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Romani people

January 03, 2023

Not to be confused with Romanians, people from Rome, or Roman people.
For other uses, see Romani (disambiguation).
"Gypsy", "Gypsies", "Gipsy" and "Gipsies" redirect here. For other uses, see Gypsy (disambiguation) and Gipsy (disambiguation).

The Romani (also spelled Romany or Rromani /ˈroʊməni/, /ˈrɒ-/), colloquially known as the Roma, are an Indo-Aryan ethnic group, traditionally nomadic itinerants. They live in Europe and Anatolia, and have diaspora populations located worldwide, with significant concentrations in the Americas.

Romani people
Romani flag created in 1933 and accepted at the 1971 World Romani Congress
Total population
2–20 million[1][2][3][4]
 United States1,000,000 estimated with Romani ancestry[note 1][5][6]
 Brazil800,000 (0.4%)[7]
 Spain750,000–1,500,000 (1.9–3.7%)[8][9][10][11][12]
 Romania569,500 (3.4%) [13]
 Turkey500,000–2,750,000 (3.8%)[9][14][15][16]
 France500,000–1,200,000[17][18]
 Bulgaria325,343[note 2]–750,000 (4.9–10.3%)[19][20]
 Hungary309,632[note 3]–870,000 (3.21–8.8%)[21][22]
 Argentina300,000[note 4][23][24]
 Czech Republic250,000[25][26]
 United Kingdom225,000 (0.4%)[27][9][28]
 Russia205,007[note 5]–825,000 (0.6%)[9]
 Serbia147,604[note 6]–600,000 (2.1–8.2%)[29][30][9]
 Italy120,000–180,000 (0.3%)[31][9]
 Greece111,000–300,000 (2.7%)[32][33]
 Germany105,000 (0.1%)[9][34]
 Slovakia105,738[note 7]–490,000 (2.1–9.0%)[35][36][37]
 Iran2,000–110,000[38][39]
 North Macedonia53,879[note 8]–197,000 (9.6%)[9][40]
 Sweden50,000–100,000[9][41]
 Ukraine47,587[note 9]–260,000 (0.6%)[9][42]
 Portugal40,000–52,000 (0.5%)[9][43]
 Austria40,000–50,000 (0.6%)[44]
 Kosovo[a]36,000[note 10] (2%)[9][45]
 Netherlands32,000–40,000 (0.2%)[9]
 Poland17,049[note 5]–32,500 (0.1%)[9][46]
 Croatia16,975[note 5]–35,000 (0.8%)[9][47]
 Mexico15,850[48]
 Chile15,000–20,000[49]
 Moldova12,778[note 5]–107,100 (3.0%)[9][50]
 Finland10,000–12,000 est. (0.2%)[51]
 Bosnia and Herzegovina8,864[note 5]–58,000 (1.5%)[9][52]
 Colombia2,649–8,000[23][53]
 Albania8,301[note 11][9][43][54]
 Belarus7,316[note 5]–47,500 (0.5%)[55]
 Latvia7,193[note 5]–12,500 (0.6%)[9]
 Canada5,255–80,000[56][57]
 Montenegro5,251[note 5]–20,000 (3.7%)[58]
 Czech Republic5,199[note 12]–40,370[note 13] (Romani speakers)–250,000 (1.9%)[59][60]
 Australia5,000–25,000[61]
 Slovenia3,246[9]
 Lithuania2,571[9]
 Denmark5,500[62]
 Ireland22,435[9]
 Georgia1,200[9]
 Belgium30,000[63]
 Cyprus1,250[64]
Languages
Romani language, Para-Romani varieties, languages of native regions
Religion
Predominantly Christianity[65]
Islam[65]
Shaktism tradition of Hinduism[65]
Romani mythology
Buddhism (minority)[66][67]
Judaism (conversion through marriage to Jewish spouses)[68][69]
Related ethnic groups
Doms, Lom, Dom; other Indo-Aryans

In the English language, the Romani people are widely known by the exonym Gypsies (or Gipsies),[70] which is considered pejorative by many Romani people due to its connotations of illegality and irregularity as well as its historical use as a racial slur.[71][72][73] For versions (some of which are cognates) of the word in many other languages (e.g., French: Tzigane or gitan, Spanish: gitano, Italian: zingaro, Portuguese: cigano, Romanian: țigan and German: Zigeuner) this perception is either very small or non-existent.[74][75] At the first World Romani Congress in 1971, its attendees unanimously voted to reject the use of all exonyms for the Romani people, including Gypsy, due to their aforementioned negative and stereotypical connotations.[72]

Linguistic and genetic evidence suggests that the Roma originated in the Indian subcontinent; in particular, the region of Rajasthan.[76][77][78][79][80] They are dispersed, but their most concentrated populations are located in Europe, especially Central, Eastern and Southern Europe, Southern France, as well as Western Asia (mainly Turkey). The Romani people arrived in West Asia and Europe around the 14th century.[81]

Since the 19th century, some Romani people have also migrated to the Americas. There are an estimated one million Roma in the United States[6] and 800,000 in Brazil, most of whose ancestors emigrated in the 19th century from Eastern Europe. Brazil also includes a notable Romani community descended from people deported by the Portuguese Empire during the Portuguese Inquisition.[82] In migrations since the late 19th century, Romani people have also moved to other countries in South America and to Canada. Though often confused with them, the Romani people are culturally different from Irish Travellers and the Yenish people, two groups who may be related to each other.[83][page needed][84]

Romani is an Indo-Aryan language with strong Balkan and Greek influence.[85] It is divided into several dialects, which together are estimated to have more than two million speakers.[86] Because it has traditionally been an oral language, many Romani people are native speakers of the dominant language in their country of residence or of mixed languages combining the dominant language with a dialect of Romani; those varieties are sometimes called Para-Romani.[87]

The Romani began to leave India about 1,000 years ago. They most likely left to escape the invasion of Afghan general Mahmud of Ghazni early in the 11th century. Mahmud's troops likely pushed the Romani out of northern India and into the area that is now Pakistan, Afghanistan, and Iran.[88]

Population and subgroups

Romani population

Main article: Romani populations

For a variety of reasons, many Romanis choose not to register their ethnic identity in official censuses. There are an estimated 10 million Romani people in Europe (as of 2019),[89] although some Romani organizations give estimates as high as 14 million.[90] Significant Romani populations are found in the Balkans, in some Central European states, in Spain, France, Russia and Ukraine. In the European Union, there are an estimated 6 million Romanis.[91] Several million more Romanis may live outside Europe, in particular in the Middle East and in the Americas.[92]

Romani homeland

There is no single Romani "homeland".[93] A home country for the Romani people has been proposed, under the name Romanistan.[94]

Romani subgroups

See also: Romani people in Poland and Polska Roma
 
Three Finnish Romani women in Helsinki, Finland, in 1930s

Like the Roma in general, many different ethnonyms are given to subgroups of Roma. Sometimes a subgroup uses more than one endonym, is commonly known by an exonym or erroneously by the endonym of another subgroup. The only name approaching an all-encompassing self-description is Rom.[95] Even when subgroups do not use the name, they all acknowledge a common origin and a dichotomy between themselves and Gadjo (non-Roma).[95] For instance, while the main group of Roma in German-speaking countries refer to themselves as Sinti, their name for their original language is Romanes.

Subgroups have been described as, in part, a result of the castes and subcastes in India, which the founding population of Rom almost certainly experienced in their South Asian urheimat.[95][96]

 
Debret, Jean-Baptiste (c. 1820), Interior of a gipsy's house in Brazil
 
Gypsies camping. Welsh Romanies near Swansea, 1953

Many groups use names apparently derived from the Romani word kalo or calo, meaning "black" or "absorbing all light". This closely resembles words for "black" or "dark" in Indo-Aryan languages (e.g. Sanskrit काल kāla: "black", "of a dark colour").[95] Likewise, the name of the Dom or Domba people of North India – to whom the Roma have genetic,[97] cultural and linguistic links – has come to imply "dark-skinned", in some Indian languages.[98] Hence names such as kale and calé may have originated as an exonym or a euphemism for Roma.

Other endonyms for Romani include, for example:

Diaspora

Main article: Romani diaspora
 
Countries with a significant Romani population according to unofficial estimates.
  + 1,000,000
  + 100,000
  + 10,000
 
Romani girl in Gujarat, India

The Roma people have a number of distinct populations, the largest being the Roma who reached Anatolia and the Balkans about the early 12th century from a migration out of northwestern India beginning about 600 years earlier.[115][116] They settled in the areas that are now Turkey, Greece, Serbia, Romania, Moldova, Bulgaria, North Macedonia, Hungary, Slovakia and Spain, by order of volume. From the Balkans, they migrated throughout Europe and Iberian Calé or Caló, and, in the nineteenth and later centuries, to the Americas. The Romani population in the United States is estimated at more than one million.[117] Brazil has the second largest Romani population in the Americas, estimated at 800,000 by the 2011 census.

The Romani people are mainly called ciganos by non-Romani ethnic Brazilians. Most of them belong to the ethnic subgroup Calés (Kale), of the Iberian peninsula. Juscelino Kubitschek, Brazilian president during 1956–1961 term, was 50% Czech Romani by his mother's bloodline, and Washington Luís, last president of the First Brazilian Republic (1926–1930 term), had Portuguese Kale ancestry.

Unfortunately, the persecution against the gypsy people has led to the fact that many of the cultural practices have been extinguished, hidden or modified in order to survive in a country that has excluded them ethnically and culturally.

The very common Carnivals throughout the entire Brazilian territory are one of the few spaces in which the Romani people can still express their cultural traditions, being a moment in which they can practice their dances and rituals. Traditions include the so-called "carnival wedding" in which a child of the male sex is disguised as a bride or the famous "Romaní Dance" which is picturesquely simulated with the women of the town parading in their traditional attire.[118]

There is no official or reliable count of the Romani populations worldwide.[119] Many Romani refuse to register their ethnic identity in official censuses for fear of discrimination.[120][better source needed] Others are descendants of intermarriage with local populations, some who no longer identify only as Romani and some who don't identify as Romani at all.

As of the early 2000s, an estimated 3.8[121][page needed] to 9 million Romani people lived in Europe and Asia Minor,[122][page needed] although some Romani organizations estimate numbers as high as 14 million.[123] Significant Romani populations are found in the Balkan peninsula, in some Central European states, in Spain, France, Russia, and Ukraine. The total number of Romani living outside Europe are primarily in the Middle East and North Africa and in the Americas and are estimated in total at more than two million. Some countries do not collect data by ethnicity.

The Romani people identify as distinct ethnicities based in part on territorial, cultural and dialectal differences, and self-designation.[124][125][126][127]

Origin

Main article: History of the Romani people

Genetic findings suggest an Indian origin for Roma.[115][116][128] Because Romani groups did not keep chronicles of their history or have oral accounts of it, most hypotheses about the Romani migration's early history are based on linguistic theory.[129] There is also no known record of a migration from India to Europe from medieval times that can be connected indisputably to Roma.[130]

Shahnameh legend

According to a legend reported in the Persian epic poem, the Shahnameh, from Iran and repeated by several modern authors, the Sasanian king Bahrām V Gōr learned towards the end of his reign (421–439) that the poor could not afford to enjoy music, and he asked the king of India to send him ten thousand luris, lute-playing experts. When the luris arrived, Bahrām gave each one an ox, a donkey, and a donkey-load of wheat so that they could live on agriculture and play music for free for the poor. However, the luris ate the oxen and the wheat and came back a year later with their cheeks hollowed with hunger. The king, angered with their having wasted what he had given them, ordered them to pack up their bags and go wandering around the world on their donkeys.[131]

Linguistic evidence

The linguistic evidence has indisputably shown that the roots of the Romani language lie in India: the language has grammatical characteristics of Indian languages and shares with them a large part of the basic lexicon, for example, regarding body parts or daily routines.[132]

Romani and Domari share some similarities: agglutination of postpositions of the second layer (or case marking clitics) to the nominal stem, concord markers for the past tense, the neutralisation of gender marking in the plural, and the use of the oblique case as an accusative.[133] This has prompted much discussion about the relationships between these two languages. Domari was once thought to be a "sister language" of Romani, the two languages having split after the departure from the Indian subcontinent – but later research suggests that the differences between them are significant enough to treat them as two separate languages within the Central zone (Hindustani) group of languages. The Dom and the Rom therefore likely descend from two migration waves out of India, separated by several centuries.[134][135]

In phonology, the Romani language shares several isoglosses with the Central branch of Indo-Aryan languages, especially in the realization of some sounds of the Old Indo-Aryan. However, it also preserves several dental clusters. In regards to verb morphology, Romani follows exactly the same pattern of northwestern languages such as Kashmiri and Shina through the adoption of oblique enclitic pronouns as person markers, lending credence to the theory of their Central Indian origin and a subsequent migration to northwestern India. Though the retention of dental clusters suggests a break from central languages during the transition from Old to Middle Indo-Aryan, the overall morphology suggests that the language participated in some of the significant developments leading toward the emergence of New Indo-Aryan languages.[136] The following table presents the numerals in the Romani, Domari and Lomavren languages, with the corresponding terms in Sanskrit, Hindi, Bengali, and Sinhala to demonstrate the similarities.[137]

Languages
Numbers
 Romani Domari Lomavren Sanskrit Hindi Bengali Sinhala
1 ekh, jekh yika yak, yek éka ek ek eka
2 duj dī lui dvá do dui deka
3 trin tærən tərin trí tīn tin thuna/thri
4 štar štar išdör catvā́raḥ cār char hathara/sathara
5 pandž pandž pendž páñca pā̃c panch paha
6 šov šaš šeš ṣáṭ chah chhoy haya/saya   
7 ifta xaut haft saptá sāt sāt hata/satha
8 oxto xaišt hašt aṣṭá āṭh āṭh ata
9 inja na nu náva nau noy nawaya
10 deš des las dáśa das dosh dahaya
20 biš wīs vist viṃśatí bīs bish wissa
100 šel saj saj śatá sau eksho siiya/shathakaya

Genetic evidence

 
Two Gypsies by Francisco Iturrino

Genetic findings in 2012 suggest the Romani originated in northwestern India and migrated as a group.[115][116][138] According to the study, the ancestors of present scheduled castes and scheduled tribes populations of northern India, traditionally referred to collectively as the Ḍoma, are the likely ancestral populations of modern European Roma.[139]

In December 2012, additional findings appeared to confirm the "Roma came from a single group that left northwestern India about 1,500 years ago".[116] They reached the Balkans about 900 years ago[115] and then spread throughout Europe. The team also found the Roma to display genetic isolation, as well as "differential gene flow in time and space with non-Romani Europeans".[115][116]

Genetic research published in European Journal of Human Genetics "has revealed that over 70% of males belong to a single lineage that appears unique to the Roma".[140]

Genetic evidence supports the medieval migration from India. The Romani have been described as "a conglomerate of genetically isolated founder populations",[114] while a number of common Mendelian disorders among Romanies from all over Europe indicates "a common origin and founder effect".[114] A 2020 whole-genome study confirmed the Northwest Indian origins, and also confirmed substantial Balkan and Middle Eastern ancestry.[141]

A study from 2001 by Gresham et al. suggests "a limited number of related founders, compatible with a small group of migrants splitting from a distinct caste or tribal group".[142] The same study found that "a single lineage... found across Romani populations, accounts for almost one-third of Romani males".[142] A 2004 study by Morar et al. concluded that the Romani population "was founded approximately 32–40 generations ago, with secondary and tertiary founder events occurring approximately 16–25 generations ago".[143]

Haplogroup H-M82 is a major lineage cluster in the Balkan Romani group, accounting for approximately 60% of the total.[144] Haplogroup H is uncommon in Europe but present in the Indian subcontinent and Sri Lanka.

