fbpx
Wikipedia

Fula people

November 11, 2023

"Fulani" redirects here. For other uses, see Fulani (disambiguation).

The Fula, Fulani, or Fulɓe people (Fula: Fulɓe, 𞤊𞤵𞤤𞤩𞤫; French: Peul; Hausa: Fulani or Hilani; Kanuri: Fillata; Portuguese: Fula; Wolof: Pël; Bambara: Fulaw; Tyap: A̱fa̱taa) is an ethnic group in Sahara, Sahel and West Africa, widely dispersed across the region.[23] Inhabiting many countries, they live mainly in West Africa and northern parts of Central Africa, South Sudan, Darfur, and regions near the Red Sea coast in Sudan. The approximate number of Fula people is unknown, due to clashing definitions regarding Fula ethnicity. Various estimates put the figure between 25[24][25] and 40 million people worldwide.[26]

Fulani, Fula
Fulɓe
𞤊𞤵𞤤𞤩𞤫
Fulani Men during Guérewol, Niger
Total population
est. 38.6 million
Regions with significant populations
West Africa, North Africa and Central Africa
 Nigeria15,300,000 (6.6%)[1]
 Senegal5,055,782 (27.5%)[2]
 Guinea4,544,000 (33.4%)[3]
 Cameroon3,000,000 (13.4%)[4][5]
 Mali2,840,850 (13.3%)[6]
 Burkina Faso1,800,000 (8.4%)[7]
 Niger1,650,000 (6.5%)[8]
 Benin1,182,900 (8.6%)[9]
 Mauritania900,000 (18.3%)[10]
 Guinea-Bissau623,646 (30%)[11]
 Gambia449,280 (18.2%)[12]
 Chad334,000 (1.8%)[13]
 Sierra Leone310,000 (5%)[14]
 CAR250,000 (15%)[15]
 Sudan204,000 (0.4%)[16]
 Togo110,000 (1.2%)[17]
 Ghana4,240 (0.01%)[18]
 South Sudan4,000 (0.02%)[19]
 Algeria4,000 (0.01%)[20]
 Ivory Coast3,800 (0.02%)[15]
Languages
Fula • French • Portuguese • English • Arabic • Hausa
Religion
Primarily Islam[21]
Related ethnic groups
Toucouleur, Tuareg, Hausa, Tebu, Serer, Songhay, Berber Tribes[22]
PersonPullo 𞤆𞤵𞤤𞥆𞤮
PeopleFulɓe 𞤊𞤵𞤤𞤩𞤫
LanguagePulaar (𞤆𞤵𞤤𞤢𞥄𞤪, West),
Fulfulde (𞤊𞤵𞤤𞤬𞤵𞤤𞤣𞤫, East)
This article contains Adlam Unicode characters. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Adlam letters.

A significant proportion of the Fula – a third, or an estimated 7 to 10 million[27] – are pastoralists, and their ethnic group has the largest nomadic pastoral community in the world.[28][29] The majority of the Fula ethnic group consisted of semi-sedentary people,[29] as well as sedentary settled farmers, scholars, artisans, merchants, and nobility.[30][31] As an ethnic group, they are bound together by the Fula language, their history[32][33][34] and their culture. The Fula are almost completely Muslims.[35][36]

Many West African leaders are of Fulani descent, including the former President of Nigeria, Muhammadu Buhari; former president of Cameroon Ahmadou Ahidjo; President of Senegal, Macky Sall; the President of Gambia, Adama Barrow; the President of Guinea-Bissau, Umaro Sissoco Embaló; the Vice President of Sierra Leone, Mohamed Juldeh Jalloh; the Prime Minister of Mali, Boubou Cisse and the Wife of Vice President of Ghana Samira Bawumia. They also occupy positions in major international institutions, such as the Deputy Secretary-General of the United Nations, Amina J. Mohammed; the 74th President of the United Nations General Assembly, Tijjani Muhammad-Bande; and the Secretary-General of OPEC, Mohammed Sanusi Barkindo.

Names

Ethnonyms

There are many names (and spellings of the names) used in other languages to refer to the Fulɓe. Fulani in English is borrowed from the Hausa term.[37] Fula, from Manding languages, is also used in English, and sometimes spelled Fulah or Fullah. Fula and Fulani are commonly used in English, including within Africa. The French borrowed the Wolof term Pël, which is variously spelled: Peul, Peulh, and even Peuhl. More recently the Fulfulde / Pulaar term Fulɓe, which is a plural noun (singular, Pullo) has been Anglicised as Fulbe,[38] which is gaining popularity in use. In Portuguese, the terms Fula or Futafula are used. The terms Fallata, Fallatah, or Fellata are of Arabic origins, and are often the ethnonyms by which Fulani people are identified by in parts of Chad and Sudan.

The Toucouleur people of the central Senegal River valley speak Fulfulde / Pulaar and refer to themselves as Haalpulaaren, or those who speak Pulaar. The supposed distinction between them was invented by French ethnographers in the 19th century who differentiated between supposedly sedentary, agricultural, fanatical, and anti-European Toucouleurs on one hand and nomadic, pastoralist, docile and cooperative Peulhs on the other, but the dichotomy is false.[39]

Surnames

There are many common Fulani family names used, many of which can also be found in neighboring ethnic groups and languages. For example: Diallo (correctly written as Jallo in Pulaar-Fulfulde orthography), Diakité, Sidibé , Samoura, and Sangaré, which go back to the Soninké people Ghana Empire period. When the Fulani arrived with their herds in Koumbi Saleh, the capital, the Soninke gave them names based on their animals. Only the Diallo (Jallo) was not a Soninke word:

  • Diakité: its meaning in Soninké is "cowboy" or "cowherd" and the real spelling in Soninke is Diakate, and the real meaning is the cow's owner.
  • Sidibé: its meaning in the same language is horse owner or horse keeper.
  • Sangaré: its meaning is sheepherder and it is actually the same name of sheepherder by the Soninké people.
  • Samoura: its meaning is camel herder and is adapted into Soninké

Names like Sidibe, Sangare, Sangare, Samoura are not fulani names. They belong to the mandingo tribe but have intermarried with fulani and thus you find some fulanis with names such as Camara, Sidibe, Kourouma, etc... but have adopted fulani lifestyle and language. Others have chosen to change their names to Diallo/Jallow/Jalloh, Sow/Shaw, Barry and others.

Common Fulani family names in Guinea, Sierra Leone, Guinea Bissau and Southern Senegal are: Diallo (French regions), Jallow or Jalloh (Gambia, Sierra Leone and Liberia), Djalo (Cap Verde and Guinea Bissau), Sow, Barry, Bah or Ba, Baldé, and Diouldé.[40] Other Fulani (Toucouleur) family names in Guinea and northern Senegal are: Tall, Sall, Diengue, Sy, Anne, Ly, Wann, Dia and others.

Although most Fulbe of Nigeria, Niger and Cameroon mostly use their father's family name, there are some common Fulani last names such as Bello (likely from the Fulfulde word Ballo meaning “helper of religion”),[41] Tukur (from Takrur), Gidado, Barkindo, Jallo, Ahidjo and Dikko.

Geographic distribution

 
A distribution map of Fula people. Dark green: a major ethnic group; Medium: significant; Light: minor.[23][42]

The Fula people are widely distributed, across the Sahel from the Atlantic coast to the Red Sea, particularly in West Africa. In addition, many also speak other languages of the countries they inhabit, making many Fulani bilingual or even trilingual. Such languages include French, Hausa, Bambara, Wolof, Soninke, and Arabic.

Major concentrations of Fulani people exist in the Fouta Djallon highlands of central Guinea and south into the northernmost reaches of Sierra Leone; the Futa Tooro savannah grasslands of Senegal and southern Mauritania; the Macina inland Niger river delta system around Central Mali; and especially in the regions around Mopti and the Nioro Du Sahel in the Kayes region; the Borgu settlements of Benin, Togo, and west-central Nigeria; the northern parts of Burkina Faso in the Sahel region's provinces of Seno, Wadalan, and Soum; and the areas occupied by the Sokoto Caliphate, which includes what is now southern Niger and northern Nigeria (such as Adamawa, Tahoua, Katsina, Sokoto, Kebbi, Zinder, Bauchi, Diffa, Yobe, Gombe, and further east, into the Benue River valley systems of north eastern Nigeria and northern Cameroon).

This is the area known as the Fombina/Hombina, literally meaning 'the south' in Adamawa Fulfulde, because it represented the most southern and eastern reaches of Fulɓe hegemonic dominance in West Africa. In this area, Fulfulde is the local lingua franca, and language of cross cultural communication. Further east of this area, Fulani communities become predominantly nomadic, and exist at less organized social systems. These are the areas of the Chari-Baguirmi Region and its river systems, in Chad and the Central African Republic, the Ouaddaï highlands of Eastern Chad, the areas around Kordofan, Darfur and the Blue Nile, Sennar, Kassala regions of Sudan,[43] as well as the Red Sea coastal city of Port Sudan. The Fulani on their way to or back from the pilgrimage to Mecca, Saudi Arabia, settled in many parts of eastern Sudan, today representing a distinct community of over two million people referred to as the Fellata.[44][45][46]

 
Bodaado (singular of Wodaabe) Fula man with the typical Fulani hat above a turban

While their early settlements in West Africa were in the vicinity of the tri-border point of present-day Mali, Senegal, and Mauritania, they are now, after centuries of gradual migrations and conquests, spread throughout a wide band of West and Central Africa. The Fulani People occupy a vast geographical expanse located roughly in a longitudinal east–west band immediately south of the Sahara, and just north of the coastal rain forest and swamps. There are estimates of more than 25 million Fulani people.[25]

There are generally three different types of Fulani based on settlement patterns, viz: the nomadic-pastoral or Mbororo, the semi-nomadic, and the settled or "town" Fulani. The pastoral Fulani move around with their cattle throughout the year. Typically, they do not stay around for long stretches (not more than 2–4 months at a time). The semi-nomadic Fulani can either be Fulɓe families who happen to settle down temporarily at particular times of the year or Fulɓe families who do not "browse" around past their immediate surroundings, and even though they possess livestock, they do not wander away from a fixed or settled homestead not too far away, they are basically "in-betweeners".[47]

Settled Fulani live in villages, towns, and cities permanently and have given up nomadic life completely, in favor of an urban one. These processes of settlement, concentration, and military conquest led to the existence of organized and long-established communities of Fulani, varying in size from small villages to towns. Today, some major Fulani towns include: Labé, Pita, Mamou, and Dalaba in Guinea; Kaedi, Matam and Podor, Kolda in Senegal and Mauritania; Bandiagara, Mopti, Dori, Gorom-Gorom, and Djibo in Mali and Burkina Faso, on the bend of the Niger; and Birnin Kebbi, Katsina, Gombe, Yola, Digil, Jalingo, Bauchi, Misau, Jama'are, Mayo Belwa, Mubi, Maroua, Ngaoundere, Azare ,Dukku, Kumo, Girei, Damaturu, Bertoua, and Garoua in the countries of Cameroon and Nigeria. In most of these communities, the Fulani are usually perceived as a ruling class.

Fulani communities are sometimes grouped and named based on the areas they occupy. Although within each region, there are even further divisions and sub-groupings as well. Below is a list of the main Fulɓe groups.

Main Fulani sub-groups, national and subnational locations, cluster group and dialectal variety
Fulbe Adamawa
𞤊𞤵𞤤𞤩𞤫 𞤀𞤣𞤢𞤥𞤢𞤱𞤢
Fulfulde Adamawa (Fombinaare) Eastern
Fulbe Bagirmi
𞤊𞤵𞤤𞤩𞤫 𞤄𞤢𞤺𞤭𞤪𞤥𞤭
Fulbe Sokoto
𞤊𞤵𞤤𞤩𞤫 𞤅𞤮𞤳𞤮𞤼𞤮
Fulfulde

Sokoto (Woylaare)

Fulbe Gombe
𞤊𞤵𞤤𞤩𞤫 𞤘𞤮𞤲'𞤦𞤫		   Nigeria: Gombe State, Bauchi State, Yobe State, Borno State, Plateau State Fulfulde Woylaare-Fombinaare transitional
Fulbe Mbororo
𞤊𞤵𞤤𞤩𞤫 𞤐'𞤄𞤮𞤪𞤮𞤪𞤮
  •   Nigeria: All across the northern, central and some southern states of the country as transient herders
  •   Cameroon: All over the country in 9 of the country's 10 regions/provinces as transient herders
  •   Chad: All across southern and central Chad as herders
  •   Central African Republic: Ubiquitous across the countryside
  •   Niger: All across the country south of the Sahara as herders and nomads. Note that the Woɗaaɓe are themselves an even smaller subgroup of the Mbororo'en. Thus: All Woɗaaɓe are Bororos, but not every Bororo is a Boɗaaɗo (Woɗaaɓe person)
  •   Sudan
 Fulfulde

Sokoto (Woylaare) & Adamawa (Fombinaare)

Fulbe Borgu
𞤊𞤵𞤤𞤩𞤫 𞤄𞤮𞤪𞤺𞤵
Fulfulde Borgu & Jelgoore Central
Fulbe Jelgooji
𞤊𞤵𞤤𞤩𞤫 𞤔𞤫𞤤𞤺𞤮𞥅𞤶𞤭
Fulfulde Jelgoore & (Massinakoore)
Fulbe Massina
𞤊𞤵𞤤𞤩𞤫 𞤃𞤢𞤧𞥆𞤭𞤲𞤢
Fulfulde Massinakoore
Fulbe Nioro
𞤊𞤵𞤤𞤩𞤫 𞤻𞤮𞥅𞤪𞤮
Pulaar – Fulfulde

Fuua Tooro -Massinakoore transitional

Western
Fulbe Futa Jallon
𞤊𞤵𞤤𞤩𞤫 𞤊𞤵𞥅𞤼𞤢 𞤔𞤢𞤤𞤮𞥅
Pular Fuuta Jallon
Fulbe Futa Tooro
𞤊𞤵𞤤𞤩𞤫 𞤊𞤵𞥅𞤼𞤢 𞤚𞤮𞥅𞤪𞤮
Pulaar

Fuuta Tooro

Fulbe Fuladu
𞤊𞤵𞤤𞤩𞤫 𞤊𞤵𞤤𞤢𞤣𞤵
Pulaar – Pular

Fuuta Tooro – Fuuta Jallon transitional

Typically, Fulɓe belonging to the same affinity bloc tend to cluster together in culture, customs, and dialectal variety with the Eastern Fulɓe sub-groups tending to be more similar to each other than to other sub-groups, and the same applies to most western groups. Culturally speaking, the central Fulɓe sub-groups are roughly in between the western and eastern Fulani cultural niches.[citation needed]

For example, the Massina Fulɓe share similarities both dialectally and culturally to Nigerian or Cameroonian (Eastern) (both of which end interrogative questions with "na?"), as well as Senegalese and Guinean (western) Fulɓe cultures (who do not end interrogative questions with such mannerism). Accordingly, the western groups are the most divergent from the eastern groups and vice versa. Overall, however, all share most cultural practices to a large extent.

In Ghana, the exact number of Fulani is unknown due to systematic oppression that includes not counting the Fulani in the Ghanaian census. This reflects widespread discrimination and negative stereotypes about the Fulani.[48]

History

The origins of the Fulani people are unclear and various theories have been postulated. Some scholars on Fulani History and the Sokoto Caliphate have traced the lineage of the Torankawa clan (Torodbe) of the Fulani to the Arab conqueror Uqba ibn Nafi. As a nomadic herding people, they have moved through and among many other cultures. The first recorded Fulani kingdom was the Kingdom of Tekrur in southern Mauritania and northern Senegal.

Walter Rodney in his book The History of the Upper Guinea Coast, argues that Fulbe are originally from North Africa and they conquered the Foota Djallon region led by the Fulani Koli Tenguella.[citation needed]

The ethnogenesis of the Fulani people may have begun as a result of interactions between an ancient West African population and North African populations such as Berbers or Egyptians.[33][49] Their West African roots may be in and around the valley of Senegal River.[31] They likely reflect a genetic intermix of people with West African, North African, and Arabian origins, and have been a part of many ruling dynasties, particularly in the Sahel and West Africa.[23][50] Speculations about their origins started in the era of European conquest and colonization. Because of their oftentimes very fair skin, wavy long hair and small facial features.


Early history

 
Tassili n'Ajjer rock art

The Fulani may have been involved in the formation of the state of Takrur after migrating from the east and settling in the Senegal valley,[51][52] although John Donnelly Fage suggests that Takrur was formed through the interaction of Berbers from the Sahara and "Negro agricultural peoples" who were "essentially Serer".[53]

Another version is that they were originally a Berber-speaking people who crossed the Senegal River to pasture their cattle in the Ferlo Desert. Finding themselves cut off from their kinsmen, they gradually adopted the language of their new neighbours. This cultural interaction with Serer and Wolof people, ultimately led to the ethnogenesis of the Fulani culture, language and people. As their herds increased, small groups found themselves forced to move eastward and further southwards and so initiated a series of migrations throughout West Africa, which endures to the present day.[54]

The Fulani were cattle-keeping farmers who shared their lands with other nearby groups, like the Soninke, who contributed to the rise of ancient Ghana, with eastward and westward expansion being led by nomadic groups of cattle breeders or the Fulɓe ladde. While the initial expansionist groups were small, they soon increased in size due to the availability of grazing lands in the Sahel and the lands that bordered it to the immediate south.

 
Ghanaian Fulani wedding bride

Agricultural expansions led to a division among the Fulani, where individuals were classified as belonging either to the group of expansionist nomadic agriculturalists or the group of Fulani who found it more comfortable to abandon traditional nomadic ways and settle in towns or the Fulɓe Wuro. Fulani towns were a direct result of nomadic heritage and were often founded by individuals who had simply chosen to settle in a given area instead of continuing on their way.

Evidence of Fulani migration as a whole, from the Western to Eastern Sudan is very fragmentary. Delafosse, one of the earliest enquirers into Fulani history and customs, principally relying on oral tradition, estimated that Fulani migrants left Fuuta-Tooro heading east between the eleventh and the fourteenth centuries. By the 15th century, there was a steady flow of Fulɓe immigrants into Hausaland and, later on, Bornu. Their presence in Baghirmi was later recorded when Fulani fought as allies, to Dokkenge or Birni Besif, when he founded Massenya (a Chadian town), early in the 16th century.

By the end of the 18th century, Fulani settlements were dotted all over the Benue River valley and its tributaries. They spread eastwards towards Garoua and Rey Bouba, and southwards towards the Faro River, to the foot of the Mambilla Plateau, which they would later ascend in subsequent years. The heaviest concentrations of their settlements were at Gurin, Chamba territory, Cheboa, Turua and Bundang. These so-called "Benue-Fulani" reduced the frequency with which they moved from place to place. The number of years they stayed at one spot depended on two factors: the reaction of the earlier settlers of that locality to their presence, and how satisfactory the conditions were, i.e., the availability of pastures for their cattle.

Settlement and Islam

 
Fulani Woman from Niger
 
Nigerian Fulani man with traditional marks

Fula people adopted Islam early. According to David Levison, adopting Islam made the Fulani feel a "cultural and religious superiority to surrounding peoples, and that adoption became a major ethnic boundary marker" between them and other African ethnic groups in the Sahel and West Africa.[55] Settled and nomadic Fulani became political and warring entities, armed with horses and equipment of war from the north.[56] The wars were not merely between Fula people and other ethnic groups, but also internecine between the pastoral and sedentary Fulani, where sometimes they worked in cohesion, and other times the Muslim Fulani leaders attacked the nomadic Fulani as infidels.[56]

The Songhai Empire rulers had converted to Sunni Islam in the 11th century and were a major trading partner of the Middle East and North Africa.[57] The Fulani warriors, in the 15th century, challenged this West African trading state near the Niger River, but were repulsed. In 1493, Askia Muhammad I led the Fulani people from western Sudan, and over time gained control of much that was previously the Songhai empire, removing Sonni Baru who had attempted to protect the interests of pastoralists.[57] Askia Muhammad won control over the caravan trade routes in West Africa, but was overthrown by his own son, Askia Musa, in a coup in 1528.[57]

The Fulani, after being the first group of people in West Africa to convert to Islam, became active in supporting Islamic theology and ideology from centres such as Timbuktu. The Fula people who later became known as the Toroobe worked with Berber and Arabian Islamic clerics, charting out the spread of Islam in West Africa. The Fula people led many jihads, or holy wars, some of which were major.[58] These war efforts helped spread Islam in West Africa, as well as helped them dominate much of the Sahel region of West Africa during the medieval and pre-colonial era, establishing them not only as a religious group but also as a political and economic force.[59][60]

Theocratic wars and Islamic lineages in West Africa

Futa Toro was established in the 1500s, by Denianke dynasty built out of Fulani and Mandinka forces; the importance of Fula people to this rule led to this era known as Empire of Great Fulo.[56][61] The Fulani raided and violently disrupted the trade routes that accounted for the economic prosperity of older African kingdoms, and thus began their rise. Futa Bundu, sometimes called Bondu and located in Senegal and Faleme rivers confluence, became a centre for the rise of the West Africa-wide Fula empire and influence in 17th century. From the 18th century onwards, the frequency of Jihads increased such as those led by Ibrahim Sori and Karamoko Ali in 1725, the Fulani became a hegemonic force and were politically dominant in many areas.[56] The region was engulfed in theocratic wars, with many Islamic lineages seeking political power and control. The Moroccans invaded the western Sahel adding to an anarchical situation. Food production plummeted, and during this periods famine plagued the region, negatively affecting the political situation and increasing the trigger for militant control of the economic activity.[62]

Over time, the Fulɓe empire split among the later descendants and developed into many emirates. The main nuclei of Fulɓe power were the polities in the Senegal River Valley, the Fuuta Jallon mountains, in Guinea, the Inland Delta of the Niger in Mali (Maasina), the north of Nigeria and the Adamawa Plateau in Cameroon. In between these big centres there were numerous small polities dominated by the Fulɓe in the central Gourma of present-day Mali and the north and west of Burkina Faso (Jelgoji, Boboola, Dori, Liptako), northern Benin (Borgu), the Sene-Gambia, northern Senegal (Bundu), and the southern and western parts of present-day Niger (Dallol Bosso, Birni N'konni).[citation needed]

