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Koreanic languages

December 01, 2023

Koreanic is a small language family consisting of the Korean and Jeju languages. The latter is often described as a dialect of Korean, but is distinct enough to be considered a separate language. Alexander Vovin suggested that the Yukjin dialect of the far northeast should be similarly distinguished. Korean has been richly documented since the introduction of the Hangul alphabet in the 15th century. Earlier renditions of Korean using Chinese characters are much more difficult to interpret.

Koreanic
Geographic
distribution		Korea, Manchuria
Linguistic classificationOne of the world's primary language families
Proto-languageProto-Koreanic
Subdivisions
Glottologkore1284
Current extent of Koreanic as majority and minority (dashed) languages in East Asia

All modern varieties are descended from the Old Korean of the state of Silla. What little is known of other languages spoken on the peninsula before the Sillan unification (late 7th century) comes largely from placenames. Some of these languages are believed to have been Koreanic, but there is also evidence suggesting that Japonic languages were spoken in central and southern parts of the peninsula. There have been many attempts to link Koreanic with other language families, most often with Tungusic or Japonic, but no genetic relationship has been conclusively demonstrated.

Extant languages edit

 
Dialect zones[2][3][4]

The various forms of Korean are conventionally described as "dialects" of a single Korean language, but breaks in intelligibility justify viewing them as a small family of two or three languages.[5]

Korean edit

Main article: Korean language

Korean dialects form a dialect continuum stretching from the southern end of the Korean peninsula to Yanbian prefecture in the Chinese province of Jilin, though dialects at opposite ends of the continuum are not mutually intelligible.[5] This area is usually divided into five or six dialect zones following provincial boundaries, with Yanbian dialects included in the northeastern Hamgyŏng group.[6][7] Dialects differ in palatalization and the reflexes of Middle Korean accent, vowels, voiced fricatives, word-medial /k/ and word-initial /l/ and /n/.[8][9]

Korean is extensively and precisely documented from the introduction of the Hangul alphabet in the 15th century (the Late Middle Korean period).[10] Earlier forms, written with Chinese characters using a variety of strategies, are much more obscure.[11] The key sources on Early Middle Korean (10th to 14th centuries) are a Chinese text, the Jilin leishi (1103–1104), and the pharmacological work Hyangyak kugŭppang (鄕藥救急方, mid-13th century).[12] During this period, Korean absorbed a huge number of Chinese loanwords, affecting all aspects of the language.[13] It is estimated that Sino-Korean vocabulary makes up more than half of the Korean lexicon, but only about 10% of basic vocabulary.[14][15]Old Korean (6th to early 10th centuries) is even more sparsely attested, mostly by inscriptions and 14 hyangga songs composed between the 7th and 9th centuries and recorded in the Samguk yusa (13th century).[16][a]

The standard languages of North and South Korea are both based primarily on the central prestige dialect of Seoul, despite the North Korean claim that their standard is based on the speech of their capital Pyongyang.[18] The two standards have phonetic and lexical differences.[19] Many loanwords have been purged from the North Korean standard, while South Korea has expanded Sino-Korean vocabulary and adopted loanwords, especially from English.[20][21] Nonetheless, due to its origin in the Seoul dialect, the North Korean standard language is easily intelligible to all South Koreans.[18][22]

In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, in response to poor harvests and the Japanese annexation of Korea, people emigrated from the northern parts of the peninsula to eastern Manchuria and the southern part of Primorsky Krai in the Russian Far East.[23][24] Korean labourers were forcibly moved to Manchuria as part of the Japanese occupation of Manchuria.[23][25] There are now about 2 million Koreans in China, mostly in the border prefecture of Yanbian, where the language has official status.[23]

The speech of Koreans in the Russian Far East was described by Russian scholars such as Mikhail Putsillo, who compiled a dictionary in 1874.[26] Some 250,000 Koreans lived in the area in the 1930s, when Stalin had them forcibly deported to Soviet Central Asia, particularly Uzbekistan and Kazakhstan.[27] There are small Korean communities scattered throughout central Asia maintaining forms of Korean known collectively as Koryo-mar.[28] There is also a Korean population on Sakhalin, descended from people forcibly transferred to the Japanese part of the island before 1945.[29]

Most Koreans in Japan are descendents of immigrants during the Japanese occupation. Most Korean-language schools in Japan follow the North Korean standard. The form of Korean spoken in Japan also shows the influence of Japanese, for example in a reduced vowel system and some grammatical simplification.[30] Korean-speakers are also found throughout the world, for example in North America, where Seoul Korean is the accepted standard.[31]

Jeju edit

Main article: Jeju language

The speech of Jeju Island is not mutually intelligible with standard Korean, suggesting that it should be treated as a separate language.[32] Jeju features a back central unrounded vowel /ʌ/, which also appears in standard 15th-century texts (written with the Hangul letter ⟨ㆍ⟩), but has merged with other vowels in mainland dialects.[33] Jeju also features the combination /jʌ/, which the 15th-century Hunminjeongeum Haerye states was not found in the standard speech of that time, but did occur in some dialects.[34] This suggests that Jeju diverged from other dialects some time before the 15th century.[35]