A study of 444 people representing three ethnic groups in North Macedonia found mtDNA haplogroups M5a1 and H7a1a were dominant in Romanies (13.7% and 10.3%, respectively).[145]

Y-DNA composition of Muslim Romani people from Šuto Orizari Municipality in North Macedonia, based on 57 samples:[146]

 
A Roma makes a complaint to a local magistrate in Hungary, by Sándor Bihari, 1886

Y-DNA Haplogroup H1a occurs in Romani at frequencies 7–70%. Unlike ethnic Hungarians, among Hungarian and Slovakian Romani subpopulations, Haplogroup E-M78 and I1 usually occur above 10% and sometimes over 20%. While among Slovakian and Tiszavasvari Romani the dominant haplogroup is H1a, among Tokaj Romani is Haplogroup J2a (23%), while among Taktaharkány Romani is Haplogroup I2a (21%).[147] Five, rather consistent founder lineages throughout the subpopulations, were found among Romani – J-M67 and J-M92 (J2), H-M52 (H1a1), and I-P259 (I1). Haplogroup I-P259 as H is not found at frequencies of over 3 percent among host populations, while haplogroups E and I are absent in South Asia. The lineages E-V13, I-P37 (I2a) and R-M17 (R1a) may represent gene flow from the host populations. Bulgarian, Romanian and Greek Romani are dominated by Haplogroup H-M82 (H1a1), while among Spanish Romani J2 is prevalent.[148] In Serbia among Kosovo[a] and Belgrade Romani Haplogroup H prevails, while among Vojvodina Romani, H drops to 7 percent and E-V13 rises to a prevailing level.[149]

Among non-Roma Europeans Haplogroup H is extremely rare, peaking at 7 percent among Albanians from Tirana[150] and 11 percent among Bulgarian Turks. It occurs at 5 percent among Hungarians,[147] although the carriers might be of Romani origin.[148] Among non Roma-speaking Europeans at 2 percent among Slovaks,[151] 2 percent among Croats,[152] 1 percent among Macedonians from Skopje, 3 percent among Macedonian Albanians,[153] 1 percent among Serbs from Belgrade,[154] 3 percent among Bulgarians from Sofia,[155] 1 percent among Austrians and Swiss,[156] 3 percent among Romanians from Ploiești, 1 percent among Turks.[151]

The Ottoman occupation of the Balkans also left a significant genetic mark on the Y-DNA of Romani people; creating a higher frequency of the haplogroups J and E3b in Roma populations from the region.[157]

Full genome analysis

See also: Genetics and archaeogenetics of South Asia
 
The most common paternal haplogroup among Romani is the South Asian Y-chromosome H, most commonly found among Dravidian peoples.[144]

A full genome autosomal DNA study on 186 Roma samples from Europe in 2019 found that modern Roma people are characterized by a complex admixture of West Eurasian lineages, mostly a composition of South Asian and various local European (mostly Balkan-derived) ancestries. The autosomal genetic data links the proto-Roma to groups in Northwest India (specifically Punjabi and Gujarati samples), although their paternal lineages are more common in Southern India among Dravidian-speaking populations. The authors argue that this may point to a founder effect among early Romani people during their ethnogenesis or shortly after they migrated out of the Indian subcontinent. Subsequently, after arriving in Europe, they partially mixed with local European groups in the Balkans.[158]

Possible migration route

 
The migration of the Romanis through the Middle East and Northern Africa to Europe

The Romani may have emerged from what is the modern Indian state of Rajasthan,[76] migrating to the northwest (the Punjab region of the Indian subcontinent) around 250 BCE.[76] Their subsequent westward migration, possibly in waves, is now believed to have occurred beginning in about 500 CE.[116] It has also been suggested that emigration from India may have taken place in the context of the raids by Mahmud of Ghazni. As these soldiers were defeated, they were moved west with their families into the Byzantine Empire.[159] The author Ralph Lilley Turner theorised a central Indian origin of Romani followed by a migration to Northwest India as it shares a number of ancient isoglosses with Central Indo-Aryan languages in relation to realization of some sounds of Old Indo-Aryan. This is lent further credence by its sharing exactly the same pattern of northwestern languages such as Kashmiri and Shina through the adoption of oblique enclitic pronouns as person markers. The overall morphology suggests that Romani participated in some of the significant developments leading toward the emergence of New Indo-Aryan languages, thus indicating that the proto-Romani did not leave the Indian subcontinent until late in the second half of the first millennium.[136][160]

In February 2016, during the International Roma Conference, then Indian Minister of External Affairs, Sushma Swaraj stated that the people of the Roma community were children of India.[161] The conference ended with a recommendation to the government of India to recognize the Roma community spread across 30 countries as a part of the Indian diaspora.[162]

Names

Main article: Names of the Romani people

Endonyms

Rom means husband in the Romani language.[163] It has the variants dom and lom, which may be related to the Sanskrit words dam-pati (lord of the house, husband), dama (to subdue), lom (hair), lomaka (hairy), loman, roman (hairy), romaça (man with beard and long hair).[164] Another possible origin is from Sanskrit डोम doma (member of a low caste of travelling musicians and dancers). Despite their presence in the country and neighboring nations, the word is not related in any way to the name of Romania.

Romani usage

In the Romani language, Rom is a masculine noun, meaning 'husband of the Roma ethnic group', with the plural Roma. The feminine of Rom in the Romani language is Romni /Romli/Romnije or Romlije. However, in most cases, in other languages Rom is now used for individuals regardless of gender.[165]

Romani is the feminine adjective, while Romano is the masculine adjective. Some Romanies use Rom or Roma as an ethnic name, while others (such as the Sinti, or the Romanichal) do not use this term as a self-ascription for the entire ethnic group.[166]

Sometimes, rom and romani are spelled with a double r, i.e., rrom and rromani. In this case rr is used to represent the phoneme /ʀ/ (also written as ř and rh), which in some Romani dialects has remained different from the one written with a single r. The rr spelling is common in certain institutions (such as the INALCO Institute in Paris), or used in certain countries, e.g., Romania, to distinguish from the endonym/homonym for Romanians (sg. român, pl. români).[167]

In Norway, Romani is used exclusively for an older Northern Romani-speaking population (which arrived in the 16th century) while Rom/Romanes is used to describe Vlax Romani-speaking groups which have arrived since the 19th century.[168]

English usage

 
A Romani wagon pictured in 2009 in Grandborough Fields in Warwickshire. Grandborough Fields Road is a popular spot for travelling people.

In the English language (according to the Oxford English Dictionary), Rom is a noun (with the plural Roma or Roms) and an adjective, while Romani (Romany) is also a noun (with the plural Romani, the Romani, Romanies, or Romanis) and an adjective. Both Rom and Romani have been in use in English since the 19th century as an alternative for Gypsy.[169] Romani was sometimes spelled Rommany, but more often Romany, while today Romani is the most popular spelling. Occasionally, the double r spelling (e.g., Rroma, Rromani) mentioned above is also encountered in English texts.

The term Roma is increasingly encountered[170][171] as a generic term for the Romani people.[172][173][174]

Because not all Romani people use the word Romani as an adjective, the term became a noun for the entire ethnic group.[175] Today, the term Romani is used by some organizations, including the United Nations and the US Library of Congress.[167] However, the Council of Europe and other organizations consider that Roma is the correct term referring to all related groups, regardless of their country of origin, and recommend that Romani be restricted to the language and culture: Romani language, Romani culture.[165] The United Kingdom government uses the term "Roma" as a sub-group of "White" in its ethnic classification system.[176]

The standard assumption is that the demonyms of the Romani people, Lom and Dom, share the same origin.[177][178]

Other designations

Main article: Names of the Romani people

The English term Gypsy (or Gipsy) originates from the Middle English gypcian, short for Egipcien. The Spanish term Gitano and French Gitan have similar etymologies. They are ultimately derived from the Greek Αιγύπτιοι (Aigyptioi), meaning Egyptian, via Latin. This designation owes its existence to the belief, common in the Middle Ages, that the Romani, or some related group (such as the Middle Eastern Dom people), were itinerant Egyptians.[179][180] This belief appears to be derived from verses in the Biblical Book of Ezekiel (29: 6 and 12–13) which refer to the Egyptians being scattered among the nations by an angry God. According to one narrative, they were exiled from Egypt as punishment for allegedly harbouring the infant Jesus.[181] In his book The Zincali: an account of the Gypsies of Spain, George Borrow notes that when they first appeared in Germany, it was under the character of Egyptians doing penance for their having refused hospitality to Mary and her son. As described in Victor Hugo's novel The Hunchback of Notre Dame, the medieval French referred to the Romanies as Egyptiens.

This exonym is sometimes written with capital letter, to show that it designates an ethnic group.[182] However, the word is sometimes considered derogatory because of its negative and stereotypical associations.[173][183][184][185] The Council of Europe consider that "Gypsy" or equivalent terms, as well as administrative terms such as "Gens du Voyage" are not in line with European recommendations.[165] In Britain, many Romani proudly identify as "Gypsies".[186] In North America, the word Gypsy is most commonly used as a reference to Romani ethnicity, though lifestyle and fashion are at times also referenced by using this word.[187]

Another common designation of the Romani people, which can be considered derogatory, is Cingane (alt. Çingene, Tsinganoi, Zigar, Zigeuner, Tschingaren), likely deriving from the Persian word چنگانه (chingane), derived from the Turkic word çıgañ, meaning poor person.[188] It is also possible that the origin of this word is Athinganoi, the name of a Christian sect with whom the Romani (or some related group) could have become associated with in the past. [180][189][190][191]

History

Main article: History of the Romani people
See also: Timeline of Romani history

Arrival in Europe

According to a 2012 genomic study, the Romani reached the Balkans as early as the 12th century.[115] A document of 1068, describing an event in Constantinople, mentions "Atsingani", probably referring to Romani.[192]

Later historical records of the Romani reaching south-eastern Europe are from the 14th century: in 1322, after leaving Ireland on a pilgrimage to Jerusalem, Irish Franciscan friar Symon Semeonis encountered a migrant group of Romani outside the town of Candia (modern Heraklion), in Crete, calling them "the descendants of Cain"; his account is the earliest surviving description by a Western chronicler of the Romani in Europe.

In 1350, Ludolph of Saxony mentioned a similar people with a unique language whom he called Mandapolos, a word possibly derived from the Greek word mantes (meaning prophet or fortune teller).[193]

In the 14th century, Romani are recorded in Venetian territories, including Methoni and Nafplio in the Peloponnese, and Corfu.[192] Around 1360, a fiefdom called the Feudum Acinganorum was established in Corfu, which mainly used Romani serfs and to which the Romani on the island were subservient.[194]

By the 1440s, they were recorded in Germany;[195] and by the 16th century, Scotland and Sweden.[196] Some Romani migrated from Persia through North Africa, reaching the Iberian Peninsula in the 15th century. The two currents met in France.[197]

 
First arrival of the Romanies outside Bern in the 15th century, described by the chronicler as getoufte heiden ("baptized heathens") and drawn with dark skin and wearing Saracen-style clothing and weapons[198]

Around the year 1000, an event in northern India, about the time of Muslim invaders, likely triggered the Roma’s mass exodus. The precise event is still unknown, but the possible reasons include a conflict that resulted in their persecution, a natural disaster, or even recruitment into a mercenary military. The Roma people journeyed towards the Caucasus and China, as well as through the Middle East and Greece towards the Balkans; they covered all corners of today's Central and Western Europe by the end of the 16th century. Romanis typically traveled in patriarchal extended families, consisting of up to hundreds of people.[199]

Early modern history

 
Gypsy Family in Prison, 1864 painting by Carl d´Unker. An actual imprisoned family in Germany served as the models. The reason for their imprisonment remains unknown.

Their early history shows a mixed reception. Although 1385 marks the first recorded transaction for a Romani slave in Wallachia, they were issued safe conduct by Holy Roman Emperor Sigismund in 1417. Romanis were ordered expelled from the Meissen region of Germany in 1416, Lucerne in 1471, Milan in 1493, France in 1504, Catalonia in 1512, Sweden in 1525, England in 1530 (see Egyptians Act 1530), and Denmark in 1536. From 1510 onwards, any Romani found in Switzerland were to be executed; while in England (beginning in 1554) and Denmark (beginning of 1589) any Romani which did not leave within a month were to be executed. Portugal began deportations of Romanis to its colonies in 1538.[200]

A 1596 English statute gave Romanis special privileges that other wanderers lacked. France passed a similar law in 1683. Catherine the Great of Russia declared the Romanis "crown slaves" (a status superior to serfs), but also kept them out of certain parts of the capital.[201] In 1595, Ștefan Răzvan overcame his birth into slavery, and became the Voivode (Prince) of Moldavia.[200]

 
An 1852 Wallachian poster advertising an auction of Romani slaves in Bucharest

Since a royal edict by Charles II in 1695, Spanish Romanis had been restricted to certain towns.[202] An official edict in 1717 restricted them to only 75 towns and districts, so that they would not be concentrated in any one region. In the Great Gypsy Round-up, Romani were arrested and imprisoned by the Spanish Monarchy in 1749.

During the latter part of the 17th century, around the Franco-Dutch War, both France and the Dutch Republic needed thousands of men to fight. Some recruitment took the form of rounding up vagrants and the poor to work the galleys and provide the armies' labour force. With this background, Romanis were targets of both the French and the Dutch.

After the wars, and into the first decade of the 18th century, Romanis were slaughtered with impunity throughout Holland. Romanis, called ‘heiden’ by the Dutch, wandered throughout the rural areas of Europe and became the societal pariahs of the age. Heidenjachten, translated as "heathen hunt" happened throughout Holland in an attempt to eradicate them.[203]

Although some Romani could be kept as slaves in Wallachia and Moldavia until abolition in 1856, the majority traveled as free nomads with their wagons, as alluded to in the spoked wheel symbol in the Romani flag.[204] Elsewhere in Europe, they were subjected to ethnic cleansing, abduction of their children, and forced labour. In England, Romani were sometimes expelled from small communities or hanged; in France, they were branded, and their heads were shaved; in Moravia and Bohemia, the women were marked by their ears being severed. As a result, large groups of the Romani moved to the East, toward Poland, which was more tolerant, and Russia, where the Romani were treated more fairly as long as they paid the annual taxes.[205]

Modern history

Romani began emigrating to North America in colonial times, with small groups recorded in Virginia and French Louisiana. Larger-scale Roma emigration to the United States began in the 1860s, with Romanichal groups from Great Britain. The most significant number immigrated in the early 20th century, mainly from the Vlax group of Kalderash. Many Romani also settled in South America.

 
Sinti and other Romani about to be deported from Germany, 22 May 1940

World War II

Main article: Porajmos

During World War II, the Nazis embarked on a systematic genocide of the Romani, a process known in Romani as the Porajmos.[206] Romanies were marked for extermination and sentenced to forced labor and imprisonment in concentration camps. They were often killed on sight, especially by the Einsatzgruppen (paramilitary death squads) on the Eastern Front.[207] The total number of victims has been variously estimated at between 220,000 and 1,500,000.[208]

The Romani people were also persecuted in Nazi puppet states. In the Independent State of Croatia, the Ustaša killed almost the entire Roma population of 25,000. The concentration camp system of Jasenovac, run by the Ustaša militia and the Croat political police, were responsible for the deaths of between 15,000 and 20,000 Roma.[209]

Post-1945

In Czechoslovakia, they were labeled a "socially degraded stratum", and Romani women were sterilized as part of a state policy to reduce their population. This policy was implemented with large financial incentives, threats of denying future welfare payments, with misinformation, or after administering drugs.[210][211]

An official inquiry from the Czech Republic, resulting in a report (December 2005), concluded that the Communist authorities had practised an assimilation policy towards Romanis, which "included efforts by social services to control the birth rate in the Romani community. The problem of sexual sterilisation carried out in the Czech Republic, either with improper motivation or illegally, exists," said the Czech Public Defender of Rights, recommending state compensation for women affected between 1973 and 1991.[212] New cases were revealed up until 2004, in both the Czech Republic and Slovakia. Germany, Norway, Sweden and Switzerland "all have histories of coercive sterilization of minorities and other groups".[213]

Society and traditional culture

Main article: Romani society and culture
 
Münster, Sebastian (1552), "A Gipsy Family", The Cosmographia (facsimile of a woodcut), Basle
 
Nomadic Roma family traveling in Moldavia, 1837

The traditional Romanies place a high value on the extended family. Virginity is essential in unmarried women. Both men and women often marry young; there has been controversy in several countries over the Romani practice of child marriage.[214] Romani law establishes that the man's family must pay a bride price to the bride's parents, but only traditional families still follow it.