Imamate of Futa Jallon

Main article: Imamate of Futa Jallon
 
Fula Village and its Agricultural Products, after Francis Moore, 1802

The Emirate / Imamate of Timbo in the Fuuta Jallon was the first of the Fulɓe emirates in West Africa. It developed from a revolt by Islamic Fulɓe against their oppression by the pagan Pulli (فُلِی or 𞤆𞤵𞤤𞥆𞤭, non-Islamic Fulɓe), and the Jallonke (the original Mande inhabitants of the Fuuta-Jallon), during the first half of the 18th century. The first ruler took the title of Almaami and resided in Timbo, near the modern-day town of Mamou. The town became the political capital of the newly formed Imamate, with the religious capital was located in Fugumba. The Council of Elders of the Futa Jallon state were also based in Fugumba, acting as a brake on the Almami's powers.[citation needed]

The newly formed imamate was mostly located mainly in present-day Guinea, but also spanned parts of modern-day Guinea Bissau, Senegal, and Sierra Leone. This emirate was, in fact, a federal state of nine provinces: Timbo, Fugumbaa, Ɓuuriya, Koyin, Kollaaɗe, Keebaali, Labe, Fode-Hajji, and Timbi. After the Muslim Fulɓe victory, other ethnic groups who had resisted the jihad were deprived of their rights to land except for a small piece for their subsistence and were reduced to servitude. The nomad Pulli Fulɓe lost all freedom of movement, and thus, began to settle en-masse. The Jalonke lost their noble status and became slaves (maccuɓe).[citation needed]

Later, due to strife between two branches of the Seediayanke royal lineage, (the Soriya and the Alphaya),[63] a system for the rotation of office between these branches was set up. This led to an almost permanent state of civil strife since none of the parties was inclined to respect the system, which considerably weakened the power of the political centre.[citation needed]

The Empire of Massina

Main article: Massina Empire
 
Fula people have helped form several historic Islamic theocracies and led many Jihad states such as the 19th-century Masina.[59][60]

The Maasina Emirate also called Diina (𞤈𞤭𞥄𞤲𞤢, "religion" in Fulfulde, with Arabic origins), was established by the Fulbe jihad led by Sheeku Aamadu in 1818. The origins of the Maasina Emirate in the Inner Delta of the Niger are also found in rebellion, this time against the Bambara / Bamana Kingdom of Segou, a political power that controlled the region from outside. This jihad was inspired by events in northern Nigeria where an important scholar of the time, Usman Dan Fodio, established an Islamic empire with Sokoto as its capital.[62]

For some time, groups of Fulbe had been dominant in parts of the delta, thereby creating a complex hierarchy dating back through several waves of conquest. However, due to internecine warfare, they were never able to organize a countervailing force against the Bamana Kingdom. In 1818, an Islamic cleric named Aamadu Hammadi Buubu united the Fulbe under the banner of Islam and fought a victorious battle against the Bamana and their allies. He subsequently established his rule in the Inland Delta and the adjacent dry lands east and west of the delta.[62]

This state appears to have had tight control over its core area, as evidenced by the fact that its political and economic organization is still manifested today in the organization of agricultural production in the Inland Delta. Despite its power and omnipresence, the hegemony of the emirate was constantly threatened. During the reign of Aamadu Aamadu, the grandson of Sheeku Aamadu, internal contradictions weakened the emirate until it became easy prey for the forces of the Futanke, which subsequently overthrew the Maasina Emirate, in 1862.[62]

The Futanke / Toucouleur Empire

Main article: Toucouleur Empire

Many[who?] regard the Futanke or Toucouleur conquest of western Sudan and central Mali as a reform movement. The character of the Futanke Emirate was somewhat different, although its founding was related to the conquest of the Maasina Emirate and the Bamana Kingdoms of Segou and Kaarta in the aftermath of a movement for reform. Threatened by French colonial forces while at the same time being supplied with firearms by them, the Futanke staged a jihad to fight paganism and the competing Islamic brotherhood of the Tijannya.[citation needed]

Its founder, El Hadj Umar Tall an Islamic reformer originating from the Fuuta Tooro on the banks of the Senegal River, died fighting against rebels shortly after his forces defeated the Maasina Emirate. After El Hadj Umar's death, the emirate was divided into three states, each ruled by one of his sons. These three states had their capitals respectively in the towns of Nioro, Segou and Bandiagara. A most important distinction was between noblemen (free people) and the non-free (Rimmaibe or Maccube).[citation needed]

The noblemen consisted of the ruling class of political overlords and Islamic clerics, as well as the pastoral Fulbe populations, who helped them come to power. Together, they formed a group of vassals to the political elite and were considered noblemen, although, in reality, their political influence was minimal. The conquered populations were reduced to servitude or slavery and more slaves were captured to provide enough labour for the functioning of the economy. Also, there were groups of bards, courtiers and artisans who occupied lower political and social positions.[citation needed]

The Sokoto Caliphate and its various emirates

Main article: Sokoto Caliphate

The Sokoto Caliphate was by far the largest and most successful legacy of Fulani power in Western Africa. It was the largest, as well as the most well-organized, of the Fulani Jihad states. Throughout the 19th century, Sokoto was one of the largest and most powerful empires in West Africa until 1903, when defeated by European colonial forces. The Sokoto Caliphate included several emirates, the largest of which was Adamawa, although the Kano Emirate was the most populated. Others included, but are not limited to: Gombe Emirate, Gwandu Emirate, Bauchi Emirate, Katsina Emirate, Zazzau Emirate, Hadejia Emirate, and Muri Emirate.[64]

 
Depiction of a Fulani man from the Sokoto Caliphate by G.T. Bettany (1888)

While establishing their hegemony, the Fulbe defined a strict social hierarchy and imposed limitations on economic and trading activities, the purpose of which was to ensure a constant flow of tax revenue and commodities to the state apparatus and the standing army, especially for the cavalry. The freedom for pastoralists to move around was curtailed to ensure the smooth functioning of other production activities, such as cereal cultivation and, in the case of Maasina, of fishing activities.[citation needed]

There appears to be considerable resistance to the forced acceptance of Islam by these emirates. For example, many nomadic Fulbe, predominantly Wodaabe fled northern Nigeria when their liberty was curtailed and they were forced to convert to Islam following the jihads instigated by Usman Dan Fodio from Sokoto. Conversion to Islam meant not only changing one's religion but also submitting to rules dealing with every aspect of social, political and cultural life, intrusions with which many nomadic Fulbe were not comfortable.[citation needed]

Abdullahi dan Fodio, brother of Shehu dan Fodio stated that Torankawa (Turubbi/Torobe) are a Fulani clan who have Arab ancestry through one Uqba but his nephew, Bello, indicated that he was not sure if it was Uqba ibn Nafi, Uqba ibn Yasir or Uqba ibn Amir.[65] Uqba married a Fulani woman called Bajjumangbu through which the Torodbe clan of Usman dan Fodio descended.[66][67] Usman dan Fodio's mother Hauwa is believed to be a direct descendent of Prophet Muhammad as she was descended from Maulay Idris I, the first Emir of Morocco, who was the great-grandchild of Hasan, grandson of Prophet Muhammad.[64][68] According to Sultan Muhammed Bello in his book Infaq al-Mansur, he asserted his lineage to Prophet Muhammad through his paternal grandmother, Hauwa. Similarly, Ahmadu Bello, the first Premier of Northern Nigeria and great-grandson of Muhammed Bello, reiterated this claim of descent from Prophet Muhammad through both Hauwa and Muhammad Fodio, the father of Usman. In his autobiography, Ahmadu Bello provided a detailed lineage tracing his family's connection to Prophet Muhammad through Hauwa and Muhammad Fodio.[69]

Fulani Christians

As recently as the 1990s, there have been Fula people who have identified as Christians, particularly in the Plateau State of northern Nigeria. Virtually all of them come from a Muslim background. The Reverend Buba Aliyu is the leader of FULCAN (Fulani Christian Association of Nigeria). Fulani Christians have faced severe persecutions from both sides, both from their Fulani Muslim brethren because of their rejection of Islam, as well as from Nigerian Christians from other tribes who mistake them for the hostile Fulani. [70]

Timeline of Fulani history

Time Events
4th century The Ghana Empire emerges in modern-day southeastern Mauritania and western Mali, as the first large-scale Sudano-Sahelian empire
5th century The Ghana Empire becomes the most important power in West Africa
5th century (?) The Fulbe migrate southwards and Eastwards from present-day Morocco and Mauritania[dubious – discuss]
9th century Takrur founded on the lower Senegal River (present-day Senegal) upon the influx of Fulani from the east and north settling in the Senegal River valley
11th century Kingdoms of Tekruur and the Gao Empire flourish in West Africa due to gold trade
1042 Almoravids, Berber Muslims from southern Morocco and Mauritania, attack Takrur, after defeating the Sanhaja in 1039
1050s Islam gains a strong foothold in West Africa
1050–1146 Almoravids take over Morocco, Algeria, and part of al-Andalus; they invade Ghana in 1076 and establish power there.
1062 Almoravids found capital at Marrakesh
1100 The Empire of Ghana starts to decline in influence and importance
1147 The Almohad Caliphate, ruled by Berber Muslims opposed to the Almoravids, seize Marrakesh and go on to conquer Almoravid Spain, Algeria, and Tripoli
1150 An unprecedented resurgence of the Ghana Empire sees it reach its height, controlling vast areas of western Africa as well as Saharan trade routes in gold and salt
1200 Empire and themselves set out on a road of conquest, they take its capital Koumbi Saleh in 1203
1235 Great warrior leader Sundiata Keita of the Mandinka people founds the Mali Empire in present-day Mali, West Africa; it expands under his rule
1240–1250 Mali absorbs Ghana, Tekruur
1324 10th Emperor of Mali, Musa I of Mali regarded as the richest individual in recorded history, goes on his famous pilgrimage to Mecca, Saudi Arabia. his procession reported to include 18,000 workers who each carried 4 pounds (1.8 kg) gold bars, heralds dressed in silks who bore gold staffs, organized horses and handled bags. Musa provided all necessities for the procession, feeding the entire company of men and animals. Also in the train were 80 camels, which varying reports claim carried between 50 and 300 pounds (23 and 136 kg) of gold dust each
1325 The Empire of Mali reaches its height of power, covering much of Northern West Africa.
1352 Ibn Battuta, Berber scholar, travels across Africa and writes an account of all he sees
1462 Sonni Ali becomes ruler of the Songhai people and goes on to build the Songhai Empire
1490 The Mali empire is overshadowed by the Songhai Empire
16th century Songhai Empire enters a period of massive expansion and power under Askia Mohammad I. Askia Mohammad strengthened his country and made it the largest contiguous territory ever in West African history. At its peak, the Empire encompassed the Hausa states as far as Kano (in present-day Nigeria) and much of the territory that had belonged to the Songhai empire in the west neighbouring Bornu Empire of the Kanuri
1515 The Songhai Empire reaches its zenith and pinnacle of power
1590 Songhai Empire is defeated by invading Moroccans from further North
1650 Another wave of Fulbe migrations sees them penetrate even further in the Southern Senegal and Fouta Jallon highlands of middle Guinea
1670 Fulani people gain control of Bhundu in Senegal with Malick Sy, and the Sissibhe
1673 First unsuccessful Fulani jihad in the Fuuta Tooro
1808 Bornu successfully repel Fulani forces
1893 The French conquer the Fouta-Toro
1903 The British conquer the Sokoto Caliphate[71]

Society

 
Fulbe woman at the Sangha market, Mali 1992
 
Fulbe woman at the Sangha market, Mali 1992

The Fulani, migrant Arabs and Hausa people have taken some influences from each other's cultures. Upon the success recorded in the 1804 Fulani War of Usman dan Fodio, many formerly nomadic Fulɓe subsequently joined the ruling classes of the many emirates of the Sokoto Caliphate. The Fulɓe of Hausaland dress in the clothing and speak the language of their Hausa neighbours (see Hausa–Fulani). Because they became the dominant ethnic group in these lands, the Fulɓe in the emirates outside Hausaland, like parts of Kanem-Bornu, Adamawa and Gombe, still retain much of their Fulani culture even still speaking Fulfulde as their first language. The Fulɓe who didn't settle during this period and their descendants, however, still keep an obvious distinct identity from that of the Hausa and other surrounding groups of the region. This Hausa–Fulani interaction is uncommon outside the eastern subregion of West Africa.[72][64]

In Mali, Burkina Faso and Senegal for instance, those within the Fulɓe cultural sphere, but who are not ethnically Fula, are referred to as yimɓe pulaaku (𞤴𞤭𞤥𞤩𞤫 𞤆𞤵𞤤𞤢𞥄𞤳𞤵, "people of the Fula culture"). As such, Fulani culture includes people who may or may not be ethnic Fulani.[73] Although slavery is now illegal, memories of the past relationship between Fulɓbe and Rimayɓe are still very much alive in both groups. Paul Riesman, an American ethnographer who resided among the Jelgooji Fulɓbe of Burkina Faso in the 1980s, states that the Fulɓe are tall, slim, and light-skinned; they have thin straight noses, and their hair tends to be long and curly. In contrast, the Rimayɓe are stocky, tending towards corpulence, dark-skinned with flat 'squashed' noses, and short kinky hair.[74][75][76]

Slavery and caste system

The first Fulani people who were forcibly expatriated to America during the Atlantic slave trade came from several parts of West and Central Africa. Many Fulani slaves came from places such as Guinea, Senegal, Guinea-Bissau, Sierra Leone, Nigeria and Cameroon. Most of the slaves who came from Senegal belonged to Fula and Mandinga peoples.[77][78] Some of the most common names found on the Registry of Liberated Africans were Fulani in origin.[79][80] Many of the captors and perpetrators of raids providing sources for the European slave merchants were also Fulani.[81]

Fula society features the caste divisions typical of the West African region.[82][83] The fairly rigid caste system of the Fula people has medieval roots,[82] had become well established by the 15th-century, and has survived into modern age.[23] The four major castes, states Martin Kich, in their order of status are "nobility, traders, tradesmen (such as blacksmith) and descendants of slaves".[23] According to the African Commission on Human and Peoples' Rights, the Fulani people have held on to "a strict caste system".[84]

There are the Fulani proper, also referred to as the Fulɓe, including the Pullo (also called the Rimɓe (singular)) and the Dimo, meaning "noble". There is the artisan caste,[83] including blacksmiths, potters, griots,[85] genealogists, woodworkers, and dressmakers. They belong to castes but are considered free people. Then there are those castes of captive, slave or serf ancestry: the Maccuɗo, Rimmayɓe, Dimaajo, and less often Ɓaleeɓe, the Fulani equivalent of the Tuareg Ikelan known as Bouzou (Buzu) or Bella in the Hausa and Songhay languages respectively.[86][87][88] The Fulani rulers and merchants were, like many other ruling ethnic groups of Africa, also involved in the trans-Atlantic slave trade, sourcing the enslaved people through raids and from captives they took by waging war.[30][56][89] Many Fulani were enslaved and raided by ethnic groups who adhered to traditional African religions.[90]

The Fulani castes are endogamous in nature, meaning individuals marry only within their caste. This caste system, however, wasn't as elaborate in places like northern Nigeria, Eastern Niger or Cameroon. According to some estimates, by the late 19th century, slaves constituted about 50% of the population of the Fulɓe-ruled Adamawa Emirate, where they were referred to as jeyaɓe (singular jeyado). Though very high, these figures are representative of many other emirates of the Sokoto Caliphate, of which Adamawa formed a part.[91] The castes-based social stratification among the Fula people was widespread and seen across the Sahel, such as Burkina Faso,[92] Niger,[93] Senegal,[94] Guinea,[83] Mali,[93][95] Nigeria,[50] Sudan,[96] and others.[97]

Culture

Traditional livelihood

The Fulani are traditionally a nomadic, pastoralist trading people. They herd cattle, goats and sheep across the vast dry hinterlands of their domain, keeping somewhat separate from the local agricultural populations. They are the largest nomadic ethnic group in the world and inhabit several territories over an area larger in size than the continental United States. The pastoral lifestyle of the herders' tribe makes it complicated for a non-member to date or marry a Fulani woman.[98]

The Fulani follow a code of behaviour known as pulaaku, which consists of the qualities of patience, self-control, discipline, prudence, modesty, respect for others (including foes), wisdom, forethought, personal responsibility, hospitality, courage, and hard work. Among the nomadic Fulani, women in their spare time make handicrafts including engraved gourds, weavings, knitting, beautifully made covers for calabashes known as mbeedu, and baskets. The Fulani men are less involved in the production of crafts such as pottery, iron-working, and dyeing, unlike males from neighbouring ethnic groups around them.

 
Fulani pastoralists in Niger

In virtually every area of West Africa, where the nomadic Fulɓe reside, there has been an increasing trend of conflicts between farmers (sedentary) and grazier (pastoral nomadic). There have been numerous such cases on the Jos Plateau, the Western High Plateau, the Central/Middle Belt regions of Nigeria,[99] Northern Burkina Faso, and Southern Chad. The rearing of cattle is a principal activity in four of Cameroon's ten administrative regions as well as three other provinces with herding on a lesser scale, throughout the North and Central regions of Nigeria, as well as the entire Sahel and Sudan region.[100]

For decades there have been intermittent skirmishes between the Woɗaaɓe Bororo (graziers) and sedentary farmers such as the Jukun, Tiv, Chamba, Bamileke, Wurkum, Bachama, Jenjo, Mbula, Berom, Mumuye, Kare Kare, and sometimes even the Hausa. Such conflicts usually begin when cattle have strayed into farmlands and destroyed crops. Thousands of Fulani have been forced to migrate from their traditional homelands in the Sahel, to areas further south, because of increasing encroachment of Saharan desertification. Nigeria alone loses 2,168 square kilometres (837 sq mi) of cattle rangeland and cropland every year to desertification, posing serious threats to the livelihoods of about 20 million people.[100]

Recurrent droughts have meant that a lot of traditional herding families have been forced to give up their nomadic way of life, losing a sense of their identity in the process.[101] Increasing urbanization has also meant that a lot of traditional Fulani grazing lands have been taken for developmental purposes, or forcefully converted into farmlands.[102] These actions often result in violent attacks and reprisal counterattacks being exchanged between the Fulani, who feel their way of life and survival are being threatened, and other populations who often feel aggrieved from loss of farm produce even if the lands they farm on were initially barren and uncultivated.[99]

 
Several Wodaabe clans in Niger have gathered for a Guérewol festival

Fulani in Nigeria have often requested for the development of exclusive grazing reserves, to curb conflicts.[103] All the leading presidential aspirants of previous elections seeking Fulɓe votes have made several of such failed promises in their campaigns. Discussions among government officials, traditional rulers, and Fulani leaders on the welfare of the pastoralists have always centred on requests and pledges for protecting grazing spaces and cattle passages. The growing pressure from Ardo'en (the Fulani community leaders) for the salvation of what is left of the customary grazing land has caused some state governments with large populations of herders (such as Gombe, Bauchi, Adamawa, Taraba, Plateau, and Kaduna) to include in their development plans the reactivation and preservation of grazing reserves. Quick to grasp the desperation of cattle-keepers for land, the administrators have instituted a Grazing Reserve Committee to find a lasting solution to the rapid depletion of grazing land resources in Nigeria.[104]

 
Henri Allouard (1844 - 1929) - Young Fulani woman

The Fulani believe that the expansion of the grazing reserves will boost livestock population, lessen the difficulty of herding, reduce seasonal migration, and enhance the interaction among farmers, pastoralists, and rural dwellers. Despite these expectations, grazing reserves are not within the reach of about three-quarters of the nomadic Fulani in Nigeria, who number in the millions, and about sixty per cent of migrant pastoralists who use the existing grazing reserves keep to the same reserves every year. The number and the distribution of the grazing reserves in Nigeria range from insufficient to severely insufficient for Fulani livestock. In countries like Nigeria, Cameroon, and Burkina Faso where meat supplies are entirely dependent on the Fulani, such conflicts lead to scarcity and hikes in animal protein prices. In recent times, the Nigerian senate and other lawmakers have been bitterly divided in attempts to pass bills on grazing lands and migration "corridors" for Fulani herdsmen. This was mainly due to Southern and Central Nigerian lawmakers opposing the proposal, and Northern Lawmakers being in support.[104] Fulani extremists are involved in several communal conflicts in Nigeria.[105][99][106][107][108][109] According to the Global Terrorism Index, a continuous sequence of Fulani attacks across West Africa have occurred in Mali,[110][111][112] Central African Republic,[106] Democratic Republic of Congo,[113] and Cameroon.[114] The cumulative fatalities in these attacks is in the thousands.[106]

  •  

    Pair of Earrings; 1981; 3.2 x 3.2 x 1.9 cm (11⁄4 x 11⁄4 x 3⁄4 in.); Brooklyn Museum (New York City)

  •  

    Bracelet; made before 1985; red copper; 5.3 x 10.6 x 10.6 cm (11⁄16 x 43⁄16 x 43⁄16 in.); Nationaal Museum van Wereldculturen (the Netherlands)

Language

Main article: Fula language

The language of the Fulani is "Pulaar" 𞤆𞤵𞤤𞤢𞥄𞤪, which is also the language of the Toucouleurs. All Senegalese and Mauritanians who speak the language natively are known as the Halpulaar (𞤖𞤢𞤤𞤨𞤵𞤤𞤢𞥄𞤪) or Haalpulaar'en (𞤖𞤢𞥄𞤤𞤵𞤤𞤢𞥄𞤪𞥇𞤫𞤲), which means "speakers of Pulaar" ("hal" is the root of the Pulaar verb haalugol 𞤖𞤢𞥄𞤤𞤵𞤺𞤮𞤤, meaning "to speak"). In some areas, e.g. in northern Cameroon, Fulfulde is a local lingua franca.

There are three writing systems used to write this language: an Arabic derived one called Ajami, a Latin derived system with 6 sets, and a native phonetic-faithful system called Adlam recently invented in 1989; the third one is the most increasingly popular not only learnt by hundreds of thousands of people among the diaspora worldwide but has also apps and computer programs created to assist in the script's adoption.[115]

Moral code

Central to the Fulani people's lifestyle is a code of behavior known as pulaaku (Fulfulde: 𞤆𞤵𞤤𞤢𞥄𞤳𞤵) or laawol Fulɓe (𞤂𞤢𞥄𞤱𞤮𞤤 𞤆𞤵𞤤𞤩𞤫) literally meaning the "Fulani pathways" which are passed on by each generation as high moral values of the Fulbe, which enable them to maintain their identity across boundaries and changes of lifestyle. Essentially viewed as what makes a person Fulani, or "Fulaniness", pulaaku includes:

  • Munyal: Patience, self-control, discipline, prudence
  • Gacce / Semteende: Modesty, respect for others (including foes)
  • Hakkille: Wisdom, forethought, personal responsibility, hospitality
  • Sagata / Tiinaade: Courage, hard work

Dress

 
The traditional hat (Tengaade) of the Fulani people worn in diverse slightly different variations among every Fula subgroup

There are no particular outfits for all Fulani sub-groups; dressing and clothing accessories such as ornaments mostly depend on the particular region. The traditional dress of the Fulbe Wodaabe consists of long colourful flowing robes, modestly embroidered or otherwise decorated. In the Futa Jallon highlands of central Guinea, it is common to see men wearing a distinctive hat with colorful embroidery. In Nigeria, Cameroon and Niger, men wear a hat that tapers off at three angular tips, known as a noppiire. Both men and women wear a characteristic white or black cotton fabric gown, adorned with intricate blue, red and green thread embroidery work, with styles differing according to region and sex.

