasteries but ruined and with few monks 41 He visits the country of Pariyatra where they have plenty of cattle and sheep as well as a type of rice that they harvest in sixty days after planting This region has eight ruined monasteries and ten deva temples The monks study Hinayana Buddhism here 41 Xuanzang describes Ganges river with blue waters who heretics believe carries waters of blessedness and in which a dip leads to expiation of sins 42 Xuangzang next arrived in the country of Mathura calling it a part of central India 41 This region is fertile people love mangoes they produce cloth and gold The climate is hot the people are genial and good by custom they advocate learning and virtue states Xuanzang 41 This country has over twenty monasteries with over two thousand monks studying Hinayana and Mahayana Buddhism Many deva temples are also found in this country He describes the ritual carrying and worship of the Buddha and Buddhist deities in this country with incense and flowers scattered in streets He visits and praises the Govinda monastery in the Mathura country 41 Next he visits the country of Sthanesvara which has wealthy but unkind citizens who show off their wealth It has three Buddhist monasteries with over seven hundred monks a lustrous and clean colossal stupa which witnesses many divine manifestations It also has well over hundred deva temples and numerous heretics 41 The country of Shrughna has Ganges river to its east and Yamuna river in the middle of it These people are like those in Sthanesvara country They believe in heretical ideas Hindu and are honest by nature states Xuanzang They cherish learning arts and crafts and cultivate wisdom blessedness In this country are five Buddhist monasteries over thousand monks mostly studying Hinayana and over one hundred deva temples with numerous heretics 42 East of this region is the Ganges river with dark blue waters and strange creatures living in it but these creatures do not harm people The water of Ganges is sweet in taste and the heretics believe it to contain the water of blessedness and that bathing in it causes sins to be expiated 42 After crossing Ganges he entered into the country of Matipura Here according to Xuanzang half of the population is Buddhist and the other believe in heterodox religions The climate is cooler and more temperate its people are honest and esteem learning The king is Shudra by caste and worships at the deva temples The Matipura country has ten monasteries and over eight hundred monks mostly studying Hinayana Over fifty deva temples are frequented by the heretics here Xuanzang describes the sastras composed and under study at the major Buddhist monasteries of Matipura 42 This region has the city of Mayura densely populated and with a great deva temple near the Ganges river The heretics call it the Gate of the Ganges People from all five parts of India east north west south central come here crossing long distances on pilgrimage and to bathe at these gates This place has numerous rest and almshouses where the isolated solitary and needy people get free food and medical service 42 North of this place is the country of Brahmapura densely populated with prosperous and rich people Colder in climate here people are rude and violent by custom This region has five Buddhist monasteries and ten deva temples 42 Southeast of here states Xuanzang is the country of Ahicchattra with ten monasteries and a thousand monks belonging to the Sammitiya sect of Hinayana Buddhism It has five deva temples where heretics smear their bodies with ashes The country of Vilashana and Kapitha are south and southeast of Ahicchattra Most people in Vilashana are non Buddhists and there are two monasteries here with three hundred Buddhist monks In Kapitha there are four monasteries teaching Hinayana Buddhism and they have over a thousand monks Along with these Buddhist institution Kapitha has ten deva temples Kapitha states Xuanzang has a beautifully constructed monastery with many lofty and spacious buildings adoerned with exquisite carvings Li Rongxi translation It has Buddha statue at the top Indra statue at left of the entrance and Brahma statue to the right 42 43 Kingdoms of Kanyakubja Ayodhya Prayaga Kausambi Visaka Edit The country of Kanyakubja also called Kusumapura has the Ganges River to its west with flowery forests of brilliant colors transparent waters and prosperous people They are simple and honest by custom states Xuanzang with handsome and graceful features They cherish arts and literature speak lucidly Half of the population is Buddhist half heretics The Buddhists study both Mahayana and Hinayana teachings The heretics have over two hundred deva temples 44 The current king is Harshavardhana a Hindu of Bais kshatriya caste descent Three of his ancestors were also kings and they were all known to the Chinese kings as virtuous Xuanzang then recites at length the story of prince Shiladitya and how he constructed both major monasteries and temples feeding hundreds of Buddhist monks and hundreds of Hindu Brahmins on festive days He describes numerous monasteries in the southeast of its capital along with large Buddhist temple made of stone and brocks with a thirty feet tall Buddha statue To the south of this is temple states Xuanzang is a Surya temple built from bluestone Next to the Surya temple is a Mahesvara Shiva temple also made from bluestone