Yukchin edit

Main article: Yukjin dialect
 
The six garrisons in far northeastern Korea

The Yukchin dialect, spoken in the northernmost part of Korea and adjacent areas in China, forms a dialect island separate from neighbouring northeastern dialects, and is sometimes considered a separate language.[36][1] When King Sejong drove the Jurchen from what is now the northernmost part of North Hamgyong Province in 1434, he established six garrisons (Yukchin) in the bend of the Tumen River – Kyŏnghŭng, Kyŏngwŏn, Onsŏng, Chongsŏng, Hoeryŏng and Puryŏng – populated by immigrants from southeastern Korea. The speech of their descendents is thus markedly distinct from other Hamgyong dialects, and preserves many archaisms.[37][38] In particular, Yukchin was unaffected by the palatalization found in most other dialects.[39] About 10 percent of Korean speakers in central Asia use the Yukchin dialect.[38]

Proto-Koreanic edit

Koreanic is a relatively shallow language family. Modern varieties show limited variation, most of which can be treated as derived from Late Middle Korean (15th century). The few exceptions indicate a date of divergence only a few centuries earlier, following the unification of the peninsula by Silla.[35][40] It is possible to reach further back using internal reconstruction from Middle Korean.[41] This has been supplemented with philological analysis of the fragmentary records of Old Korean.[42]

Phonology edit

A relatively simple inventory of consonants is reconstructed for Proto-Koreanic:

Proto-Korean consonants[43]
Bilabial Alveolar Palatal Velar
Nasal *m *n *ŋ
Stop *p *t *c *k
Fricative *s *h
Tap *r
Approximant *j

Many of the consonants in later forms of Korean are secondary developments:

  • The reinforced consonants of modern Korean arose from clusters of consonants, becoming phonemically distinct after the Late Middle Korean period.[43][44]
  • The aspirated consonants of Middle and modern Korean also arose from clusters with *k or *h.[45][46] There is some disagreement over whether aspirates were already a distinct series in the Old Korean period.[47][48] However, it seems clear that the process began with *t and *c, extended to *p and finally to *k.[49][50][51]
  • Late Middle Korean had a series of voiced fricatives, /β/ ⟨ㅸ⟩, /z/ ⟨ㅿ⟩ and /ɦ/ ⟨ㆁ⟩. These occurred only in limited environments, and are believed to have arisen from lenition of /p/, /s/ and /k/, respectively.[52][53][54][47] These fricatives have disappeared in most modern dialects, but some dialects in the southeast and northeast (including Yukchin) retain /p/, /s/ and /k/ in these words.[55]

Middle Korean /l/ ⟨ㄹ⟩ does not occur initially in native words, a typological characteristic shared with "Altaic" languages.[56] Some, but not all, occurrences of /l/ are attributed to lenition of /t/.[57][53] Distinctions in the phonographic use of the Chinese characters 乙 and 尸 suggest that Old Korean probably had two sounds corresponding to later Korean l.[58][59] The second of these is often spelled lh in Middle Korean, and may reflect an earlier cluster with an obstruent.[60][61]

Late Middle Korean had seven vowels.[62] Based on loans from Middle Mongolian and transcriptions in the Jìlín lèishì, Lee Ki-Moon argued for a Korean Vowel Shift between the 13th and 15th centuries, a chain shift involving five of these vowels.[63]William Labov found that this proposed shift followed different principles to all the other chain shifts he surveyed.[64] The philological evidence for the shift has also been challenged.[65][66] An analysis based on Sino-Korean readings leads to a more conservative system:[43]

Old Korean vowels and Middle Korean reflexes[43]
Front Central Back
Close *i > [i] ⟨ㅣ⟩ *ɨ > [ɨ] ⟨ㅡ⟩ *u > [u] ⟨ㅜ⟩
Mid *e > [ə] ⟨ㅓ⟩ *ə > [ʌ] ⟨ㆍ⟩ *o > [o] ⟨ㅗ⟩
Open *a > [a] ⟨ㅏ⟩

The vowels *ɨ > [ɨ] and *ə > [ʌ] have a limited distribution in Late Middle Korean, suggesting that unaccented *ɨ and *ə underwent syncope. They may also have merged with *e in accented initial position or following *j.[43] Some authors have proposed that Late Middle Korean [jə] ⟨ㅕ⟩ reflects an eighth Proto-Korean vowel, based on its high frequency and an analysis of tongue root harmony.[67][68]

The Late Middle Korean script assigns to each syllable one of three pitch contours: low (unmarked), high (one dot) or rising (two dots).[69] The rising tone is believed to be secondary, arising from a contraction of a syllable with low pitch with one of high pitch.[70][71] There is some evidence that pitch levels after the first high tone were not distinctive, so that Middle Korean was a pitch-accent language rather than a tonal language.[72] In the proto-language, accent was probably not distinctive for verbs, but may have been for nouns, though with a preference for accent on the final syllable.[73]