 
Antique Fulani Blanket, Mali, estimated to be from the 1920s courtesy the WOVENSOULS collection

It is not uncommon to see the women decorate their hair with bead hair accessories as well as cowrie shells. Fula women often use henna for hand, arm and feet decorations. Their long hair is put into five long braids that either hang or are sometimes looped on the sides. It is common for women and girls to have silver coins and amber attached to their braids. Some of these coins are very old and have been passed down in the family. The women often wear many bracelets on their wrists. The women can also be seen wearing a colorful cloth (modjaare) around, the waist, head or over one shoulder.[116]

Like the men, the women have markings on their faces around their eyes and mouths that they were given as children. The Western Fulbe in countries like Mali, Senegal and Mauritania use indigo inks around the mouth, resulting in a blackening around the lips and gums.

Fulani men are often seen wearing solid-colored shirt and pants which go down to their lower calves, made from locally grown cotton, a long cloth wrapped around their faces, and a conical hat made from straw and leather on their turbans, and carrying their walking sticks across their shoulders with their arms resting on top of it. Often the men have markings on either side of their faces and/or on their foreheads. They received these markings as children. Fula ethics are strictly governed by the notion of pulaaku. Women wear long robes with flowery shawls. They decorate themselves with necklaces, earrings, nose rings and anklets.[117]

Herding

See also: Fulani herdsmen
Further information: Herder–farmer conflicts in Nigeria and March 2019 attacks against Fulani herders

Fula are primarily known to be pastoralists, but are also traders in some areas. Most Fula in the countryside spend long times alone on foot, and can be seen frequently parading with their cattle throughout the west African hinterland, moving their herds in search of water and better pasture. They were, and still are, the only major migratory people group of West Africa, although the Tuareg people, another nomadic tribe of North African origin, live just immediately north of Fula territory, and sometimes live alongside the Fulani in countries such as Mali, Niger and Burkina Faso. The Fulani, as a result of their constant wandering of the past, can be seen in every climatic zone and habitat of West Africa, from the deserts of the north, to the derived savannah and forests of the south.

From the 16th to 20th centuries many Fulani communities settled in the highlands of the Jos Plateau, the Western High Plateau of Bamenda, and Adamawa Plateau of Nigeria and the Cameroons. These are the highest elevated places in West Africa, and their altitude can reach up to 8,700 feet above sea level. The highland plateaus have a more temperate climate conducive for cattle herding activities, which allowed Fulbe populations to settle there in waves of migrations from further west. Though most Fula now live in towns or villages, a large proportion of the population is still either fully nomadic, or semi-nomadic in nature.

Wealth is counted by how large the herd of cattle is. Long ago Fulani tribes and clans used to fight over cattle and grazing rights. Being the most treasured animal that the Fulanis herd, the cows are very special. Many people say that a person cannot speak Fulfulde if he does not own a cow. The Fulani have a tradition of giving a habbanaya – a cow which is loaned to another until she calves. Once the calf is weaned it is retained and the cow is returned to its owner. This habbanaya is a highly prized animal. Upon receipt of this gift, there is a special ceremony in honor of the gift. The recipient buys special treats and invites his neighbors for this event in which the habbanaya is given a name. The habbanaya is never to be struck under any circumstance.

 
An N'Dama herd in West Africa

Fulani nomads keep various species of cattle, but the zebu is the most common in the West African hinterland, due to its drought resistant traits. In the wetter areas of Fouta Djallon and Casamance, the dwarf N'Dama is more common, as they are highly resistant to trypanosomiasis and other conditions directly associated with high humidity. Subspecies of zebu include the White Fulani cattle, locally known as the Aku, Akuji, Bororoji, White Kano, Yakanaji or Bunaji, which are an important beef breed of cattle found throughout the area owned by both Fulani and Hausa people and beyond in the Sahel zone of Africa.[118]

The Red Fulani cattle, which are called the Jafun French: Djafoun in Nigeria and Cameroon, and Fellata in Chad, as well as other names such as the M'Bororo, Red Bororo, or Bodaadi, another subspecies is the Sokoto Gudali and the Adamawa Gudali or simply Gudali, which means "horned and short legged" in the Hausa language. The widely accepted theory for the origin of present-day zebu cattle in West Africa is that they came from the westward spread of the early zebu populations in East Africa through the Sudan. Other breeds of zebu are found mainly in the drier regions. Their body conformation resembles the zebu cattle of eastern Africa. The zebu did not appear in West Africa until about 1800.[118] The increasing aridity of the climate and the deterioration of the environment in the Sahel appear to have favoured the introduction and spread of the zebu, as they are superior to longhorn and shorthorn cattle in withstanding drought conditions.

The origins and classification of the Fulani remains controversial; one school of thought is of the opinion that the Fulani cattle are truly long-horned zebus that first arrived in Africa from Asia on the east coast; these are believed to have been introduced into West Africa by Arab invaders during the seventh century, roughly about the same time that the short-horned zebus arrived into East Africa. This theory is supported by the appearance of the skull as well as the thoracic hump of the Fulani cattle.[118]

Another school of thought contends that these cattle originated from the Horn of Africa, present-day Ethiopia and Somalia, and that interbreeding between the short-horned zebu (which arrived in the Horn around the first millennium BC) and the ancient Hamitic Longhorn and/or B. taurus brachyceros shorthorn (which had arrived much earlier) occurred in the Horn about 2000–1500 BCE. The subsequent successive introductions of the short-horned zebu are believed to have displaced most sanga cattle into southern Africa.[118]

 
Fulani herders in Mali

During this period of constant movement of people and animals within Africa, some of these sanga cattle probably intermixed with the short-horned, thoracic-humped cattle to produce the thoracic-humped sanga. The latter may have migrated, most probably along with the spread of Islam, westerly to constitute what are today the lyre-horned cattle of West and Central Africa, including the Fulani cattle. Originally the White Fulani were indigenous to north Nigeria, southeast Niger and northeast Cameroon, owned by both Fulani and Hausa people. They then spread to southern Chad and western Sudan.[118]

Every year, in the Malian town of Diafarabé, Fulani men cross the Niger River with their cattle, in an annual cycle of transhumance. This annual festival is known in the local Fulfulde as the Dewgal. Since the founding of the village in 1818, it has always been the most important Fulani festival. It takes place on a Saturday in November or December; the day is carefully chosen based on the state of pastures and the water levels in the river Niger. During the rainy season, the river swells, and the areas around the village are inundated in water, as the level of the river Niger rises, and turns Diafarabe into an island. The cattle are kept on the lush fields up north or south, but when the West African Monsoon subsides and the drier season returns, the water level drops and the cattle can return home again.[119][120][121]

The crossing is more than a search for pastures; it is also a competition to show craftsmanship as a herdsmen. The cattle are driven into the river, and each herder, with no help from others, loudly encourages the animals to move forward as he stands or swims between them, holding on to the horns of the bulls. The smaller animals don't have to swim, but are lifted into pirogues. When all the cattle are back, they are judged by a panel, which decides whose animals are the "fattest". That herder is awarded "best caretaker", and he is awarded by the community.[119][120][121] The worst caretaker ends up with a shameful "prize" – a peanut.

Besides being a competition of herdsmanship, it is also a social event; the herdsmen return after having been away for the most part of the year and they meet their family and friends again. It is a time for celebration. The women decorate their house with woven mats and paint the floor with white and black clay, braid their hair with very intricate patterns, and dress up for their husbands and loved ones. Impressed by the cultural significance attached to the annual event, UNESCO included it on its list of world cultural heritage events.[119][120][121]

Music

 
Fulani dancers in their full traditional regalia.

The Fula have a rich musical culture and play a variety of traditional instruments including drums, hoddu (a plucked skin-covered lute similar to a banjo), and riti or riiti (a one-string bowed instrument similar to a violin), in addition to vocal music. The well-known Senegalese Fula musician Baaba Maal sings in Pulaar on his recordings. Zaghareet or ululation is a popular form of vocal music formed by rapidly moving the tongue sideways and making a sharp, high sound.

Fulani music is as varied as its people. The numerous sub-groups all maintain unique repertoires of music and dance. Songs and dances reflect traditional life and are specifically designed for each individual occasion. Music is played at any occasion: when herding cattle, working in the fields, preparing food, or at the temple. Music is extremely important to the village life cycle, with field cultivation, harvest and winnowing of millet performed to the rhythm of the songs and drums.

Fulani herders have a special affinity for the flute and violin nianioru. The young Fulani shepherd like to whistle and sing softly as they wander the silent savannah with cattle and goats. The truly Fulani instruments are the one-string viola of the Fulani (nianioru), the flute, the two to five string lute hoddu or molo, and the buuba and bawdi set of drums. But they are also influenced by the other instruments of the region such as the beautiful West African harp, the kora, and the balafon. Entertainment is the role of certain casts. The performance of music is the realm of specialized casts. The Griots or Awlube recite the history of the people, places and events of the community.

Food

 
Fulani calabashes used for butter and milk storage and as containers for hawking

Kossam can be the general term for both fresh milk miradam and yoghurt known as pendidan in Fulfulde. It is central to Fulbe identity and revered as a drink or in one of its various processed forms, such as yoghurt and cheese. Kettugol and lébol are derived from milk fat, are used in light cooking and hair weaving. It is common to see Fulani women hawking milk products in characteristic beautifully decorated calabashes balanced on their heads. Other meals include a heavy porridge (nyiiri) made of flour from such grains as millet, sorghum, or corn which is eaten in combination with soup (takai, haako) made from tomatoes, onions, spices, peppers, and other vegetables.[122]

Another popular meal eaten by almost all Fulani communities is made from fermenting milk into yoghurt and eaten with corn couscous known as latchiiri or dakkere, either in the same bowl or separately, also a fluid or porridge called gāri made of flour cereals such as millet, sorghum or corn and milk. The Wodaabe traditionally eat millet, milk and meat as staples. Millet is eaten in the morning, noon and night as a grease with a sauce or stew which usually contains tomatoes, peppers, bone, meat, onion, and other vegetables. On special occasions they eat meat such as goat or beef. A thick beverage similar to the Tuareg eghajira is made by pounding goat cheese, milk, dates and millet.[citation needed]

Houses

 
Fulani "grass house" in Mali

Traditionally, nomadic Fula live in domed houses known as a bukkaru or suudu hudo, literally "grass house". During the dry season, the characteristically hemisphere-shaped domed houses are supported by compact millet stalk pillars, and by reed mats held together and tied against wood poles, in the wet or rainy season. These mobile houses are very easy to set up, and dismantle, as typical of houses from nomadic societies. When it is time to move, the houses are easily disassembled and loaded onto donkeys, horses or camels for transport. With recent trends however, many Fula now live in mud or concrete block houses.[citation needed]

Once they are set up, the room is divided into a sleeping compartment, and another compartment where calabashes and guards of all sizes are intricately arranged in a stack according to their sizes and functions. Spoons made from gourda are hung from the rooftop, with others meant for grain storage.[citation needed]

Genetics

The Fulani people are genetically an admixture of West and East African ancestries, specifically Niger-Congo and Nilo-Saharan components, but also display varying degrees of West Eurasian admixture through contact with groups from North Africa.[123] The Fulani are the most wide-spread pastoralist group in the Sahel/Savannah belt.[124]

Paternal lineages (Y-DNA)

The paternal lineages of the Fula/Fulɓe/Fulani tend to vary depending on geographic location. According to a study by Cruciani et al. (2002), around 90% of Fulani individuals from Burkina Faso carried haplotype 24, which corresponds with the E-M2 (E1b1a) that is common in West Africa. The remainder belonged to haplotype 42/haplogroup E-M132. Both of these clades are today most frequent among Niger–Congo-speaking populations, particularly those inhabiting Senegal. Similarly, 53% of the Fulani in northern Cameroon bore haplogroup E-M132, with the rest mainly carrying other African clades (12% haplogroup A and 6% haplogroup E1b1a). A significant minority carried the West Eurasian haplogroups T (18%) and R1 (12%), making up together around ~30% of the total haplogroup variation.[125] Mulcare et al. (2004) observed a similar frequency of haplogroup R1 subclades in their Fulani samples from Cameroon (18%).[126]

A study by Hassan et al. (2008) on a Fulani subgroup in Sudan observed a significantly higher occurrence of the West-Eurasian haplogroup R1 (53.8%). The remainder belonged to E-M215 subclades, including 34.62% E-M78 and 27.2% E-V22.[127] Bučková et al. (2013) analyzed various Fulani subgroups, and observed R1b among the Fulani Zinder grouping with a frequency of ~31%. This was in sharp contrast to most of the other Fulani pastoralist groups elsewhere, including those from Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Mali and Chad, which instead had nearly exclusive West African paternal haplogroups.[128]

Maternal lineages (mtDNA)

In contrast to their more heterogeneous paternal lineages, the Fulani have rather homogenous maternal lineages, with close affinity to other Niger-Congo populations. Only 8.1% of their mtDNA clades were associated with West Eurasian or Afro-Asiatic groups (J1b, U5, H, and V).[129]

A study of four Fulani nomad populations (n = 186) in three Sahelian countries (Chad, Cameroon, and Burkina Faso), found that the only group of nomadic Fulani that manifests some similarities with geographically related agricultural populations (from Guinea-Bissau and Nigeria) comes from Tcheboua in northern Cameroon.[130][131]

Autosomal DNA (overall)

According to Tishkoff et al. (2009), the Fulani's genomic ancestry clusters near that of Chadic and Central Sudanic speaking populations, with genetic affinities observed to the Hausa people. Based on this, the researchers suggest that the Fulani may have adopted a Niger-Congo language at some point in their history, while intermarrying with local populations. Additionally, moderate levels of West Eurasian admixture was also observed among the Fulani samples, which the authors propose may have been introduced via the Iberian Peninsula and Northern Africa.[132] Dobon et al. (2015), found that the Sudanese Fulani have largely ancestry from Niger-Kordofanian and Nilo-Saharan (Sudanic) speaking groups, with lower amounts of West-Eurasian ancestry. [133]

 
Young Fulani men at Cure Salee festival, Niger.

Triska, Petr et al. (2015) showed that there is extensive admixture across the Sahel Belt, with the Fula carrying West African and East African components, as well as a Mozabite/North African component. These results support the hypothesis of a North African origin and a Western to Central Africa past migration for Fulani.[134]

A full genome analysis was conducted by Vicente et al. in 2019, analyzing several different Fulani subgroups from various geographic regions. They found that the Fulani people are characterized by the admixture of local West African and East African components, but also display West-Eurasian admixture, mediated through historical North African groups. The West-Eurasian ancestry among Fulani was estimated to a mean average of 21,4% among the 53 samples from Ziniaré in Burkina Faso. According to the authors, there were two admixture events, the first being about 2000 years ago, with the second being more recent at around 300 years ago. This Eurasian ancestry was observed in the ancestry components of Mozabite people. They found that: "Our findings suggest that Eurasian admixture and the European LP allele was introduced into the Fulani through contact with a North African population/s. We furthermore confirm the link between the lactose digestion phenotype in the Fulani to the MCM6/LCT locus by reporting the first GWAS of the lactase persistence trait. e observed a T-13910 allele frequency of 48.0%, while the genome-wide European admixture fraction in the Fulani is 21.4% at K = 3. The notable European admixture fraction in the Fulani coupled with the high frequencies of the LP T-13910 allele suggests the possibility of adaptive gene flow into the Fulani gene pool".[124] Another study in 2020 by Priehodová et al., suggest an older date for the introduction of one variant of the LP allele in the Sahel, about ~8.5 ka.[135]

A study in 2019 by Fan et al., found that the Fulani sampled from Cameroon, clustered with Afro-Asiatic speakers from East Africa in the phylogenetic analysis, which the authors said indicates a potential shift in language to Niger-Congo. The analysis on autosomal markers found traces of West Eurasian-related ancestry in this population, which suggests a North African or East African origin (as North and East Africans also have such ancestry likely related to expansions of farmers and herders from the Near East) and is consistent with the presence at moderate frequency of the −13,910T variant associated with lactose tolerance in European populations.[136]

In 2023, whole genomes of Fulani individuals from various Sahelian samples were analyzed, and the researches said the non-Sub-Saharan genetic ancestry within the Fulani cannot be solely explained by recent admixture events. Fulani may be descendants of Saharan cattle herders during the last Green Sahara, who had some genomic similarities to Late Neolithic Moroccans based on ancient samples.[137]