Both are profusely carved with sculptures 45 About 100 li to the southeast of Shiladitya s capital states Xuanzang is the Navadevakula city on the eastern bank of Ganges eiver It is surrounded by flowery wood has three monasteries with five hundred monks and a multitiered terraced deva temple that is exquisitely constructed Li Rongxi translation 45 About 600 li to the southeast is the country of Ayodhya It grows abundant amounts of cereals is blessed with fruits and flowers People are benign and dedicate themselves to arts and crafts Ayodhya has over a hundred monasteries and three thousand monks studying Hinayana and Mahayana Buddhism Its capital has ten deva temples This is the country where some of the key sastras of the Sautrantika school of Buddhism were composed 45 A few hundred li east of Ayodhya is the country of Ayamukha Here too states Xuanzang people are honest and simple They have five monasteries with over one thousand monks mostly studying Hinayana Near them are ten deva temples 46 Xuanzang describes Prayaga as a great city where Ganges and Yamuna meet one where people ritually fast bathe and give away alms About 700 li southeast is the country of Prayaga on the banks of Yamuna river It has luxuriant fruit trees and cereal crops its people are kind and helpful Most of them believe in heretical religions and Prayaga has several hundreds of deva temples 46 At the south of this great city here is a forest full of champaka flowers with a 100 foot ancient stupa with collapsed foundation originally built by Ashoka The city has a great temple with decorated buildings At the east of this great city two rivers meet forming a dune that is over ten li wide and it is this place that wealthy people and kings such as Shaliditya come on pilgrimage from ancient times and give alms It is called the Grand Place of Almsgiving Numerous people gather here and bathe at the confluence of two rivers some drown themselves believing that this washes away their sins and that it will give them a better rebirth 47 Five hundred li from Prayaga is the country of Kausambi It produces abundant quantities of non sticky rice and sugarcane The citizens are bold furious and dedicated to good deeds by custom It has ten deserted and dilapidated Buddhist monasteries attended by about three hundred monks The country has fifty deva temples and numerous non Buddhists In the capital within the palace is a Buddhist temple with a Buddha statue made from sandalwood This Buddha image emits divine light sometimes states Xuanzang He adds that Kausambi is the place that Buddhists text predict is where the Buddha Dharma will come to an end in a distant future therefore anyone who comes to this place feels sad and sheds tears Li Rongxi translation 48 He headed northeast crossed Ganges river again and this came to the country of Vishaka He calls its people sincere and honest by custom fond of learning It has twenty monasteries and three thousand monks studying Hinayana Buddhism Vishaka has numerous non Buddhists and over fifty deva temples 48 Kingdoms of Sravasti Kushinagara Baranasi Nepala Edit In Fascicle 6 of the travelogue manuscript Xuanzang focuses on some of the holiest sites in Buddhism He begins with Shravasti now northeast Uttar Pradesh describing it to be a country of over six thousand li in circuit The capital city is desolate states Xuanzang though some residents still live here There are over hundred monasteries in its capital city many dilapidated where monks study Hinayana Buddhism The country has hundred deva temples 49 50 He saw the decaying remains of Prasenajit s palace then to its east the Great Dhamma Hall stupa another stupa and a temple for the maternal aunt of the Buddha Next to these states Xuanzang is the great stupa of Angulimala About five li 2 kilometers in 7th century south of the city is the Jetavana garden with two 70 feet high pillars standing but the monastery there is in ruins One pillar has a wheel carved at its top the other a bull Xuanzang saw all the monuments associated with the Sravasti legends with the Buddha though many of these were in dilapidated condition He also a Buddhist temple 60 feet high with a seated Buddha image and a deva temple about the same size as the Buddha temple both in good condition Over sixty li to the northwest of Sravasti capital he saw a series of stupas built by Ashoka for Kasyapa Buddha one who lived for twenty thousand years states Xuanzang 49 50 Xuanzang visited Sravasti site above the place where the Buddha spent most of his time after enlightenment From Sravasti Xuanzang travelled southeast to the country of Kapilavastu This country has no ruler he states and every city has its own lord Well over a thousand monasteries were in this region but most are dilapidated Some three thousand monks continue to study Hinayana Buddhism in many of these monasteries This country has two deva temples He also describes a Buddhist temple with painting of a prince riding on a white horse as well many Buddhist monuments and legends about the Buddha s early life in this region as well as those of the Sakya clan 51 After Kapilavastu he went eastward to the country of Ramagrama Rama The region is sparsely populated the towns and villages in a dilapidated condition He mentions a stupa where a snake dragon comes out of the pond to circumambulate it as well as elephants pick flowers and come to scatter