Once married, the woman joins the husband's family, where her main job is to tend to her husband's and her children's needs and take care of her in-laws. The power structure in the traditional Romani household has at its top the oldest man or grandfather, and men, in general, have more authority than women. Women gain respect and power as they get older. Young wives begin gaining authority once they have children.[215]

Traditionally, as can be seen on paintings and photos, some Roma men wear shoulder-length hair and a mustache, as well as an earring. Roma women generally have long hair, and Xoraxane Roma women often dye it blonde with henna.

Romani social behavior is strictly regulated by Indian social customs[216] ("marime" or "marhime"), still respected by most Roma (and by most older generations of Sinti). This regulation affects many aspects of life and is applied to actions, people and things: parts of the human body are considered impure: the genital organs (because they produce emissions) and the rest of the lower body. Clothes for the lower body, as well as the clothes of menstruating women, are washed separately. Items used for eating are also washed in a different place. Childbirth is considered impure and must occur outside the dwelling place. The mother is deemed to be impure for forty days after giving birth.[217]

Death is considered impure, and affects the whole family of the dead, who remain impure for a period of time. In contrast to the practice of cremating the dead, Romani dead must be buried.[218] Cremation and burial are both known from the time of the Rigveda, and both are widely practiced in Hinduism today (the general tendency is for Hindus to practice cremation, though some communities in modern-day South India tend to bury their dead).[219] Animals that are considered to be having unclean habits are not eaten by the community.[220]

Belonging and exclusion

Main articles: Romanipen and Gadjo (non-Romani)

In Romani philosophy, Romanipen (also romanypen, romanipe, romanype, romanimos, romaimos, romaniya) is the totality of the Romani spirit, Romani culture, Romani Law, being a Romani, a set of Romani strains.[clarification needed]

An ethnic Romani is considered a gadjo in the Romani society if they have no Romanipen. Sometimes a non-Romani may be considered a Romani if they do have Romanipen. Usually this is an adopted child. It has been hypothesized that this owes more to a framework of culture than a simple adherence to historically received rules.[221]

Religion

 
Christian Romanies during the pilgrimage to Saintes-Maries-de-la-Mer in France, 1980s
 
Two Orthodox Christian Romanies in Cluj-Napoca, Romania
 
Romani and bear (Belgrade, Banovo brdo, 1980s)

Most Romani people are Christian,[222] others Muslim; some retained their ancient faith of Hinduism from their original homeland of India, while others have their own religion and political organization.[223] Theravada Buddhism influenced by the Dalit Buddhist movement have become popular in recent times among Hungarian Roma.[66][67]

Some Roma practice witchcraft and palmistry.[224]

Beliefs

The modern-day Romani people adopted Christianity or Islam depending on the regions through which they had migrated.[225] Muslim Roma are found in Turkey, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Albania, Egypt, Kosovo, North Macedonia, Serbia, Bulgaria and Iran, forming a very significant proportion of the Romani people. In neighboring countries such as Romania and Greece, most Romani inhabitants follow the practice of Orthodoxy. It is likely that the adherence to differing religions prevented families from engaging in intermarriage.[226]

 
Members of the Cofradía de los Gitanos parading the "throne" of Mary of the O during the Holy Week in Malaga, Spain

Deities and saints

Blessed Ceferino Giménez Malla is recently considered a patron saint of the Romani people in Roman Catholicism.[227] Saint Sarah, or Sara e Kali, has also been venerated as a patron saint in her shrine at Saintes-Maries-de-la-Mer, France. Since the turn of the 21st century, Sara e Kali is understood to have been Kali, an Indian deity brought from India by the refugee ancestors of the Roma people; as the Roma became Christianized, she was absorbed in a syncretic way and venerated as a saint.[228]

 
Gypsy fortune-teller in Poland, by Antoni Kozakiewicz, 1884

Saint Sarah is now increasingly being considered as "a Romani Goddess, the Protectress of the Roma" and an "indisputable link with Mother India".[228][229]

Balkans

 
Costume of a Romani woman

For the Roma communities that have resided in the Balkans for numerous centuries, often referred to as "Turkish Gypsies", the following histories apply for religious beliefs:

  • Bosnia and Herzegovina and Montenegro – Islam is the dominant religion among the Roma.[230]
  • Bulgaria – In northwestern Bulgaria, in addition to Sofia and Kyustendil, Christianity is the dominant faith among Romani people (a major conversion to Eastern Orthodox Christianity among Romani people has occurred). In southeastern Bulgaria, Islam is the dominant religion among Romani people, with a smaller section of the Romani population declaring themselves as "Turks", continuing to mix ethnicity with Islam.[230]
 
Margarita Cansino (later known as Rita Hayworth) with her father and dance partner Eduardo Cansino, 1933
  • Croatia – Following the Second World War, a large number of Muslim Roma relocated to Croatia (the majority moving from Kosovo). Their language differs from those living in Međimurje and those who survived Ustaše genocide.[230]
  • Greece – The descendants of groups, such as Sepečides or Sevljara, Kalpazaja, Filipidži and others, living in Athens, Thessaloniki, central Greece and Greek Macedonia are mostly Orthodox Christians, with Islamic beliefs held by a minority of the population. Following the Peace Treaty of Lausanne of 1923, many Muslim Roma moved to Turkey in the subsequent population exchange between Turkey and Greece.[230]
 
Muslim Romanies in Bosnia and Herzegovina (around 1900)

Other regions

In Ukraine and Russia, the Roma populations are also Muslim as the families of Balkan migrants continue to live in these locations. Their ancestors settled on the Crimean peninsula during the 17th and 18th centuries, but some migrated to Ukraine, southern Russia and the Povolzhie (along the Volga River). Formally, Islam is the religion that these communities align themselves with and the people are recognized for their staunch preservation of the Romani language and identity.[230]

In Poland and Slovakia, their populations are Roman Catholic, many times adopting and following local, cultural Catholicism as a syncretic system of belief that incorporates distinct Roma beliefs and cultural aspects. For example, many Polish Roma delay their Church wedding[contradictory] due to the belief that sacramental marriage is accompanied by divine ratification, creating a virtually indissoluble union until the couple consummate, after which the sacramental marriage is dissoluble only by the death of a spouse. Therefore, for Polish Roma, once married, one can't ever divorce. Another aspect of Polish Roma's Catholicism is a tradition of pilgrimage to the Jasna Góra Monastery.[232]

Most Eastern European Romanies are Roman Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, or Muslim.[233] Those in Western Europe and the United States are mostly Roman Catholic or Protestant – in southern Spain, many Romanies are Pentecostal, but this is a small minority that has emerged in contemporary times. In Egypt, the Romanies are split into Christian and Muslim populations.[234]

Music

Main article: Romani music
 
27 June 2009: Fanfare Ciocărlia live in Athens, Greece
 
Street performance during the Khamoro World Roma Festival in Prague, 2007

Romani music plays an important role in Central and Eastern European countries such as Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Serbia, Montenegro, Bulgaria, North Macedonia, Albania, Hungary, Slovakia, Slovenia and Romania, and the style and performance practices of Romani musicians have influenced European classical composers such as Franz Liszt and Johannes Brahms. The lăutari who perform at traditional Romanian weddings are virtually all Romani.[235][236]

Probably the most internationally prominent contemporary performers in the lăutari tradition are Taraful Haiducilor.[237] Bulgaria's popular "wedding music", too, is almost exclusively performed by Romani musicians such as Ivo Papasov, a virtuoso clarinetist closely associated with this genre and Bulgarian pop-folk singer Azis.

Many famous classical musicians, such as the Hungarian pianist Georges Cziffra, are Romani, as are many prominent performers of manele. Zdob și Zdub, one of the most prominent rock bands in Moldova, although not Romanies themselves, draw heavily on Romani music, as do Spitalul de Urgență in Romania, Shantel in Germany, Goran Bregović in Serbia, Darko Rundek in Croatia, Beirut and Gogol Bordello in the United States.

Another tradition of Romani music is the genre of the Romani brass band, with such notable practitioners as Boban Marković of Serbia, and the brass lăutari groups Fanfare Ciocărlia and Fanfare din Cozmesti of Romania.

The distinctive sound of Romani music has also strongly influenced bolero, jazz, and flamenco (especially cante jondo) in Spain.

Dances such as the flamenco and bolero of Spain were influences by the Romani.[238] Antonio Cansino blended Romani and Spanish flamenco and is credited with creating modern-day Spanish dance.[239] The Dancing Cansinos popularized flamenco and bolero dancing in the United States. Famous dancer and actress, Rita Hayworth, is the granddaughter of Antonio Cansino.

European-style gypsy jazz ("jazz Manouche" or "Sinti jazz") is still widely practiced among the original creators (the Romanie People); one who acknowledged this artistic debt was guitarist Django Reinhardt.[240] Contemporary artists in this tradition known internationally include Stochelo Rosenberg, Biréli Lagrène, Jimmy Rosenberg, Paulus Schäfer and Tchavolo Schmitt.

The Romani people in Turkey have achieved musical acclaim from national and local audiences. Local performers usually perform for special holidays. Their music is usually performed on instruments such as the darbuka, gırnata and cümbüş.[241]

Folklore

Main article: Romani mythology

Romani folktales and legends are known as paramichia. A hero among the Vlach Roma is Mundro Salamon or Wise Solomon. Other Romani groups call this hero O Godjiaver Yanko.[242]

The Roma believe in the mulo or mullo, which means one who is dead. These beings are the Roma's version of the vampire.[243]

Cuisine

Main article: Romani cuisine

The Roma believe that some foods are auspicious, or lucky (baxtalo), such as foods with pungent tastes like garlic, lemon, tomato, peppers, and fermented foods such as sauerkraut, pickles and sour cream.[244] Romani cuisine is similiar to Hungarian cuisine.[245] Hedgehogs are a delicacy among some Roma.[246]

Contemporary art and culture

Romani contemporary art emerged at the climax of the process that began in Central and Eastern Europe in the late 1980s, when the interpretation of the cultural practice of minorities was enabled by a paradigm shift, commonly referred to in specialist literature as the Cultural turn. The idea of the "cultural turn" was introduced; and this was also the time when the notion of cultural democracy became crystallized in the debates carried on at various public forums. Civil society gained strength, and civil politics appeared, which is a prerequisite for cultural democracy. This shift of attitude in scholarly circles derived from concerns specific not only to ethnicity but also to society, gender and class.[247]

Language

Main article: Romani language

Most Romani speak one of several dialects of the Romani language,[248] an Indo-Aryan language, with roots in Sanskrit. They also often speak the languages of the countries they live in. Typically, they also incorporate loanwords and calques into Romani from the languages of those countries and especially words for terms that the Romani language does not have. Most of the Ciganos of Portugal, the Gitanos of Spain, the Romanichal of the UK, and Scandinavian Travellers have lost their knowledge of pure Romani, and speak the mixed languages Caló,[249] Angloromany, and Scandoromani, respectively. Most of the Romani language-speaking communities in these regions consist of later immigrants from eastern or central Europe.[250]

There are no concrete statistics for the number of Romani speakers, both in Europe and globally. However, a conservative estimate is 3.5 million speakers in Europe and a further 500,000 elsewhere,[250] though the actual number may be considerably higher. This makes Romani the second-largest minority language in Europe, behind Catalan.[250]

In regards to the diversity of dialects, Romani works in the same way as most other European languages.[251] Cross-dialect communication is dominated by the following features:

  • All Romani speakers are bilingual, accustomed to borrowing words or phrases from a second language; this makes it difficult to communicate with Romanis from different countries
  • Romani was traditionally a language shared between extended family and a close-knit community. This has resulted in the inability to comprehend dialects from other countries, and is why Romani is sometimes considered to be several different languages.
  • There is no tradition or literary standard for Romani speakers to use as a guideline for their language use.[251]

Persecutions

Main article: Anti-Romani sentiment

Historical persecution

One of the most enduring persecutions against the Romani people was their enslavement. Slavery was widely practiced in medieval Europe, including the territory of present-day Romania from before the founding of the principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia in the 13th–14th centuries.[252] Legislation decreed that all the Romani living in these states, as well as any others who immigrated there, were classified as slaves.[253] Slavery was gradually abolished during the 1840s and 1850s.[252]

The exact origins of slavery in the Danubian Principalities are not known. There is some debate over whether the Romani people came to Wallachia and Moldavia as free men or were brought there as slaves. Historian Nicolae Iorga associated the Roma people's arrival with the 1241 Mongol invasion of Europe and he also considered their enslavement a vestige of that era, in which the Romanians took the Roma from the Mongols and preserved their status as slaves so they could use their labor. Other historians believe that the Romani were enslaved while they were being captured during the battles with the Tatars. The practice of enslaving prisoners of war may have also been adopted from the Mongols.[252]

Some Romani may have been slaves of the Mongols or the Tatars or they may have served as auxiliary troops in the Mongol or Tatar armies, but most of them migrated from south of the Danube at the end of the 14th century, some time after the founding of Wallachia. By then, the institution of slavery was already established in Moldavia and it was possibly established in both principalities. After the Roma migrated into the area, slavery became a widespread practice among the majority of the population. The Tatar slaves, smaller in numbers, were eventually merged into the Roma population.[254]

Some branches of the Romani people reached Western Europe in the 15th century, fleeing from the Ottoman conquest of the Balkans as refugees.[255] Although the Romani were refugees from the conflicts in southeastern Europe, they were often suspected of being associated with the Ottoman invasion by certain populations in the West because their physical appearance was exotic. (The Imperial Diet at Landau and Freiburg in 1496–1498 declared that the Romani were spies for the Turks). In Western Europe, such suspicions and discrimination against people who constituted a visible minority resulted in persecution, often violent, with attempts to commit ethnic cleansing until the modern era. In times of social tension, the Romani suffered as scapegoats; for instance, they were accused of bringing the plague during times of epidemics.[256]

On 30 July 1749, Spain conducted The Great Roundup of Romani (Gitanos) in its territory. The Spanish Crown ordered a nationwide raid that led to the break-up of families because all able-bodied men were interned in forced labor camps in an attempt to commit ethnic cleansing. The measure was eventually reversed and the Romanis were freed as protests began to erupt in different communities, sedentary Romanis were highly esteemed and protected in rural Spain.[257][258]

Later in the 19th century, Romani immigration was forbidden on a racial basis in areas outside Europe, mostly in the English-speaking world. In 1880, Argentina prohibited immigration by Roma, as did the United States in 1885.[256]

 
Deportation of Roma from Asperg, Germany, 1940 (photograph by the Rassenhygienische Forschungsstelle)

Forced assimilation

In the Habsburg monarchy under Maria Theresa (1740–1780), a series of decrees tried to integrate the Romanies in order to get them to permanently settle, removed their rights to horse and wagon ownership (1754) in order to reduce citizen-mobility, renamed them "New Citizens" and obliged Romani boys into military service just as any other citizens were if they had no trade (1761, and Revision 1770), required them to register with the local authorities (1767), and another decree prohibited marriages between Romanies (1773) in order to integrate them into the local population. Her successor Josef II prohibited the wearing of traditional Romani clothing along with the use of the Romani language, both of which were punishable by flogging.[259] During this time, the schools were obliged to register and integrate Romani children; this policy was the first of the modern policies of integration. In Spain, attempts to assimilate the Gitanos were under way as early as 1619, when the Gitanos were forcibly settled, the use of the Romani language was prohibited, Gitano men and women were sent to separate workhouses and their children were sent to orphanages. King Charles III took a more progressive approach to Gitano assimilation, proclaiming that they had the same rights as Spanish citizens and ending the official denigration of them which was based on their race. While he prohibited their nomadic lifestyle, their use of the Calo language, the manufacture and wearing of Romani clothing, their trade in horses and other itinerant trades, he also forbade any form of discrimination against them and he also forbade the guilds from barring them. The use of the word gitano was also forbidden in order to further their assimilation, it was replaced with "New Castilian", a designation which was also applied to former Jews and Muslims.[260][261]

Most historians believe that Charles III's pragmática failed for three main reasons, reasons which were ultimately derived from its implementation outside major cities as well as in marginal areas: The difficulty which the Gitano community faced in changing its nomadic lifestyle, the marginal lifestyle to which the community had been driven by society and the serious difficulties of applying the pragmática in the fields of education and work. One author ascribes its failure to the overall rejection of the integration of the Gitanos by the wider population.[259][262]

Other policies of forced assimilation were implemented in other countries, one of these countries was Norway, where a law which permitted the state to remove children from their parents and place them in state institutions was passed in 1896.[263] This resulted in some 1,500 Romani children being taken from their parents in the 20th century.[264]

Porajmos (Romani Holocaust)

Main article: Romani Holocaust

During World War II, the persecution of the Romanies reached a peak during the Romani Holocaust (the Porajmos), the genocide which was perpetrated against them by Nazi Germany. In 1935, the Romani people who lived in Nazi Germany lost their citizenship when it was stripped from them by the Nuremberg laws, after that, they were subjected to violence and imprisonment in concentration camps and later, they were subjected to genocide in extermination camps. During the war, the policy was extended to areas which were occupied by the Nazis, and it was also implemented by their allies, most notably, by the Independent State of Croatia, Romania, and Hungary.