Notable Fulanis

Main article: List of notable Fulanis

See also

References

  1. ^ Wealth, household heterogeneity and livelihood diversification of Fulani pastoralists in the Kachia Grazing Reserve, northern Nigeria, during a period of social transition on PubMed Central, access-date=2023-10-14
  2. ^ "Africa: Senegal The World Factbook – Central Intelligence Agency". www.cia.gov. 2019. Retrieved 22 December 2019.
  3. ^ "Africa: Guinea The World Factbook – Central Intelligence Agency". www.cia.gov. 2023. Retrieved 2 August 2023.
  4. ^ "L'ethnie peul au Cameroun Cameroon". 15 October 2023. Retrieved 13 August 2019.
  5. ^ "Mbororo/Fulani/Peul". 15 October 2023. Retrieved 13 August 2019.
  6. ^ "Africa: Mali – The World Factbook – Central Intelligence Agency". www.cia.gov. 27 April 2021. Retrieved 1 May 2021.
  7. ^ "Africa: Burkina Faso The World Factbook – Central Intelligence Agency". www.cia.gov. 2019. Retrieved 22 December 2019.
  8. ^ "Africa: Niger – The World Factbook – Central Intelligence Agency". www.cia.gov. 27 April 2021. Retrieved 1 May 2021.
  9. ^ "PRINCIPAUX INDICATEURS SOCIO DEMOGRAPHIQUES ET ECONOMIQUES" (PDF). 2013. Retrieved 22 December 2019.
  10. ^ "What Is The Ethnic Composition Of Mauritania?". www.worldatlas.com. 27 April 2021. Retrieved 1 May 2021.
  11. ^ "Africa: Guinea-Bissau – The World Factbook – Central Intelligence Agency". www.cia.gov. 27 April 2021. Retrieved 1 May 2021.
  12. ^ . www.gbosdata.org. Archived from the original on 2021-11-19. Retrieved 2021-06-17.
  13. ^ "Africa: Chad – The World Factbook – Central Intelligence Agency". www.cia.gov. 27 April 2021. Retrieved 1 May 2021.
  14. ^ "Sierra Leone 2015 Population and Housing Census National Analytical Report" (PDF). Statistics Sierra Leone. Retrieved 28 March 2020.
  15. ^ a b "Fulani people and Jihadism in Sahel and West African countries :: Observatoire of Arab-Muslim World and Sahel :: Foundation for Strategic Research :: FRS". www.frstrategie.org. Retrieved 2021-06-21.
  16. ^ "Adamawa Fulfulde". Ethnologue. Retrieved 18 October 2023.
  17. ^ "Borgu Fulfude". Ethnologue. Retrieved 18 October 2023.
  18. ^ "Maasina Fulfulde". Ethnologue. Retrieved 18 October 2023.
  19. ^ "No South Sudan Passports for Fulani, Officials Say | Voice of America – English". www.voanews.com. Retrieved 2021-09-05.
  20. ^ Algerian man Salim A. who worked with Fula-Nomadic communities in Southern Algeria, verifys Fulani presence. This constitutes a Primary Source - eye witness.
  21. ^ "Fulani | People, Religion, & Nigeria | Britannica". 25 August 2023.
  22. ^ Francis Rodd (1926) - Origins of Tuareg people; H.R. Palmer (1914) - M. Delafosse's Account of the Fulani, Taylor White (1921)
  23. ^ a b c d e Richard M. Juang (2008). Africa and the Americas: Culture, Politics, and History. ABC-CLIO. p. 492. ISBN 978-1-85109-441-7.
  24. ^ Felicity Crowe (2010). Modern Muslim Societies. Marshall Cavendish. p. 262. ISBN 978-0-7614-7927-7.
  25. ^ a b Steven L. Danver (2015). Native Peoples of the World: An Encyclopedia of Groups, Cultures and Contemporary Issues. Routledge. pp. 31–32. ISBN 978-1-317-46400-6.
  26. ^ . homepage.univie.ac.at (in German). Archived from the original on 24 November 2021. Retrieved 30 August 2020.
  27. ^ David Levinson (1996). "Fulani". Encyclopedia of World Cultures: Africa and the Middle East, Volume 9. Gale Group. ISBN 978-0-8161-1808-3.
  28. ^ Anthony Appiah; Henry Louis Gates (2010). Encyclopedia of Africa. Oxford University Press. p. 495. ISBN 978-0-19-533770-9.
  29. ^ a b David Levinson (1996). "Fulani". Encyclopedia of World Cultures: Africa and the Middle East, Volume 9. Gale Group. ISBN 978-0-8161-1808-3., Quote: The Fulani form the largest pastoral nomadic group in the world. The Bororo'en are noted for the size of their cattle herds. In addition to fully nomadic groups, however, there are also semisedentary Fulani —Fulbe Laddi— who also farm, although they argue that they do so out of necessity, not choice.
  30. ^ a b Christopher R. DeCorse (2001). West Africa During the Atlantic Slave Trade: Archaeological Perspectives. Bloomsburg Academic. pp. 172–174. ISBN 978-0-7185-0247-8.
  31. ^ a b Anthony Appiah; Henry Louis Gates (2010). Encyclopedia of Africa. Oxford University Press. pp. 495–496. ISBN 978-0-19-533770-9.
  32. ^ Richard M. Juang (2008). Africa and the Americas: Culture, Politics, and History. ABC-CLIO. p. 492. ISBN 978-1-85109-441-7.
  33. ^ a b Pat Ikechukwu Ndukwe (1996). Fulani. The Rosen Publishing Group. pp. 9–17. ISBN 978-0-8239-1982-6.
  34. ^ D Group (2013). Encyclopedia of African Peoples. Routledge. pp. 85–88. ISBN 978-1-135-96334-7.
  35. ^ "Religion and expressive culture – Fulani". www.everyculture.com. Retrieved 30 August 2020.
  36. ^ "Fulani | people". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 2020-10-27.
  37. ^ The homonym Fulani is also used by the Manding peoples, being the diminutive form of the word Fula in their language (with suffix -ni), essentially meaning 'little Fula'.
  38. ^ The letter ɓ is an implosive b sound, which does not exist in English, so is replaced by b. In the orthography for languages of Guinea (pre-1985), this sound was represented by bh, so one would have written Fulbhe instead of Fulɓe.
  39. ^ Clark, Andrew F. “The Fulbe of Bundu (Senegambia): From Theocracy to Secularization.” The International Journal of African Historical Studies, vol. 29, no. 1, 1996, p. 4. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/221416. Accessed 1 July 2023.
  40. ^ "Fulani: A brief walk into the origin and lifestyle of this beautiful people". Pulse Nigeria. 2022-07-06. Retrieved 2023-09-18.
  41. ^ Saeed, Asma’u G. (2017). "The Mahdiyya in Adamawa Emirate : the poem on the battle of Danki (1892) by Shaykh Hayāt b. Sa'īd". Journal for Islamic Studies. 36 (1): 61. ISSN 2957-9163.
  42. ^ Mali: People & Society, Burkina Faso: People & Society, Guinea: People & Society, Senegal: People & Society, Niger: People & Society, CIA Factbook (2015)
  43. ^ Schlee, Gunther; Watson, Elizabeth, eds. (2013-10-15). Changing Identifications and Alliances in North-east Africa: Volume II: Sudan, Uganda, and the Ethiopia-Sudan Borderlands. Berghahn Books. ISBN 9781845459635.
  44. ^ Al-Amin Abu-Manga; Nuhu Auwalu Wakili (1986). Fulfulde in the Sudan: process of adaptation to Arabic. D. Reimer. p. 7. ISBN 9783496008859. The Fulani in the Sudan are known by the loose generic term 'Fellata'
  45. ^ "The World Factbook". CIA. Retrieved 2013-12-28.
  46. ^ "Association of Concerned Africa Scholars » Citizenship and Identity in Post-Secession Northern Sudan". Association of Concerned Africa Scholars. Retrieved 2013-12-28.
  47. ^ "Chad Ethnic Groups". Study.com. Retrieved 2020-05-25.
  48. ^ Bukari, Kaderi Noagah; Schareika, Nicholaus (2015-11-04). "Stereotypes, prejudices and exclusion of Fulani pastoralists in Ghana". Pastoralism. 5 (1): 20. doi:10.1186/s13570-015-0043-8. ISSN 2041-7136.
  49. ^ Carl Skutsch (2005). Encyclopedia of the World's Minorities. Routledge. p. 474. ISBN 978-1-135-19388-1., Quote: "Fulani oral traditions suggest an origin in Egypt or the Middle East, a common theme in West African Muslim traditions.
  50. ^ a b Webster, G. W. (1931). "242. Customs and Beliefs of the Fulani: Notes Collected During 24 Years Residence in Northern Nigeria". Man. 31: 238–244. doi:10.2307/2790939. JSTOR 2790939.
  51. ^ Unesco General History of Africa (1992). Africa from the Seventh to the Eleventh Century v. 3. James Currey Publishers. p. 204. ISBN 978-0852550939.
  52. ^ Creevey, Lucy (August 1996). "Islam, Women and the Role of the State in Senegal". Journal of Religion in Africa. 26 (3): 268–307. doi:10.1163/157006696X00299. JSTOR 1581646.
  53. ^ Fage, John Donnelly (1997). "Upper and Lower Guinea". In Roland Oliver (ed.). The Cambridge History of Africa, Volume 3. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521209816.
  54. ^ "History Corner – Peoples of The Gambia: The Fula". Africa.gm – Africa news and information community. Retrieved 2014-02-27.
  55. ^ David Levinson (1996). "Fulani". Encyclopedia of World Cultures: Africa and the Middle East, Volume 9. Gale Group. ISBN 978-0-8161-1808-3., Quote: "Their adoption of Islam increased the Fulanis' feeling of cultural and religious superiority to surrounding peoples, and that adoption became a major ethnic boundary marker."
  56. ^ a b c d e Andrea L. Stanton (2012). Cultural Sociology of the Middle East, Asia, and Africa: An Encyclopedia. SAGE Publications. pp. 147–148. ISBN 978-1-4129-8176-7.
  57. ^ a b c Songhai Empire, Encyclopædia Britannica
  58. ^ Knut Vikor (2013). Leif Manger (ed.). Muslim Diversity: Local Islam in Global Contexts. Routledge. pp. 92–93. ISBN 978-1-136-81857-8.
  59. ^ a b Johnson, Marion (1976). "The Economic Foundations of an Islamic Theocracy – The Case of Masina". The Journal of African History. Cambridge University Press. 17 (4): 481–495. doi:10.1017/s0021853700015024. S2CID 162679554.
  60. ^ a b Walter van Beek (1988). "Purity and statecraft: The Fulani Jihad". The Quest for Purity: Dynamics of Puritan Movements. Walter de Gruyter. pp. 149–177. ISBN 978-3-11-011382-2.
  61. ^ John Thornton (28 April 1998). Africa and Africans in the Making of the Atlantic World, 1400–1800. Cambridge University Press. pp. 91–92, xvii–xix. ISBN 978-0-521-62724-5.
  62. ^ a b c d "Resistance to Fulbe hegemony in nineteenth-century West Africa". African dynamics (PDF). Brill. 2003. pp. 43–68. ISBN 9789004126244.
  63. ^ J. D. Fage; Roland Anthony Oliver (1975). The Cambridge History of Africa, Volume 4. Cambridge University Press. p. 208. ISBN 9780521204132. Retrieved 2014-02-27.
  64. ^ a b c Last, Murray (1967). The Sokoto Caliphate. Internet Archive. [New York] Humanities Press.
  65. ^ Gwandu, Abubaker Aliu (1977). Abdullahi b. fodio as a Muslim jurist (Doctoral thesis). Durham University.
  66. ^ Abubakar, Aliyu (2005). The Torankawa Danfodio Family. Kano,Nigeria: Fero Publishers.
  67. ^ Last, Murray (1967). The Sokoto Caliphate. Internet Archive. [New York] Humanities Press. pp. lxxiii.
  68. ^ Last, Murray. Genealogy of Shaikh Uthman b Fodiye and some Scholars related to him (PDF). Premium Times.
  69. ^ Bello, Ahmadu (1962). My life. Internet Archive. Cambridge [Eng.] : University Press. p. 239.
  70. ^ Kim, Masara (2021-11-11). Nigeria's Little Known Fulani Christians Worship In Secret. The Nigerian Voice. Available at: https://www.thenigerianvoice.com/news/303573/nigerias-little-known-fulani-christians-worship-in-secret.html (retrieved: 2023-06-17).
  71. ^ . Jamtan. Archived from the original on 2012-11-22. Retrieved 2013-12-28.
  72. ^ Boyle, C. Vicars (1910). "Historical Notes on the Yola Fulanis". Journal of the Royal African Society. 10 (37): 73–92. ISSN 0368-4016. JSTOR 715032.
  73. ^ (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2014-02-20. Retrieved 2014-02-03.
  74. ^ Paul Riesman; David L. Szanton (1992). "Global Fulani Society". First Find Your Child a Good Mother: The Construction of Self in Two African Communities. Rutgers University Press. p. 15. ISBN 9780813517681. Retrieved 2014-02-27.
  75. ^ . Jamtan. Archived from the original on 2014-02-20. Retrieved 2014-02-27.
  76. ^ David J. Phillips (2001). Peoples on the Move: Introducing the Nomads of the World. William Carey Library. ISBN 9780878083527. Retrieved 2014-02-27.
  77. ^ "Portrait of Yarrow Mamout: An Early American Muslim". www.religioninamerica.org.
  78. ^ Omar ibn Said (1831). "Autobiography of Omar ibn Said, Slave in North Carolina, 1831". University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill.
  79. ^ Anderson, R. (2020). Liberated African Origins and the Nineteenth-Century Slave Trade. In Abolition in Sierra Leone: Re-Building Lives and Identities in Nineteenth-Century West Africa (African Identities: Past and Present, pp. 30-65). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/9781108562423.002
  80. ^ Misevich, “The Mende and Sherbro Diaspora,” 254.
  81. ^ Curtin, P., & Vansina, J. (1964). Sources of the Nineteenth Century Atlantic Slave Trade. The Journal of African History, 5(2), 185-208. doi:10.1017/S0021853700004801
  82. ^ a b Tamari, Tal (1991). "The Development of Caste Systems in West Africa". The Journal of African History. 32 (2): 221–250. doi:10.1017/s0021853700025718. S2CID 162509491., Quote: "Endogamous artisan and musician groups are characteristic of over fifteen West African peoples, including the Manding, Soninke, Wolof, Serer, Fulani, Tukulor, Songhay, Dogon, Senufo, Minianka, Moors, and Tuareg. Castes appeared among the Malinke no later than 1300, and were present among the Wolof and Soninke, as well as some Songhay and Fulani populations, no later than 1500."
  83. ^ a b c Dupire, Marguerite (1985). "A Nomadic Caste: The Fulani Woodcarvers Historical Background and Evolution". Anthropos. 80 (1/3): 85–100. JSTOR 40460882. The woodcarvers associated with the Fulani and neighboring societies in West Africa were nomads. All criteria retained by specialists to defìne a caste group (Berreman, Pitt-Rivers, Vaughan), may be applied to them. This is true even today in spite of their sedentarization and the conversion of certain of them to sculpture. The second part of this study raises the question of the conditions underlying the creation of artisan castes, drawing upon examples taken from agricultural societies, certain of which are state-based (Fulani, Serer of Sine), others of which are more or less acephalous (Marghi, Senufo, Cangin Serer).
  84. ^ African Commission on Human and Peoples' Rights (2009). Rapport Du Groupe de Travail de la Commission Africaine Sur Les Populations/communautes Autochtones : Mission en Republique de Niger 14–24 Février 2006. IWGIA. p. 41 note 74. ISBN 978-87-91563-48-5.
  85. ^ Sow, Abdoul Aziz; Angell, John (1993). "Fulani Poetic Genres". Research in African Literatures. 24 (2): 61–77. JSTOR 3819886. At the top of the hierarchy are cattle-owning Fulani, Toorobbe (literate marabouts who hold spiritual power), Seebe (members of a warrior caste...) The middle of the hierarchy is comprisedof the five castes that...
  86. ^ Paul Riesman; David L. Szanton (1992). First Find Your Child a Good Mother: The Construction of Self in Two African Communities. Rutgers University Press. p. 14. ISBN 9780813517681. Retrieved 2014-02-27.
  87. ^ Hill, Allan G (2012-07-26). Population, Health and Nutrition in the Sahel. Routledge. p. 9. ISBN 9781136882845. Retrieved 2014-02-27.
  88. ^ "The Unreached Peoples Prayer Profiles". Kcm.co.kr. Retrieved 2014-02-27.
  89. ^ Frank Salamone (1997). Junius P. Rodriguez (ed.). The Historical Encyclopedia of World Slavery. ABC-CLIO. pp. 333–334. ISBN 978-0-87436-885-7.
  90. ^ Fisher, Humphrey J., Slavery in the History of Muslim Black Africa, C. Hurst & Co. Publishers (2001), p. 26, ISBN 9781850655244
  91. ^ Vereecke, Catherine (1994). "The Slave Experience in Adamawa: Past and Present Perspectives from Yola (Nigeria) (Une approche historique de l'esclavage dans l'Adamawa du XIXe siècle à nos jours)". Cahiers d'Études Africaines. 34 (133/135): 23–53. doi:10.3406/cea.1994.2039. JSTOR 4392512.
  92. ^ Hampshire, Kate (2006). "Flexibility in Domestic Organization and Seasonal Migration Among the Fulani of Northern Burkina Faso". Africa. 76 (3): 402–426. doi:10.3366/afr.2006.0044. S2CID 73652678.
  93. ^ a b Tor Arve Benjaminsen; Christian Lund (2001). Politics, Property and Production in the West African Sahel: Understanding Natural Resources Management. Nordic Africa Institute. pp. 118–119, 122, 127–128, 130–131. ISBN 978-91-7106-476-9.
  94. ^ Marguerite Dupire (1963), Matériau pour l'étude de l'endogamie des Peul du cercle de Kedougou (Sénégal oriental), Cahiers du Centre de recherches anthropologiques, Volume 5, Numéro 3, pages 235–236, 251, 223–297 (in French)
  95. ^ Gallais, Jean (1962). "Signification du groupe ethnique au Mali". L'Homme. 2 (2): 106–129. doi:10.3406/hom.1962.366487. JSTOR 25131051.
  96. ^ JH Vaughn (1970). "Caste System in the Western Sudan". In Arthur Tuden and Leonard Plotnicov (ed.). Social Stratification in Africa. Free Press. ISBN 978-0029327807.
  97. ^ Chodak, Szymon (1973). "Social Stratification in Sub-Saharan Africa". Canadian Journal of African Studies. 7 (3): 401–417. doi:10.2307/484167. JSTOR 484167.
  98. ^ . Dating Reporter's Blog. Archived from the original on 2021-03-01. Retrieved 2021-02-27.
  99. ^ a b c Martin Patience (2016-08-10). "Nigeria's deadly battle for land: Herdsmen v farmers". BBC News. Retrieved 2016-08-10.
  100. ^ a b "Nigeria: Going Beyond the Green Wall Ritual". allAfrica.com. 2013-07-04. Retrieved 2014-02-27.
  101. ^ "An Introduction To The Gambia's Fulani People". Culture Trip. 2019-11-30. Retrieved 2019-10-27.
  102. ^ "Ivory Coast – ETHNIC GROUPS AND LANGUAGES". countrystudies.us. Retrieved 2020-05-25.
  103. ^ "Grazing Reserve Development and Constraints". Gamji.com. Retrieved 2014-02-27.
  104. ^ a b . Punchng.com. 2012-07-21. Archived from the original on 2014-02-01. Retrieved 2014-02-27.
  105. ^ Premier (2019-02-07). "Nigerian government failing to stop Fulani militants killing Christians, charity says". Premier. Retrieved 2019-04-24.
  106. ^ a b c "GTD Search Results". www.start.umd.edu. Retrieved 2019-04-11.
  107. ^ Amnesty International (2018). Harvest of Death Three Years Of Bloody Clashes Between Farmers and Herders in Nigeria (PDF). Maitama, Abuja-FCT, Nigeria: Amnesty International.
  108. ^ Nwangwu, Chikodiri; Enyiazu, Chukwuemeka (2019). "Nomadic Pastoralism and Human Security: Towards a Collective Action against Herders-Farmers Crisis in Nigeria" (PDF). Nomadic Pastorialism and Human Security: Towards a Collective Action Against Herders-Farmers Crisis in Nigeria | AfriHeritage Working Paper 2019 010.
  109. ^ "Fulani Extremists Kill 3, Burn Church Site in Latest Attack on Christians in Nigeria - Villagers Say Gov't Doing Nothing". CBN News. 2022-04-07. Retrieved 2022-08-15.
  110. ^ "The Sahel in flames". The New Humanitarian. 2019-05-31. Retrieved 2019-06-23.
  111. ^ "GTD Search Results". www.start.umd.edu. Retrieved 2019-04-11.
  112. ^ Tobie, Aurélien (December 2017). (PDF) (Report). Stockholm International Peace Research Institute. Archived from the original (PDF) on 28 July 2022. Retrieved 12 September 2023.
  113. ^ "Incident Summary for GTDID: 201603260030". www.start.umd.edu. Retrieved 2019-04-11.
  114. ^ Cameroon: Civilians Massacred in Separatist Area, Human Rights Watch, Feb 25, 2020. Accessed Feb 26, 2020.
  115. ^ Bach, Deborah; Lerner, Sara. "ADLaM comes online". Microsoft Story Labs. Retrieved 4 September 2019.
  116. ^ Marianne Gullestad (2007). Picturing Pity: Pitfalls and pleasures in cross-cultural communication – image and word in a North Cameroon mission. Berghahn Books. p. 130. ISBN 9781845453435.
  117. ^ . 2007-12-27. Archived from the original on 2007-12-27. Retrieved 2013-12-28.
  118. ^ a b c d e . Dagris.ilri.cgiar.org. 2009-10-20. Archived from the original on 2015-06-10. Retrieved 2014-02-27.
  119. ^ a b c . africareview.com. Archived from the original on 2014-02-22. Retrieved 2014-02-27.
  120. ^ a b c Chris Caldicott (1996-11-02). "Take me to the river – Travel". The Independent. Retrieved 2014-02-27.
  121. ^ a b c . Lonely Planet. 2012-11-15. Archived from the original on 22 February 2014. Retrieved 2014-02-27.
  122. ^ "Fulani – Introduction, Location, Language, Folklore, Religion, Major holidays, Rites of passage, Relationships, Living conditions". Everyculture.com. Retrieved 2013-12-28.
  123. ^ Černý, Viktor; Fortes-Lima, Cesar; Tříska, Petr (2021-04-26). "Demographic history and admixture dynamics in African Sahelian populations". Human Molecular Genetics. 30 (R1): R29–R36. doi:10.1093/hmg/ddaa239. ISSN 1460-2083. PMID 33105478.
  124. ^ a b Vicente, Mário; Priehodová, Edita; Diallo, Issa; Podgorná, Eliška; Poloni, Estella S.; Černý, Viktor; Schlebusch, Carina M. (2019-12-02). "Population history and genetic adaptation of the Fulani nomads: inferences from genome-wide data and the lactase persistence trait". BMC Genomics. 20 (1): 915. doi:10.1186/s12864-019-6296-7. ISSN 1471-2164. PMC 6888939. PMID 31791255.
  125. ^ Cruciani, Fulvio; Santolamazza, Piero; Shen, Peidong; et al. (May 2002). "A Back Migration from Asia to Africa Is Supported by High-Resolution Analysis of Human Y-Chromosome Haplotypes". American Journal of Human Genetics. 70 (5): 1197–1214. doi:10.1086/340257. PMC 447595. PMID 11910562.
  126. ^ Mulcare, Charlotte A.; Weale, Michael E.; Jones, Abigail L.; Connell, Bruce; Zeitlyn, David; Tarekegn, Ayele; Swallow, Dallas M.; Bradman, Neil; Thomas, Mark G. (2004). "The T Allele of a Single-Nucleotide Polymorphism 13.9 kb Upstream of the Lactase Gene (LCT) (C−13.9kbT) Does Not Predict or Cause the Lactase-Persistence Phenotype in Africans". The American Journal of Human Genetics. 74 (6): 1102–1110. doi:10.1086/421050. PMC 1182074. PMID 15106124.
  127. ^ Hassan, Hisham Y.; Underhill, Peter A.; Cavalli-Sforza, Luca L.; Ibrahim, Muntaser E. (2008). "Y-chromosome variation among Sudanese: Restricted gene flow, concordance with language, geography, and history". American Journal of Physical Anthropology. 137 (3): 316–23. doi:10.1002/ajpa.20876. PMID 18618658.
  128. ^ Bučková, Jana; Cerný, Viktor; Novelletto, Andrea (2013). "Multiple and differentiated contributions to the male gene pool of pastoral and farmer populations of the African Sahel". American Journal of Physical Anthropology. 151 (1): 10–21. doi:10.1002/ajpa.22236. PMID 23460272.
  129. ^ Miller, MS (1990). "Differential effects of N-methyl-N'-nitro-N-nitrosoguanidine on constitutive and hormone-inducible gene expression in rat hepatoma cells". Chemico-Biological Interactions. 73 (2–3): 207–19. doi:10.1016/0009-2797(90)90004-7. PMID 1690087.
  130. ^ Cerný, V.; Hájek, M.; Bromová, M.; Cmejla, R.; Diallo, I.; Brdicka, R. (2006). "MtDNA of Fulani nomads and their genetic relationships to neighboring sedentary populations". Human Biology. 78 (1): 9–27. doi:10.1353/hub.2006.0024. ISSN 0018-7143. PMID 16900879. S2CID 7045459.
  131. ^ ČERNÝ, V.; HÁJEK, M.; BROMOVÁ, M.; ČMEJLA, R.; DIALLO, I.; BRDIČKA, R. (2006). "mtDNA of Fulani Nomads and Their Genetic Relationships to Neighboring Sedentary Populations". Human Biology. 78 (1): 9–27. doi:10.1353/hub.2006.0024. ISSN 0018-7143. JSTOR 41466384. PMID 16900879. S2CID 7045459.
  132. ^ Tishkoff, S. A.; Reed, F. A.; Friedlaender, F. R.; Ehret, C.; Ranciaro, A.; Froment, A.; Hirbo, J. B.; Awomoyi, A. A.; Bodo, J.-M.; Doumbo, O.; Ibrahim, M.; Juma, A. T.; Kotze, M. J.; Lema, G.; Moore, J. H.; Mortensen, H.; Nyambo, T. B.; Omar, S. A.; Powell, K.; Pretorius, G. S.; Smith, M. W.; Thera, M. A.; Wambebe, C.; Weber, J. L.; Williams, S. M. (2009). "The Genetic Structure and History of Africans and African Americans". Science. 324 (5930): 1035–44. Bibcode:2009Sci...324.1035T. doi:10.1126/science.1172257. PMC 2947357. PMID 19407144.
  133. ^ Dobon, Begoña; Hassan, Hisham Y.; Laayouni, Hafid; Luisi, Pierre; Ricaño-Ponce, Isis; Zhernakova, Alexandra; Wijmenga, Cisca; Tahir, Hanan; Comas, David; Netea, Mihai G.; Bertranpetit, Jaume (2015-05-28). "The genetics of East African populations: a Nilo-Saharan component in the African genetic landscape". Scientific Reports. 5 (1): 9996. Bibcode:2015NatSR...5E9996D. doi:10.1038/srep09996. ISSN 2045-2322. PMC 4446898. PMID 26017457.
  134. ^ Triska, Petr; Soares, Pedro; Patin, Etienne; Fernandes, Veronica; Cerny, Viktor; Pereira, Luisa (2015-11-26). "Extensive Admixture and Selective Pressure Across the Sahel Belt". Genome Biology and Evolution. 7 (12): 3484–3495. doi:10.1093/gbe/evv236. ISSN 1759-6653. PMC 4700964. PMID 26614524.
  135. ^ Priehodová, Edita; Austerlitz, Frédéric; Čížková, Martina; Nováčková, Jana; Ricaut, François-Xavier; Hofmanová, Zuzana; Schlebusch, Carina M.; Černý, Viktor (November 2020). "Sahelian pastoralism from the perspective of variants associated with lactase persistence". American Journal of Physical Anthropology. 173 (3): 423–436. doi:10.1002/ajpa.24116. ISSN 1096-8644. PMID 32812238. S2CID 221179656.
  136. ^ Fan, Shaohua; Kelly, Derek E.; Beltrame, Marcia H.; Hansen, Matthew E. B.; Mallick, Swapan; Ranciaro, Alessia; Hirbo, Jibril; Thompson, Simon; Beggs, William; Nyambo, Thomas; Omar, Sabah A. (2019-04-26). "African evolutionary history inferred from whole genome sequence data of 44 indigenous African populations". Genome Biology. 20 (1): 82. doi:10.1186/s13059-019-1679-2. ISSN 1474-760X. PMC 6485071. PMID 31023338.
  137. ^ D’Atanasio, Eugenia (April 6, 2023). "Echoes from the last Green Sahara: whole genome analysis of Fulani, a key population to unveil the genetic evolutionary history of Africa". bioRxiv. doi:10.1101/2023.04.06.535569. S2CID 258041998.