on this stupa according to Xuanzang There is a monastery near this special stupa where monks study Hinayana Some hundred li to the east is another colossal stupa in good condition one built by Ashoka 52 53 Past this forest is the country of Kushinagara where towns and villages are deserted and in a dilapidated condition He describes a large brick temple with reclining Buddha He describes many monuments and sites he was able to see where numerous legends of the Buddha played out including the site where he was cremated 52 In Fascicle 7 Xuanzang describes five countries He starts with Baranasi now Varanasi stating the country has Ganges river to its west The city is densely populated with tightly packed homes in its lanes The people are enormously wealthy mild and courteous by nature Few here believe in Buddhism most are heretics Hindus The country has over thirty Buddhist monasteries with three thousand monks studying Hinayana There are over one hundred deva temples most dedicated to Mahesvara Shiva Some of these heretic followers go naked and smear their bodies with ash 54 On the west bank of Varana river near Baranasi is a great stupa that is 100 feet tall and was built by Ashoka Before it is a standing green stone pillar polished as smooth as a mirror states Xuanzang He describes many more stupas pillars and monasteries in Baranasi country 54 55 After Baranasi he visits the country of Garjanapati where he finds the Aviddhakarna monastery that is very exquisitely carved with decorative sculptures It is lush with flowers with reflections in the pond nearby From there he heads north of Ganges and visits a large Narayana temple Vishnu It has storied pavilions and terraces the numerous deva statues are carved from stone with the most exquisite craftsmanship About thirty li to the east of this Narayana temple is a Ashoka built stupa with a twenty feet high pillar and lion image on its top 56 From there he walked to Vaishali where says Xuanzang people are honest and simple by custom They study both orthodox Buddhist and heterodox non Buddhist doctrines The country of Vaishali has hundreds of monasteries but only a few have monks and are in good condition He describes the Svetapura monastery with lofty buildings and magnificent pavilions 56 57 After Vaishali he headed north and reached the country of Vriji This country mostly venerates the non Buddhist deva temples and doctrines states Xuanzang It has over ten monasteries with less than a thousand Buddhist monks 58 He then travelled to the country of Nepala near the Snow Mountains It has many flowers and fruits yaks and two headed birds The people here says Xuanzang are rude and disparaging by nature but skilled in craftsmanship Their Buddhist monasteries and deva temples touch each other and people simultaneously believe in Buddhist and non Buddhist doctrines The country has two thousand monks who study Hinayana and Mahayana teachings 58 Kingdoms of Magadha Iranaparvata Champa Kajangala Kamarupa Edit In Fascicle 8 of the travelogue Xuanzang begins with the country of Magadha The country and its capital is sparsely populated A fertile land it produces a fragrant form of rice with extraordinary lustre It regularly floods during the monsoon season and during these months one can use a boat to travel People are honest and simple here and they revere Buddhism Magadha has fifty monasteries and over ten thousand monks It also has tens of deva temples 59 60 According to Xuanzang there is city south of river Ganges in Magadha It is very ancient When human life was innumerable years long it was called Kusumapura One can see the very ancient foundations of Kusumapura Later when human life span reduced to several thousand years its name was changed to Pataliputra Towards the north of his royal city is a huge standing pillar of Ashoka There once were many monasteries deva temples and stupas here but several hundred such Buddhist and non Buddhist monuments are in dilapidated and ruined condition states Xuanzang He then describes several legends associated with Ashoka along with several stupas and monasteries he found in good condition 59 For example he describes the Tiladhaka monastery about 300 li southeast of the Magadha capital It has four courts lofty terraces multi storied pavilions where thousands of monks continue to study Mahayana Buddhism Within this monastery complex states Xuanzang there are three temples the center one with a thirty foot tall Buddha idol another has a statue of Tara Bodhisattva the third has Avalokitesvara Bodhisattva statue 61 He visits Gaya and the Bodhi tree Near the tree he states there is the Mahabodhi monastery with many buildings and courtyards Inside these buildings are most wonderful and exquisitely done decorative paintings states Xuanzang It is painted in gold silver pinkish blue lustrous white and semitransparent pigments with the Buddha s ornaments in the panel embedded with gems and jewels 62 After crossing the Maha river visiting many stupas monasteries rishi Vyasa hill Vipula hill Pippala Cave Bamboo temple and other monuments Xuanzang arrived in Rajagriha city Rajgir and Nalanda monastery 63 He stayed and studied at Nalanda 64 At Nalanda he was in the company of several thousand monks Xuanzang studied logic grammar Sanskrit and the Yogacara school of Buddhism during his time at Nalanda with Silabhadra He describes Nalanda as a place with