Because no accurate pre-war census figures exist for the Romanis, the actual number of Romani victims who were killed in the Romani Holocaust cannot be assessed. Most estimates of the number of Romani victims who were killed in the Romani Holocaust range from 200,000 to 500,000, but other estimates range from 90,000 to 1.5 million. Lower estimates do not include those Romanis who were killed in all Axis-controlled countries. A detailed study by Sybil Milton, a former senior historian at the U.S. Holocaust Memorial Museum contained an estimate of at least 220,000, possibly as many as 500,000.[265] Ian Hancock, Director of the Program of Romani Studies and the Romani Archives and Documentation Center at the University of Texas at Austin, argues in favour of a higher figure of between 500,000 and 1,500,000.[266]

In Central Europe, the extermination in the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia was so thorough that the Bohemian Romani language became extinct.

Contemporary issues

Main article: Anti-Romani sentiment § Contemporary antiziganism
 
Distribution of the Romani people in Europe (2007 Council of Europe "average estimates", totalling 9.8 million)[267]
 
Antiziganist protests in Sofia, 2011

In Europe, Romani people are associated with poverty, blamed for high crime rates, and accused of behaving in ways that are considered antisocial or inappropriate by the rest of the European population.[268] Partly for this reason, discrimination against the Romani people has continued to be practiced to the present day,[269][270] although efforts are being made to address them.[271]

Amnesty International reports continued to document instances of Antizigan discrimination during the late 20th century, particularly in Romania, Serbia,[272] Slovakia,[273] Hungary,[274] Slovenia,[275] and Kosovo.[276] The European Union has recognized that discrimination against Romani must be addressed, and with the national Roma integration strategy they encourage member states to work towards greater Romani inclusion and upholding the rights of the Romani in the European Union.[277]

*projections for Serbia also include up to 97.000 Roma IDPs in Serbia[279]
Roma estimate percentage of population in European countries[278]
Country Percent
Bulgaria
 
 10.33%
North Macedonia
 
 9.59%
Slovakia
 
 9.17%
Romania
 
 8.32%
Serbia*
 
 8.18%
Hungary
 
 7.05%
Turkey
 
 5.97%
Spain
 
 3.21%
Albania
 
 3.18%
Montenegro
 
 2.95%
Moldova
 
 2.49%
Greece
 
 2.47%
Czech Republic
 
 1.96%
Kosovo
 
 1.47%

In Eastern Europe, Roma children often attend Roma Special Schools, separate from non-Roma children; these schools tend to offer a lower quality of education than the traditional education options accessible by non-Roma children, putting the Roma children at an educational disadvantage.[280]: 83 

The Romanis of Kosovo have been severely persecuted by ethnic Albanians since the end of the Kosovo War, and for the most part, the region's Romani community has been annihilated.[281]

Czechoslovakia carried out a policy of sterilization of Romani women, starting in 1973.[282] The dissidents of the Charter 77 denounced it in 1977–78 as a genocide, but the practice continued through the Velvet Revolution of 1989.[283] A 2005 report by the Czech Republic's independent ombudsman, Otakar Motejl, identified dozens of cases of coercive sterilization between 1979 and 2001, and called for criminal investigations and possible prosecution against several health care workers and administrators.[284]

In 2008, following the rape and subsequent murder of an Italian woman in Rome at the hands of a young man from a local Romani encampment,[285] the Italian government declared that Italy's Romani population represented a national security risk and it also declared that it was required to take swift action in order to address the emergenza nomadi (nomad emergency).[286] Specifically, officials in the Italian government accused the Romanies of being responsible for rising crime rates in urban areas.[287]

The 2008 deaths of Cristina and Violetta Djeordsevic, two Roma children who drowned while Italian beach-goers remained unperturbed, brought international attention to the relationship between Italians and the Roma people. Reviewing the situation in 2012, one Belgian magazine observed:

On International Roma Day, which falls on 8 April, the significant proportion of Europe's 12 million Roma who live in deplorable conditions will not have much to celebrate. And poverty is not the only worry for the community. Ethnic tensions are on the rise. In 2008, Roma camps came under attack in Italy, intimidation by racist parliamentarians is the norm in Hungary. Speaking in 1993, Václav Havel prophetically remarked that "the treatment of the Roma is a Litmus test for democracy": and democracy has been found wanting. The consequences of the transition to capitalism have been disastrous for the Roma. Under communism they had jobs, free housing and schooling. Now many are unemployed, many are losing their homes and racism is increasingly rewarded with impunity.[288]

The 2016 Pew Research poll found that Italians, in particular, hold strong anti-Roma views, with 82% of Italians expressing negative opinions about Roma. In Greece, 67%, in Hungary 64%, in France 61%, in Spain 49%, in Poland 47%, in the UK 45%, in Sweden 42%, in Germany 40%, and in the Netherlands[289] 37% had an unfavourable view of Roma.[290] The 2019 Pew Research poll found that 83% of Italians, 76% of Slovaks, 72% of Greeks, 68% of Bulgarians, 66% of Czechs, 61% of Lithuanians, 61% of Hungarians, 54% of Ukrainians, 52% of Russians, 51% of Poles, 44% of French, 40% of Spaniards, and 37% of Germans held unfavorable views of Roma.[291] IRES published in 2020 a survey which revealed that 72% of Romanians have a negative opinion about them.[292]

As of 2019, reports of anti-Roma incidents are increasing across Europe.[293] Discrimination against Roma remains widespread in Kosovo,[294] Romania,[295] Slovakia,[296] Bulgaria,[297][298] and the Czech Republic.[299][300] Roma communities across Ukraine have been the target of violent attacks.[301][302]

Roma refugees fleeing the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine have faced discrimination in Europe, including in Poland,[303] the Czech Republic,[304] and Moldova[305]

Concerning employment, on average, across the European states which were surveyed, 16% of Roma women were in paid work in 2016 compared to a third of men.[306]

Forced repatriation

Main article: Expulsion of Romani people from France

In the summer of 2010, French authorities demolished at least 51 illegal Roma camps and began the process of repatriating their residents to their countries of origin.[307] This followed tensions between the French state and Roma communities, which had been heightened after a traveller drove through a French police checkpoint, hit an officer, attempted to hit two more officers, and was then shot and killed by the police. In retaliation a group of Roma, armed with hatchets and iron bars, attacked the police station of Saint-Aignan, toppled traffic lights and road signs and burned three cars.[308][309] The French government has been accused of perpetrating these actions to pursue its political agenda.[310] EU Justice Commissioner Viviane Reding stated that the European Commission should take legal action against France over the issue, calling the deportations "a disgrace". A leaked file dated 5 August, sent from the Interior Ministry to regional police chiefs, included the instruction: "Three hundred camps or illegal settlements must be cleared within three months, Roma camps are a priority."[311]

Organizations and projects

Artistic representations

Main article: Romani people in fiction

Many depictions of Romani people in literature and art present romanticized narratives of mystical powers of fortune telling or irascible or passionate temper paired with an indomitable love of freedom and a habit of criminality. Romani were a popular subject in Venetian painting from the time of Giorgione at the start of the 16th century; the inclusion of such a figure adds an exotic oriental flavour to scenes. A Venetian Renaissance painting by Paris Bordone (c. 1530, Strasbourg) of the Holy Family in Egypt makes Elizabeth a Romani fortune-teller; the scene is otherwise located in a distinctly European landscape.[313]

Particularly notable are classics like the story Carmen by Prosper Mérimée and the opera based on it by Georges Bizet, Victor Hugo's The Hunchback of Notre Dame, Herge's The Castafiore Emerald, Miguel de Cervantes' La Gitanilla and George Borrow's Lavengro and The Romany Rye. The Romani were also depicted in A Midsummer Night's Dream, As You Like It, Othello and The Tempest, all by William Shakespeare.

The Romani were also heavily romanticized in the Soviet Union, a classic example being the 1975 film Tabor ukhodit v Nebo. A more realistic depiction of contemporary Romani in the Balkans, featuring Romani lay actors speaking in their native dialects, although still playing with established clichés of a Romani penchant for both magic and crime, was presented by Emir Kusturica in his Time of the Gypsies (1988) and Black Cat, White Cat (1998). The films of Tony Gatlif, a French director of Romani ethnicity, like Les Princes (1983), Latcho Drom (1993) and Gadjo Dilo (1997) also portray Romani life.

See also

General

Lists

Other

Notes

  1. ^ 5,400 per 2000 census.
  2. ^ This is a census figure. Some 736,981 (10% of the population) did not declare any ethnicity. There was not any option for a person to declare multiple ethnicities. In a report 25 February 2021 at the Wayback Machine of the census’ authors, the ethnic results of this census are identified as a "gross manipulation".
  3. ^ This is a census figure. There was an option to declare multiple ethnicities, so this figure includes Romani of multiple backgrounds. According to the 2016 microcensus 99.1% of Hungarian Romani declared Hungarian ethnic identity also.
  4. ^ Approximate estimate
  5. ^ a b c d e f g h This is a census figure.
  6. ^ This is a census figure. Some 368,136 (5.1% of the population) did not declare any ethnicity. There was not any option for a person to declare multiple ethnicities.
  7. ^ This is a census figure. Some 408,777 (7.5% of the population) did not declare any ethnicity. There was not any option for a person to declare multiple ethnicities.
  8. ^ This is a census figure. Less than 1% of the population did not declare any ethnicity. There was not any option for a person to declare multiple ethnicities.
  9. ^ This is a census figure. Less than 1% of the population did not declare any ethnicity.
  10. ^ This is a census figure including Romani, Ashkali and Balkan Egyptians.
  11. ^ This is a census figure. There was an additional 3,368 Balkan Egyptians. 390,938 (1% of the population) did not declare any ethnicity. The census is regarded as unreliable by the Council of Europe
  12. ^ This is a census figure. Some 25% of the population did not declare any ethnicity.
  13. ^ This is a census figure.
  14. ^ The Welsh language alphabet lacks the letter "k".

Kosovo status

  1. ^ a b The political status of Kosovo is disputed. Having unilaterally declared independence from Serbia in 2008, Kosovo is formally recognised as an independent state by 101 UN member states (with another 13 states recognising it at some point but then withdrawing their recognition) and 92 states not recognizing it, while Serbia continues to claim it as part of its own territory.