General references

  • Almanach de Bruxelles (now a paying site)
  • Gordon, Raymond G., Jr. (ed.) (2005): "Adamawa Fulfulde". Ethnologue: Languages of the World, 15th ed. Dallas: SIL International. Accessed 25 June 2006.
  • Ndukwe, Pat I., Ph.D. (1996). Fulani. New York: The Rosen Publishing Group, Inc.
  • Christiane Seydou, (ed.) (1976). Bibliographie générale du monde peul. Niamey, Institut de Recherche en Sciences Humaines du Niger

Further reading

  • , accessed 25 March 2008.
  • Morel, E.D. (1902). Affairs of West Africa. London: William Heinemann., chapter XVI – The Fulani in West African History, pp. 130–135; chapter XVII – Origins of the Fulani, pp. 136–152.
  • Can an Alphabet Save a Future? - Story of the Barry brother's 30-year commitment to developing a native script and font, giving the Fulani people a digital footprint for a global community - published on Microsoft Unlocked
Monembo, Tierno. (2004). Peuls. Editions Seuil. 
Lam, Aboubacry-Moussa. (1993). De l'origine égyptienne des Peuls. Présence Africaine.

External links

 
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Fula people.
 
Scholia has a topic profile for Fula people.
  • fulfulde social learning network fulfulde Nigeria 2020-11-25 at the Wayback Machine
  • Portal of Fulɓe history and culture
  • Online magazine published/edited in Fulfulde
  • Online magazine in Fulfulde
  • Online fulfulde Dictionary 2017-09-09 at the Wayback Machine
  • Fulfulde online news site 2021-01-27 at the Wayback Machine
  • Portal of Fulɓe Fuuta Jaloo history and culture
  • Geerewol, by Sandrine Loncke (Website about Woɗaaɓe ritual celebrations, with annotated music recordings and short videos featuring dance and ritual sequences. Supplement to the book of the same author)
  • Online musical archives dedicated to Fulɓe Jelgooɓe (Burkina Faso) and Fulɓe Woɗaaɓe (Niger) musics and singings (Telemeta, CREM-CNRS)