azure pool winds around the monasteries adorned with the full blown cups of the blue lotus the dazzling red flowers of the lovely kanaka hang here and there and outside groves of mango trees offer the inhabitants their dense and protective shade translation of Rene Grousset 65 According to Grousset the founders of Mahayana idealism Asanga and Vasubandhu trained Dignaga who trained Dharmapala and whose student was Silabhadra Thus Xuanzang had reached his teacher Silabhadra who made available to Xuanzang and through him to the Sino Japanese world the entire heritage of Buddhist Mahayana thought and the Cheng Weishi Lun Xuanzang s great philosophical treatise is none other than the Summa of this doctrine the fruit of seven centuries of Indian Buddhist thought 66 In this scripture Xuanzang appears to a certain extent as the continuator of both Asanga and Vasubandhu 67 From Nalanda Xuanzang travelled through several kingdoms including Iranaparvata Champa from there to Pundravardhana and Sylhet in present day Bangladesh There Xuanzang found 20 monasteries with over 3 000 monks studying both the Hinayana and the Mahayana One of them was the Vasibha Monastery where he found over 700 Mahayana monks from all over East India 68 69 He visited Kamarupa Assam and northeastern India Samatata Tamralipti Kalinga and other regions which Xuanzang calls as domain of east India 70 Kingdoms of Kalinga Andhra Chola Dravida and Malakuta Edit This section needs expansion You can help by adding to it September 2021 Xuanzang turned southward and travelled towards Andhradesa to visit the viharas at Amaravati Stupa and Nagarjunakonda He stayed at Amaravati and studied the Abhidhammapitakam texts 71 He observed that there were many Viharas at Amaravati and some of them were deserted He later proceeded to Kanchi the imperial capital of Pallavas and a strong center of Buddhism He continued traveling to Nasik Ajanta Malwa from there he went to Multan and Pravata before returning to Nalanda again 72 Kingdoms of Konkanapura Maharashtra Malawa Valabhi Gurjara Ujjayani Sindhu Langala Avanda Varnu Edit This section needs expansion You can help by adding to it September 2021 Xuanzang was welcomed to Kannauj at the request of the king Harshavardhana who was an ally of Kumar Bhaskar Varman to attend a great Buddhist Assembly there which was attended by both of the kings as well as several other kings from neighboring kingdoms Buddhist monks Brahmans and Jains King Harsha invited Xuanjang to Kumbh Mela in Prayag where he witnessed king Harsha s generous distribution of gifts to the poor After visiting Prayag he returned to Kannauj where he was given a grand farewell by king Harsha Travelling through the Khyber Pass of the Hindu Kush Xuanzang passed through Kashgar Khotan and Dunhuang on his way back to China He arrived in the capital Chang an on the seventh day of the first month of 645 16 years after he left Chinese territory and a great procession celebrated his return 73 Return journey Kingdoms of Jaguda Andarab Alini Rahu Krisma Himatala Badakshan Sikni Cukuka GostanaThis section needs expansion You can help by adding to it September 2021 Other sitesThis section needs expansion You can help by adding to it September 2021 Return to China Edit On his return to China in 645 CE Xuanzang was greeted with much honor but he refused all high civil appointments offered by the still reigning emperor Emperor Taizong of Tang Instead he retired to a monastery and devoted his energy to translating Buddhist texts until his death in 664 CE According to his biography he returned with over six hundred Mahayana and Hinayana texts seven statues of the Buddha and more than a hundred sarira relics 74 In celebration of Xuanzang s extraordinary achievement in translating the Buddhist texts Emperor Gaozong of Tang ordered renowned Tang calligrapher Chu Suiliang 褚遂良 and inscriber Wan Wenshao 萬文韶 to install two stele stones collectively known as The Emperor s Preface to the Sacred Teachings 雁塔聖教序 at the Giant Wild Goose Pagoda 75 Chinese Buddhism influence Edit Statue of Xuanzang at Longmen Grottoes LuoyangDuring Xuanzang s travels he studied with many famous Buddhist masters especially at the famous center of Buddhist learning at Nalanda When he returned he brought with him some 657 Sanskrit texts With the emperor s support he set up a large translation bureau in Chang an present day Xi an drawing students and collaborators from all over East Asia He is credited with the translation of some 1 330 fascicles of scriptures into Chinese His strongest personal interest in Buddhism was in the field of Yogacara 瑜伽行派 or Consciousness only 唯識 and he founded a school taking after that tradition in China 1 His 7th century scholarship on Yogacara has a major influence on Chinese Buddhism and then on East Asian Buddhism 76 The force of his own study translation and commentary of the texts of these traditions initiated the development of the Faxiang school 法相宗 in East Asia Some of Xuanzang s students such as Kuiji 窺基 632 682 and Wŏnch ŭk 613 696 become influential authors in their own right 77 78 Although the Faxiang school itself did not thrive for a long time its theories regarding perception consciousness Karma rebirth etc found their way into the doctrines of other more successful schools Xuanzang s closest and most eminent student was Kuiji 窺基 who became recognized as the first patriarch