Morphosyntax edit

Korean uses several postnominal particles to indicate case and other relationships.[74] The modern nominative case suffix -i is derived from an earlier ergative case marker *-i.[74][75]

In modern Korean, verbs are bound forms that cannot appear without one or more inflectional suffixes. In contrast, Old Korean verb stems could be used independently, particularly in verb-verb compounds, where the first verb was typically an uninflected root.[76][77]

Vocabulary edit

Old Korean pronouns were written with the Chinese characters for the corresponding Chinese pronouns, so their pronunciation must be inferred from Middle Korean forms.[78][79] The known personal pronouns are *na 'I', *uri 'we' and *ne 'you'.[78][80]

Koreanic numerals
Proto-Korean[80] Late Middle Korean[81] Jeju[82]
1 *hət(V)- / *hətan[83] hʌnáh hʌna
2 *tupɨr tǔlh tul
3 *se- / *seki[84] sə̌jh swis
4 *ne / *neki[85] nə̌jh nuis
5 *tasə tasʌ́s tasʌs
6 *jəsəs jəsɨ́s jəsəs
7 *nirkup nilkúp ilkop
8 *jətərp jətɨ́lp jʌtʌp
9 *ahop ahóp aop
10 *jer jə́lh jəl

Typology and areal features edit

Modern Koreanic varieties have a three-way contrast between plain, aspirated and reinforced stops and affricates, but Proto-Korean is reconstructed with a single set, like Proto-Japonic and Ainu, but unlike Tungusic, Mongolic and Turkic, which feature a voicing contrast.[86] Korean also resembles Japonic and Ainu in having a single liquid consonant, while its continental neighbours tend to distinguish /l/ and /r/.[86]

Most modern varieties (except Jeju and a few northern dialects) have a form of accent, marked by vowel length in central dialects and pitch in the northeast and southeast.[87] The position of this accent is determined by the first high pitch syllable in Middle Korean.[88] A similar pitch accent is found in Japonic and Ainu languages, but not Tungusic, Mongolic or Turkic.[86]

Like other languages in northeast Asia, Korean has agglutinative morphology and head-final word order, with subject–object–verb order, modifiers preceding nouns, and postpositions (particles).[89][90]

Proposed external relationships edit

 
Larger language families of northeast Asia:

Northeast Asia is home to several relatively shallow language families.[91] There have been several attempts to link Korean with other language families, with the most-favoured being "Altaic" (Tungusic, Mongolic and Turkic) and Japonic.[92] However, none of these attempts has succeeded in demonstrating a common descent for Koreanic and any other language family.[93] Larger proposed groupings subsuming these hypotheses, such as Nostratic and Eurasiatic, have even less support.[94]

Altaic edit

The Altaic proposal, grouping Tungusic, Mongolic and Turkic, emerged in the 19th century as a residue when the larger Ural–Altaic grouping was abandoned.[95] Korean was added to the proposal by Gustaf Ramstedt in 1924, and others later added Japanese.[95] The languages share features such as agglutinative morphology, subject–object–verb order and postpositions.[96][97] Many cognates have been proposed, and attempts have been made to reconstruct a proto-language.[98][99]

The Altaic theory was incorporated into the influential two-wave migration model of Korean ethnic history proposed in the 1970s by the archaeologist Kim Won-yong, who attributed cultural transitions in prehistoric Korea to migrations of distinct ethnic groups from the north.[100][101][102] The appearance of Neolithic Jeulmun pottery was interpreted as a migration of a Paleosiberian group, while the arrival of bronze was attributed to a Tungusic migration of the ancestral Korean population, identified with the Yemaek of later Chinese sources.[103][104] South Korean culture-historians tended to project contemporary Korean homogeneity into the distant past, assuming that a preformed Korean people arrived in the peninsula from elsewhere, ignoring the possibility of local evolution and interaction.[105][106] However, no evidence of these migrations has been found, and archaeologists now believe that the Korean peninsula and adjacent areas of eastern Manchuria have been continuously occupied since the Late Pleistocene.[107][108] The projection of the Yemaek back to this period has also been criticized as unjustified.[109][110]

Moreover, most comparativists no longer accept the core Altaic family itself, even without Korean, believing most of the commonalities to be the result of prolonged contact.[89][111] The shared features turned out to be rather common among languages across the world, and typology is no longer considered evidence of a genetic relationship.[112] While many cognates are found between adjacent groups, few are attested across all three. The proposed sound correspondences have also been criticized for invoking too many phonemes, such as the four phonemes that are said to have merged as *y in proto-Turkic.[113] Similarly, Koreanic *r is said to result from the merger of four proto-Altaic liquids.[114]

In any case, most of the proposed matches with Korean were from the neighbouring Tungusic group.[115] A detailed comparison of Korean and Tungusic was published by Kim Dongso in 1981, but it has been criticized for teleological reconstructions, failing to distinguish loanwords and poor semantic matches, leaving too few comparisons to establish correspondences.[116] Much of this work relies on comparisons with modern languages, particularly Manchu, rather than reconstructed proto-Tungusic.[117] Many of the best matches are found only in Manchu and closely related languages, and thus could be the result of language contact.[118]