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January 03, 2023
romani, people, confused, with, romanians, people, from, rome, roman, people, other, uses, romani, disambiguation, gypsy, gypsies, gipsy, gipsies, redirect, here, other, uses, gypsy, disambiguation, gipsy, disambiguation, romani, also, spelled, romany, rromani. Not to be confused with Romanians people from Rome or Roman people For other uses see Romani disambiguation Gypsy Gypsies Gipsy and Gipsies redirect here For other uses see Gypsy disambiguation and Gipsy disambiguation The Romani also spelled Romany or Rromani ˈ r oʊ m e n i ˈ r ɒ colloquially known as the Roma are an Indo Aryan ethnic group traditionally nomadic itinerants They live in Europe and Anatolia and have diaspora populations located worldwide with significant concentrations in the Americas Romani peopleRomani flag created in 1933 and accepted at the 1971 World Romani CongressTotal population2 20 million 1 2 3 4 United States1 000 000 estimated with Romani ancestry note 1 5 6 Brazil800 000 0 4 7 Spain750 000 1 500 000 1 9 3 7 8 9 10 11 12 Romania569 500 3 4 13 Turkey500 000 2 750 000 3 8 9 14 15 16 France500 000 1 200 000 17 18 Bulgaria325 343 note 2 750 000 4 9 10 3 19 20 Hungary309 632 note 3 870 000 3 21 8 8 21 22 Argentina300 000 note 4 23 24 Czech Republic250 000 25 26 United Kingdom225 000 0 4 27 9 28 Russia205 007 note 5 825 000 0 6 9 Serbia147 604 note 6 600 000 2 1 8 2 29 30 9 Italy120 000 180 000 0 3 31 9 Greece111 000 300 000 2 7 32 33 Germany105 000 0 1 9 34 Slovakia105 738 note 7 490 000 2 1 9 0 35 36 37 Iran2 000 110 000 38 39 North Macedonia53 879 note 8 197 000 9 6 9 40 Sweden50 000 100 000 9 41 Ukraine47 587 note 9 260 000 0 6 9 42 Portugal40 000 52 000 0 5 9 43 Austria40 000 50 000 0 6 44 Kosovo a 36 000 note 10 2 9 45 Netherlands32 000 40 000 0 2 9 Poland17 049 note 5 32 500 0 1 9 46 Croatia16 975 note 5 35 000 0 8 9 47 Mexico15 850 48 Chile15 000 20 000 49 Moldova12 778 note 5 107 100 3 0 9 50 Finland10 000 12 000 est 0 2 51 Bosnia and Herzegovina8 864 note 5 58 000 1 5 9 52 Colombia2 649 8 000 23 53 Albania8 301 note 11 9 43 54 Belarus7 316 note 5 47 500 0 5 55 Latvia7 193 note 5 12 500 0 6 9 Canada5 255 80 000 56 57 Montenegro5 251 note 5 20 000 3 7 58 Czech Republic5 199 note 12 40 370 note 13 Romani speakers 250 000 1 9 59 60 Australia5 000 25 000 61 Slovenia3 246 9 Lithuania2 571 9 Denmark5 500 62 Ireland22 435 9 Georgia1 200 9 Belgium30 000 63 Cyprus1 250 64 LanguagesRomani language Para Romani varieties languages of native regionsReligionPredominantly Christianity 65 Islam 65 Shaktism tradition of Hinduism 65 Romani mythologyBuddhism minority 66 67 Judaism conversion through marriage to Jewish spouses 68 69 Related ethnic groupsDoms Lom Dom other Indo AryansIn the English language the Romani people are widely known by the exonym Gypsies or Gipsies 70 which is considered pejorative by many Romani people due to its connotations of illegality and irregularity as well as its historical use as a racial slur 71 72 73 For versions some of which are cognates of the word in many other languages e g French Tzigane or gitan Spanish gitano Italian zingaro Portuguese cigano Romanian țigan and German Zigeuner this perception is either very small or non existent 74 75 At the first World Romani Congress in 1971 its attendees unanimously voted to reject the use of all exonyms for the Romani people including Gypsy due to their aforementioned negative and stereotypical connotations 72 Linguistic and genetic evidence suggests that the Roma originated in the Indian subcontinent in particular the region of Rajasthan 76 77 78 79 80 They are dispersed but their most concentrated populations are located in Europe especially Central Eastern and Southern Europe Southern France as well as Western Asia mainly Turkey The Romani people arrived in West Asia and Europe around the 14th century 81 Since the 19th century some Romani people have also migrated to the Americas There are an estimated one million Roma in the United States 6 and 800 000 in Brazil most of whose ancestors emigrated in the 19th century from Eastern Europe Brazil also includes a notable Romani community descended from people deported by the Portuguese Empire during the Portuguese Inquisition 82 In migrations since the late 19th century Romani people have also moved to other countries in South America and to Canada Though often confused with them the Romani people are culturally different from Irish Travellers and the Yenish people two groups who may be related to each other 83 page needed 84 Romani is an Indo Aryan language with strong Balkan and Greek influence 85 It is divided into several dialects which together are estimated to have more than two million speakers 86 Because it has traditionally been an oral language many Romani people are native speakers of the dominant language in their country of residence or of mixed languages combining the dominant language with a dialect of Romani those varieties are sometimes called Para Romani 87 The Romani began to leave India about 1 000 years ago They most likely left to escape the invasion of Afghan general Mahmud of Ghazni early in the 11th century Mahmud s troops likely pushed the Romani out of northern India and into the area that is now Pakistan Afghanistan and Iran 88 Contents 1 Population and subgroups 1 1 Romani population 1 2 Romani homeland 1 3 Romani subgroups 1 4 Diaspora 2 Origin 2 1 Shahnameh legend 2 2 Linguistic evidence 2 3 Genetic evidence 2 3 1 Full genome analysis 2 4 Possible migration route 3 Names 3 1 Endonyms 3 2 Romani usage 3 3 English usage 3 4 Other designations 4 History 4 1 Arrival in Europe 4 2 Early modern history 4 3 Modern history 4 3 1 World War II 4 3 2 Post 1945 5 Society and traditional culture 5 1 Belonging and exclusion 5 2 Religion 5 2 1 Beliefs 5 2 2 Deities and saints 5 2 3 Balkans 5 2 4 Other regions 5 3 Music 6 Folklore 7 Cuisine 8 Contemporary art and culture 9 Language 10 Persecutions 10 1 Historical persecution 10 2 Forced assimilation 10 3 Porajmos Romani Holocaust 11 Contemporary issues 11 1 Forced repatriation 12 Organizations and projects 13 Artistic representations 14 See also 15 Notes 16 References 17 Sources 18 Further reading 19 External linksPopulation and subgroups EditRomani population Edit Main article Romani populations For a variety of reasons many Romanis choose not to register their ethnic identity in official censuses There are an estimated 10 million Romani people in Europe as of 2019 89 although some Romani organizations give estimates as high as 14 million 90 Significant Romani populations are found in the Balkans in some Central European states in Spain France Russia and Ukraine In the European Union there are an estimated 6 million Romanis 91 Several million more Romanis may live outside Europe in particular in the Middle East and in the Americas 92 Romani homeland Edit There is no single Romani homeland 93 A home country for the Romani people has been proposed under the name Romanistan 94 Romani subgroups Edit See also Romani people in Poland and Polska Roma Three Finnish Romani women in Helsinki Finland in 1930s Like the Roma in general many different ethnonyms are given to subgroups of Roma Sometimes a subgroup uses more than one endonym is commonly known by an exonym or erroneously by the endonym of another subgroup The only name approaching an all encompassing self description is Rom 95 Even when subgroups do not use the name they all acknowledge a common origin and a dichotomy between themselves and Gadjo non Roma 95 For instance while the main group of Roma in German speaking countries refer to themselves as Sinti their name for their original language is Romanes Subgroups have been described as in part a result of the castes and subcastes in India which the founding population of Rom almost certainly experienced in their South Asian urheimat 95 96 Debret Jean Baptiste c 1820 Interior of a gipsy s house in Brazil Gypsies camping Welsh Romanies near Swansea 1953 Many groups use names apparently derived from the Romani word kalo or calo meaning black or absorbing all light This closely resembles words for black or dark in Indo Aryan languages e g Sanskrit क ल kala black of a dark colour 95 Likewise the name of the Dom or Domba people of North India to whom the Roma have genetic 97 cultural and linguistic links has come to imply dark skinned in some Indian languages 98 Hence names such as kale and cale may have originated as an exonym or a euphemism for Roma Other endonyms for Romani include for example Ashkali Albanian speaking Muslim Roma communities in the Balkans 99 Arlije also Erlides Yerli meaning local from the Turkish word Yerli in Balkans and Turkey to describe sedentary Muslim roma Bashalde Hungarian Slovak Roma diaspora in the US from the late 19th century 100 Cerge also Cergarja Nomad Nomadic Lifestyle Muslim Roma at Balkans and Turkey Cale is the endonym used by both the Spanish Roma gitanos and Portuguese Roma ciganos 101 Calo is the language spoken by the cale Dasikane or Daskane meaning slaves or servants a Religionym and confessionym for Orthodox Christian Roma in the Balkans 95 Sepecides meaning Basketmaker Muslim roma in west thrace Greece Kaale in Finland and Sweden 101 95 Garachi Shia Islam followers Roma people in Azerbaijan Gurbeti Muslim Roma in Northern Cyprus Turkey and Balkans Kale Kala or Valshanange Welsh English endonym used by some Roma clans in Wales note 14 Romanichal also live in Wales Romani in Spain are also attributed to the Kale 12 Horahane or Xoraxai also known as Turkish Roma Muslim Roma a Religionym and confessionym in the Balkans for Muslim Romani people 95 Lalleri from Austria Germany and the western Czech Republic including the former Sudetenland 102 103 Lovari from Hungary 104 known in Serbia as Machvaya Machavaya Machwaya or Macwaia 95 Lyuli in Central Asian countries Romanlar in Turkey Turkish speaking Muslim roma in Turkey also called Cingene or Sopar with all subgroups who named after their professions like Cambazi Acrobatics and horse trading Sunnetci Circumciser like a Mohel Kuyumcu Goldsmith Subasi Water carrier Cicekci Flower seller Sepetci Basketmaker Ayici Bear leader Kalayci Tinsmith Muzisyen Musician Sarkici Singer Demirci Blacksmith etc but the majority of Turkish Roma work as day laborers too 95 Rom in Italy Roma in Romania commonly known by majority ethnic Romanians as Țigani including many subgroups defined by occupation Boyash also known as Băieși Lingurari Ludar Ludari or Rudari who coalesced in the Apuseni Mountains of Transylvania Băieși is a Romanian word for miners Lingurari means spoon makers 105 Ludar Ludari and Rudari may mean woodworkers or miners 106 There is a semantic overlap due to the homophony or merging of lemmas with different meanings from at least two languages the Serbian rudar miner and ruda stick staff rod bar pole in Hungarian rud 107 and in Romanian rudă 108 Churari 109 from Romanian Ciurari sieve makers Zlătari gold smiths 95 Ursari bear trainers from Moldovan Romanian urs bear 95 Ungaritza blacksmiths and bladesmiths 110 Argintari silversmiths 110 Aurari goldsmiths 110 Florari flower sellers 110 Lăutari singers 110 Kalderash from Romanian căldărar lit bucketmaker meaning kettlemaker tinsmith tinker also in Moldova and Ukraine 110 Roma or Romove Czech Republic Roma or Romovia Slovakia Romanichal in the United Kingdom 101 95 emigrated also to the United States Canada and Australia 111 Romanisael in Norway and Sweden Roms or Manouche from manush people in Romani in France 95 112 Romungro or Carpathian Romani from eastern Hungary and neighbouring parts of the Carpathians 113 Sinti or Zinti predominantly in Germany 101 95 114 and Northern Italy Sinti do not refer to themselves as Roma although their language is called Romanes 95 Zargari people Shia Muslim Roma in Iran who once came from Rumelia Southern Bulgaria from the Maritsa Valley in Ottoman Time and settled in Persia Diaspora Edit Main article Romani diaspora Countries with a significant Romani population according to unofficial estimates 1 000 000 100 000 10 000 Romani girl in Gujarat India The Roma people have a number of distinct populations the largest being the Roma who reached Anatolia and the Balkans about the early 12th century from a migration out of northwestern India beginning about 600 years earlier 115 116 They settled in the areas that are now Turkey Greece Serbia Romania Moldova Bulgaria North Macedonia Hungary Slovakia and Spain by order of volume From the Balkans they migrated throughout Europe and Iberian Cale or Calo and in the nineteenth and later centuries to the Americas The Romani population in the United States is estimated at more than one million 117 Brazil has the second largest Romani population in the Americas estimated at 800 000 by the 2011 census The Romani people are mainly called ciganos by non Romani ethnic Brazilians Most of them belong to the ethnic subgroup Cales Kale of the Iberian peninsula Juscelino Kubitschek Brazilian president during 1956 1961 term was 50 Czech Romani by his mother s bloodline and Washington Luis last president of the First Brazilian Republic 1926 1930 term had Portuguese Kale ancestry Unfortunately the persecution against the gypsy people has led to the fact that many of the cultural practices have been extinguished hidden or modified in order to survive in a country that has excluded them ethnically and culturally The very common Carnivals throughout the entire Brazilian territory are one of the few spaces in which the Romani people can still express their cultural traditions being a moment in which they can practice their dances and rituals Traditions include the so called carnival wedding in which a child of the male sex is disguised as a bride or the famous Romani Dance which is picturesquely simulated with the women of the town parading in their traditional attire 118 There is no official or reliable count of the Romani populations worldwide 119 Many Romani refuse to register their ethnic identity in official censuses for fear of discrimination 120 better source needed Others are descendants of intermarriage with local populations some who no longer identify only as Romani and some who don t identify as Romani at all As of the early 2000s an estimated 3 8 121 page needed to 9 million Romani people lived in Europe and Asia Minor 122 page needed although some Romani organizations estimate numbers as high as 14 million 123 Significant Romani populations are found in the Balkan peninsula in some Central European states in Spain France Russia and Ukraine The total number of Romani living outside Europe are primarily in the Middle East and North Africa and in the Americas and are estimated in total at more than two million Some countries do not collect data by ethnicity The Romani people identify as distinct ethnicities based in part on territorial cultural and dialectal differences and self designation 124 125 126 127 Origin EditMain article History of the Romani people Genetic findings suggest an Indian origin for Roma 115 116 128 Because Romani groups did not keep chronicles of their history or have oral accounts of it most hypotheses about the Romani migration s early history are based on linguistic theory 129 There is also no known record of a migration from India to Europe from medieval times that can be connected indisputably to Roma 130 Shahnameh legend Edit According to a legend reported in the Persian epic poem the Shahnameh from Iran and repeated by several modern authors the Sasanian king Bahram V Gōr learned towards the end of his reign 421 439 that the poor could not afford to enjoy music and he asked the king of India to send him ten thousand luris lute playing experts When the luris arrived Bahram gave each one an ox a donkey and a donkey load of wheat so that they could live on agriculture and play music for free for the poor However the luris ate the oxen and the wheat and came back a year later with their cheeks hollowed with hunger The king angered with their having wasted what he had given them ordered them to pack up their bags and go wandering around the world on their donkeys 131 Linguistic evidence Edit The linguistic evidence has indisputably shown that the roots of the Romani language lie in India the language has grammatical characteristics of Indian languages and shares with them a large part of the basic lexicon for example regarding body parts or daily routines 132 Romani and Domari share some similarities agglutination of postpositions of the second layer or case marking clitics to the nominal stem concord markers for the past tense the neutralisation of gender marking in the plural and the use of the oblique case as an accusative 133 This has prompted much discussion about the relationships between these two languages Domari was once thought to be a sister language of Romani the two languages having split after the departure from the Indian subcontinent but later research suggests that the differences between them are significant enough to treat them as two separate languages within the Central zone Hindustani group of languages The Dom and the Rom therefore likely descend from two migration waves out of India separated by several centuries 134 135 In phonology the Romani language shares several isoglosses with the Central branch of Indo Aryan languages especially in the realization of some sounds of the Old Indo Aryan However it also preserves several dental clusters In regards to verb morphology Romani follows exactly the same pattern of northwestern languages such as Kashmiri and Shina through the adoption of oblique enclitic pronouns as person markers lending credence to the theory of their Central Indian origin and a subsequent migration to northwestern India Though the retention of dental clusters suggests a break from central languages during the transition from Old to Middle Indo Aryan the overall morphology suggests that the language participated in some of the significant developments leading toward the emergence of New Indo Aryan languages 136 The following table presents the numerals in the Romani Domari and Lomavren languages with the corresponding terms in Sanskrit Hindi Bengali and Sinhala to demonstrate the similarities 137 LanguagesNumbers Romani Domari Lomavren Sanskrit Hindi Bengali Sinhala1 ekh jekh yika yak yek eka ek ek eka2 duj di lui dva do dui deka3 trin taeren terin tri tin tin thuna thri4 star star isdor catva raḥ car char hathara sathara5 pandz pandz pendz panca pa c panch paha6 sov sas ses ṣaṭ chah chhoy haya saya 7 ifta xaut haft sapta sat sat hata satha8 oxto xaist hast aṣṭa aṭh aṭh ata9 inja na nu nava nau noy nawaya10 des des las dasa das dosh dahaya20 bis wis vist viṃsati bis bish wissa100 sel saj saj sata sau eksho siiya shathakayaGenetic evidence Edit Two Gypsies by Francisco Iturrino Genetic findings in 2012 suggest the Romani originated in northwestern India and migrated as a group 115 116 138 According to the study the ancestors of present scheduled castes and scheduled tribes populations of northern India traditionally referred to collectively as the Ḍoma are the likely ancestral populations of modern European Roma 139 In December 2012 additional findings appeared to confirm the Roma came from a single group that left northwestern India about 1 500 years ago 116 They reached the Balkans about 900 years ago 115 and then spread throughout Europe The team also found the Roma to display genetic isolation as well as