of the Faxiang school Xuanzang s logic as described by Kuiji was often misunderstood by scholars of Chinese Buddhism because they lacked the necessary background in Indian logic 78 Xuanzang was known for his extensive but careful translations of Indian Buddhist texts to Chinese which have enabled subsequent recoveries of lost Indian Buddhist texts from the translated Chinese copies He is credited with writing or compiling the Cheng Weishi Lun as a commentary on these texts His translation of the Heart Sutra became and remains an important milestone in all East Asian Buddhist sects 79 The Perfection of Wisdom Sutra Edit Xuanzang returned to China with three copies of the Mahaprajnaparamita Sutra 80 Xuanzang with a team of disciple translators commenced translating the voluminous work in 660 CE using all three versions to ensure the integrity of the source documentation 80 Xuanzang was being encouraged by a number of his disciple translators to render an abridged version After a suite of dreams quickened his decision Xuanzang determined to render an unabridged complete volume faithful to the original of 600 chapters 81 Original Works EditThough Xuanzang is mainly known for his translation work he also wrote a few original works In 646 under the Emperor s request Xuanzang completed his book The Great Tang Records on the Western Regions which has become one of the primary sources for the study of medieval Central Asia and India 82 This book was first translated into French by the Sinologist Stanislas Julien in 1857 Xuanzang also wrote a large treatise on Yogacara Buddhist philosophy the Cheng Weishi Lun 83 There is also another original text called Bashi guiju song 八識規矩頌 Verses on the Structure of the Eight Consciousnesses 83 There was also a biography of Xuanzang written by the monk Huili 慧立 Both books were first translated into English by Samuel Beal in 1884 and 1911 respectively 84 85 An English translation with copious notes by Thomas Watters was edited by T W Rhys Davids and S W Bushell and published posthumously in London in 1905 Legacy Edit Xuanzang Temple in TaiwanXuanzang s work the Great Tang Records on the Western Regions is the longest and most detailed account of the countries of Central and South Asia that has been bestowed upon posterity by a Chinese Buddhist pilgrim While his main purpose was to obtain Buddhist books and to receive instruction on Buddhism while in India he ended up doing much more He has preserved the records of the political and social aspects of the lands he visited His record of the places visited by him in Bengal mainly Raktamrittika near Karnasuvarna Pundranagara and its environs Samatata Tamralipti and Harikela have been very helpful in the recording of the archaeological history of Bengal His account has also shed welcome light on the history of 7th century Bengal especially the Gauda kingdom under Shashanka although at times he can be quite partisan Xuanzang obtained and translated 657 Sanskrit Buddhist works He received the best education on Buddhism he could find throughout India Much of this activity is detailed in the companion volume to Xiyu Ji the Biography of Xuanzang written by Huili entitled the Life of Xuanzang His version of the Heart Sutra is the basis for all Chinese commentaries on the sutra and recitations throughout China Korea and Japan 86 His style was by Chinese standards cumbersome and overly literal and marked by scholarly innovations in terminology usually where another version by the earlier translator Kumarajiva exists Kumarajiva s is more popular 86 In fiction Edit Xuanzang s journey along the Silk Road and the legends that grew up around it inspired the Ming novel Journey to the West one of the great classics of Chinese literature The fictional counterpart Tang Sanzang is the reincarnation of the Golden Cicada a disciple of Gautama Buddha and is protected on his journey by four powerful disciples One of them the monkey was a popular favorite and profoundly influenced Chinese culture and contemporary Japanese manga and anime including the popular Dragon Ball and Saiyuki series and became well known in the West by Arthur Waley s translation and later the cult TV series Monkey In the Yuan Dynasty there was also a play by Wu Changling 吳昌齡 about Xuanzang obtaining scriptures The movie Da Tang Xuan Zang was released in 2016 as an official Chinese and Indian production It was offered as candidate for Best Foreign Language Film at the 89th Academy Awards due to its camera work but ultimately was not nominated Relics EditA skull relic purported to be that of Xuanzang was held in the Temple of Great Compassion Tianjin until 1956 when it was taken to Nalanda allegedly by the Dalai Lama and presented to India The relic was in the Patna Museum for a long time but was moved to a newly built memorial hall in Nalanda in 2007 87 The Wenshu Monastery in Chengdu Sichuan province also claims to have part of Xuanzang s skull Part of Xuanzang s remains were taken from Nanjing by soldiers of the Imperial Japanese Army in 1942 and are now enshrined at Yakushi ji in Nara Japan 88 In November 1965 the relic of Xuanzang was returned by the Japanese government to Taiwanese government and eventually enshrined in Xuanzang Temple Taiwan References EditWatters Thomas 1904 On Yuan Chwang s Travels in India 629 645 A D Vol 1 Royal Asiatic Society London Volume 2 Reprint Hesperides Press 