Japonic edit

See also: Comparison of Japanese and Korean

Scholars outside of Korea have given greater attention to possible links with Japonic, which were first investigated by William George Aston in 1879.[119] The phoneme inventories of the two proto-languages are similar, with a single series of obstruents, a single liquid consonant and six or seven vowels.[120]Samuel Martin, John Whitman and others have proposed hundreds of possible cognates, with sound correspondences.[121][122]

However, Koreanic and Japonic have a long history of interaction, making it difficult to distinguish inherited vocabulary from ancient loanwords.[123] The early Japanese state received many cultural innovations via Korea, which may also have influenced the language.[124]Alexander Vovin points out that Old Japanese contains several pairs of words of similar meaning in which one word matches a Korean form, while the other is also found in Ryukyuan and Eastern Old Japanese.[125] He thus suggests that the former group represent early loans from Korean, and that Old Japanese morphemes should not be assigned a Japonic origin unless they are also attested in Southern Ryukyuan or Eastern Old Japanese, leaving fewer than a dozen possible cognates.[126]

Most linguists studying the Japonic family believe that it was brought to the Japanese archipelago from the Korean peninsula around 700–300 BC by wet-rice farmers of the Yayoi culture.[127][121]Placename glosses in the Samguk sagi and other evidence suggest that Japonic languages persisted in central and southwestern parts of the peninsula into the early centuries of the common era.[128] Koreanic and Japonic were thus in contact over an extended period, which may explain the grammatical similarities and the residue of shared vocabulary.[129][130] Most of the shared words concern the natural environment and agriculture.[131][132]

Others edit

See also: Dravido-Korean languages

A link with Dravidian was first proposed by Homer Hulbert in 1905 and explored by Morgan Clippinger in 1984, but has attracted little interest since the 1980s.[133][134] There have also been proposals to link Korean with Austronesian, but these have few adherents.[135][136]

Early history edit

See also: History of the Korean language

All modern varieties are descended from the language of Unified Silla.[137][138] Evidence for the earlier linguistic history of the Korean peninsula is extremely sparse. Various proposals have been based on archaeological and ethnological theories and vague references in early Chinese histories.[139] There is a tendency in Korea to assume that all languages formerly spoken on the peninsula were early forms of Korean, but the evidence indicates much greater linguistic variety in the past.[140]

Early Chinese descriptions edit

See also: Puyŏ languages and Han languages
 
Chinese commanderies (in purple) and their eastern neighbours mentioned in the Records of the Three Kingdoms[141]

Chinese histories provide the only contemporaneous descriptions of peoples of the Korean peninsula and eastern Manchuria in the early centuries of the common era.[140] They contain impressionistic remarks about the customs and languages of the area based on second-hand reports, and sometimes contradict one another.[142] The later Korean histories lack any discussion of languages.[142]

In 108 BC, the Chinese Han dynasty conquered northern Korea and established the Four Commanderies of Han, the most important being Lelang, which was centred on the basin of the Taedong River and lasted until 314 AD.[143] Chapter 30 of the Records of the Three Kingdoms[b] (late 3rd century) and Chapter 85 of the Book of the Later Han (5th century) contain parallel accounts of peoples neighbouring the commanderies, apparently both based on a survey carried out by the Chinese state of Wei after their defeat of Goguryeo in 244.[144][145][146]

To the north and east, the Buyeo, Goguryeo and Ye were described as speaking similar languages, with the language of Okjeo only slightly different from them.[145] Their languages were said to differ from that of the Yilou to the northeast. The latter language is completely unattested, but is believed, on the basis of the description of the people and their location, to have been Tungusic.[147]

To the south lay the Samhan ('three Han'), Mahan, Byeonhan and Jinhan, who were described in quite different terms from Buyeo and Goguryeo.[147][c] The Mahan were said to have a different language from Jinhan, but the two accounts differ on the relationship between the languages of Byeonhan and Jinhan, with the Records of the Three Kingdoms describing them as similar, but the Book of the Later Han referring to differences.[149] The Zhōuhú (州胡) people on a large island to the west of Mahan (possibly Jeju) were described as speaking a different language to Mahan.[150][151]

Based on this text, Lee Ki-Moon divided the languages spoken on the Korean peninsula at that time into Puyŏ and Han groups.[152] Lee originally proposed that these were two branches of a Koreanic language family, a view that was widely adopted by scholars in Korea.[153][154][155] He later argued that the Puyŏ languages were intermediate between Korean and Japanese.[156]Alexander Vovin and James Marshall Unger argue that the Han languages were Japonic, and were replaced by Koreanic Puyŏ languages in the 4th century.[157][158] Some authors believe that the Puyŏ languages belong to the Tungusic family.[159][160] Others believe that there is insufficient evidence to support a classification.[161]

Three Kingdoms period edit

See also: Placename glosses in the Samguk sagi, Goguryeo language, and Baekje language
 