November 11, 2023
fula, people, fulani, redirects, here, other, uses, fulani, disambiguation, fula, fulani, fulɓe, people, fula, fulɓe, 𞤊𞤵𞤤𞤩𞤫, french, peul, hausa, fulani, hilani, kanuri, fillata, portuguese, fula, wolof, pël, bambara, fulaw, tyap, ethnic, group, sahara, sahel,. Fulani redirects here For other uses see Fulani disambiguation The Fula Fulani or Fulɓe people Fula Fulɓe 𞤊𞤵𞤤𞤩𞤫 French Peul Hausa Fulani or Hilani Kanuri Fillata Portuguese Fula Wolof Pel Bambara Fulaw Tyap A fa taa is an ethnic group in Sahara Sahel and West Africa widely dispersed across the region 23 Inhabiting many countries they live mainly in West Africa and northern parts of Central Africa South Sudan Darfur and regions near the Red Sea coast in Sudan The approximate number of Fula people is unknown due to clashing definitions regarding Fula ethnicity Various estimates put the figure between 25 24 25 and 40 million people worldwide 26 Fulani FulaFulɓe𞤊𞤵𞤤𞤩𞤫Fulani Men during Guerewol NigerTotal populationest 38 6 millionRegions with significant populationsWest Africa North Africa and Central Africa Nigeria15 300 000 6 6 1 Senegal5 055 782 27 5 2 Guinea4 544 000 33 4 3 Cameroon3 000 000 13 4 4 5 Mali2 840 850 13 3 6 Burkina Faso1 800 000 8 4 7 Niger1 650 000 6 5 8 Benin1 182 900 8 6 9 Mauritania900 000 18 3 10 Guinea Bissau623 646 30 11 Gambia449 280 18 2 12 Chad334 000 1 8 13 Sierra Leone310 000 5 14 CAR250 000 15 15 Sudan204 000 0 4 16 Togo110 000 1 2 17 Ghana4 240 0 01 18 South Sudan4 000 0 02 19 Algeria4 000 0 01 20 Ivory Coast3 800 0 02 15 LanguagesFula French Portuguese English Arabic HausaReligionPrimarily Islam 21 Related ethnic groupsToucouleur Tuareg Hausa Tebu Serer Songhay Berber Tribes 22 PersonPullo 𞤆𞤵𞤤 𞤮PeopleFulɓe 𞤊𞤵𞤤𞤩𞤫LanguagePulaar 𞤆𞤵𞤤𞤢 𞤪 West Fulfulde 𞤊𞤵𞤤𞤬𞤵𞤤𞤣𞤫 East This article contains Adlam Unicode characters Without proper rendering support you may see question marks boxes or other symbols instead of Adlam letters A significant proportion of the Fula a third or an estimated 7 to 10 million 27 are pastoralists and their ethnic group has the largest nomadic pastoral community in the world 28 29 The majority of the Fula ethnic group consisted of semi sedentary people 29 as well as sedentary settled farmers scholars artisans merchants and nobility 30 31 As an ethnic group they are bound together by the Fula language their history 32 33 34 and their culture The Fula are almost completely Muslims 35 36 Many West African leaders are of Fulani descent including the former President of Nigeria Muhammadu Buhari former president of Cameroon Ahmadou Ahidjo President of Senegal Macky Sall the President of Gambia Adama Barrow the President of Guinea Bissau Umaro Sissoco Embalo the Vice President of Sierra Leone Mohamed Juldeh Jalloh the Prime Minister of Mali Boubou Cisse and the Wife of Vice President of Ghana Samira Bawumia They also occupy positions in major international institutions such as the Deputy Secretary General of the United Nations Amina J Mohammed the 74th President of the United Nations General Assembly Tijjani Muhammad Bande and the Secretary General of OPEC Mohammed Sanusi Barkindo Contents 1 Names 1 1 Ethnonyms 1 2 Surnames 2 Geographic distribution 3 History 3 1 Early history 3 2 Settlement and Islam 3 3 Theocratic wars and Islamic lineages in West Africa 3 3 1 Imamate of Futa Jallon 3 3 2 The Empire of Massina 3 3 3 The Futanke Toucouleur Empire 3 3 4 The Sokoto Caliphate and its various emirates 3 4 Fulani Christians 3 5 Timeline of Fulani history 4 Society 4 1 Slavery and caste system 5 Culture 5 1 Traditional livelihood 5 2 Language 5 3 Moral code 5 4 Dress 5 5 Herding 5 6 Music 5 7 Food 5 8 Houses 6 Genetics 6 1 Paternal lineages Y DNA 6 2 Maternal lineages mtDNA 6 3 Autosomal DNA overall 7 Notable Fulanis 8 See also 9 References 9 1 General references 10 Further reading 11 External linksNamesEthnonyms There are many names and spellings of the names used in other languages to refer to the Fulɓe Fulani in English is borrowed from the Hausa term 37 Fula from Manding languages is also used in English and sometimes spelled Fulah or Fullah Fula and Fulani are commonly used in English including within Africa The French borrowed the Wolof term Pel which is variously spelled Peul Peulh and even Peuhl More recently the Fulfulde Pulaar term Fulɓe which is a plural noun singular Pullo has been Anglicised as Fulbe 38 which is gaining popularity in use In Portuguese the terms Fula or Futafula are used The terms Fallata Fallatah or Fellata are of Arabic origins and are often the ethnonyms by which Fulani people are identified by in parts of Chad and Sudan The Toucouleur people of the central Senegal River valley speak Fulfulde Pulaar and refer to themselves as Haalpulaaren or those who speak Pulaar The supposed distinction between them was invented by French ethnographers in the 19th century who differentiated between supposedly sedentary agricultural fanatical and anti European Toucouleurs on one hand and nomadic pastoralist docile and cooperative Peulhs on the other but the dichotomy is false 39 Surnames There are many common Fulani family names used many of which can also be found in neighboring ethnic groups and languages For example Diallo correctly written as Jallo in Pulaar Fulfulde orthography Diakite Sidibe Samoura and Sangare which go back to the Soninke people Ghana Empire period When the Fulani arrived with their herds in Koumbi Saleh the capital the Soninke gave them names based on their animals Only the Diallo Jallo was not a Soninke word Diakite its meaning in Soninke is cowboy or cowherd and the real spelling in Soninke is Diakate and the real meaning is the cow s owner Sidibe its meaning in the same language is horse owner or horse keeper Sangare its meaning is sheepherder and it is actually the same name of sheepherder by the Soninke people Samoura its meaning is camel herder and is adapted into SoninkeNames like Sidibe Sangare Sangare Samoura are not fulani names They belong to the mandingo tribe but have intermarried with fulani and thus you find some fulanis with names such as Camara Sidibe Kourouma etc but have adopted fulani lifestyle and language Others have chosen to change their names to Diallo Jallow Jalloh Sow Shaw Barry and others Common Fulani family names in Guinea Sierra Leone Guinea Bissau and Southern Senegal are Diallo French regions Jallow or Jalloh Gambia Sierra Leone and Liberia Djalo Cap Verde and Guinea Bissau Sow Barry Bah or Ba Balde and Dioulde 40 Other Fulani Toucouleur family names in Guinea and northern Senegal are Tall Sall Diengue Sy Anne Ly Wann Dia and others Although most Fulbe of Nigeria Niger and Cameroon mostly use their father s family name there are some common Fulani last names such as Bello likely from the Fulfulde word Ballo meaning helper of religion 41 Tukur from Takrur Gidado Barkindo Jallo Ahidjo and Dikko Geographic distribution nbsp A distribution map of Fula people Dark green a major ethnic group Medium significant Light minor 23 42 The Fula people are widely distributed across the Sahel from the Atlantic coast to the Red Sea particularly in West Africa In addition many also speak other languages of the countries they inhabit making many Fulani bilingual or even trilingual Such languages include French Hausa Bambara Wolof Soninke and Arabic Major concentrations of Fulani people exist in the Fouta Djallon highlands of central Guinea and south into the northernmost reaches of Sierra Leone the Futa Tooro savannah grasslands of Senegal and southern Mauritania the Macina inland Niger river delta system around Central Mali and especially in the regions around Mopti and the Nioro Du Sahel in the Kayes region the Borgu settlements of Benin Togo and west central Nigeria the northern parts of Burkina Faso in the Sahel region s provinces of Seno Wadalan and Soum and the areas occupied by the Sokoto Caliphate which includes what is now southern Niger and northern Nigeria such as Adamawa Tahoua Katsina Sokoto Kebbi Zinder Bauchi Diffa Yobe Gombe and further east into the Benue River valley systems of north eastern Nigeria and northern Cameroon This is the area known as the Fombina Hombina literally meaning the south in Adamawa Fulfulde because it represented the most southern and eastern reaches of Fulɓe hegemonic dominance in West Africa In this area Fulfulde is the local lingua franca and language of cross cultural communication Further east of this area Fulani communities become predominantly nomadic and exist at less organized social systems These are the areas of the Chari Baguirmi Region and its river systems in Chad and the Central African Republic the Ouaddai highlands of Eastern Chad the areas around Kordofan Darfur and the Blue Nile Sennar Kassala regions of Sudan 43 as well as the Red Sea coastal city of Port Sudan The Fulani on their way to or back from the pilgrimage to Mecca Saudi Arabia settled in many parts of eastern Sudan today representing a distinct community of over two million people referred to as the Fellata 44 45 46 nbsp Bodaado singular of Wodaabe Fula man with the typical Fulani hat above a turbanWhile their early settlements in West Africa were in the vicinity of the tri border point of present day Mali Senegal and Mauritania they are now after centuries of gradual migrations and conquests spread throughout a wide band of West and Central Africa The Fulani People occupy a vast geographical expanse located roughly in a longitudinal east west band immediately south of the Sahara and just north of the coastal rain forest and swamps There are estimates of more than 25 million Fulani people 25 There are generally three different types of Fulani based on settlement patterns viz the nomadic pastoral or Mbororo the semi nomadic and the settled or town Fulani The pastoral Fulani move around with their cattle throughout the year Typically they do not stay around for long stretches not more than 2 4 months at a time The semi nomadic Fulani can either be Fulɓe families who happen to settle down temporarily at particular times of the year or Fulɓe families who do not browse around past their immediate surroundings and even though they possess livestock they do not wander away from a fixed or settled homestead not too far away they are basically in betweeners 47 Settled Fulani live in villages towns and cities permanently and have given up nomadic life completely in favor of an urban one These processes of settlement concentration and military conquest led to the existence of organized and long established communities of Fulani varying in size from small villages to towns Today some major Fulani towns include Labe Pita Mamou and Dalaba in Guinea Kaedi Matam and Podor Kolda in Senegal and Mauritania Bandiagara Mopti Dori Gorom Gorom and Djibo in Mali and Burkina Faso on the bend of the Niger and Birnin Kebbi Katsina Gombe Yola Digil Jalingo Bauchi Misau Jama are Mayo Belwa Mubi Maroua Ngaoundere Azare Dukku Kumo Girei Damaturu Bertoua and Garoua in the countries of Cameroon and Nigeria In most of these communities the Fulani are usually perceived as a ruling class Fulani communities are sometimes grouped and named based on the areas they occupy Although within each region there are even further divisions and sub groupings as well Below is a list of the main Fulɓe groups Main Fulani sub groups national and subnational locations cluster group and dialectal varietyFulbe Adamawa𞤊𞤵𞤤𞤩𞤫 𞤀𞤣𞤢𞤥𞤢𞤱𞤢 nbsp Nigeria Adamawa State Taraba State Borno State Yobe State nbsp Cameroon Adamaoua Region Northern Region Far North Region Centre Region nbsp Chad Mayo Kebbi Est Mayo Kebbi Ouest Region Logone Oriental Logone Occidental Etc nbsp Central African Republic Nana Mambere Ouham Pende Mambere Kadei nbsp Sudan Fulfulde Adamawa Fombinaare EasternFulbe Bagirmi𞤊𞤵𞤤𞤩𞤫 𞤄𞤢𞤺𞤭𞤪𞤥𞤭 nbsp Central African Republic nbsp Chad Chari Bagirmi Region Mandoul Region Moyen ChariFulbe Sokoto𞤊𞤵𞤤𞤩𞤫 𞤅𞤮𞤳𞤮𞤼𞤮 nbsp Nigeria Sokoto State Kebbi State Katsina State Kano State Zamfara State Jigawa State Niger State Kwara State nbsp Niger Tahoua Region Maradi Region Dosso Region Zinder Region Fulfulde Sokoto Woylaare Fulbe Gombe𞤊𞤵𞤤𞤩𞤫 𞤘𞤮𞤲 𞤦𞤫 nbsp Nigeria Gombe State Bauchi State Yobe State Borno State Plateau State Fulfulde Woylaare Fombinaare transitionalFulbe Mbororo𞤊𞤵𞤤𞤩𞤫 𞤐 𞤄𞤮𞤪𞤮𞤪𞤮 nbsp Nigeria All across the northern central and some southern states of the country as transient herders nbsp Cameroon All over the country in 9 of the country s 10 regions provinces as transient herders nbsp Chad All across southern and central Chad as herders nbsp Central African Republic Ubiquitous across the countryside nbsp Niger All across the country south of the Sahara as herders and nomads Note that the Woɗaaɓe are themselves an even smaller subgroup of the Mbororo en Thus All Woɗaaɓe are Bororos but not every Bororo is a Boɗaaɗo Woɗaaɓe person nbsp Sudan Fulfulde Sokoto Woylaare amp Adamawa Fombinaare Fulbe Borgu𞤊𞤵𞤤𞤩𞤫 𞤄𞤮𞤪𞤺𞤵 nbsp Nigeria Niger State Kebbi State Kwara State nbsp Benin Borgou Atakora Alibori Donga nbsp Togo Savanes Region Kara Region Centrale Region Fulfulde Borgu amp Jelgoore CentralFulbe Jelgooji𞤊𞤵𞤤𞤩𞤫 𞤔𞤫𞤤𞤺𞤮 𞤶𞤭 nbsp Mali nbsp Niger Tillaberi Region Dosso Region nbsp Burkina Faso Sahel Region Est Region Centre Nord Region All across the country most especially in the countryside Fulfulde Jelgoore amp Massinakoore Fulbe Massina𞤊𞤵𞤤𞤩𞤫 𞤃𞤢𞤧 𞤭𞤲𞤢 nbsp Mali Mopti Region Gao Region Segou Region All over the country nbsp Ivory Coast Mostly concentrated in the Northern regions nbsp Ghana in the northern and central regions Fulfulde MassinakooreFulbe Nioro𞤊𞤵𞤤𞤩𞤫 𞤻𞤮 𞤪𞤮 nbsp Mali Kayes Region Koulikoro Region nbsp Senegal Tambacounda Region nbsp Mauritania Assaba Region Pulaar Fulfulde Fuua Tooro Massinakoore transitional WesternFulbe Futa Jallon𞤊𞤵𞤤𞤩𞤫 𞤊𞤵 𞤼𞤢 𞤔𞤢𞤤𞤮 nbsp Guinea Labe Region Mamou Region Boke Region Kindia Region Faranah Region Conakry All across the country as traders and merchants nbsp Guinea Bissau Gabu Region Tombali Region Bafata Region nbsp Sierra Leone North West Northern Province Western Area All across the country s major urban centres as a trading population nbsp Mali Extreme southwest of country in the Kenieba Cercle Pular Fuuta JallonFulbe Futa Tooro𞤊𞤵𞤤𞤩𞤫 𞤊𞤵 𞤼𞤢 𞤚𞤮 𞤪𞤮 nbsp Senegal Matam Region Saint Louis Region Louga Region Tambacounda Region Kaffrine Region All over the country nbsp Mauritania Trarza Region Gorgol Region Guidimaka Region Brakna Region Nouakchott Pulaar Fuuta TooroFulbe Fuladu𞤊𞤵𞤤𞤩𞤫 𞤊𞤵𞤤𞤢𞤣𞤵 nbsp Senegal Kolda Region Sedhiou Region South of Tambacounda Region nbsp Guinea Bissau Gabu Region Bafata Region Oio Region nbsp Gambia All across the country Pulaar Pular Fuuta Tooro Fuuta Jallon transitionalTypically Fulɓe belonging to the same affinity bloc tend to cluster together in culture customs and dialectal variety with the Eastern Fulɓe sub groups tending to be more similar to each other than to other sub groups and the same applies to most western groups Culturally speaking the central Fulɓe sub groups are roughly in between the western and eastern Fulani cultural niches citation needed For example the Massina Fulɓe share similarities both dialectally and culturally to Nigerian or Cameroonian Eastern both of which end interrogative questions with na as well as Senegalese and Guinean western Fulɓe cultures who do not end interrogative questions with such mannerism Accordingly the western groups are the most divergent from the eastern groups and vice versa Overall however all share most cultural practices to a large extent In Ghana the exact number of Fulani is unknown due to systematic oppression that includes not counting the Fulani in the Ghanaian census This reflects widespread discrimination and negative stereotypes about the Fulani 48 HistoryThe origins of the Fulani people are unclear and various theories have been postulated Some scholars on Fulani History and the Sokoto Caliphate have traced the lineage of the Torankawa clan Torodbe of the Fulani to the Arab conqueror Uqba ibn Nafi As a nomadic herding people they have moved through and among many other cultures The first recorded Fulani kingdom was the Kingdom of Tekrur in southern Mauritania and northern Senegal Walter Rodney in his book The History of the Upper Guinea Coast argues that Fulbe are originally from North Africa and they conquered the Foota Djallon region led by the Fulani Koli Tenguella citation needed The ethnogenesis of the Fulani people may have begun as a result of interactions between an ancient West African population and North African populations such as Berbers or Egyptians 33 49 Their West African roots may be in and around the valley of Senegal River 31 They likely reflect a genetic intermix of people with West African North African and Arabian origins and have been a part of many ruling dynasties particularly in the Sahel and West Africa 23 50 Speculations about their origins started in the era of European conquest and colonization Because of their oftentimes very fair skin wavy long hair and small facial features Early history nbsp Tassili n Ajjer rock artThe Fulani may have been involved in the formation of the state of Takrur after migrating from the east and settling in the Senegal valley 51 52 although John Donnelly Fage suggests that Takrur was formed through the interaction of Berbers from the Sahara and Negro agricultural peoples who were essentially Serer 53 Another version is that they were originally a Berber speaking people who crossed the Senegal River to pasture their cattle in the Ferlo Desert Finding themselves cut off from their kinsmen they gradually adopted the language of their new neighbours This cultural interaction with Serer and Wolof people ultimately led to the ethnogenesis of the Fulani culture language and people As their herds increased small groups found themselves forced to move eastward and further southwards and so initiated a series of migrations throughout West Africa which endures to the present day 54 The Fulani were cattle keeping farmers who shared their lands with other nearby groups like the Soninke who contributed to the rise of ancient Ghana with eastward and westward expansion being led by nomadic groups of cattle breeders or the Fulɓe ladde While the initial expansionist groups were small they soon increased in size due to the availability of grazing lands in the Sahel and the lands that bordered it to the immediate south nbsp Ghanaian Fulani wedding brideAgricultural expansions led to a division among the Fulani where individuals were classified as belonging either to the group of expansionist nomadic agriculturalists or the group of Fulani who found it more comfortable to abandon traditional nomadic ways and settle in towns or the Fulɓe Wuro Fulani towns were a direct result of nomadic heritage and were often founded by individuals who had simply chosen to settle in a given area instead of continuing on their way Evidence of Fulani migration as a whole from the Western to Eastern Sudan is very fragmentary Delafosse one of the earliest enquirers into Fulani history and customs principally relying on oral tradition estimated that Fulani migrants left Fuuta Tooro heading east between the eleventh and the fourteenth centuries By the 15th century there was a steady flow of Fulɓe immigrants into Hausaland and later on Bornu Their presence in Baghirmi was later recorded when Fulani fought as allies to Dokkenge or Birni Besif when he founded Massenya a Chadian town early in the 16th century By the end of the 18th century Fulani settlements were dotted all over the Benue River valley and its tributaries They spread eastwards towards Garoua and Rey Bouba and southwards towards the Faro River to the foot of the Mambilla Plateau which they would later ascend in subsequent years The heaviest concentrations of their settlements were at Gurin Chamba territory Cheboa Turua and Bundang These so called Benue Fulani reduced the frequency with which they moved from place to place The number of years they stayed at one spot depended on two factors the reaction of the earlier settlers of that locality to their presence and how satisfactory the conditions were i e the availability of pastures for their cattle Settlement and Islam nbsp Fulani Woman from Niger nbsp Nigerian Fulani man with traditional marks Fula people adopted Islam early According to David Levison adopting Islam made the Fulani feel a cultural and religious superiority to surrounding peoples and that adoption became a major ethnic boundary marker between them and other African ethnic groups in the Sahel and West Africa 55 Settled and nomadic Fulani became political and warring entities armed with horses and equipment of war from the north 56 The wars were not merely between Fula people and other ethnic groups but also internecine between the pastoral and sedentary Fulani where sometimes they worked in cohesion and other times the Muslim Fulani leaders attacked the nomadic Fulani as infidels 56 The Songhai Empire rulers had converted to Sunni Islam in the 11th century and were a major trading partner of the Middle East and North Africa 57 The Fulani warriors in the 15th century challenged this West African trading state near the Niger River but were repulsed In 1493 Askia Muhammad I led the Fulani people from western Sudan and over time gained control of much that was previously the Songhai empire removing Sonni Baru who had attempted to protect the interests of pastoralists 57 Askia Muhammad won control over the caravan trade routes in West Africa but was overthrown by his own son Askia Musa in a coup in 1528 57 The Fulani after being the first group of people in West Africa to convert to Islam became active in supporting Islamic theology and ideology from centres such as Timbuktu The Fula people who later became known as the Toroobe worked with Berber and Arabian Islamic clerics charting out the spread of Islam in West Africa The Fula people led many jihads or holy wars some of which were major 58 These war efforts helped spread Islam in West Africa as well as helped them dominate much of the Sahel region of West Africa during the medieval and pre colonial era establishing them not only as a religious group but also as a political and economic force 59 60 Theocratic wars and Islamic lineages in West Africa Futa Toro was established in the 1500s by Denianke dynasty built out of Fulani and Mandinka forces the importance of Fula people to this rule led to this era known as Empire of Great Fulo 56 61 The Fulani raided and violently disrupted the trade routes that accounted for the economic prosperity of older African kingdoms and thus began their rise Futa Bundu sometimes called Bondu and located in Senegal and Faleme rivers confluence became a centre for the rise of the West Africa wide Fula empire and influence in 17th century From the 18th century onwards the frequency of Jihads increased such as those led by Ibrahim Sori and Karamoko Ali in 1725 the Fulani became a hegemonic force and were politically dominant in many areas 56 The region was engulfed in theocratic wars with many Islamic lineages seeking political power and control The Moroccans invaded the western Sahel adding to an anarchical situation Food production plummeted and during this periods famine plagued the region negatively affecting the political situation and increasing the trigger for militant control of the economic activity 62 Over time the Fulɓe empire split among the later descendants and developed into many emirates The main nuclei of Fulɓe power were the polities in the Senegal River Valley the Fuuta Jallon mountains in Guinea the Inland Delta of the Niger in Mali Maasina the north of Nigeria and the Adamawa Plateau in Cameroon In between these big centres there were numerous small polities dominated by the Fulɓe in the central Gourma of present day Mali and the north and west of Burkina Faso Jelgoji Boboola Dori Liptako northern Benin Borgu the Sene Gambia northern Senegal Bundu and the southern and western parts of present day Niger Dallol Bosso Birni N konni citation needed Imamate of Futa Jallon Main article Imamate of Futa Jallon nbsp Fula Village and its Agricultural Products after Francis Moore 1802The Emirate Imamate of Timbo in the Fuuta Jallon was the first of the Fulɓe emirates in West Africa It developed from a revolt by Islamic Fulɓe against their oppression by the pagan Pulli ف ل ی or 𞤆𞤵𞤤 𞤭 non Islamic Fulɓe and the Jallonke the original Mande inhabitants of the Fuuta Jallon during the first half of the 18th century The first ruler took the title of Almaami and resided in Timbo near the modern day town of Mamou The town became the political capital of the newly formed Imamate with the religious capital was located in Fugumba The Council of Elders of the Futa Jallon state were also based in Fugumba acting as a brake on the Almami s powers citation needed The newly formed imamate was mostly located mainly in present day Guinea but also spanned parts of modern day Guinea Bissau Senegal and Sierra Leone This emirate was in fact a federal state of nine provinces Timbo Fugumbaa Ɓuuriya Koyin Kollaaɗe Keebaali Labe Fode Hajji and Timbi After the Muslim Fulɓe victory other ethnic groups who had resisted the jihad were deprived of their rights to land except for a small piece for their subsistence and were reduced to servitude The nomad Pulli Fulɓe lost all freedom of movement and thus began to settle en masse The Jalonke lost their noble status and became slaves maccuɓe citation needed Later due to strife between two branches of the Seediayanke royal lineage the Soriya and the Alphaya 63 a system for the rotation of office between these branches was set up This led to an almost permanent state of civil strife since none of the parties was inclined to respect the system which considerably weakened the power of the political centre citation needed The Empire of Massina Main article Massina Empire nbsp Fula people have helped form several historic Islamic theocracies and led many Jihad states such as the 19th century Masina 59 60 The Maasina Emirate also called Diina 𞤈𞤭 𞤲𞤢 religion in Fulfulde with Arabic origins was established by the Fulbe jihad led by Sheeku Aamadu in 1818 The origins of the Maasina Emirate in the Inner Delta of the Niger are also found in rebellion this time against the Bambara Bamana Kingdom of Segou a political power that controlled the region from outside This jihad was inspired by events in northern Nigeria where an important scholar of the time Usman Dan Fodio established an Islamic empire with Sokoto as its capital 62 For some time groups of Fulbe had been dominant in parts of the delta thereby creating a complex hierarchy dating back through several waves of conquest However due to internecine warfare they were never able to organize a countervailing force against the Bamana Kingdom In 1818 an Islamic cleric named Aamadu Hammadi Buubu united the Fulbe under the banner of Islam and fought a victorious battle against the Bamana and their allies He subsequently established his rule in the Inland Delta and the adjacent dry lands east and west of the delta 62 This state appears to have had tight control over its core area as evidenced by the fact that its political and economic organization is still manifested today in the organization of agricultural production in the Inland Delta Despite its power and omnipresence the hegemony of the emirate was constantly threatened During the reign of Aamadu Aamadu the grandson of Sheeku Aamadu internal contradictions weakened the emirate until it became easy prey for the forces of the Futanke which subsequently overthrew the Maasina Emirate in 1862 62 The Futanke Toucouleur Empire Main article Toucouleur Empire Many who regard the Futanke or Toucouleur conquest of western Sudan and central Mali as a reform movement The character of the Futanke Emirate was somewhat different although its founding was related to the conquest of the Maasina Emirate and the Bamana Kingdoms of Segou and Kaarta in the aftermath of a movement for reform Threatened by French colonial forces while at the same time being supplied with firearms by them the Futanke staged a jihad to fight paganism and the competing Islamic brotherhood of the Tijannya citation needed Its founder El Hadj Umar Tall an Islamic reformer originating from the Fuuta Tooro on the banks of the Senegal River died fighting against rebels shortly after his forces defeated the Maasina Emirate After El Hadj Umar s death the emirate was divided into three states each ruled by one of his sons These three states had their capitals respectively in the towns of Nioro Segou and Bandiagara A most important distinction was between noblemen free people and the non free Rimmaibe or Maccube citation needed The noblemen consisted of the ruling class of political overlords and Islamic clerics as well as the pastoral Fulbe populations who helped them come to power Together they formed a group of vassals to the political elite and were considered noblemen although in reality their political influence was minimal The conquered populations were reduced to servitude or slavery and more slaves were captured to provide enough labour for the functioning of the economy Also there were groups of bards courtiers and artisans who occupied lower political and social positions citation needed The Sokoto Caliphate and its various emirates Main article Sokoto Caliphate The Sokoto Caliphate was by far the largest and most successful legacy of Fulani power in Western Africa It was the largest as well as the most well organized of the Fulani Jihad states Throughout the 19th century Sokoto was one of the largest and most powerful empires in West Africa until 1903 when defeated by European colonial forces The Sokoto Caliphate included several emirates the largest of which was Adamawa although the Kano Emirate was the most populated Others included but are not limited to Gombe Emirate Gwandu Emirate Bauchi Emirate Katsina Emirate Zazzau Emirate Hadejia Emirate and Muri Emirate 64 nbsp Depiction of a Fulani man from the Sokoto Caliphate by G T Bettany 1888 While establishing their hegemony the Fulbe defined a strict social hierarchy and imposed limitations on economic and trading activities the purpose of which was to ensure a constant flow of tax revenue and commodities to the state apparatus and the standing army especially for the cavalry The freedom for pastoralists to move around was curtailed to ensure the smooth functioning of other production activities such as cereal cultivation and in the case of Maasina of fishing activities citation needed There appears to be considerable resistance to the forced acceptance of Islam by these emirates For example many nomadic Fulbe predominantly Wodaabe fled northern Nigeria when their liberty was curtailed and they were forced to convert to Islam following the jihads instigated by Usman Dan Fodio from Sokoto