1996 ISBN 978 1 4067 1387 9 Beal Samuel 1884 Si Yu Ki Buddhist Records of the Western World by Hiuen Tsiang 2 vols Translated by Samuel Beal London 1884 Reprint Delhi Oriental Books Reprint Corporation 1969 Vol 1 Vol 2 Julien Stanislas 1857 1858 Memoires sur les contrees occidentales L Imprimerie imperiale Paris Vol 1 Vol 2 Li Rongxi translator 1995 The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions Numata Center for Buddhist Translation and Research Berkeley California ISBN 1 886439 02 8Gallery Edit An illustration of Xuanzang from Journey to the West a fictional account of travels Golden statue of Xuanzang Giant Wild Goose Pagoda Xi an Xuanzang Memorial Hall in Nalanda Bihar India Statue of Xuanzang Great Wild Goose Pagoda Xi an Statue of Xuanzang in front of Giant Wild Goose Pagoda Xi anSee also EditCheng Weishi Lun Great Tang Records on the Western Regions Giant Wild Goose Pagoda Silk Road transmission of Buddhism Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit Chinese Translation Theory Chinese exploration Faxian Song Yun Yijing Hyecho Xuanzang Temple Nantou County Taiwan A Record of Buddhist Practices Sent Home from the Southern SeaNotes Edit There is some dispute over the Chinese character for Xuanzang s given name at birth Historical records provide two different Chinese characters 褘 and 禕 both are similar in writing except that the former has one more stroke than the latter Their pronunciations in pinyin are also different the former is pronounced as Hui while the latter is pronounced as Yi See here and here Both sources are in Chinese References Edit a b c Xuanzang Encyclopedia Britannica 1 January 2023 Archived from the original on 16 March 2023 Retrieved 22 May 2023 a b c d e Li Rongxi 1996 The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions Bukkyo Dendo Kyokai and Numata Center for Buddhist Translation and Research Berkeley ISBN 978 1 886439 02 3 pp xiii xiv Wriggins Sally 27 November 2003 The Silk Road Journey With Xuanzang New York Westview Penguin ISBN 978 0813365992 Upinder Singh 2008 A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India From the Stone Age to the 12th Century Pearson Education p 563 ISBN 9788131716779 Archived from the original on 7 March 2023 Retrieved 7 October 2020 a b Stephen Gosch Peter Stearns 12 December 2007 Premodern Travel in World History Routledge pp 89 92 ISBN 9781134583706 Max Deeg 2020 How to Create a Great Monastery Xuanzang s Foundation Legend of Nalanda in Its Indian Context Hualin International Journal of Buddhist Studies Vol 3 Issue 1 pp 228 258 Quote Xuanzang s Datang Xiyu ji has been and is notoriously used for the reconstruction of South Asian history and the history of Buddhism in India Very often Xuanzang s information is either dismissed because it does not corroborate or even contradicts the facts in Indian sources or is used to overwrite these sources Cao Shibang 2006 Fact versus Fiction From Record of the Western Regions to Journey to the West In Wang Chichhung ed Dust in the Wind Retracing Dharma Master Xuanzang s Western Pilgrimage p 62 ISBN 9789868141988 Retrieved 2 February 2014 Rhys Davids T W 1904 On Yuan Chwang s Travels in India 629 645 A D London Royal Asiatic Society pp xi xii Christie 123 126 130 and 141 Wriggins 1996 pp 7 193 a b Li Rongxi 1995 A Biography of the Tripitaka Master of the Great Ci en Monastery of the Great Tang Dynasty Bukkyo Dendo Kyokai and Numata Center for Buddhist Translation and Research Berkeley ISBN 1 886439 00 1 pp 12 15 Li Rongxi 1995 A Biography of the Tripitaka Master of the Great Ci en Monastery of the Great Tang Dynasty Bukkyo Dendo Kyokai and Numata Center for Buddhist Translation and Research Berkeley ISBN 1 886439 00 1 pp 13 17 Lee Der Huey Xuanzang Hsuan tsang 602 664 Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy Archived from the original on 28 July 2018 Retrieved 11 February 2020 a b Etienne de la Vaissiere 2010 Note sur la chronologie du voyage de Xuanzang Journal Asiatique Vol 298 No 1 pp 157 168 in French Yung hsi 1959 p 28 a b c Yung hsi 1959 pp 36 43 a b Li Rongxi 1996 The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions Bukkyo Dendo Kyokai and Numata Center for Buddhist Translation and Research Berkeley pp 16 17 a b Li Rongxi 1996 The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions Bukkyo Dendo Kyokai and Numata Center for Buddhist Translation and Research Berkeley pp 17 18 a b Li Rongxi 1996 The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions Bukkyo Dendo Kyokai and Numata Center for Buddhist Translation and Research Berkeley pp 18 27 a b Yung hsi 1959 pp 36 48 a b c Li Rongxi 1996 The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions Bukkyo Dendo Kyokai and Numata Center for Buddhist Translation and Research Berkeley pp 25 32 Yung hsi 1959 pp 53 55 a b Li Rongxi 1996 The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions Bukkyo Dendo Kyokai and Numata Center for Buddhist Translation and Research Berkeley pp 32 39 Yung hsi 1959 pp 55 66 a b c Li Rongxi 1996 The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions Bukkyo Dendo Kyokai and Numata Center for Buddhist Translation and Research Berkeley pp 41 44 a b c d e Li Rongxi 1996 The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions Bukkyo Dendo Kyokai and Numata Center for Buddhist Translation and Research Berkeley pp 43 48 trans by Samuel Beal 1994 Si yu ki