The Korean peninsula in the late 5th century

As Chinese power ebbed in the early 4th century, centralized states arose on the peninsula.[162] The Lelang commandery was overrun by Goguryeo in 314. In the south, Baekje, the Gaya confederacy and Silla arose from Mahan, Byeonhan and Jinhan respectively.[163][164][d] Thus began the Three Kingdoms period, referring to Goguryeo, Baekje and Silla (Gaya was absorbed by Silla in the 6th century). The period ended in the late 7th century, when Silla conquered the other kingdoms in alliance with the Chinese Tang dynasty and then expelled the Tang from the peninsula.[166]

Linguistic evidence from these states is sparse and, being recorded in Chinese characters, difficult to interpret. Most of these materials come from Silla, whose language is generally believed to be ancestral to all extant Korean varieties.[167] There is no agreement on the relationship of Sillan to the languages of the other kingdoms. The issue is politically charged in Korea, with scholars who point out differences being accused by nationalists of trying to "divide the homeland".[168] Apart from placenames, whose interpretation is controversial, data on the languages of Goguryeo and Baekje is extremely sparse.[169]

The most widely cited evidence for Goguryeo is chapter 37 of the Samguk sagi, a history of the Three Kingdoms period written in Classical Chinese and compiled in 1145 from earlier records that are no longer extant.[170] This chapter surveys the part of Goguryeo annexed by Silla, listing pronunciations and meanings of placenames, from which a vocabulary of 80 to 100 words has been extracted.[171] Although the pronunciations recorded using Chinese characters are difficult to interpret, some of these words appear to resemble Tungusic, Korean or Japonic words.[172][173] Scholars who take these words as representing the language of Goguryeo have come to a range of conclusions about the language, some holding that it was Koreanic, others that it was Japonic, and others that it was somehow intermediate between the three families.[128][174][175]

Other authors point out that most of the place names come from central Korea, an area captured by Goguryeo from Baekje and other states in the 5th century, and none from the historical homeland of Goguryeo north of the Taedong River.[176] These authors suggest that the place names reflect the languages of those states rather than that of Goguryeo.[177][178] This would explain why they seem to reflect multiple language groups.[179] It is generally agreed that these glosses demonstrate that Japonic languages were once spoken in part of the Korean peninsula, but there is no consensus on the identity of the speakers.[128]

A small number of inscriptions have been found in Goguryeo, the earliest being the Gwanggaeto Stele (erected in Ji'an in 414). All are written in Classical Chinese, but feature some irregularities, including occasional use of object–verb order (as found in Korean and other northeast Asian languages) instead of the usual Chinese verb–object order, and particles 之 and 伊, for which some authors have proposed Korean interpretations.[180][181]Alexander Vovin argues that the Goguryeo language was the ancestor of Koreanic, citing a few Goguryeo words in Chinese texts such as the Book of Wei (6th century) that appear to have Korean etymologies, as well as Koreanic loanwords in Jurchen and Manchu.[182]

The Book of Liang (635) states that the language of Baekje was the same as that of Goguryeo.[156] According to Korean traditional history, the kingdom of Baekje was founded by immigrants from Goguryeo who took over Mahan.[183] The Japanese history Nihon Shoki, compiled in the early 8th century from earlier documents, including some from Baekje, records 42 Baekje words. These are transcribed as Old Japanese syllables, which are restricted to the form (C)V, limiting the precision of the transcription. About half of them appear to be Koreanic.[184] Based on these words and a passage in the Book of Zhou (636), Kōno Rokurō argued that the kingdom of Baekje was bilingual, with the gentry speaking a Puyŏ language and the common people a Han language.[185][186]

Notes edit

  1. ^ Nam Pung-hyun considers Old Korean as spanning the period from the Three Kingdoms to the Mongol invasion (mid-13th century).[17]
  2. ^ The title refers to the Chinese Three Kingdoms period (220–280 AD), not the Three Kingdoms of Korea (4th to 7th centuries).
  3. ^ The name Han (韓) is unrelated to the Chinese Han dynasty, but is analysed as Korean ha 'great' with the nominalizer suffix -n, meaning 'chieftain'.[148]
  4. ^ Traditional histories give founding dates for Baekje and Silla of 18 BC and 57 BC respectively, and these dates are repeated in textbooks, but archaeological and documentary evidence indicates that these kingdoms were founded in the 4th century.[165]