differential gene flow in time and space with non Romani Europeans 115 116 Genetic research published in European Journal of Human Genetics has revealed that over 70 of males belong to a single lineage that appears unique to the Roma 140 Genetic evidence supports the medieval migration from India The Romani have been described as a conglomerate of genetically isolated founder populations 114 while a number of common Mendelian disorders among Romanies from all over Europe indicates a common origin and founder effect 114 A 2020 whole genome study confirmed the Northwest Indian origins and also confirmed substantial Balkan and Middle Eastern ancestry 141 A study from 2001 by Gresham et al suggests a limited number of related founders compatible with a small group of migrants splitting from a distinct caste or tribal group 142 The same study found that a single lineage found across Romani populations accounts for almost one third of Romani males 142 A 2004 study by Morar et al concluded that the Romani population was founded approximately 32 40 generations ago with secondary and tertiary founder events occurring approximately 16 25 generations ago 143 Haplogroup H M82 is a major lineage cluster in the Balkan Romani group accounting for approximately 60 of the total 144 Haplogroup H is uncommon in Europe but present in the Indian subcontinent and Sri Lanka A study of 444 people representing three ethnic groups in North Macedonia found mtDNA haplogroups M5a1 and H7a1a were dominant in Romanies 13 7 and 10 3 respectively 145 Y DNA composition of Muslim Romani people from Suto Orizari Municipality in North Macedonia based on 57 samples 146 Haplogroup H 59 6 Haplogroup E 29 8 Haplogroup I 5 3 Haplogroup R 3 of which the half are R1b and many are R1a Haplogroup G 1 8 A Roma makes a complaint to a local magistrate in Hungary by Sandor Bihari 1886 Y DNA Haplogroup H1a occurs in Romani at frequencies 7 70 Unlike ethnic Hungarians among Hungarian and Slovakian Romani subpopulations Haplogroup E M78 and I1 usually occur above 10 and sometimes over 20 While among Slovakian and Tiszavasvari Romani the dominant haplogroup is H1a among Tokaj Romani is Haplogroup J2a 23 while among Taktaharkany Romani is Haplogroup I2a 21 147 Five rather consistent founder lineages throughout the subpopulations were found among Romani J M67 and J M92 J2 H M52 H1a1 and I P259 I1 Haplogroup I P259 as H is not found at frequencies of over 3 percent among host populations while haplogroups E and I are absent in South Asia The lineages E V13 I P37 I2a and R M17 R1a may represent gene flow from the host populations Bulgarian Romanian and Greek Romani are dominated by Haplogroup H M82 H1a1 while among Spanish Romani J2 is prevalent 148 In Serbia among Kosovo a and Belgrade Romani Haplogroup H prevails while among Vojvodina Romani H drops to 7 percent and E V13 rises to a prevailing level 149 Among non Roma Europeans Haplogroup H is extremely rare peaking at 7 percent among Albanians from Tirana 150 and 11 percent among Bulgarian Turks It occurs at 5 percent among Hungarians 147 although the carriers might be of Romani origin 148 Among non Roma speaking Europeans at 2 percent among Slovaks 151 2 percent among Croats 152 1 percent among Macedonians from Skopje 3 percent among Macedonian Albanians 153 1 percent among Serbs from Belgrade 154 3 percent among Bulgarians from Sofia 155 1 percent among Austrians and Swiss 156 3 percent among Romanians from Ploiești 1 percent among Turks 151 The Ottoman occupation of the Balkans also left a significant genetic mark on the Y DNA of Romani people creating a higher frequency of the haplogroups J and E3b in Roma populations from the region 157 Full genome analysis Edit See also Genetics and archaeogenetics of South Asia The most common paternal haplogroup among Romani is the South Asian Y chromosome H most commonly found among Dravidian peoples 144 A full genome autosomal DNA study on 186 Roma samples from Europe in 2019 found that modern Roma people are characterized by a complex admixture of West Eurasian lineages mostly a composition of South Asian and various local European mostly Balkan derived ancestries The autosomal genetic data links the proto Roma to groups in Northwest India specifically Punjabi and Gujarati samples although their paternal lineages are more common in Southern India among Dravidian speaking populations The authors argue that this may point to a founder effect among early Romani people during their ethnogenesis or shortly after they migrated out of the Indian subcontinent Subsequently after arriving in Europe they partially mixed with local European groups in the Balkans 158 Possible migration route Edit The migration of the Romanis through the Middle East and Northern Africa to Europe The Romani may have emerged from what is the modern Indian state of Rajasthan 76 migrating to the northwest the Punjab region of the Indian subcontinent around 250 BCE 76 Their subsequent westward migration possibly in waves is now believed to have occurred beginning in about 500 CE 116 It has also been suggested that emigration from India may have taken place in the context of the raids by Mahmud of Ghazni As these soldiers were defeated they were moved west with their families into the Byzantine Empire 159 The author Ralph Lilley Turner theorised a central Indian origin of Romani followed by a migration to Northwest India as it shares a number of ancient isoglosses with Central Indo Aryan languages in relation to realization of some sounds of Old Indo Aryan This is lent further credence by its sharing exactly the same pattern of northwestern languages such as Kashmiri and Shina through the adoption of oblique enclitic pronouns as person markers The overall morphology suggests that Romani participated in some of the significant developments leading toward the emergence of New Indo Aryan languages thus indicating that the proto Romani did not leave the Indian subcontinent until late in the second half of the first millennium 136 160 In February 2016 during the International Roma Conference then Indian Minister of External Affairs Sushma Swaraj stated that the people of the Roma community were children of India 161 The conference ended with a recommendation to the government of India to recognize the Roma community spread across 30 countries as a part of the Indian diaspora 162 Names EditMain article Names of the Romani people Endonyms Edit Rom means husband in the Romani language 163 It has the variants dom and lom which may be related to the Sanskrit words dam pati lord of the house husband dama to subdue lom hair lomaka hairy loman roman hairy romaca man with beard and long hair 164 Another possible origin is from Sanskrit ड म doma member of a low caste of travelling musicians and dancers Despite their presence in the country and neighboring nations the word is not related in any way to the name of Romania Romani usage Edit In the Romani language Rom is a masculine noun meaning husband of the Roma ethnic group with the plural Roma The feminine of Rom in the Romani language is Romni Romli Romnije or Romlije However in most cases in other languages Rom is now used for individuals regardless of gender 165 Romani is the feminine adjective while Romano is the masculine adjective Some Romanies use Rom or Roma as an ethnic name while others such as the Sinti or the Romanichal do not use this term as a self ascription for the entire ethnic group 166 Sometimes rom and romani are spelled with a double r i e rrom and rromani In this case rr is used to represent the phoneme ʀ also written as r and rh which in some Romani dialects has remained different from the one written with a single r The rr spelling is common in certain institutions such as the INALCO Institute in Paris or used in certain countries e g Romania to distinguish from the endonym homonym for Romanians sg roman pl romani 167 In Norway Romani is used exclusively for an older Northern Romani speaking population which arrived in the 16th century while Rom Romanes is used to describe Vlax Romani speaking groups which have arrived since the 19th century 168 English usage Edit A Romani wagon pictured in 2009 in Grandborough Fields in Warwickshire Grandborough Fields Road is a popular spot for travelling people In the English language according to the Oxford English Dictionary Rom is a noun with the plural Roma or Roms and an adjective while Romani Romany is also a noun with the plural Romani the Romani Romanies or Romanis and an adjective Both Rom and Romani have been in use in English since the 19th century as an alternative for Gypsy 169 Romani was sometimes spelled Rommany but more often Romany while today Romani is the most popular spelling Occasionally the double r spelling e g Rroma Rromani mentioned above is also encountered in English texts The term Roma is increasingly encountered 170 171 as a generic term for the Romani people 172 173 174 Because not all Romani people use the word Romani as an adjective the term became a noun for the entire ethnic group 175 Today the term Romani is used by some organizations including the United Nations and the US Library of Congress 167 However the Council of Europe and other organizations consider that Roma is the correct term referring to all related groups regardless of their country of origin and recommend that Romani be restricted to the language and culture Romani language Romani culture 165 The United Kingdom government uses the term Roma as a sub group of White in its ethnic classification system 176 The standard assumption is that the demonyms of the Romani people Lom and Dom share the same origin 177 178 Other designations Edit Main article Names of the Romani people The English term Gypsy or Gipsy originates from the Middle English gypcian short for Egipcien The Spanish term Gitano and French Gitan have similar etymologies They are ultimately derived from the Greek Aigyptioi Aigyptioi meaning Egyptian via Latin This designation owes its existence to the belief common in the Middle Ages that the Romani or some related group such as the Middle Eastern Dom people were itinerant Egyptians 179 180 This belief appears to be derived from verses in the Biblical Book of Ezekiel 29 6 and 12 13 which refer to the Egyptians being scattered among the nations by an angry God According to one narrative they were exiled from Egypt as punishment for allegedly harbouring the infant Jesus 181 In his book The Zincali an account of the Gypsies of Spain George Borrow notes that when they first appeared in Germany it was under the character of Egyptians doing penance for their having refused hospitality to Mary and her son As described in Victor Hugo s novel The Hunchback of Notre Dame the medieval French referred to the Romanies as Egyptiens This exonym is sometimes written with capital letter to show that it designates an ethnic group 182 However the word is sometimes considered derogatory because of its negative and stereotypical associations 173 183 184 185 The Council of Europe consider that Gypsy or equivalent terms as well as administrative terms such as Gens du Voyage are not in line with European recommendations 165 In Britain many Romani proudly identify as Gypsies 186 In North America the word Gypsy is most commonly used as a reference to Romani ethnicity though lifestyle and fashion are at times also referenced by using this word 187 Another common designation of the Romani people which can be considered derogatory is Cingane alt Cingene Tsinganoi Zigar Zigeuner Tschingaren likely deriving from the Persian word چنگانه chingane derived from the Turkic word cigan meaning poor person 188 It is also possible that the origin of this word is Athinganoi the name of a Christian sect with whom the Romani or some related group could have become associated with in the past 180 189 190 191 History EditMain article History of the Romani people See also Timeline of Romani history Arrival in Europe Edit According to a 2012 genomic study the Romani reached the Balkans as early as the 12th century 115 A document of 1068 describing an event in Constantinople mentions Atsingani probably referring to Romani 192 Later historical records of the Romani reaching south eastern Europe are from the 14th century in 1322 after leaving Ireland on a pilgrimage to Jerusalem Irish Franciscan friar Symon Semeonis encountered a migrant group of Romani outside the town of Candia modern Heraklion in Crete calling them the descendants of Cain his account is the earliest surviving description by a Western chronicler of the Romani in Europe In 1350 Ludolph of Saxony mentioned a similar people with a unique language whom he called Mandapolos a word possibly derived from the Greek word mantes meaning prophet or fortune teller 193 In the 14th century Romani are recorded in Venetian territories including Methoni and Nafplio in the Peloponnese and Corfu 192 Around 1360 a fiefdom called the Feudum Acinganorum was established in Corfu which mainly used Romani serfs and to which the Romani on the island were subservient 194 By the 1440s they were recorded in Germany 195 and by the 16th century Scotland and Sweden 196 Some Romani migrated from Persia through North Africa reaching the Iberian Peninsula in the 15th century The two currents met in France 197 First arrival of the Romanies outside Bern in the 15th century described by the chronicler as getoufte heiden baptized heathens and drawn with dark skin and wearing Saracen style clothing and weapons 198 Around the year 1000 an event in northern India about the time of Muslim invaders likely triggered the Roma s mass exodus The precise event is still unknown but the possible reasons include a conflict that resulted in their persecution a natural disaster or even recruitment into a mercenary military The Roma people journeyed towards the Caucasus and China as well as through the Middle East and Greece towards the Balkans they covered all corners of today s Central and Western Europe by the end of the 16th century Romanis typically traveled in patriarchal extended families consisting of up to hundreds of people 199 Early modern history Edit The examples and perspective in this subsection might have an extensive bias or disproportional coverage towards Western and Central Europe Please improve this article or discuss the issue on the talk page May 2022 Learn how and when to remove this template message Gypsy Family in Prison 1864 painting by Carl d Unker An actual imprisoned family in Germany served as the models The reason for their imprisonment remains unknown Their early history shows a mixed reception Although 1385 marks the first recorded transaction for a Romani slave in Wallachia they were issued safe conduct by Holy Roman Emperor Sigismund in 1417 Romanis were ordered expelled from the Meissen region of Germany in 1416 Lucerne in 1471 Milan in 1493 France in 1504 Catalonia in 1512 Sweden in 1525 England in 1530 see Egyptians Act 1530 and Denmark in 1536 From 1510 onwards any Romani found in Switzerland were to be executed while in England beginning in 1554 and Denmark beginning of 1589 any Romani which did not leave within a month were to be executed Portugal began deportations of Romanis to its colonies in 1538 200 A 1596 English statute gave Romanis special privileges that other wanderers lacked France passed a similar law in 1683 Catherine the Great of Russia declared the Romanis crown slaves a status superior to serfs but also kept them out of certain parts of the capital 201 In 1595 Ștefan Răzvan overcame his birth into slavery and became the Voivode Prince of Moldavia 200 An 1852 Wallachian poster advertising an auction of Romani slaves in Bucharest Since a royal edict by Charles II in 1695 Spanish Romanis had been restricted to certain towns 202 An official edict in 1717 restricted them to only 75 towns and districts so that they would not be concentrated in any one region In the Great Gypsy Round up Romani were arrested and imprisoned by the Spanish Monarchy in 1749 During the latter part of the 17th century around the Franco Dutch War both France and the Dutch Republic needed thousands of men to fight Some recruitment took the form of rounding up vagrants and the poor to work the galleys and provide the armies labour force With this background Romanis were targets of both the French and the Dutch After the wars and into the first decade of the 18th century Romanis were slaughtered with impunity throughout Holland Romanis called heiden by the Dutch wandered throughout the rural areas of Europe and became the societal pariahs of the age Heidenjachten translated as heathen hunt happened throughout Holland in an attempt to eradicate them 203 Although some Romani could be kept as slaves in Wallachia and Moldavia until abolition in 1856 the majority traveled as free nomads with their wagons as alluded to in the spoked wheel symbol in the Romani flag 204 Elsewhere in Europe they were subjected to ethnic cleansing abduction of their children and forced labour In England Romani were sometimes expelled from small communities or hanged in France they were branded and their heads were shaved in Moravia and Bohemia the women were marked by their ears being severed As a result large groups of the Romani moved to the East toward Poland which was more tolerant and Russia where the Romani were treated more fairly as long as they paid the annual taxes 205 Modern history Edit Romani began emigrating to North America in colonial times with small groups recorded in Virginia and French Louisiana Larger scale Roma emigration to the United States began in the 1860s with Romanichal groups from Great Britain The most significant number immigrated in the early 20th century mainly from the Vlax group of Kalderash Many Romani also settled in South America Sinti and other Romani about to be deported from Germany 22 May 1940 World War II Edit Main article Porajmos During World War II the Nazis embarked on a systematic genocide of the Romani a process known in Romani as the Porajmos 206 Romanies were marked for extermination and sentenced to forced labor and imprisonment in concentration camps They were often killed on sight especially by the Einsatzgruppen paramilitary death squads on the Eastern Front 207 The total number of victims has been variously estimated at between 220 000 and 1 500 000 208 The Romani people were also persecuted in Nazi puppet states In the Independent State of Croatia the Ustasa killed almost the entire Roma population of 25 000 The concentration camp system of Jasenovac run by the Ustasa militia and the Croat political police were responsible for the deaths of between 15 000 and 20 000 Roma 209 Post 1945 Edit In Czechoslovakia they were labeled a socially degraded stratum and Romani women were sterilized as part of a state policy to reduce their population This policy was implemented with large financial incentives threats of denying future welfare payments with misinformation or after administering drugs 210 211 An official inquiry from the Czech Republic resulting in a report December 2005 concluded that the Communist authorities had practised an assimilation policy towards Romanis which included efforts by social services to control the birth rate in the Romani community The problem of sexual sterilisation carried out in the Czech Republic either with improper motivation or illegally exists said the Czech Public Defender of Rights recommending state compensation for women affected between 1973 and 