Buddhist Records of the Western World Motilal Banarasidass ISBN 9788120811072 Archived from the original on 7 March 2023 Retrieved 16 August 2019 a b Yung hsi 1959 pp 57 59 with footnotes a b Li Rongxi 1996 The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions Bukkyo Dendo Kyokai and Numata Center for Buddhist Translation and Research Berkeley pp 55 57 a b c Li Rongxi 1996 The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions Bukkyo Dendo Kyokai and Numata Center for Buddhist Translation and Research Berkeley pp 58 62 Yung hsi 1959 pp 61 62 with footnotes a b Yung hsi 1959 pp 63 65 with footnotes Yung hsi 1959 pp 64 67 with footnotes a b Yung hsi 1959 pp 67 71 with footnotes a b Li Rongxi 1996 The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions Bukkyo Dendo Kyokai and Numata Center for Buddhist Translation and Research Berkeley pp 83 87 Yung hsi 1959 pp 73 74 Yung hsi 1959 pp 74 75 a b c Li Rongxi 1996 The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions Bukkyo Dendo Kyokai and Numata Center for Buddhist Translation and Research Berkeley pp 68 69 Li Rongxi 1996 The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions Bukkyo Dendo Kyokai and Numata Center for Buddhist Translation and Research Berkeley pp 97 100 Li Rongxi 1996 The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions Bukkyo Dendo Kyokai and Numata Center for Buddhist Translation and Research Berkeley pp 101 103 a b c d e f g Li Rongxi 1996 The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions Bukkyo Dendo Kyokai and Numata Center for Buddhist Translation and Research Berkeley pp 103 108 a b c d e f g Li Rongxi 1996 The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions Bukkyo Dendo Kyokai and Numata Center for Buddhist Translation and Research Berkeley pp 109 115 Yung hsi 1959 pp 79 81 Li Rongxi 1996 The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions Bukkyo Dendo Kyokai and Numata Center for Buddhist Translation and Research Berkeley pp 121 124 a b c Li Rongxi 1996 The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions Bukkyo Dendo Kyokai and Numata Center for Buddhist Translation and Research Berkeley pp 123 133 a b Li Rongxi 1996 The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions Bukkyo Dendo Kyokai and Numata Center for Buddhist Translation and Research Berkeley pp 132 136 Li Rongxi 1996 The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions Bukkyo Dendo Kyokai and Numata Center for Buddhist Translation and Research Berkeley pp 136 139 a b Li Rongxi 1996 The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions Bukkyo Dendo Kyokai and Numata Center for Buddhist Translation and Research Berkeley pp 139 142 a b Li Rongxi 1996 The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions Bukkyo Dendo Kyokai and Numata Center for Buddhist Translation and Research Berkeley pp 145 151 a b Yung hsi 1959 pp 90 92 Li Rongxi 1996 The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions Bukkyo Dendo Kyokai and Numata Center for Buddhist Translation and Research Berkeley pp 151 157 a b Li Rongxi 1996 The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions Bukkyo Dendo Kyokai and Numata Center for Buddhist Translation and Research Berkeley pp 158 167 Yung hsi 1959 pp 93 95 a b Li Rongxi 1996 The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions Bukkyo Dendo Kyokai and Numata Center for Buddhist Translation and Research Berkeley pp 171 177 Yung hsi 1959 pp 96 97 a b Li Rongxi 1996 The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions Bukkyo Dendo Kyokai and Numata Center for Buddhist Translation and Research Berkeley pp 178 189 Yung hsi 1959 pp 97 98 a b Li Rongxi 1996 The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions Bukkyo Dendo Kyokai and Numata Center for Buddhist Translation and Research Berkeley pp 190 192 a b Li Rongxi 1996 The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions Bukkyo Dendo Kyokai and Numata Center for Buddhist Translation and Research Berkeley pp 195 201 Yung hsi 1959 pp 98 99 Li Rongxi 1996 The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions Bukkyo Dendo Kyokai and Numata Center for Buddhist Translation and Research Berkeley pp 207 208 Li Rongxi 1996 The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions Bukkyo Dendo Kyokai and Numata Center for Buddhist Translation and Research Berkeley pp 227 228 Li Rongxi 1996 The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions Bukkyo Dendo Kyokai and Numata Center for Buddhist Translation and Research Berkeley pp 229 249 Nakamura Hajime 2000 Gotama Buddha Kosei pp 47 53 54 ISBN 978 4 333 01893 2 Rene Grousset In the Footsteps of the Buddha JA Underwood trans Orion Press New York 1971 p159 161 Rene Grousset In the Footsteps of the Buddha JA Underwood trans Orion Press New York 1971 p161 Jannel Romaric May 2022 Xuanzang and the Three Types of Wisdom Learning Reasoning and Cultivating in Yogacara Thought Religions 13 6 486 doi 10 3390 rel13060486 Watters II 1996 pp 164 165 Li 1996 pp 298 299 Li Rongxi 1996 The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions Bukkyo Dendo Kyokai and Numata Center for Buddhist Translation and Research Berkeley pp 259 268 Rao G Venkataramana 3 November 2016 Xuan Zang stayed in Vijayawada to study Buddhist scriptures The Hindu Archived from the original on 28 November 2016 Retrieved 28 November 2016 Xuanzang Pilgrimage