Conversion to Islam meant not only changing one s religion but also submitting to rules dealing with every aspect of social political and cultural life intrusions with which many nomadic Fulbe were not comfortable citation needed Abdullahi dan Fodio brother of Shehu dan Fodio stated that Torankawa Turubbi Torobe are a Fulani clan who have Arab ancestry through one Uqba but his nephew Bello indicated that he was not sure if it was Uqba ibn Nafi Uqba ibn Yasir or Uqba ibn Amir 65 Uqba married a Fulani woman called Bajjumangbu through which the Torodbe clan of Usman dan Fodio descended 66 67 Usman dan Fodio s mother Hauwa is believed to be a direct descendent of Prophet Muhammad as she was descended from Maulay Idris I the first Emir of Morocco who was the great grandchild of Hasan grandson of Prophet Muhammad 64 68 According to Sultan Muhammed Bello in his book Infaq al Mansur he asserted his lineage to Prophet Muhammad through his paternal grandmother Hauwa Similarly Ahmadu Bello the first Premier of Northern Nigeria and great grandson of Muhammed Bello reiterated this claim of descent from Prophet Muhammad through both Hauwa and Muhammad Fodio the father of Usman In his autobiography Ahmadu Bello provided a detailed lineage tracing his family s connection to Prophet Muhammad through Hauwa and Muhammad Fodio 69 Fulani Christians As recently as the 1990s there have been Fula people who have identified as Christians particularly in the Plateau State of northern Nigeria Virtually all of them come from a Muslim background The Reverend Buba Aliyu is the leader of FULCAN Fulani Christian Association of Nigeria Fulani Christians have faced severe persecutions from both sides both from their Fulani Muslim brethren because of their rejection of Islam as well as from Nigerian Christians from other tribes who mistake them for the hostile Fulani 70 Timeline of Fulani history This section does not cite any sources Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources Unsourced material may be challenged and removed July 2018 Learn how and when to remove this template message Time Events4th century The Ghana Empire emerges in modern day southeastern Mauritania and western Mali as the first large scale Sudano Sahelian empire5th century The Ghana Empire becomes the most important power in West Africa5th century The Fulbe migrate southwards and Eastwards from present day Morocco and Mauritania dubious discuss 9th century Takrur founded on the lower Senegal River present day Senegal upon the influx of Fulani from the east and north settling in the Senegal River valley11th century Kingdoms of Tekruur and the Gao Empire flourish in West Africa due to gold trade1042 Almoravids Berber Muslims from southern Morocco and Mauritania attack Takrur after defeating the Sanhaja in 10391050s Islam gains a strong foothold in West Africa1050 1146 Almoravids take over Morocco Algeria and part of al Andalus they invade Ghana in 1076 and establish power there 1062 Almoravids found capital at Marrakesh1100 The Empire of Ghana starts to decline in influence and importance1147 The Almohad Caliphate ruled by Berber Muslims opposed to the Almoravids seize Marrakesh and go on to conquer Almoravid Spain Algeria and Tripoli1150 An unprecedented resurgence of the Ghana Empire sees it reach its height controlling vast areas of western Africa as well as Saharan trade routes in gold and salt1200 Empire and themselves set out on a road of conquest they take its capital Koumbi Saleh in 12031235 Great warrior leader Sundiata Keita of the Mandinka people founds the Mali Empire in present day Mali West Africa it expands under his rule1240 1250 Mali absorbs Ghana Tekruur1324 10th Emperor of Mali Musa I of Mali regarded as the richest individual in recorded history goes on his famous pilgrimage to Mecca Saudi Arabia his procession reported to include 18 000 workers who each carried 4 pounds 1 8 kg gold bars heralds dressed in silks who bore gold staffs organized horses and handled bags Musa provided all necessities for the procession feeding the entire company of men and animals Also in the train were 80 camels which varying reports claim carried between 50 and 300 pounds 23 and 136 kg of gold dust each1325 The Empire of Mali reaches its height of power covering much of Northern West Africa 1352 Ibn Battuta Berber scholar travels across Africa and writes an account of all he sees1462 Sonni Ali becomes ruler of the Songhai people and goes on to build the Songhai Empire1490 The Mali empire is overshadowed by the Songhai Empire16th century Songhai Empire enters a period of massive expansion and power under Askia Mohammad I Askia Mohammad strengthened his country and made it the largest contiguous territory ever in West African history At its peak the Empire encompassed the Hausa states as far as Kano in present day Nigeria and much of the territory that had belonged to the Songhai empire in the west neighbouring Bornu Empire of the Kanuri1515 The Songhai Empire reaches its zenith and pinnacle of power1590 Songhai Empire is defeated by invading Moroccans from further North1650 Another wave of Fulbe migrations sees them penetrate even further in the Southern Senegal and Fouta Jallon highlands of middle Guinea1670 Fulani people gain control of Bhundu in Senegal with Malick Sy and the Sissibhe1673 First unsuccessful Fulani jihad in the Fuuta Tooro1808 Bornu successfully repel Fulani forces1893 The French conquer the Fouta Toro1903 The British conquer the Sokoto Caliphate 71 Society nbsp Fulbe woman at the Sangha market Mali 1992 nbsp Fulbe woman at the Sangha market Mali 1992The Fulani migrant Arabs and Hausa people have taken some influences from each other s cultures Upon the success recorded in the 1804 Fulani War of Usman dan Fodio many formerly nomadic Fulɓe subsequently joined the ruling classes of the many emirates of the Sokoto Caliphate The Fulɓe of Hausaland dress in the clothing and speak the language of their Hausa neighbours see Hausa Fulani Because they became the dominant ethnic group in these lands the Fulɓe in the emirates outside Hausaland like parts of Kanem Bornu Adamawa and Gombe still retain much of their Fulani culture even still speaking Fulfulde as their first language The Fulɓe who didn t settle during this period and their descendants however still keep an obvious distinct identity from that of the Hausa and other surrounding groups of the region This Hausa Fulani interaction is uncommon outside the eastern subregion of West Africa 72 64 In Mali Burkina Faso and Senegal for instance those within the Fulɓe cultural sphere but who are not ethnically Fula are referred to as yimɓe pulaaku 𞤴𞤭𞤥𞤩𞤫 𞤆𞤵𞤤𞤢 𞤳𞤵 people of the Fula culture As such Fulani culture includes people who may or may not be ethnic Fulani 73 Although slavery is now illegal memories of the past relationship between Fulɓbe and Rimayɓe are still very much alive in both groups Paul Riesman an American ethnographer who resided among the Jelgooji Fulɓbe of Burkina Faso in the 1980s states that the Fulɓe are tall slim and light skinned they have thin straight noses and their hair tends to be long and curly In contrast the Rimayɓe are stocky tending towards corpulence dark skinned with flat squashed noses and short kinky hair 74 75 76 Slavery and caste system The first Fulani people who were forcibly expatriated to America during the Atlantic slave trade came from several parts of West and Central Africa Many Fulani slaves came from places such as Guinea Senegal Guinea Bissau Sierra Leone Nigeria and Cameroon Most of the slaves who came from Senegal belonged to Fula and Mandinga peoples 77 78 Some of the most common names found on the Registry of Liberated Africans were Fulani in origin 79 80 Many of the captors and perpetrators of raids providing sources for the European slave merchants were also Fulani 81 Fula society features the caste divisions typical of the West African region 82 83 The fairly rigid caste system of the Fula people has medieval roots 82 had become well established by the 15th century and has survived into modern age 23 The four major castes states Martin Kich in their order of status are nobility traders tradesmen such as blacksmith and descendants of slaves 23 According to the African Commission on Human and Peoples Rights the Fulani people have held on to a strict caste system 84 There are the Fulani proper also referred to as the Fulɓe including the Pullo also called the Rimɓe singular and the Dimo meaning noble There is the artisan caste 83 including blacksmiths potters griots 85 genealogists woodworkers and dressmakers They belong to castes but are considered free people Then there are those castes of captive slave or serf ancestry the Maccuɗo Rimmayɓe Dimaajo and less often Ɓaleeɓe the Fulani equivalent of the Tuareg Ikelan known as Bouzou Buzu or Bella in the Hausa and Songhay languages respectively 86 87 88 The Fulani rulers and merchants were like many other ruling ethnic groups of Africa also involved in the trans Atlantic slave trade sourcing the enslaved people through raids and from captives they took by waging war 30 56 89 Many Fulani were enslaved and raided by ethnic groups who adhered to traditional African religions 90 The Fulani castes are endogamous in nature meaning individuals marry only within their caste This caste system however wasn t as elaborate in places like northern Nigeria Eastern Niger or Cameroon According to some estimates by the late 19th century slaves constituted about 50 of the population of the Fulɓe ruled Adamawa Emirate where they were referred to as jeyaɓe singular jeyado Though very high these figures are representative of many other emirates of the Sokoto Caliphate of which Adamawa formed a part 91 The castes based social stratification among the Fula people was widespread and seen across the Sahel such as Burkina Faso 92 Niger 93 Senegal 94 Guinea 83 Mali 93 95 Nigeria 50 Sudan 96 and others 97 CultureTraditional livelihood The Fulani are traditionally a nomadic pastoralist trading people They herd cattle goats and sheep across the vast dry hinterlands of their domain keeping somewhat separate from the local agricultural populations They are the largest nomadic ethnic group in the world and inhabit several territories over an area larger in size than the continental United States The pastoral lifestyle of the herders tribe makes it complicated for a non member to date or marry a Fulani woman 98 The Fulani follow a code of behaviour known as pulaaku which consists of the qualities of patience self control discipline prudence modesty respect for others including foes wisdom forethought personal responsibility hospitality courage and hard work Among the nomadic Fulani women in their spare time make handicrafts including engraved gourds weavings knitting beautifully made covers for calabashes known as mbeedu and baskets The Fulani men are less involved in the production of crafts such as pottery iron working and dyeing unlike males from neighbouring ethnic groups around them nbsp Fulani pastoralists in NigerIn virtually every area of West Africa where the nomadic Fulɓe reside there has been an increasing trend of conflicts between farmers sedentary and grazier pastoral nomadic There have been numerous such cases on the Jos Plateau the Western High Plateau the Central Middle Belt regions of Nigeria 99 Northern Burkina Faso and Southern Chad The rearing of cattle is a principal activity in four of Cameroon s ten administrative regions as well as three other provinces with herding on a lesser scale throughout the North and Central regions of Nigeria as well as the entire Sahel and Sudan region 100 For decades there have been intermittent skirmishes between the Woɗaaɓe Bororo graziers and sedentary farmers such as the Jukun Tiv Chamba Bamileke Wurkum Bachama Jenjo Mbula Berom Mumuye Kare Kare and sometimes even the Hausa Such conflicts usually begin when cattle have strayed into farmlands and destroyed crops Thousands of Fulani have been forced to migrate from their traditional homelands in the Sahel to areas further south because of increasing encroachment of Saharan desertification Nigeria alone loses 2 168 square kilometres 837 sq mi of cattle rangeland and cropland every year to desertification posing serious threats to the livelihoods of about 20 million people 100 Recurrent droughts have meant that a lot of traditional herding families have been forced to give up their nomadic way of life losing a sense of their identity in the process 101 Increasing urbanization has also meant that a lot of traditional Fulani grazing lands have been taken for developmental purposes or forcefully converted into farmlands 102 These actions often result in violent attacks and reprisal counterattacks being exchanged between the Fulani who feel their way of life and survival are being threatened and other populations who often feel aggrieved from loss of farm produce even if the lands they farm on were initially barren and uncultivated 99 nbsp Several Wodaabe clans in Niger have gathered for a Guerewol festivalFulani in Nigeria have often requested for the development of exclusive grazing reserves to curb conflicts 103 All the leading presidential aspirants of previous elections seeking Fulɓe votes have made several of such failed promises in their campaigns Discussions among government officials traditional rulers and Fulani leaders on the welfare of the pastoralists have always centred on requests and pledges for protecting grazing spaces and cattle passages The growing pressure from Ardo en the Fulani community leaders for the salvation of what is left of the customary grazing land has caused some state governments with large populations of herders such as Gombe Bauchi Adamawa Taraba Plateau and Kaduna to include in their development plans the reactivation and preservation of grazing reserves Quick to grasp the desperation of cattle keepers for land the administrators have instituted a Grazing Reserve Committee to find a lasting solution to the rapid depletion of grazing land resources in Nigeria 104 nbsp Henri Allouard 1844 1929 Young Fulani womanThe Fulani believe that the expansion of the grazing reserves will boost livestock population lessen the difficulty of herding reduce seasonal migration and enhance the interaction among farmers pastoralists and rural dwellers Despite these expectations grazing reserves are not within the reach of about three quarters of the nomadic Fulani in Nigeria who number in the millions and about sixty per cent of migrant pastoralists who use the existing grazing reserves keep to the same reserves every year The number and the distribution of the grazing reserves in Nigeria range from insufficient to severely insufficient for Fulani livestock In countries like Nigeria Cameroon and Burkina Faso where meat supplies are entirely dependent on the Fulani such conflicts lead to scarcity and hikes in animal protein prices In recent times the Nigerian senate and other lawmakers have been bitterly divided in attempts to pass bills on grazing lands and migration corridors for Fulani herdsmen This was mainly due to Southern and Central Nigerian lawmakers opposing the proposal and Northern Lawmakers being in support 104 Fulani extremists are involved in several communal conflicts in Nigeria 105 99 106 107 108 109 According to the Global Terrorism Index a continuous sequence of Fulani attacks across West Africa have occurred in Mali 110 111 112 Central African Republic 106 Democratic Republic of Congo 113 and Cameroon 114 The cumulative fatalities in these attacks is in the thousands 106 nbsp Pair of Earrings 1981 3 2 x 3 2 x 1 9 cm 11 4 x 11 4 x 3 4 in Brooklyn Museum New York City nbsp Bracelet made before 1985 red copper 5 3 x 10 6 x 10 6 cm 11 16 x 43 16 x 43 16 in Nationaal Museum van Wereldculturen the Netherlands Language Main article Fula language The language of the Fulani is Pulaar 𞤆𞤵𞤤𞤢 𞤪 which is also the language of the Toucouleurs All Senegalese and Mauritanians who speak the language natively are known as the Halpulaar 𞤖𞤢𞤤𞤨𞤵𞤤𞤢 𞤪 or Haalpulaar en 𞤖𞤢 𞤤𞤵𞤤𞤢 𞤪 𞤫𞤲 which means speakers of Pulaar hal is the root of the Pulaar verb haalugol 𞤖𞤢 𞤤𞤵𞤺𞤮𞤤 meaning to speak In some areas e g in northern Cameroon Fulfulde is a local lingua franca There are three writing systems used to write this language an Arabic derived one called Ajami a Latin derived system with 6 sets and a native phonetic faithful system called Adlam recently invented in 1989 the third one is the most increasingly popular not only learnt by hundreds of thousands of people among the diaspora worldwide but has also apps and computer programs created to assist in the script s adoption 115 Moral code Central to the Fulani people s lifestyle is a code of behavior known as pulaaku Fulfulde 𞤆𞤵𞤤𞤢 𞤳𞤵 or laawol Fulɓe 𞤂𞤢 𞤱𞤮𞤤 𞤆𞤵𞤤𞤩𞤫 literally meaning the Fulani pathways which are passed on by each generation as high moral values of the Fulbe which enable them to maintain their identity across boundaries and changes of lifestyle Essentially viewed as what makes a person Fulani or Fulaniness pulaaku includes Munyal Patience self control discipline prudence Gacce Semteende Modesty respect for others including foes Hakkille Wisdom forethought personal responsibility hospitality Sagata Tiinaade Courage hard workDress nbsp The traditional hat Tengaade of the Fulani people worn in diverse slightly different variations among every Fula subgroupThere are no particular outfits for all Fulani sub groups dressing and clothing accessories such as ornaments mostly depend on the particular region The traditional dress of the Fulbe Wodaabe consists of long colourful flowing robes modestly embroidered or otherwise decorated In the Futa Jallon highlands of central Guinea it is common to see men wearing a distinctive hat with colorful embroidery In Nigeria Cameroon and Niger men wear a hat that tapers off at three angular tips known as a noppiire Both men and women wear a characteristic white or black cotton fabric gown adorned with intricate blue red and green thread embroidery work with styles differing according to region and sex nbsp Antique Fulani Blanket Mali estimated to be from the 1920s courtesy the WOVENSOULS collectionIt is not uncommon to see the women decorate their hair with bead hair accessories as well as cowrie shells Fula women often use henna for hand arm and feet decorations Their long hair is put into five long braids that either hang or are sometimes looped on the sides It is common for women and girls to have silver coins and amber attached to their braids Some of these coins are very old and have been passed down in the family The women often wear many bracelets on their wrists The women can also be seen wearing a colorful cloth modjaare around the waist head or over one shoulder 116 Like the men the women have markings on their faces around their eyes and mouths that they were given as children The Western Fulbe in countries like Mali Senegal and Mauritania use indigo inks around the mouth resulting in a blackening around the lips and gums Fulani men are often seen wearing solid colored shirt and pants which go down to their lower calves made from locally grown cotton a long cloth wrapped around their faces and a conical hat made from straw and leather on their turbans and carrying their walking sticks across their shoulders with their arms resting on top of it Often the men have markings on either side of their faces and or on their foreheads They received these markings as children Fula ethics are strictly governed by the notion of pulaaku Women wear long robes with flowery shawls They decorate themselves with necklaces earrings nose rings and anklets 117 Herding See also Fulani herdsmen Further information Herder farmer conflicts in Nigeria and March 2019 attacks against Fulani herders Fula are primarily known to be pastoralists but are also traders in some areas Most Fula in the countryside spend long times alone on foot and can be seen frequently parading with their cattle throughout the west African hinterland moving their herds in search of water and better pasture They were and still are the only major migratory people group of West Africa although the Tuareg people another nomadic tribe of North African origin live just immediately north of Fula territory and sometimes live alongside the Fulani in countries such as Mali Niger and Burkina Faso The Fulani as a result of their constant wandering of the past can be seen in every climatic zone and habitat of West Africa from the deserts of the north to the derived savannah and forests of the south From the 16th to 20th centuries many Fulani communities settled in the highlands of the Jos Plateau the Western High Plateau of Bamenda and Adamawa Plateau of Nigeria and the Cameroons These are the highest elevated places in West Africa and their altitude can reach up to 8 700 feet above sea level The highland plateaus have a more temperate climate conducive for cattle herding activities which allowed Fulbe populations to settle there in waves of migrations from further west Though most Fula now live in towns or villages a large proportion of the population is still either fully nomadic or semi nomadic in nature Wealth is counted by how large the herd of cattle is Long ago Fulani tribes and clans used to fight over cattle and grazing rights Being the most treasured animal that the Fulanis herd the cows are very special Many people say that a person cannot speak Fulfulde if he does not own a cow The Fulani have a tradition of giving a habbanaya a cow which is loaned to another until she calves Once the calf is weaned it is retained and the cow is returned to its owner This habbanaya is a highly prized animal Upon receipt of this gift there is a special ceremony in honor of the gift The recipient buys special treats and invites his neighbors for this event in which the habbanaya is given a name The habbanaya is never to be struck under any circumstance nbsp An N Dama herd in West AfricaFulani nomads keep various species of cattle but the zebu is the most common in the West African hinterland due to its drought resistant traits In the wetter areas of Fouta Djallon and Casamance the dwarf N Dama is more common as they are highly resistant to trypanosomiasis and other conditions directly associated with high humidity Subspecies of zebu include the White Fulani cattle locally known as the Aku Akuji Bororoji White Kano Yakanaji or Bunaji which are an important beef breed of cattle found throughout the area owned by both Fulani and Hausa people and beyond in the Sahel zone of Africa 118 The Red Fulani cattle which are called the Jafun French Djafoun in Nigeria and Cameroon and Fellata in Chad as well as other names such as the M Bororo Red Bororo or Bodaadi another subspecies is the Sokoto Gudali and the Adamawa Gudali or simply Gudali which means horned and short legged in the Hausa language The widely accepted theory for the origin of present day zebu cattle in West Africa is that they came from the westward spread of the early zebu populations in East Africa through the Sudan Other breeds of zebu are found mainly in the drier regions Their body conformation resembles the zebu cattle of eastern Africa The zebu did not appear in West Africa until about 1800 118 The increasing aridity of the climate and the deterioration of the environment in the Sahel appear to have favoured the introduction and spread of the zebu as they are superior to longhorn and shorthorn cattle in withstanding drought conditions The origins and classification of the Fulani remains controversial one school of thought is of the opinion that the Fulani cattle are truly long horned zebus that first arrived in Africa from Asia on the east coast these are believed to have been introduced into West Africa by Arab invaders during the seventh century roughly about the same time that the short horned zebus arrived into East Africa This theory is supported by the appearance of the skull as well as the thoracic hump of the Fulani cattle 118 Another school of thought contends that these cattle originated from the Horn of Africa present day Ethiopia and Somalia and that interbreeding between the short horned zebu which arrived in the Horn around the first millennium BC and the ancient Hamitic Longhorn and or B taurus brachyceros shorthorn which had arrived much earlier occurred in the Horn about 2000 1500 BCE The subsequent successive introductions of the short horned zebu are believed to have displaced most sanga cattle into southern Africa 118 nbsp Fulani herders in MaliDuring this period of constant movement of people and animals within Africa some of these sanga cattle probably intermixed with the short horned thoracic humped cattle to produce the thoracic humped sanga The latter may have migrated most probably along with the spread of Islam westerly to constitute what are today the lyre horned cattle of West and Central Africa including the Fulani cattle Originally the White Fulani were indigenous to north Nigeria southeast Niger and northeast Cameroon owned by both Fulani and Hausa people They then spread to southern Chad and western Sudan 118 Every year in the Malian town of Diafarabe Fulani men cross the Niger River with their cattle in an annual cycle of transhumance This annual festival is known in the local Fulfulde as the Dewgal Since the founding of the village in 1818 it has always been the most important Fulani festival It takes place on a Saturday in November or December the day is carefully chosen based on the state of pastures and the water levels in the river Niger During the rainy season the river swells and the areas around the village are inundated in water as the level of the river Niger rises and turns Diafarabe into an island The cattle are kept on the lush fields up north or south but when the West African Monsoon subsides and the drier season returns the water level drops and the cattle can return home again 119 120 121 The crossing is more than a search for pastures it is also a competition to show craftsmanship as a herdsmen The cattle are driven into the river and each herder with no help from others loudly encourages the animals to move forward as he stands or swims between them holding on to the horns of the bulls The smaller animals don t have to swim but are lifted into pirogues When all the cattle are back they are judged by a panel which decides whose animals are the fattest That herder is awarded best caretaker and he is awarded by the community 119 120 121 The worst caretaker ends up with a shameful prize a peanut Besides being a competition of herdsmanship it is also a social event the herdsmen return after having been away for the most part of the year and they meet their family and friends again It is a time for celebration The women decorate their house with woven mats and paint the floor with white and black clay braid their hair with very intricate patterns and dress up for their husbands and loved ones Impressed by the cultural significance attached to the annual event UNESCO included it on its list of world cultural heritage events 119 120 121 Music nbsp Fulani dancers in their full traditional regalia The Fula have a rich musical culture and play a variety of traditional instruments including drums hoddu a plucked skin covered lute similar to a banjo and riti or riiti a one string bowed instrument similar to a violin in addition to vocal music The well known Senegalese Fula musician Baaba Maal sings in Pulaar on his recordings Zaghareet or ululation is a popular form of vocal music formed by rapidly moving the tongue sideways and making a sharp high sound Fulani music is as varied as its people The numerous sub groups all maintain unique repertoires of music and dance Songs and dances reflect traditional life and are specifically designed for each individual occasion Music is played at any occasion when herding cattle working in the fields preparing food or at the temple Music is extremely important to the village life cycle with field cultivation harvest and winnowing of millet performed to the rhythm of the songs and drums Fulani herders have a special affinity for the flute and violin nianioru The young Fulani shepherd like to whistle and sing softly as they wander the silent savannah with cattle and goats The truly Fulani instruments are the one string viola of the Fulani nianioru the flute the two to five string lute hoddu or molo and the buuba and bawdi set of drums But they are also influenced by the other instruments of the region such as the beautiful West African harp the kora and the balafon Entertainment is the role of certain casts The performance of music is the realm of specialized casts The Griots or Awlube recite the history of the people places and events of the community Food nbsp Fulani calabashes used for butter and milk storage and as containers for hawkingKossam can be the general term for both fresh milk miradam and yoghurt known as pendidan in Fulfulde It is central to Fulbe identity and revered as a drink or in one of its various processed forms such as yoghurt and cheese Kettugol and lebol are derived from milk fat are used in light cooking and hair weaving It is common to see Fulani women hawking milk products in characteristic beautifully decorated calabashes balanced on their heads Other meals include a heavy porridge nyiiri made of flour from such grains as millet sorghum or corn which is eaten in combination with soup takai haako made from tomatoes onions spices peppers and other vegetables 122 Another popular meal eaten by almost all Fulani communities is made from fermenting milk into yoghurt and eaten with corn couscous known as latchiiri or dakkere either in the same bowl or separately also a fluid or porridge called gari made of flour cereals such as millet sorghum or corn and milk The Wodaabe traditionally eat millet milk and meat as staples Millet is eaten in the morning noon and night as a grease with a sauce or stew which usually contains tomatoes peppers bone meat onion and other vegetables On special occasions they eat meat such as goat or beef A thick beverage similar to the Tuareg eghajira is made by pounding goat cheese milk dates and millet citation needed Houses nbsp Fulani grass house in MaliTraditionally nomadic Fula live in domed houses known as a bukkaru or suudu hudo literally grass house During the dry season the characteristically hemisphere shaped domed houses are supported by compact millet stalk pillars and by reed mats held together and tied against wood poles in the wet or rainy season These mobile houses are very easy to set up and dismantle as typical of houses from nomadic societies When it is time to move the houses are easily disassembled and loaded onto donkeys horses or camels for transport With recent trends however many Fula now live in