1991 212 New cases were revealed up until 2004 in both the Czech Republic and Slovakia Germany Norway Sweden and Switzerland all have histories of coercive sterilization of minorities and other groups 213 Society and traditional culture EditMain article Romani society and culture This section needs additional citations for verification Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources Unsourced material may be challenged and removed June 2016 Learn how and when to remove this template message Munster Sebastian 1552 A Gipsy Family The Cosmographia facsimile of a woodcut Basle Nomadic Roma family traveling in Moldavia 1837 The traditional Romanies place a high value on the extended family Virginity is essential in unmarried women Both men and women often marry young there has been controversy in several countries over the Romani practice of child marriage 214 Romani law establishes that the man s family must pay a bride price to the bride s parents but only traditional families still follow it Once married the woman joins the husband s family where her main job is to tend to her husband s and her children s needs and take care of her in laws The power structure in the traditional Romani household has at its top the oldest man or grandfather and men in general have more authority than women Women gain respect and power as they get older Young wives begin gaining authority once they have children 215 Traditionally as can be seen on paintings and photos some Roma men wear shoulder length hair and a mustache as well as an earring Roma women generally have long hair and Xoraxane Roma women often dye it blonde with henna Romani social behavior is strictly regulated by Indian social customs 216 marime or marhime still respected by most Roma and by most older generations of Sinti This regulation affects many aspects of life and is applied to actions people and things parts of the human body are considered impure the genital organs because they produce emissions and the rest of the lower body Clothes for the lower body as well as the clothes of menstruating women are washed separately Items used for eating are also washed in a different place Childbirth is considered impure and must occur outside the dwelling place The mother is deemed to be impure for forty days after giving birth 217 Death is considered impure and affects the whole family of the dead who remain impure for a period of time In contrast to the practice of cremating the dead Romani dead must be buried 218 Cremation and burial are both known from the time of the Rigveda and both are widely practiced in Hinduism today the general tendency is for Hindus to practice cremation though some communities in modern day South India tend to bury their dead 219 Animals that are considered to be having unclean habits are not eaten by the community 220 Belonging and exclusion Edit Main articles Romanipen and Gadjo non Romani In Romani philosophy Romanipen also romanypen romanipe romanype romanimos romaimos romaniya is the totality of the Romani spirit Romani culture Romani Law being a Romani a set of Romani strains clarification needed An ethnic Romani is considered a gadjo in the Romani society if they have no Romanipen Sometimes a non Romani may be considered a Romani if they do have Romanipen Usually this is an adopted child It has been hypothesized that this owes more to a framework of culture than a simple adherence to historically received rules 221 Religion Edit Christian Romanies during the pilgrimage to Saintes Maries de la Mer in France 1980s Two Orthodox Christian Romanies in Cluj Napoca Romania Romani and bear Belgrade Banovo brdo 1980s Most Romani people are Christian 222 others Muslim some retained their ancient faith of Hinduism from their original homeland of India while others have their own religion and political organization 223 Theravada Buddhism influenced by the Dalit Buddhist movement have become popular in recent times among Hungarian Roma 66 67 Some Roma practice witchcraft and palmistry 224 Beliefs Edit The modern day Romani people adopted Christianity or Islam depending on the regions through which they had migrated 225 Muslim Roma are found in Turkey Bosnia and Herzegovina Albania Egypt Kosovo North Macedonia Serbia Bulgaria and Iran forming a very significant proportion of the Romani people In neighboring countries such as Romania and Greece most Romani inhabitants follow the practice of Orthodoxy It is likely that the adherence to differing religions prevented families from engaging in intermarriage 226 Members of the Cofradia de los Gitanos parading the throne of Mary of the O during the Holy Week in Malaga Spain Deities and saints Edit Blessed Ceferino Gimenez Malla is recently considered a patron saint of the Romani people in Roman Catholicism 227 Saint Sarah or Sara e Kali has also been venerated as a patron saint in her shrine at Saintes Maries de la Mer France Since the turn of the 21st century Sara e Kali is understood to have been Kali an Indian deity brought from India by the refugee ancestors of the Roma people as the Roma became Christianized she was absorbed in a syncretic way and venerated as a saint 228 Gypsy fortune teller in Poland by Antoni Kozakiewicz 1884 Saint Sarah is now increasingly being considered as a Romani Goddess the Protectress of the Roma and an indisputable link with Mother India 228 229 Balkans Edit Costume of a Romani woman For the Roma communities that have resided in the Balkans for numerous centuries often referred to as Turkish Gypsies the following histories apply for religious beliefs Bosnia and Herzegovina and Montenegro Islam is the dominant religion among the Roma 230 Bulgaria In northwestern Bulgaria in addition to Sofia and Kyustendil Christianity is the dominant faith among Romani people a major conversion to Eastern Orthodox Christianity among Romani people has occurred In southeastern Bulgaria Islam is the dominant religion among Romani people with a smaller section of the Romani population declaring themselves as Turks continuing to mix ethnicity with Islam 230 Margarita Cansino later known as Rita Hayworth with her father and dance partner Eduardo Cansino 1933 Croatia Following the Second World War a large number of Muslim Roma relocated to Croatia the majority moving from Kosovo Their language differs from those living in Međimurje and those who survived Ustase genocide 230 Greece The descendants of groups such as Sepecides or Sevljara Kalpazaja Filipidzi and others living in Athens Thessaloniki central Greece and Greek Macedonia are mostly Orthodox Christians with Islamic beliefs held by a minority of the population Following the Peace Treaty of Lausanne of 1923 many Muslim Roma moved to Turkey in the subsequent population exchange between Turkey and Greece 230 Muslim Romanies in Bosnia and Herzegovina around 1900 Kosovo The vast majority of the Roma population in Kosovo is Muslim 230 North Macedonia The majority of Roma people are followers of Islam 230 Romania According to the 2002 census the majority of the Romani minority living in Romania are Orthodox Christians while 6 4 are Pentecostals 3 8 Roman Catholics 3 Reformed 1 1 Greek Catholics 0 9 Baptists 0 8 Seventh Day Adventists 231 In Dobruja there is a small community that are Muslim and also speak Turkish 230 Serbia Most Roma people in Serbia are Orthodox Christian but there are some Muslim Roma in Southern Serbia who are mainly refugees from Kosovo 230 Other regions Edit In Ukraine and Russia the Roma populations are also Muslim as the families of Balkan migrants continue to live in these locations Their ancestors settled on the Crimean peninsula during the 17th and 18th centuries but some migrated to Ukraine southern Russia and the Povolzhie along the Volga River Formally Islam is the religion that these communities align themselves with and the people are recognized for their staunch preservation of the Romani language and identity 230 In Poland and Slovakia their populations are Roman Catholic many times adopting and following local cultural Catholicism as a syncretic system of belief that incorporates distinct Roma beliefs and cultural aspects For example many Polish Roma delay their Church wedding contradictory due to the belief that sacramental marriage is accompanied by divine ratification creating a virtually indissoluble union until the couple consummate after which the sacramental marriage is dissoluble only by the death of a spouse Therefore for Polish Roma once married one can t ever divorce Another aspect of Polish Roma s Catholicism is a tradition of pilgrimage to the Jasna Gora Monastery 232 Most Eastern European Romanies are Roman Catholic Eastern Orthodox or Muslim 233 Those in Western Europe and the United States are mostly Roman Catholic or Protestant in southern Spain many Romanies are Pentecostal but this is a small minority that has emerged in contemporary times In Egypt the Romanies are split into Christian and Muslim populations 234 Music Edit Main article Romani music This section needs additional citations for verification Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources Unsourced material may be challenged and removed Find sources Romani people news newspapers books scholar JSTOR February 2020 Learn how and when to remove this template message 27 June 2009 Fanfare Ciocărlia live in Athens Greece Street performance during the Khamoro World Roma Festival in Prague 2007 Romani music plays an important role in Central and Eastern European countries such as Croatia Bosnia and Herzegovina Serbia Montenegro Bulgaria North Macedonia Albania Hungary Slovakia Slovenia and Romania and the style and performance practices of Romani musicians have influenced European classical composers such as Franz Liszt and Johannes Brahms The lăutari who perform at traditional Romanian weddings are virtually all Romani 235 236 Probably the most internationally prominent contemporary performers in the lăutari tradition are Taraful Haiducilor 237 Bulgaria s popular wedding music too is almost exclusively performed by Romani musicians such as Ivo Papasov a virtuoso clarinetist closely associated with this genre and Bulgarian pop folk singer Azis Many famous classical musicians such as the Hungarian pianist Georges Cziffra are Romani as are many prominent performers of manele Zdob și Zdub one of the most prominent rock bands in Moldova although not Romanies themselves draw heavily on Romani music as do Spitalul de Urgență in Romania Shantel in Germany Goran Bregovic in Serbia Darko Rundek in Croatia Beirut and Gogol Bordello in the United States Another tradition of Romani music is the genre of the Romani brass band with such notable practitioners as Boban Markovic of Serbia and the brass lăutari groups Fanfare Ciocărlia and Fanfare din Cozmesti of Romania The distinctive sound of Romani music has also strongly influenced bolero jazz and flamenco especially cante jondo in Spain Dances such as the flamenco and bolero of Spain were influences by the Romani 238 Antonio Cansino blended Romani and Spanish flamenco and is credited with creating modern day Spanish dance 239 The Dancing Cansinos popularized flamenco and bolero dancing in the United States Famous dancer and actress Rita Hayworth is the granddaughter of Antonio Cansino European style gypsy jazz jazz Manouche or Sinti jazz is still widely practiced among the original creators the Romanie People one who acknowledged this artistic debt was guitarist Django Reinhardt 240 Contemporary artists in this tradition known internationally include Stochelo Rosenberg Bireli Lagrene Jimmy Rosenberg Paulus Schafer and Tchavolo Schmitt The Romani people in Turkey have achieved musical acclaim from national and local audiences Local performers usually perform for special holidays Their music is usually performed on instruments such as the darbuka girnata and cumbus 241 Folklore EditMain article Romani mythology Romani folktales and legends are known as paramichia A hero among the Vlach Roma is Mundro Salamon or Wise Solomon Other Romani groups call this hero O Godjiaver Yanko 242 The Roma believe in the mulo or mullo which means one who is dead These beings are the Roma s version of the vampire 243 Cuisine EditMain article Romani cuisine The Roma believe that some foods are auspicious or lucky baxtalo such as foods with pungent tastes like garlic lemon tomato peppers and fermented foods such as sauerkraut pickles and sour cream 244 Romani cuisine is similiar to Hungarian cuisine 245 Hedgehogs are a delicacy among some Roma 246 Contemporary art and culture EditRomani contemporary art emerged at the climax of the process that began in Central and Eastern Europe in the late 1980s when the interpretation of the cultural practice of minorities was enabled by a paradigm shift commonly referred to in specialist literature as the Cultural turn The idea of the cultural turn was introduced and this was also the time when the notion of cultural democracy became crystallized in the debates carried on at various public forums Civil society gained strength and civil politics appeared which is a prerequisite for cultural democracy This shift of attitude in scholarly circles derived from concerns specific not only to ethnicity but also to society gender and class 247 Language EditMain article Romani language Most Romani speak one of several dialects of the Romani language 248 an Indo Aryan language with roots in Sanskrit They also often speak the languages of the countries they live in Typically they also incorporate loanwords and calques into Romani from the languages of those countries and especially words for terms that the Romani language does not have Most of the Ciganos of Portugal the Gitanos of Spain the Romanichal of the UK and Scandinavian Travellers have lost their knowledge of pure Romani and speak the mixed languages Calo 249 Angloromany and Scandoromani respectively Most of the Romani language speaking communities in these regions consist of later immigrants from eastern or central Europe 250 There are no concrete statistics for the number of Romani speakers both in Europe and globally However a conservative estimate is 3 5 million speakers in Europe and a further 500 000 elsewhere 250 though the actual number may be considerably higher This makes Romani the second largest minority language in Europe behind Catalan 250 In regards to the diversity of dialects Romani works in the same way as most other European languages 251 Cross dialect communication is dominated by the following features All Romani speakers are bilingual accustomed to borrowing words or phrases from a second language this makes it difficult to communicate with Romanis from different countries Romani was traditionally a language shared between extended family and a close knit community This has resulted in the inability to comprehend dialects from other countries and is why Romani is sometimes considered to be several different languages There is no tradition or literary standard for Romani speakers to use as a guideline for their language use 251 Persecutions EditMain article Anti Romani sentiment Historical persecution Edit One of the most enduring persecutions against the Romani people was their enslavement Slavery was widely practiced in medieval Europe including the territory of present day Romania from before the founding of the principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia in the 13th 14th centuries 252 Legislation decreed that all the Romani living in these states as well as any others who immigrated there were classified as slaves 253 Slavery was gradually abolished during the 1840s and 1850s 252 The exact origins of slavery in the Danubian Principalities are not known There is some debate over whether the Romani people came to Wallachia and Moldavia as free men or were brought there as slaves Historian Nicolae Iorga associated the Roma people s arrival with the 1241 Mongol invasion of Europe and he also considered their enslavement a vestige of that era in which the Romanians took the Roma from the Mongols and preserved their status as slaves so they could use their labor Other historians believe that the Romani were enslaved while they were being captured during the battles with the Tatars The practice of enslaving prisoners of war may have also been adopted from the Mongols 252 Some Romani may have been slaves of the Mongols or the Tatars or they may have served as auxiliary troops in the Mongol or Tatar armies but most of them migrated from south of the Danube at the end of the 14th century some time after the founding of Wallachia By then the institution of slavery was already established in Moldavia and it was possibly established in both principalities After the Roma migrated into the area slavery became a widespread practice among the majority of the population The Tatar slaves smaller in numbers were eventually merged into the Roma population 254 Some branches of the Romani people reached Western Europe in the 15th century fleeing from the Ottoman conquest of the Balkans as refugees 255 Although the Romani were refugees from the conflicts in southeastern Europe they were often suspected of being associated with the Ottoman invasion by certain populations in the West because their physical appearance was exotic The Imperial Diet at Landau and Freiburg in 1496 1498 declared that the Romani were spies for the Turks In Western Europe such suspicions and discrimination against people who constituted a visible minority resulted in persecution often violent with attempts to commit ethnic cleansing until the modern era In times of social tension the Romani suffered as scapegoats for instance they were accused of bringing the plague during times of epidemics 256 On 30 July 1749 Spain conducted The Great Roundup of Romani Gitanos in its territory The Spanish Crown ordered a nationwide raid that led to the break up of families because all able bodied men were interned in forced labor camps in an attempt to commit ethnic cleansing The measure was eventually reversed and the Romanis were freed as protests began to erupt in different communities sedentary Romanis were highly esteemed and protected in rural Spain 257 258 Later in the 19th century Romani immigration was forbidden on a racial basis in areas outside Europe mostly in the English speaking world In 1880 Argentina prohibited immigration by Roma as did the United States in 1885 256 Deportation of Roma from Asperg Germany 1940 photograph by the Rassenhygienische Forschungsstelle Forced assimilation Edit In the Habsburg monarchy under Maria Theresa 1740 1780 a series of decrees tried to integrate the Romanies in order to get them to permanently settle removed their rights to horse and wagon ownership 1754 in order to reduce citizen mobility renamed them New Citizens and obliged Romani boys into military service just as any other citizens were if they had no trade 1761 and Revision 1770 required them to register with the local authorities 1767 and another decree prohibited marriages between Romanies 1773 in order to integrate them into the local population Her successor Josef II prohibited the wearing of traditional Romani clothing along with the use of the Romani language both of which were punishable by flogging 259 During this time the schools were obliged to register and integrate Romani children this policy was the first of the modern policies of integration In Spain attempts to assimilate the Gitanos were under way as early