References edit

  1. ^ a b Vovin (2013c), p. 201.
  2. ^ NGII (2017), p. 37.
  3. ^ King (1987), p. 34.
  4. ^ CASS (2012), Map C1-7.
  5. ^ a b Cho & Whitman (2019), p. 13.
  6. ^ Sohn (1999), pp. 57–59.
  7. ^ Yeon (2012), p. 168.
  8. ^ Sohn (1999), pp. 60–66.
  9. ^ Yeon (2012), pp. 169–172.
  10. ^ Sohn (1999), p. 45.
  11. ^ Lee & Ramsey (2011), pp. 5–6.
  12. ^ Lee & Ramsey (2011), pp. 79–81.
  13. ^ Sohn (1999), p. 44.
  14. ^ Sohn (1999), p. 87.
  15. ^ Lee & Ramsey (2000), p. 136.
  16. ^ Lee & Ramsey (2011), pp. 51–59.
  17. ^ Nam (2012), p. 41.
  18. ^ a b Lee & Ramsey (2000), pp. 309–310.
  19. ^ Yeon (2012), pp. 180–184.
  20. ^ Sohn (1999), pp. 82–83.
  21. ^ Yeon (2012), pp. 181–182.
  22. ^ Yeon (2012), p. 184.
  23. ^ a b c Brown & Yeon (2015), p. 465.
  24. ^ King (1987), pp. 233–234.
  25. ^ Janhunen (1996), p. 42.
  26. ^ King (1987), pp. 238–241.
  27. ^ Yeon (2012), pp. 179–180.
  28. ^ King (1987), p. 235.
  29. ^ Janhunen (1996), p. 43.
  30. ^ Brown & Yeon (2015), pp. 466–468.
  31. ^ Brown & Yeon (2015), pp. 468–469.
  32. ^ Yang et al. (2018).
  33. ^ Yeon (2012), pp. 170, 178.
  34. ^ Lee & Ramsey (2011), pp. 159–160.
  35. ^ a b Whitman (2011), p. 155.
  36. ^ King (1987), p. 238.
  37. ^ King (1987), pp. 236–238.
  38. ^ a b King (1992), p. 202.
  39. ^ King (1987), p. 236.
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  41. ^ Whitman (2012), pp. 27–28.
  42. ^ Lee & Ramsey (2011), pp. 63, 159–160.
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  44. ^ Lee & Ramsey (2011), p. 128.
  45. ^ Vovin (2010), p. 11.
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  47. ^ a b Whitman (2015), p. 431.
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  50. ^ Whitman (2015), p. 432.
  51. ^ Kim (2015).
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  55. ^ Lee & Ramsey (2000), pp. 320–321.
  56. ^ Sohn (1999), p. 89.
  57. ^ Martin (1996), pp. 20–21.
  58. ^ Lee & Ramsey (2011), p. 66.
  59. ^ Vovin (2013b), pp. 200–202.
  60. ^ Whitman (1990), p. 542, n. 5.
  61. ^ Whitman (2015), p. 434.
  62. ^ Lee & Ramsey (2011), p. 156.
  63. ^ Lee & Ramsey (2011), pp. 94–95.
  64. ^ Labov (1994), pp. 138–139.
  65. ^ Whitman (2013), pp. 254–255.
  66. ^ Whitman (2015), p. 429.
  67. ^ Whitman (2015), p. 430.
  68. ^ Cho & Whitman (2019), pp. 18–19.
  69. ^ Lee & Ramsey (2011), p. 163.
  70. ^ Martin (1996), pp. 35–40.
  71. ^ Lee & Ramsey (2011), pp. 163–165.
  72. ^ Lee & Ramsey (2011), pp. 167–168.
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  76. ^ Nam (2012), pp. 64–65.
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  79. ^ Lee & Ramsey (2011), p. 71.
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  82. ^ Yang, Yang & O'Grady (2019), p. 70.
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  85. ^ Vovin (2010), p. 211.
  86. ^ a b c Tranter (2012), p. 7.
  87. ^ Sohn (1999), pp. 60–62.
  88. ^ Lee & Ramsey (2011), pp. 165–167.
  89. ^ a b Tranter (2012), p. 6.
  90. ^ Sohn (1999), pp. 265–266.
  91. ^ Janhunen (2010), pp. 289–290.
  92. ^ Lee & Ramsey (2011), pp. 14–15.
  93. ^ Sohn (1999), pp. 17–18.
  94. ^ Campbell & Poser (2008), pp. 243–266.
  95. ^ a b Campbell & Poser (2008), p. 235.