mud or concrete block houses citation needed Once they are set up the room is divided into a sleeping compartment and another compartment where calabashes and guards of all sizes are intricately arranged in a stack according to their sizes and functions Spoons made from gourda are hung from the rooftop with others meant for grain storage citation needed GeneticsThe Fulani people are genetically an admixture of West and East African ancestries specifically Niger Congo and Nilo Saharan components but also display varying degrees of West Eurasian admixture through contact with groups from North Africa 123 The Fulani are the most wide spread pastoralist group in the Sahel Savannah belt 124 Paternal lineages Y DNA The paternal lineages of the Fula Fulɓe Fulani tend to vary depending on geographic location According to a study by Cruciani et al 2002 around 90 of Fulani individuals from Burkina Faso carried haplotype 24 which corresponds with the E M2 E1b1a that is common in West Africa The remainder belonged to haplotype 42 haplogroup E M132 Both of these clades are today most frequent among Niger Congo speaking populations particularly those inhabiting Senegal Similarly 53 of the Fulani in northern Cameroon bore haplogroup E M132 with the rest mainly carrying other African clades 12 haplogroup A and 6 haplogroup E1b1a A significant minority carried the West Eurasian haplogroups T 18 and R1 12 making up together around 30 of the total haplogroup variation 125 Mulcare et al 2004 observed a similar frequency of haplogroup R1 subclades in their Fulani samples from Cameroon 18 126 A study by Hassan et al 2008 on a Fulani subgroup in Sudan observed a significantly higher occurrence of the West Eurasian haplogroup R1 53 8 The remainder belonged to E M215 subclades including 34 62 E M78 and 27 2 E V22 127 Buckova et al 2013 analyzed various Fulani subgroups and observed R1b among the Fulani Zinder grouping with a frequency of 31 This was in sharp contrast to most of the other Fulani pastoralist groups elsewhere including those from Burkina Faso Cameroon Mali and Chad which instead had nearly exclusive West African paternal haplogroups 128 Maternal lineages mtDNA In contrast to their more heterogeneous paternal lineages the Fulani have rather homogenous maternal lineages with close affinity to other Niger Congo populations Only 8 1 of their mtDNA clades were associated with West Eurasian or Afro Asiatic groups J1b U5 H and V 129 A study of four Fulani nomad populations n 186 in three Sahelian countries Chad Cameroon and Burkina Faso found that the only group of nomadic Fulani that manifests some similarities with geographically related agricultural populations from Guinea Bissau and Nigeria comes from Tcheboua in northern Cameroon 130 131 Autosomal DNA overall According to Tishkoff et al 2009 the Fulani s genomic ancestry clusters near that of Chadic and Central Sudanic speaking populations with genetic affinities observed to the Hausa people Based on this the researchers suggest that the Fulani may have adopted a Niger Congo language at some point in their history while intermarrying with local populations Additionally moderate levels of West Eurasian admixture was also observed among the Fulani samples which the authors propose may have been introduced via the Iberian Peninsula and Northern Africa 132 Dobon et al 2015 found that the Sudanese Fulani have largely ancestry from Niger Kordofanian and Nilo Saharan Sudanic speaking groups with lower amounts of West Eurasian ancestry 133 nbsp Young Fulani men at Cure Salee festival Niger Triska Petr et al 2015 showed that there is extensive admixture across the Sahel Belt with the Fula carrying West African and East African components as well as a Mozabite North African component These results support the hypothesis of a North African origin and a Western to Central Africa past migration for Fulani 134 A full genome analysis was conducted by Vicente et al in 2019 analyzing several different Fulani subgroups from various geographic regions They found that the Fulani people are characterized by the admixture of local West African and East African components but also display West Eurasian admixture mediated through historical North African groups The West Eurasian ancestry among Fulani was estimated to a mean average of 21 4 among the 53 samples from Ziniare in Burkina Faso According to the authors there were two admixture events the first being about 2000 years ago with the second being more recent at around 300 years ago This Eurasian ancestry was observed in the ancestry components of Mozabite people They found that Our findings suggest that Eurasian admixture and the European LP allele was introduced into the Fulani through contact with a North African population s We furthermore confirm the link between the lactose digestion phenotype in the Fulani to the MCM6 LCT locus by reporting the first GWAS of the lactase persistence trait e observed a T 13910 allele frequency of 48 0 while the genome wide European admixture fraction in the Fulani is 21 4 at K 3 The notable European admixture fraction in the Fulani coupled with the high frequencies of the LP T 13910 allele suggests the possibility of adaptive gene flow into the Fulani gene pool 124 Another study in 2020 by Priehodova et al suggest an older date for the introduction of one variant of the LP allele in the Sahel about 8 5 ka 135 A study in 2019 by Fan et al found that the Fulani sampled from Cameroon clustered with Afro Asiatic speakers from East Africa in the phylogenetic analysis which the authors said indicates a potential shift in language to Niger Congo The analysis on autosomal markers found traces of West Eurasian related ancestry in this population which suggests a North African or East African origin as North and East Africans also have such ancestry likely related to expansions of farmers and herders from the Near East and is consistent with the presence at moderate frequency of the 13 910T variant associated with lactose tolerance in European populations 136 In 2023 whole genomes of Fulani individuals from various Sahelian samples were analyzed and the researches said the non Sub Saharan genetic ancestry within the Fulani cannot be solely explained by recent admixture events Fulani may be descendants of Saharan cattle herders during the last Green Sahara who had some genomic similarities to Late Neolithic Moroccans based on ancient samples 137 Notable FulanisMain article List of notable FulanisSee alsoToucouleur people or Torodbe Jobawa Sullubawa Dogon peopleReferences Wealth household heterogeneity and livelihood diversification of Fulani pastoralists in the Kachia Grazing Reserve northern Nigeria during a period of social transition on PubMed Central access date 2023 10 14 Africa Senegal The World Factbook Central Intelligence Agency www cia gov 2019 Retrieved 22 December 2019 Africa Guinea The World Factbook Central Intelligence Agency www cia gov 2023 Retrieved 2 August 2023 L ethnie peul au Cameroun Cameroon 15 October 2023 Retrieved 13 August 2019 Mbororo Fulani Peul 15 October 2023 Retrieved 13 August 2019 Africa Mali The World Factbook Central Intelligence Agency www cia gov 27 April 2021 Retrieved 1 May 2021 Africa Burkina Faso The World Factbook Central Intelligence Agency www cia gov 2019 Retrieved 22 December 2019 Africa Niger The World Factbook Central Intelligence Agency www cia gov 27 April 2021 Retrieved 1 May 2021 PRINCIPAUX INDICATEURS SOCIO DEMOGRAPHIQUES ET ECONOMIQUES PDF 2013 Retrieved 22 December 2019 What Is The Ethnic Composition Of Mauritania www worldatlas com 27 April 2021 Retrieved 1 May 2021 Africa Guinea Bissau The World Factbook Central Intelligence Agency www cia gov 27 April 2021 Retrieved 1 May 2021 Distribution of the Gambian population by ethnicity 1973 1983 1993 2003 and 2013 Censuses GBoS www gbosdata org Archived from the original on 2021 11 19 Retrieved 2021 06 17 Africa Chad The World Factbook Central Intelligence Agency www cia gov 27 April 2021 Retrieved 1 May 2021 Sierra Leone 2015 Population and Housing Census National Analytical Report PDF Statistics Sierra Leone Retrieved 28 March 2020 a b Fulani people and Jihadism in Sahel and West African countries Observatoire of Arab Muslim World and Sahel Foundation for Strategic Research FRS www frstrategie org Retrieved 2021 06 21 Adamawa Fulfulde Ethnologue Retrieved 18 October 2023 Borgu Fulfude Ethnologue Retrieved 18 October 2023 Maasina Fulfulde Ethnologue Retrieved 18 October 2023 No South Sudan Passports for Fulani Officials Say Voice of America English www voanews com Retrieved 2021 09 05 Algerian man Salim A who worked with Fula Nomadic communities in Southern Algeria verifys Fulani presence This constitutes a Primary Source eye witness Fulani People Religion amp Nigeria Britannica 25 August 2023 Francis Rodd 1926 Origins of Tuareg people H R Palmer 1914 M Delafosse s Account of the Fulani Taylor White 1921 a b c d e Richard M Juang 2008 Africa and the Americas Culture Politics and History ABC CLIO p 492 ISBN 978 1 85109 441 7 Felicity Crowe 2010 Modern Muslim Societies Marshall Cavendish p 262 ISBN 978 0 7614 7927 7 a b Steven L Danver 2015 Native Peoples of the World An Encyclopedia of Groups Cultures and Contemporary Issues Routledge pp 31 32 ISBN 978 1 317 46400 6 Fulbe homepage univie ac at in German Archived from the original on 24 November 2021 Retrieved 30 August 2020 David Levinson 1996 Fulani Encyclopedia of World Cultures Africa and the Middle East Volume 9 Gale Group ISBN 978 0 8161 1808 3 Anthony Appiah Henry Louis Gates 2010 Encyclopedia of Africa Oxford University Press p 495 ISBN 978 0 19 533770 9 a b David Levinson 1996 Fulani Encyclopedia of World Cultures Africa and the Middle East Volume 9 Gale Group ISBN 978 0 8161 1808 3 Quote The Fulani form the largest pastoral nomadic group in the world The Bororo en are noted for the size of their cattle herds In addition to fully nomadic groups however there are also semisedentary Fulani Fulbe Laddi who also farm although they argue that they do so out of necessity not choice a b Christopher R DeCorse 2001 West Africa During the Atlantic Slave Trade Archaeological Perspectives Bloomsburg Academic pp 172 174 ISBN 978 0 7185 0247 8 a b Anthony Appiah Henry Louis Gates 2010 Encyclopedia of Africa Oxford University Press pp 495 496 ISBN 978 0 19 533770 9 Richard M Juang 2008 Africa and the Americas Culture Politics and History ABC CLIO p 492 ISBN 978 1 85109 441 7 a b Pat Ikechukwu Ndukwe 1996 Fulani The Rosen Publishing Group pp 9 17 ISBN 978 0 8239 1982 6 D Group 2013 Encyclopedia of African Peoples Routledge pp 85 88 ISBN 978 1 135 96334 7 Religion and expressive culture Fulani www everyculture com Retrieved 30 August 2020 Fulani people Encyclopedia Britannica Retrieved 2020 10 27 The homonym Fulani is also used by the Manding peoples being the diminutive form of the word Fula in their language with suffix ni essentially meaning little Fula The letter ɓ is an implosive b sound which does not exist in English so is replaced by b In the orthography for languages of Guinea pre 1985 this sound was represented by bh so one would have written Fulbhe instead of Fulɓe Clark Andrew F The Fulbe of Bundu Senegambia From Theocracy to Secularization The International Journal of African Historical Studies vol 29 no 1 1996 p 4 JSTOR https doi org 10 2307 221416 Accessed 1 July 2023 Fulani A brief walk into the origin and lifestyle of this beautiful people Pulse Nigeria 2022 07 06 Retrieved 2023 09 18 Saeed Asma u G 2017 The Mahdiyya in Adamawa Emirate the poem on the battle of Danki 1892 by Shaykh Hayat b Sa id Journal for Islamic Studies 36 1 61 ISSN 2957 9163 Mali People amp Society Burkina Faso People amp Society Guinea People amp Society Senegal People amp Society Niger People amp Society CIA Factbook 2015 Schlee Gunther Watson Elizabeth eds 2013 10 15 Changing Identifications and Alliances in North east Africa Volume II Sudan Uganda and the Ethiopia Sudan Borderlands Berghahn Books ISBN 9781845459635 Al Amin Abu Manga Nuhu Auwalu Wakili 1986 Fulfulde in the Sudan process of adaptation to Arabic D Reimer p 7 ISBN 9783496008859 The Fulani in the Sudan are known by the loose generic term Fellata The World Factbook CIA Retrieved 2013 12 28 Association of Concerned Africa Scholars Citizenship and Identity in Post Secession Northern Sudan Association of Concerned Africa Scholars Retrieved 2013 12 28 Chad Ethnic Groups Study com Retrieved 2020 05 25 Bukari Kaderi Noagah Schareika Nicholaus 2015 11 04 Stereotypes prejudices and exclusion of Fulani pastoralists in Ghana Pastoralism 5 1 20 doi 10 1186 s13570 015 0043 8 ISSN 2041 7136 Carl Skutsch 2005 Encyclopedia of the World s Minorities Routledge p 474 ISBN 978 1 135 19388 1 Quote Fulani oral traditions suggest an origin in Egypt or the Middle East a common theme in West African Muslim traditions a b Webster G W 1931 242 Customs and Beliefs of the Fulani Notes Collected During 24 Years Residence in Northern Nigeria Man 31 238 244 doi 10 2307 2790939 JSTOR 2790939 Unesco General History of Africa 1992 Africa from the Seventh to the Eleventh Century v 3 James Currey Publishers p 204 ISBN 978 0852550939 Creevey Lucy August 1996 Islam Women and the Role of the State in Senegal Journal of Religion in Africa 26 3 268 307 doi 10 1163 157006696X00299 JSTOR 1581646 Fage John Donnelly 1997 Upper and Lower Guinea In Roland Oliver ed The Cambridge History of Africa Volume 3 Cambridge University Press ISBN 978 0521209816 History Corner Peoples of The Gambia The Fula Africa gm Africa news and information community Retrieved 2014 02 27 David Levinson 1996 Fulani Encyclopedia of World Cultures Africa and the Middle East Volume 9 Gale Group ISBN 978 0 8161 1808 3 Quote Their adoption of Islam increased the Fulanis feeling of cultural and religious superiority to surrounding peoples and that adoption became a major ethnic boundary marker a b c d e Andrea L Stanton 2012 Cultural Sociology of the Middle East Asia and Africa An Encyclopedia SAGE Publications pp 147 148 ISBN 978 1 4129 8176 7 a b c Songhai Empire Encyclopaedia Britannica Knut Vikor 2013 Leif Manger ed Muslim Diversity Local Islam in Global Contexts Routledge pp 92 93 ISBN 978 1 136 81857 8 a b Johnson Marion 1976 The Economic Foundations of an Islamic Theocracy The Case of Masina The Journal of African History Cambridge University Press 17 4 481 495 doi 10 1017 s0021853700015024 S2CID 162679554 a b Walter van Beek 1988 Purity and statecraft The Fulani Jihad The Quest for Purity Dynamics of Puritan Movements Walter de Gruyter pp 149 177 ISBN 978 3 11 011382 2 John Thornton 28 April 1998 Africa and Africans in the Making of the Atlantic World 1400 1800 Cambridge University Press pp 91 92 xvii xix ISBN 978 0 521 62724 5 a b c d Resistance to Fulbe hegemony in nineteenth century West Africa African dynamics PDF Brill 2003 pp 43 68 ISBN 9789004126244 J D Fage Roland Anthony Oliver 1975 The Cambridge History of Africa Volume 4 Cambridge University Press p 208 ISBN 9780521204132 Retrieved 2014 02 27 a b c Last Murray 1967 The Sokoto Caliphate Internet Archive New York Humanities Press Gwandu Abubaker Aliu 1977 Abdullahi b fodio as a Muslim jurist Doctoral thesis Durham University Abubakar Aliyu 2005 The Torankawa Danfodio Family Kano Nigeria Fero Publishers Last Murray 1967 The Sokoto Caliphate Internet Archive New York Humanities Press pp lxxiii Last Murray Genealogy of Shaikh Uthman b Fodiye and some Scholars related to him PDF Premium Times Bello Ahmadu 1962 My life Internet Archive Cambridge Eng University Press p 239 Kim Masara 2021 11 11 Nigeria s Little Known Fulani Christians Worship In Secret The Nigerian Voice Available at https www thenigerianvoice com news 303573 nigerias little known fulani christians worship in secret html retrieved 2023 06 17 Time line Jamtan Archived from the original on 2012 11 22 Retrieved 2013 12 28 Boyle C Vicars 1910 Historical Notes on the Yola Fulanis Journal of the Royal African Society 10 37 73 92 ISSN 0368 4016 JSTOR 715032 Materials and Methods PDF Archived from the original PDF on 2014 02 20 Retrieved 2014 02 03 Paul Riesman David L Szanton 1992 Global Fulani Society First Find Your Child a Good Mother The Construction of Self in Two African Communities Rutgers University Press p 15 ISBN 9780813517681 Retrieved 2014 02 27 The Cast System Jamtan Archived from the original on 2014 02 20 Retrieved 2014 02 27 David J Phillips 2001 Peoples on the Move Introducing the Nomads of the World William Carey Library ISBN 9780878083527 Retrieved 2014 02 27 Portrait of Yarrow Mamout An Early American Muslim www religioninamerica org Omar ibn Said 1831 Autobiography of Omar ibn Said Slave in North Carolina 1831 University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill Anderson R 2020 Liberated African Origins and the Nineteenth Century Slave Trade In Abolition in Sierra Leone Re Building Lives and Identities in Nineteenth Century West Africa African Identities Past and Present pp 30 65 Cambridge Cambridge University Press doi 10 1017 9781108562423 002 Misevich The Mende and Sherbro Diaspora 254 Curtin P amp Vansina J 1964 Sources of the Nineteenth Century Atlantic Slave Trade The Journal of African History 5 2 185 208 doi 10 1017 S0021853700004801 a b Tamari Tal 1991 The Development of Caste Systems in West Africa The Journal of African History 32 2 221 250 doi 10 1017 s0021853700025718 S2CID 162509491 Quote Endogamous artisan and musician groups are characteristic of over fifteen West African peoples including the Manding Soninke Wolof Serer Fulani Tukulor Songhay Dogon Senufo Minianka Moors and Tuareg Castes appeared among the Malinke no later than 1300 and were present among the Wolof and Soninke as well as some Songhay and Fulani populations no later than 1500 a b c Dupire Marguerite 1985 A Nomadic Caste The Fulani Woodcarvers Historical Background and Evolution Anthropos 80 1 3 85 100 JSTOR 40460882 The woodcarvers associated with the Fulani and neighboring societies in West Africa were nomads All criteria retained by specialists to define a caste group Berreman Pitt Rivers Vaughan may be applied to them This is true even today in spite of their sedentarization and the conversion of certain of them to sculpture The second part of this study raises the question of the conditions underlying the creation of artisan castes drawing upon examples taken from agricultural societies certain of which are state based Fulani Serer of Sine others of which are more or less acephalous Marghi Senufo Cangin Serer African Commission on Human and Peoples Rights 2009 Rapport Du Groupe de Travail de la Commission Africaine Sur Les Populations communautes Autochtones Mission en Republique de Niger 14 24 Fevrier 2006 IWGIA p 41 note 74 ISBN 978 87 91563 48 5 Sow Abdoul Aziz Angell John 1993 Fulani Poetic Genres Research in African Literatures 24 2 61 77 JSTOR 3819886 At the top of the hierarchy are cattle owning Fulani Toorobbe literate marabouts who hold spiritual power Seebe members of a warrior caste The middle of the hierarchy is comprisedof the five castes that Paul Riesman David L Szanton 1992 First Find Your Child a Good Mother The Construction of Self in Two African Communities Rutgers University Press p 14 ISBN 9780813517681 Retrieved 2014 02 27 Hill Allan G 2012 07 26 Population Health and Nutrition in the Sahel Routledge p 9 ISBN 9781136882845 Retrieved 2014 02 27 The Unreached Peoples Prayer Profiles Kcm co kr Retrieved 2014 02 27 Frank Salamone 1997 Junius P Rodriguez ed The Historical Encyclopedia of World Slavery ABC CLIO pp 333 334 ISBN 978 0 87436 885 7 Fisher Humphrey J Slavery in the History of Muslim Black Africa C Hurst amp Co Publishers 2001 p 26 ISBN 9781850655244 Vereecke Catherine 1994 The Slave Experience in Adamawa Past and Present Perspectives from Yola Nigeria Une approche historique de l esclavage dans l Adamawa du XIXe siecle a nos jours Cahiers d Etudes Africaines 34 133 135 23 53 doi 10 3406 cea 1994 2039 JSTOR 4392512 Hampshire Kate 2006 Flexibility in Domestic Organization and Seasonal Migration Among the Fulani of Northern Burkina Faso Africa 76 3 402 426 doi 10 3366 afr 2006 0044 S2CID 73652678 a b Tor Arve Benjaminsen Christian Lund 2001 Politics Property and Production in the West African Sahel Understanding Natural Resources Management Nordic Africa Institute pp 118 119 122 127 128 130 131 ISBN 978 91 7106 476 9 Marguerite Dupire 1963 Materiau pour l etude de l endogamie des Peul du cercle de Kedougou Senegal oriental Cahiers du Centre de recherches anthropologiques Volume 5 Numero 3 pages 235 236 251 223 297 in French Gallais Jean 1962 Signification du groupe ethnique au Mali L Homme 2 2 106 129 doi 10 3406 hom 1962 366487 JSTOR 25131051 JH Vaughn 1970 Caste System in the Western Sudan In Arthur Tuden and Leonard Plotnicov ed Social Stratification in Africa Free Press ISBN 978 0029327807 Chodak Szymon 1973 Social Stratification in Sub Saharan Africa Canadian Journal of African Studies 7 3 401 417 doi 10 2307 484167 JSTOR 484167 4 Things To Know Before Dating Fulani Girls Dating Reporter s Blog Archived from the original on 2021 03 01 Retrieved 2021 02 27 a b c Martin Patience 2016 08 10 Nigeria s deadly battle for land Herdsmen v farmers BBC News Retrieved 2016 08 10 a b Nigeria Going Beyond the Green Wall Ritual allAfrica com 2013 07 04 Retrieved 2014 02 27 An Introduction To The Gambia s Fulani People Culture Trip 2019 11 30 Retrieved 2019 10 27 Ivory Coast ETHNIC GROUPS AND LANGUAGES countrystudies us Retrieved 2020 05 25 Grazing Reserve Development and Constraints Gamji com Retrieved 2014 02 27 a b Senators fight over grazing land for Fulani herdsmen Punchng com 2012 07 21 Archived from the original on 2014 02 01 Retrieved 2014 02 27 Premier 2019 02 07 Nigerian government failing to stop Fulani militants killing Christians charity says Premier Retrieved 2019 04 24 a b c GTD Search Results www start umd edu Retrieved 2019 04 11 Amnesty International 2018 Harvest of Death Three Years Of Bloody Clashes Between Farmers and Herders in Nigeria PDF Maitama Abuja FCT Nigeria Amnesty International Nwangwu Chikodiri Enyiazu Chukwuemeka 2019 Nomadic Pastoralism and Human Security Towards a Collective Action against Herders Farmers Crisis in Nigeria PDF Nomadic Pastorialism and Human Security Towards a Collective Action Against Herders Farmers Crisis in Nigeria AfriHeritage Working Paper 2019 010 Fulani Extremists Kill 3 Burn Church Site in Latest Attack on Christians in Nigeria Villagers Say Gov t Doing Nothing CBN News 2022 04 07 Retrieved 2022 08 15 The Sahel in flames The New Humanitarian 2019 05 31 Retrieved 2019 06 23 GTD Search Results www start umd edu Retrieved 2019 04 11 Tobie Aurelien December 2017 Central Mali Violence Local Perspectives and Diverging Narratives PDF Report Stockholm International Peace Research Institute Archived from the original PDF on 28 July 2022 Retrieved 12 September 2023 Incident Summary for GTDID 201603260030 www start umd edu Retrieved 2019 04 11 Cameroon Civilians Massacred in Separatist Area Human Rights Watch Feb 25 2020 Accessed Feb 26 2020 Bach Deborah Lerner Sara ADLaM comes online Microsoft Story Labs Retrieved 4 September 2019 Marianne Gullestad 2007 Picturing Pity Pitfalls and pleasures in cross cultural communication image and word in a North Cameroon mission Berghahn Books p 130 ISBN 9781845453435 Pulaaku Ethics 2007 12 27 Archived from the original on 2007 12 27 Retrieved 2013 12 28 a b c d e DAGRIS Dagris ilri cgiar org 2009 10 20 Archived from the original on 2015 06 10 Retrieved 2014 02 27 a b c Courtship by the river as cows return home Arts and Culture africareview com Archived from the original on 2014 02 22 Retrieved 2014 02 27 a b c Chris Caldicott 1996 11 02 Take me to the river Travel The Independent Retrieved 2014 02 27 a b c Dewgal Crossing of the Cattle a celebration of greener pastures Lonely Planet 2012 11 15 Archived from the original on 22 February 2014 Retrieved 2014 02 27 Fulani Introduction Location Language Folklore Religion Major holidays Rites of passage Relationships Living conditions Everyculture com Retrieved 2013 12 28 Cerny Viktor Fortes Lima Cesar Triska Petr 2021 04 26 Demographic history and admixture dynamics in African Sahelian populations Human Molecular Genetics 30 R1 R29 R36 doi 10 1093 hmg ddaa239 ISSN 1460 2083 PMID 33105478 a b Vicente Mario Priehodova Edita Diallo Issa Podgorna Eliska Poloni Estella S Cerny Viktor Schlebusch Carina M 2019 12 02 Population history and genetic adaptation of the Fulani nomads inferences from genome wide data and the lactase persistence trait BMC Genomics 20 1 915 doi 10 1186 s12864 019 6296 7 ISSN 1471 2164 PMC 6888939 PMID 31791255 Cruciani Fulvio Santolamazza Piero Shen Peidong et al May 2002 A Back Migration from Asia to Africa Is Supported by High Resolution Analysis of Human Y Chromosome Haplotypes American Journal of Human Genetics 70 5 1197 1214 doi 10 1086 340257 PMC 447595 PMID 11910562 Mulcare Charlotte A Weale Michael E Jones Abigail L Connell Bruce Zeitlyn David Tarekegn Ayele Swallow Dallas M Bradman Neil Thomas Mark G 2004 The T Allele of a Single Nucleotide Polymorphism 13 9 kb Upstream of the Lactase Gene LCT C 13 9kbT Does Not Predict or Cause the Lactase Persistence Phenotype in Africans The American Journal of Human Genetics 74 6 1102 1110 doi 10 1086 421050 PMC 1182074 PMID 15106124 Hassan Hisham Y Underhill Peter A Cavalli Sforza Luca L Ibrahim Muntaser E 2008 Y chromosome variation among Sudanese Restricted gene flow concordance with language geography and history American Journal of Physical Anthropology 137 3 316 23 doi 10 1002 ajpa 20876 PMID 18618658 Buckova Jana Cerny Viktor Novelletto Andrea 2013 Multiple and differentiated contributions to the male gene pool of pastoral and farmer populations of the African Sahel American Journal of Physical Anthropology 151 1 10 21 doi 10 1002 ajpa 22236 PMID 23460272 Miller MS 1990 Differential effects of N methyl N nitro N nitrosoguanidine on constitutive and hormone inducible gene expression in rat hepatoma cells Chemico Biological Interactions 73 2 3 207 19 doi 10 1016 0009 2797 90 90004 7 PMID 1690087 Cerny V Hajek M Bromova M Cmejla R Diallo I Brdicka R 2006 MtDNA of Fulani nomads and their genetic relationships to neighboring sedentary populations Human Biology 78 1 9 27 doi 10 1353 hub 2006 0024 ISSN 0018 7143 PMID 16900879 S2CID 7045459 CERNY V HAJEK M BROMOVA M CMEJLA R DIALLO I BRDICKA R 2006 mtDNA of Fulani Nomads and Their Genetic Relationships to Neighboring Sedentary Populations Human Biology 78 1 9 27 doi 10 1353 hub 2006 0024 ISSN 0018 7143 JSTOR 41466384 PMID 16900879 S2CID 7045459 Tishkoff S A Reed F A Friedlaender F R Ehret C Ranciaro A Froment A Hirbo J B Awomoyi A A Bodo J M Doumbo O Ibrahim M Juma A T Kotze M J Lema G Moore J H Mortensen H Nyambo T B Omar S A Powell K Pretorius G S Smith M W Thera M A Wambebe C Weber J L Williams S M 2009 The Genetic Structure and History of Africans and African Americans Science 324 5930 1035 44 Bibcode 2009Sci 324 1035T doi 10 1126 science 1172257 PMC 2947357 PMID 19407144 Dobon Begona Hassan Hisham Y Laayouni Hafid Luisi Pierre Ricano Ponce Isis Zhernakova Alexandra Wijmenga Cisca Tahir Hanan Comas David Netea Mihai G Bertranpetit Jaume 2015 05 28 The genetics of East African populations a Nilo Saharan component in the African genetic landscape Scientific Reports 5 1 9996 Bibcode 2015NatSR 5E9996D doi 10 1038 srep09996 ISSN 2045 2322 PMC 4446898 PMID 26017457 Triska Petr Soares Pedro Patin Etienne Fernandes Veronica Cerny Viktor Pereira Luisa 2015 11 26 Extensive Admixture and Selective Pressure Across the Sahel Belt Genome Biology and Evolution 7 12 3484 3495 doi 10 1093 gbe evv236 ISSN 1759 6653 PMC 4700964 PMID 26614524 Priehodova Edita Austerlitz Frederic Cizkova Martina Novackova Jana Ricaut Francois Xavier Hofmanova Zuzana Schlebusch Carina M Cerny Viktor November 2020 Sahelian pastoralism from the perspective of variants associated with lactase persistence American Journal of Physical Anthropology 173 3 423 436 doi 10 1002 ajpa 24116 ISSN 1096 8644 PMID 32812238 S2CID 221179656 Fan Shaohua Kelly Derek E Beltrame Marcia H Hansen Matthew E B Mallick Swapan Ranciaro Alessia Hirbo Jibril Thompson Simon Beggs William Nyambo Thomas Omar Sabah A 2019 04 26 African evolutionary history inferred from whole genome sequence data of 44 indigenous African populations Genome Biology 20 1 82 doi 10 1186 s13059 019 1679 2 ISSN 1474 760X PMC 6485071 PMID 31023338 D Atanasio Eugenia April 6 2023 Echoes from the last Green Sahara whole genome analysis of Fulani a key population to unveil the genetic evolutionary history of Africa bioRxiv doi 10 1101 2023 04 06 535569 S2CID 258041998 General references Almanach de Bruxelles now a paying site Gordon Raymond G Jr ed 2005 Adamawa Fulfulde Ethnologue Languages of the World 15th ed Dallas SIL International Accessed 25 June 2006 Ndukwe Pat I Ph D 1996 Fulani New York The Rosen Publishing Group Inc Christiane Seydou ed 1976 Bibliographie generale du monde peul Niamey Institut de Recherche en Sciences Humaines du NigerFurther readingProf Mark D DeLancey s Fulbe studies bibliography accessed 25 March 2008 Morel E D 1902 Affairs of West Africa London William Heinemann chapter XVI The Fulani in West African History pp 130 135 chapter XVII Origins of the Fulani pp 136 152 Can an Alphabet Save a Future Story of the Barry brother s 30 year commitment to developing a native script and font giving the Fulani people a digital footprint for a global community published on Microsoft UnlockedMonembo Tierno 2004 Peuls Editions Seuil Lam Aboubacry Moussa 1993 De l origine egyptienne des Peuls Presence Africaine External links nbsp Wikimedia Commons has media related to Fula people nbsp Scholia has a topic profile for Fula people fulfulde social learning network fulfulde Nigeria Archived 2020 11 25 at the Wayback Machine missionafrica org uk Portal of Fulɓe history and culture Online magazine published edited in Fulfulde Online magazine published edited in Fulfulde Online magazine in Fulfulde Online fulfulde Dictionary Archived 2017 09 09 at the Wayback Machine Fulfulde online news site Archived 2021 01 27 at the Wayback Machinel Portal of Fulɓe Fuuta Jaloo history and culture Geerewol by Sandrine Loncke Website about Woɗaaɓe ritual celebrations with annotated music recordings and short videos featuring dance and ritual sequences Supplement to the book of the same author Online musical archives dedicated to Fulɓe Jelgooɓe Burkina Faso and Fulɓe Woɗaaɓe Niger musics and singings Telemeta CREM CNRS Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Fula people amp oldid 1182503109, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

article

, read, download, free, free download, mp3, video, mp4, 3gp, jpg, jpeg, gif, png, picture, music, song, movie, book, game, games.