as 1619 when the Gitanos were forcibly settled the use of the Romani language was prohibited Gitano men and women were sent to separate workhouses and their children were sent to orphanages King Charles III took a more progressive approach to Gitano assimilation proclaiming that they had the same rights as Spanish citizens and ending the official denigration of them which was based on their race While he prohibited their nomadic lifestyle their use of the Calo language the manufacture and wearing of Romani clothing their trade in horses and other itinerant trades he also forbade any form of discrimination against them and he also forbade the guilds from barring them The use of the word gitano was also forbidden in order to further their assimilation it was replaced with New Castilian a designation which was also applied to former Jews and Muslims 260 261 Most historians believe that Charles III s pragmatica failed for three main reasons reasons which were ultimately derived from its implementation outside major cities as well as in marginal areas The difficulty which the Gitano community faced in changing its nomadic lifestyle the marginal lifestyle to which the community had been driven by society and the serious difficulties of applying the pragmatica in the fields of education and work One author ascribes its failure to the overall rejection of the integration of the Gitanos by the wider population 259 262 Other policies of forced assimilation were implemented in other countries one of these countries was Norway where a law which permitted the state to remove children from their parents and place them in state institutions was passed in 1896 263 This resulted in some 1 500 Romani children being taken from their parents in the 20th century 264 Porajmos Romani Holocaust Edit Main article Romani Holocaust During World War II the persecution of the Romanies reached a peak during the Romani Holocaust the Porajmos the genocide which was perpetrated against them by Nazi Germany In 1935 the Romani people who lived in Nazi Germany lost their citizenship when it was stripped from them by the Nuremberg laws after that they were subjected to violence and imprisonment in concentration camps and later they were subjected to genocide in extermination camps During the war the policy was extended to areas which were occupied by the Nazis and it was also implemented by their allies most notably by the Independent State of Croatia Romania and Hungary Because no accurate pre war census figures exist for the Romanis the actual number of Romani victims who were killed in the Romani Holocaust cannot be assessed Most estimates of the number of Romani victims who were killed in the Romani Holocaust range from 200 000 to 500 000 but other estimates range from 90 000 to 1 5 million Lower estimates do not include those Romanis who were killed in all Axis controlled countries A detailed study by Sybil Milton a former senior historian at the U S Holocaust Memorial Museum contained an estimate of at least 220 000 possibly as many as 500 000 265 Ian Hancock Director of the Program of Romani Studies and the Romani Archives and Documentation Center at the University of Texas at Austin argues in favour of a higher figure of between 500 000 and 1 500 000 266 In Central Europe the extermination in the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia was so thorough that the Bohemian Romani language became extinct Contemporary issues EditMain article Anti Romani sentiment Contemporary antiziganism Distribution of the Romani people in Europe 2007 Council of Europe average estimates totalling 9 8 million 267 Antiziganist protests in Sofia 2011 In Europe Romani people are associated with poverty blamed for high crime rates and accused of behaving in ways that are considered antisocial or inappropriate by the rest of the European population 268 Partly for this reason discrimination against the Romani people has continued to be practiced to the present day 269 270 although efforts are being made to address them 271 Amnesty International reports continued to document instances of Antizigan discrimination during the late 20th century particularly in Romania Serbia 272 Slovakia 273 Hungary 274 Slovenia 275 and Kosovo 276 The European Union has recognized that discrimination against Romani must be addressed and with the national Roma integration strategy they encourage member states to work towards greater Romani inclusion and upholding the rights of the Romani in the European Union 277 projections for Serbia also include up to 97 000 Roma IDPs in Serbia 279 Roma estimate percentage of population in European countries 278 Country PercentBulgaria 10 33 North Macedonia 9 59 Slovakia 9 17 Romania 8 32 Serbia 8 18 Hungary 7 05 Turkey 5 97 Spain 3 21 Albania 3 18 Montenegro 2 95 Moldova 2 49 Greece 2 47 Czech Republic 1 96 Kosovo 1 47 In Eastern Europe Roma children often attend Roma Special Schools separate from non Roma children these schools tend to offer a lower quality of education than the traditional education options accessible by non Roma children putting the Roma children at an educational disadvantage 280 83 The Romanis of Kosovo have been severely persecuted by ethnic Albanians since the end of the Kosovo War and for the most part the region s Romani community has been annihilated 281 Czechoslovakia carried out a policy of sterilization of Romani women starting in 1973 282 The dissidents of the Charter 77 denounced it in 1977 78 as a genocide but the practice continued through the Velvet Revolution of 1989 283 A 2005 report by the Czech Republic s independent ombudsman Otakar Motejl identified dozens of cases of coercive sterilization between 1979 and 2001 and called for criminal investigations and possible prosecution against several health care workers and administrators 284 In 2008 following the rape and subsequent murder of an Italian woman in Rome at the hands of a young man from a local Romani encampment 285 the Italian government declared that Italy s Romani population represented a national security risk and it also declared that it was required to take swift action in order to address the emergenza nomadi nomad emergency 286 Specifically officials in the Italian government accused the Romanies of being responsible for rising crime rates in urban areas 287 The 2008 deaths of Cristina and Violetta Djeordsevic two Roma children who drowned while Italian beach goers remained unperturbed brought international attention to the relationship between Italians and the Roma people Reviewing the situation in 2012 one Belgian magazine observed On International Roma Day which falls on 8 April the significant proportion of Europe s 12 million Roma who live in deplorable conditions will not have much to celebrate And poverty is not the only worry for the community Ethnic tensions are on the rise In 2008 Roma camps came under attack in Italy intimidation by racist parliamentarians is the norm in Hungary Speaking in 1993 Vaclav Havel prophetically remarked that the treatment of the Roma is a Litmus test for democracy and democracy has been found wanting The consequences of the transition to capitalism have been disastrous for the Roma Under communism they had jobs free housing and schooling Now many are unemployed many are losing their homes and racism is increasingly rewarded with impunity 288 The 2016 Pew Research poll found that Italians in particular hold strong anti Roma views with 82 of Italians expressing negative opinions about Roma In Greece 67 in Hungary 64 in France 61 in Spain 49 in Poland 47 in the UK 45 in Sweden 42 in Germany 40 and in the Netherlands 289 37 had an unfavourable view of Roma 290 The 2019 Pew Research poll found that 83 of Italians 76 of Slovaks 72 of Greeks 68 of Bulgarians 66 of Czechs 61 of Lithuanians 61 of Hungarians 54 of Ukrainians 52 of Russians 51 of Poles 44 of French 40 of Spaniards and 37 of Germans held unfavorable views of Roma 291 IRES published in 2020 a survey which revealed that 72 of Romanians have a negative opinion about them 292 As of 2019 reports of anti Roma incidents are increasing across Europe 293 Discrimination against Roma remains widespread in Kosovo 294 Romania 295 Slovakia 296 Bulgaria 297 298 and the Czech Republic 299 300 Roma communities across Ukraine have been the target of violent attacks 301 302 Roma refugees fleeing the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine have faced discrimination in Europe including in Poland 303 the Czech Republic 304 and Moldova 305 Concerning employment on average across the European states which were surveyed 16 of Roma women were in paid work in 2016 compared to a third of men 306 Forced repatriation Edit Main article Expulsion of Romani people from France In the summer of 2010 French authorities demolished at least 51 illegal Roma camps and began the process of repatriating their residents to their countries of origin 307 This followed tensions between the French state and Roma communities which had been heightened after a traveller drove through a French police checkpoint hit an officer attempted to hit two more officers and was then shot and killed by the police In retaliation a group of Roma armed with hatchets and iron bars attacked the police station of Saint Aignan toppled traffic lights and road signs and burned three cars 308 309 The French government has been accused of perpetrating these actions to pursue its political agenda 310 EU Justice Commissioner Viviane Reding stated that the European Commission should take legal action against France over the issue calling the deportations a disgrace A leaked file dated 5 August sent from the Interior Ministry to regional police chiefs included the instruction Three hundred camps or illegal settlements must be cleared within three months Roma camps are a priority 311 Organizations and projects EditWorld Romani Congress European Roma Rights Centre Gypsy Lore Society 312 International Romani Union Decade of Roma Inclusion multinational project International Romani Day 8 April Contact Point for Roma and Sinti Issues National Advisory Board on Romani Affairs Finland Artistic representations EditMain article Romani people in fiction Many depictions of Romani people in literature and art present romanticized narratives of mystical powers of fortune telling or irascible or passionate temper paired with an indomitable love of freedom and a habit of criminality Romani were a popular subject in Venetian painting from the time of Giorgione at the start of the 16th century the inclusion of such a figure adds an exotic oriental flavour to scenes A Venetian Renaissance painting by Paris Bordone c 1530 Strasbourg of the Holy Family in Egypt makes Elizabeth a Romani fortune teller the scene is otherwise located in a distinctly European landscape 313 Particularly notable are classics like the story Carmen by Prosper Merimee and the opera based on it by Georges Bizet Victor Hugo s The Hunchback of Notre Dame Herge s The Castafiore Emerald Miguel de Cervantes La Gitanilla and George Borrow s Lavengro and The Romany Rye The Romani were also depicted in A Midsummer Night s Dream As You Like It Othello and The Tempest all by William Shakespeare The Romani were also heavily romanticized in the Soviet Union a classic example being the 1975 film Tabor ukhodit v Nebo A more realistic depiction of contemporary Romani in the Balkans featuring Romani lay actors speaking in their native dialects although still playing with established cliches of a Romani penchant for both magic and crime was presented by Emir Kusturica in his Time of the Gypsies 1988 and Black Cat White Cat 1998 The films of Tony Gatlif a French director of Romani ethnicity like Les Princes 1983 Latcho Drom 1993 and Gadjo Dilo 1997 also portray Romani life Paris Bordone The Rest on the Flight into Egypt c 1530 Elizabeth at right is shown as a Romani fortune teller August von Pettenkofen Gypsy Children 1885 Hermitage Museum Mihaly Munkacsy Gypsy Family 1884 oil on canvas Vincent van Gogh The Caravans Gypsy Camp near Arles 1888 oil on canvas Carmen Esmeralda Nicolae Grigorescu Gypsy from Boldu 1897 Art Museum of Iași Meg Merrilies from Walter Scott s novel Guy Mannering 1815 See also EditAnti Indian sentiment Environmental racism in Europe Gitanos Gypsy Scourge King of the Gypsies R v Krymowski Rajasthani people Romani society and culture Romani dress Romani diaspora Ethnic groups in Europe Romani folkloreGeneral Traveler disambiguation Itinerant groups in Europe Nomadic tribes in India DalitLists List of Romani people List of Romani settlementsOther Indian people Non resident Indian and person of Indian originNotes Edit 5 400 per 2000 census This is a census figure Some 736 981 10 of the population did not declare any ethnicity There was not any option for a person to declare multiple ethnicities In a report Archived 25 February 2021 at the Wayback Machine of the census authors the ethnic results of this census are identified as a gross manipulation This is a census figure There was an option to declare multiple ethnicities so this figure includes Romani of multiple backgrounds According to the 2016 microcensus 99 1 of Hungarian Romani declared Hungarian ethnic identity also Approximate estimate a b c d e f g h This is a census figure This is a census figure Some 368 136 5 1 of the population did not declare any ethnicity There was not any option for a person to declare multiple ethnicities This is a census figure Some 408 777 7 5 of the population did not declare any ethnicity There was not any option for a person to declare multiple ethnicities This is a census figure Less than 1 of the population did not declare any ethnicity There was not any option for a person to declare multiple ethnicities This is a census figure Less than 1 of the population did not declare any ethnicity This is a census figure including Romani Ashkali and Balkan Egyptians This is a census figure There was an additional 3 368 Balkan Egyptians 390 938 1 of the population did not declare any ethnicity The census is regarded as unreliable by the Council of Europe This is a census figure Some 25 of the population did not declare any ethnicity This is a census figure The Welsh language alphabet lacks the letter k Kosovo status a b The political status of Kosovo is disputed Having unilaterally declared independence from Serbia in 2008 Kosovo is formally recognised as an independent state by 101 UN member states with another 13 states recognising it at some point but then withdrawing their recognition and 92 states not recognizing it while Serbia continues to claim it as part of its own territory References Edit Lewis M Paul ed 2009 Ethnologue Languages of the World online 16th ed Dallas TX SIL Retrieved 15 September 2010 Ian Hancock s 1987 estimate for all Gypsies in the world was 6 to 11 million EU demands action to tackle Roma poverty BBC News 5 April 2011 The Roma Nationalia Retrieved 20 November 2015 Rom Encyclopaedia Britannica Retrieved 15 September 2010 estimates of the total world Roma population range from two million to five million Smith J 2008 The marginalization of shadow minorities Roma and its impact on opportunities Doctoral dissertation Purdue University a b Kayla Webley 13 October 2010 Hounded in Europe Roma in the U S Keep a Low Profile Time Retrieved 3 October 2015 Today estimates put the number of Roma in the U S 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cz Roma integration in the Czech Republic European Commission European Commission Yvonne Slee A History of Australian Romanies now and then Now and Then Australia Open ABC Archived from the original on 11 August 2016 Retrieved 28 July 2016 Denmark European Commission Belgium Cyprus a b c Gall Timothy L ed 1998 Worldmark Encyclopedia of Culture amp Daily Life vol 4 Europe Cleveland OH Eastword pp 316 318 Religion An underlay of Hinduism with an overlay of either Christianity or Islam host country religion Roma religious beliefs are rooted in Hinduism Roma believe in a universal balance called kuntari Despite a 1 000 year separation from India Roma still practice shaktism the worship of a god through his female consort a b Vishvapani 29 November 2011 Hungary s Gypsy Buddhists amp Religious Discrimination www wiseattention org Retrieved 4 June 2021 a b Bhalesain Pravin 2011 Gypsies embracing Buddhism A step forward for Building a Harmonious Society in Europe PDF Undv org Vesak2011 Panel2 Retrieved 4 June 2021 RADOC Historical Dictionary of the Gypsies Romanies PDF p 134 Gaster Moses 1911 Gipsies In Chisholm Hugh ed Encyclopaedia Britannica Vol 12 11th ed Cambridge University Press pp 37 43 Randall Kay What s in a Name Professor take on roles of Romani activist and spokesperson to improve plight of their ethnic group Archived from the original on 5 February 2005 Retrieved 30 January 2013 a b Pickering 2010 The Romani PDF Northern Michigan University p 1 Retrieved 24 May 2021 Bambauer Nikki 2 August 2018 The Plight of the Romani People Europe s Most Persecuted Minority JFCS Holocaust Center The Romani people are frequently referred to as gypsies but many of them consider this exonym a derogatory term Spain s gypsies are more invisible than ever The Local www thelocal es 22 November 2013 Retrieved 21 May 2021 Revista USP 117 Texto A construcao das identidades ciganas no Brasil in Brazilian Portuguese Retrieved 21 May 2021 a b c Marinov Aleksandar G 3 October 2019 Inward Looking The Impact of Migration on Romanipe from the Romani Perspective Berghahn Books p 31 ISBN 978 1 78920 362 2 It is unclear what made this people leave the Indian sub continent but they are generally believed to have originated from central India possibly in the modern Indian state of Rajasthan migrating to the northwest around 250 BC Hancock 2002 p xx While a nine century removal from India has diluted Indian biological connection to the extent that for some Romani groups it may be hardly representative today Sarren 1976 72 concluded that we still remain together genetically Asian rather than European Simon Broughton Mark Ellingham Richard Trillo 1999 World Music Africa Europe and the Middle East Rough Guides p 147 ISBN 978 1 85828 635 8 Retrieved 8 December 2015 Silverman Carol 24 May 2012 Romani Routes Cultural Politics and Balkan Music in Diaspora OUP USA p 49 ISBN 978 0 19 530094 9 Snodgrass Mary Ellen 8 August 2016 The Encyclopedia of World Folk Dance Rowman amp Littlefield p 260 ISBN 978 1 4422 5749 8 Kenrick Donald 5 July 2007 Historical Dictionary of the Gypsies Romanies 2nd ed Scarecrow Press p xxxvii ISBN 978 0 8108 6440 5 The Gypsies or Romanies are an ethnic group that arrived in Europe around the 14th century Scholars argue about when and how they left India but it is generally accepted that they did emigrate from northern India some time between the sixth and 11th centuries then crossed the Middle East and came into Europe Correa Teixeira Rodrigo A historia dos ciganos no Brasil PDF Dhnet org br Archived from the original PDF on July 2011 Retrieved 9 November 2017 Sutherland 1986 Matras Yaron 2015 The Romani Gypsies Harvard University Press p 27 ISBN 9780674368385 Matras 2002 p 2240 Matras 2002 p 239 Romani PDF Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics Oxford Elsevier p 1 Retrieved 30 August 2009 In some regions of Europe especially the western margins Britain the Iberian peninsula Romani speaking communities have given up their language in favor 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