  96. ^ Tranter (2012), pp. 6–7.
  97. ^ Sohn (1999), pp. 263, 265–266.
  98. ^ Sohn (1999), pp. 18–25.
  99. ^ Lee & Ramsey (2011), pp. 15–23.
  100. ^ Kim (1983), pp. 1–2.
  101. ^ Lee & Ramsey (2000), p. 5.
  102. ^ Yi (2014), pp. 586–587.
  103. ^ Kim (1987), p. 882.
  104. ^ Park & Wee (2016), pp. 313–314.
  105. ^ Nelson (1995), pp. 220–221, 223, 230.
  106. ^ Pai (2000), pp. 97, 99.
  107. ^ Yi (2014), p. 587.
  108. ^ Nelson (1995), p. 230.
  109. ^ Nelson (1995), pp. 226–229.
  110. ^ Pai (2000), pp. 104–111.
  111. ^ Whitman (2013), p. 248.
  112. ^ Campbell & Poser (2008), pp. 236, 240.
  113. ^ Campbell & Poser (2008), p. 239.
  114. ^ Lee & Ramsey (2011), pp. 20–21.
  115. ^ Lee & Ramsey (2011), pp. 23–24.
  116. ^ Janhunen & Kho (1982), pp. 4–5.
  117. ^ Whitman (2013), p. 249.
  118. ^ Cho & Whitman (2019), p. 12.
  119. ^ Lee & Ramsey (2011), pp. 26–29.
  120. ^ Whitman (2012), pp. 24, 26–28.
  121. ^ a b Vovin (2017).
  122. ^ Sohn (1999), pp. 29–35.
  123. ^ Janhunen (1999), pp. 1–2.
  124. ^ Janhunen (1999), p. 6.
  125. ^ Vovin (2010), pp. 92–94.
  126. ^ Vovin (2010), pp. 6, 237–240.
  127. ^ Serafim (2008), p. 98.
  128. ^ a b c Whitman (2011), p. 154.
  129. ^ Vovin (2010), pp. 237–240.
  130. ^ Janhunen (1999), pp. 6–7.
  131. ^ Janhunen (1996), p. 200.
  132. ^ Whitman (2011), p. 156.
  133. ^ Sohn (1999), pp. 27–29.
  134. ^ Lee & Ramsey (2011), p. 15.
  135. ^ Sohn (1999), pp. 25–27.
  136. ^ Kim (1987), pp. 881–882.
  137. ^ Sohn (1999), p. 40.
  138. ^ Lee & Ramsey (2011), p. 4.
  139. ^ Sohn (1999), p. 17.
  140. ^ a b Lee & Ramsey (2011), p. 31.
  141. ^ Shin (2014), pp. 16, 19.
  142. ^ a b Lee & Ramsey (2011), p. 36.
  143. ^ Seth (2016), pp. 17–19.
  144. ^ Byington & Barnes (2014), pp. 97–98.
  145. ^ a b Lee & Ramsey (2011), p. 34.
  146. ^ Seth (2016), pp. 19–23.
  147. ^ a b Lee & Ramsey (2011), p. 35.
  148. ^ Nam (2012), p. 55.
  149. ^ Lee & Ramsey (2011), pp. 35–36.
  150. ^ Byington & Barnes (2014), p. 105.
  151. ^ Seth (2016), p. 22.
  152. ^ Lee & Ramsey (2011), pp. 34–36.
  153. ^ Kim (1987), pp. 882–883.
  154. ^ Whitman (2013), pp. 249–250.
  155. ^ Kim (1983), p. 2.
  156. ^ a b Lee & Ramsey (2011), p. 44.
  157. ^ Vovin (2013a), pp. 237–238.
  158. ^ Unger (2009), p. 87.
  159. ^ Sohn (1999), p. 39.
  160. ^ Beckwith (2004), p. 19.
  161. ^ Georg (2017), p. 151.
  162. ^ Seth (2016), p. 35.
  163. ^ Pai (2000), p. 234.
  164. ^ Seth (2016), pp. 30–33.
  165. ^ Seth (2016), p. 29.
  166. ^ Seth (2016), pp. 29–30.
  167. ^ Lee & Ramsey (2000), pp. 274–275.
  168. ^ Lee & Ramsey (2000), p. 276.
  169. ^ Whitman (2015), p. 423.
  170. ^ Lee & Ramsey (2011), p. 37.
  171. ^ Lee & Ramsey (2011), p. 39.
  172. ^ Lee & Ramsey (2011), pp. 37–44.
  173. ^ Itabashi (2003).
  174. ^ Beckwith (2004), pp. 27–28.
  175. ^ Lee & Ramsey (2011), pp. 43–44.
  176. ^ Lee & Ramsey (2011), pp. 40–41.
  177. ^ Lee & Ramsey (2011), p. 40.
  178. ^ Toh (2005), pp. 23–26.
  179. ^ Whitman (2013), pp. 251–252.
  180. ^ Vovin (2005), pp. 117–119.
  181. ^ Nam (2012), p. 42.
  182. ^ Vovin (2013a), pp. 224–226, 228–232.
  183. ^ Sohn (1999), p. 38.
  184. ^ Bentley (2000), pp. 424–427, 436–438.
  185. ^ Vovin (2005), p. 119.
  186. ^ Kōno (1987), pp. 84–85.