Route Archived 24 October 2016 at the Wayback Machine Google Maps retrieved 17 July 2016 Wriggins 186 188 Strong J S 2007 Relics of the Buddha Princeton University Press p 188 ISBN 978 0 691 11764 5 The Emperor s Preface to the Sacred Teachings Vincent s Calligraphy Archived from the original on 24 February 2017 Retrieved 24 February 2017 Garfield J L Westerhoff J 2015 Madhyamaka and Yogacara Allies Or Rivals Oxford University Press pp 139 142 ISBN 978 0 19 023129 3 Benjamin Penny 2002 Religion and Biography in China and Tibet p 110 a b See Eli Franco Xuanzang s proof of idealism Horin 11 2004 199 212 To L Li S K 1995 The Prajna Paramita Heart Sutra Sutra Translation Committee of the United States and Canada dharma series Sutra Translation Committee of the U S amp Canada Archived from the original on 20 September 2021 Retrieved 20 September 2021 a b Wriggins 1996 pg 206 Wriggins 1996 pg 207 Deeg Max 2007 Has Xuanzang really been in Mathura Interpretatio Sinica or Interpretatio Occidentalia How to Critically Read the Records of the Chinese Pilgrim In 東アジアの宗教と文化 西脇常記教授退休記念論集 Essays on East Asian religion and culture Festschrift in honor of Nishiwaki Tsuneki on the occasion of his 65th birthday クリスティアン ウィッテルン 石立善編集 ed by Christian Wittern und Shi Lishan 京都 Kyōto 西脇常記教授退休記念論集編集委員會 京都大 人文科學研究所 Christian Wittern 2007 pp 35 73 See p 35 a b Xuanzang s Translations and Works www acmuller net Archived from the original on 21 September 2022 Retrieved 27 September 2022 Beal 1884 Beal 1911 a b Nattier 1992 pg 188 Relic of famous Chinese monk moved to new memorial hall in N India Archived 20 February 2007 at the Wayback Machine China com Xinhua 11 February 2007 Arai Kiyomi Yakushiji offers peace of mind originally from Yomiuri Shinbun Buddhist Channel Website Archived 8 March 2011 at the Wayback Machine 25 September 2008 Accessed 23 May 2009 Works cited Edit Beal Samuel trans 1911 The Life of Hiuen Tsiang Translated from the Chinese of Shaman monk Hwui Li London 1911 Reprint Munshiram Manoharlal New Delhi 1973 a dated abridged translation Bernstein Richard 2001 Ultimate Journey Retracing the Path of an Ancient Buddhist Monk Xuanzang who crossed Asia in Search of Enlightenment Alfred A Knopf New York ISBN 0 375 40009 5 Christie Anthony 1968 Chinese Mythology Feltham Middlesex Hamlyn Publishing ISBN 0600006379 Gordon Stewart When Asia was the World Traveling Merchants Scholars Warriors and Monks who created the Riches of the East Da Capo Press Perseus Books 2008 ISBN 0 306 81556 7 Julien Stanislas 1853 Histoire de la vie de Hiouen Thsang par Hui Li et Yen Tsung Paris Yung hsi Li 1959 The Life of Hsuan Tsang by Huili Translated Chinese Buddhist Association Beijing a more recent abridged translation Li Rongxi trans 1995 A Biography of the Tripiṭaka Master of the Great Ci en Monastery of the Great Tang Dynasty Numata Center for Buddhist Translation and Research Berkeley California ISBN 1 886439 00 1 a recent full translation Nattier Jan The Heart Sutra A Chinese Apocryphal Text Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies Vol 15 2 p 153 223 1992 PDF Archived 29 October 2013 at the Wayback Machine Saran Mishi 2005 Chasing the Monk s Shadow A Journey in the Footsteps of Xuanzang Penguin Books ISBN 978 0 14 306439 8 Sun Shuyun 2003 Ten Thousand Miles Without a Cloud retracing Xuanzang s journeys Harper Perennial ISBN 0 00 712974 2 Waley Arthur 1952 The Real Tripitaka and Other Pieces London G Allen and Unwin Watters Thomas 1904 05 On Yuan Chwang s Travels in India London Royal Asiatic Society Reprint Delhi Munshiram Manoharlal 1973 Wriggins Sally Hovey Xuanzang A Buddhist Pilgrim on the Silk Road Westview Press 1996 Revised and updated as The Silk Road Journey With Xuanzang Westview Press 2003 ISBN 0 8133 6599 6 Wriggins Sally Hovey 2004 The Silk Road Journey with Xuanzang Boulder Colorado Westview Press ISBN 0 8133 6599 6 Yu Anthony C ed and trans 1980 1977 The Journey to the West Chicago and London The University of Chicago Press ISBN 978 0 226 97150 6 fiction Further reading EditBhat R B amp Wu C 2014 Xuan Zhang s mission to the West with Monkey King New Delhi Aditya Prakashan 2014 Sen T 2006 The Travel Records of Chinese Pilgrims Faxian Xuanzang and Yijing Education About Asia 11 3 24 33 Weerawardane Prasani 2009 Journey to the West Dusty Roads Stormy Seas and Transcendence biblioasia 5 2 14 18 Kahar Barat 2000 The Uygur Turkic Biography of the Seventh Century Chinese Buddhist Pilgrim Xuanzang Ninth and Tenth Chapters Indiana University Research Institute for Inner Asian Studies ISBN 978 0 933070 46 2 Jain Sandhya amp Jain Meenakshi 2011 The India they saw Foreign accounts New Delhi Ocean Books External links Edit Wikimedia Commons has media related to Xuanzang Wikiquote has quotations related to Xuanzang Xuanzang Memorial Nava Nalanda Mahavihara on Google Cultural Institute Details of Xuanzang s life and works Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy 大慈恩寺三藏法师传 全文 Archived from the original on 13 February 2005 Chinese text of The Life of Hiuen Tsiang by Shaman monk Hwui Li Hui Li 沙门慧立 Verses Delineating the Eight Consciousnesses by Tripitaka Master Xuanzang of the Tang Dynasty translation and explanation by Ronald Epstein 1986 Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Xuanzang amp oldid 1168215834, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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