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  • Yi, Seonbok (2014), "Korea: archaeology", in Bellwood, Peter (ed.), The Global Prehistory of Human Migration, Wiley, pp. 586–597, ISBN 978-1-118-97059-1.

Further reading edit

  • Byington, Mark E. (2006), "Christopher I. Beckwith—Koguryo, the Language of Japan's Continental Relatives (Leiden: Brill, 2004)", Acta Koreana, 9 (1): 141–166.
  • Kang, Yeng-pong, ed. (2009), Revised Jeju Dictionary (in Korean), Jeju Province, ISBN 978-89-962572-5-7.
  • Martin, Samuel E. (1992), A Reference Grammar of Korean, Charles E. Tuttle, ISBN 978-0-8048-1887-2.
  • Pellard, Thomas (2005), "Koguryo, the Language of Japan's Continental Relatives: An Introduction to the Historical-Comparative Study of the Japanese-Koguryoic Languages with a Preliminary Description of Archaic Northeastern Middle Chinese By Christopher I. Beckwith", Korean Studies, 29: 167–170, doi:10.1353/ks.2006.0008.

December 01, 2023
koreanic, languages, koreanic, small, language, family, consisting, korean, jeju, languages, latter, often, described, dialect, korean, distinct, enough, considered, separate, language, alexander, vovin, suggested, that, yukjin, dialect, northeast, should, sim. Koreanic is a small language family consisting of the Korean and Jeju languages The latter is often described as a dialect of Korean but is distinct enough to be considered a separate language Alexander Vovin suggested that the Yukjin dialect of the far northeast should be similarly distinguished Korean has been richly documented since the introduction of the Hangul alphabet in the 15th century Earlier renditions of Korean using Chinese characters are much more difficult to interpret KoreanicGeographicdistributionKorea ManchuriaLinguistic classificationOne of the world s primary language familiesProto languageProto KoreanicSubdivisionsKorean Jeju Yukjin 1 Zainichi citation needed Baekje Goguryeo Glottologkore1284Current extent of Koreanic as majority and minority dashed languages in East AsiaAll modern varieties are descended from the Old Korean of the state of Silla What little is known of other languages spoken on the peninsula before the Sillan unification late 7th century comes largely from placenames Some of these languages are believed to have been Koreanic but there is also evidence suggesting that Japonic languages were spoken in central and southern parts of the peninsula There have been many attempts to link Koreanic with other language families most often with Tungusic or Japonic but no genetic relationship has been conclusively demonstrated Contents 1 Extant languages 1 1 Korean 1 2 Jeju 1 3 Yukchin 2 Proto Koreanic 2 1 Phonology 2 2 Morphosyntax 2 3 Vocabulary 3 Typology and areal features 4 Proposed external relationships 4 1 Altaic 4 2 Japonic 4 3 Others 5 Early history 5 1 Early Chinese descriptions 5 2 Three Kingdoms period 6 Notes 7 References 7 1 Works cited 8 Further readingExtant languages edit nbsp Dialect zones 2 3 4 The various forms of Korean are conventionally described as dialects of a single Korean language but breaks in intelligibility justify viewing them as a small family of two or three languages 5 Korean edit Main article Korean language Korean dialects form a dialect continuum stretching from the southern end of the Korean peninsula to Yanbian prefecture in the Chinese province of Jilin though dialects at opposite ends of the continuum are not mutually intelligible 5 This area is usually divided into five or six dialect zones following provincial boundaries with Yanbian dialects included in the northeastern Hamgyŏng group 6 7 Dialects differ in palatalization and the reflexes of Middle Korean accent vowels voiced fricatives word medial k and word initial l and n 8 9 Korean is extensively and precisely documented from the introduction of the Hangul alphabet in the 15th century the Late Middle Korean period 10 Earlier forms written with Chinese characters using a variety of strategies are much more obscure 11 The key sources on Early Middle Korean 10th to 14th centuries are a Chinese text the Jilin leishi 1103 1104 and the pharmacological work Hyangyak kugŭppang 鄕藥救急方 mid 13th century 12 During this period Korean absorbed a huge number of Chinese loanwords affecting all aspects of the language 13 It is estimated that Sino Korean vocabulary makes up more than half of the Korean lexicon but only about 10 of basic vocabulary 14 15 Old Korean 6th to early 10th centuries is even more sparsely attested mostly by inscriptions and 14 hyangga songs composed between the 7th and 9th centuries and recorded in the Samguk yusa 13th century 16 a The standard languages of North and South Korea are both based primarily on the central prestige dialect of Seoul despite the North Korean claim that their standard is based on the speech of their capital Pyongyang 18 The two standards have phonetic and lexical differences 19 Many loanwords have been purged from the North Korean standard while South Korea has expanded Sino Korean vocabulary and adopted loanwords especially from English 20 21 Nonetheless due to its origin in the Seoul dialect the North Korean standard language is easily intelligible to all South Koreans 18 22 In the late 19th and early 20th centuries in response to poor harvests and the Japanese annexation of Korea people emigrated from the northern parts of the peninsula to eastern Manchuria and the southern part of Primorsky Krai in the Russian Far East 23 24 Korean labourers were forcibly moved to Manchuria as part of the Japanese occupation of Manchuria 23 25 There are now about 2 million Koreans in China mostly in the border prefecture of Yanbian where the language has official status 23 The speech of Koreans in the Russian Far East was described by Russian scholars such as Mikhail Putsillo who compiled a dictionary in 1874 26 Some 250 000 Koreans lived in the area in the 1930s when Stalin had them forcibly deported to Soviet Central Asia particularly Uzbekistan and Kazakhstan 27 There are small Korean communities scattered throughout central Asia maintaining forms of Korean known collectively as Koryo mar 28 There is also a Korean population on Sakhalin descended from people forcibly transferred to the Japanese part of the island before 1945 29 Most Koreans in Japan are descendents of immigrants during the Japanese occupation Most Korean language schools in Japan follow the North Korean standard The form of Korean spoken in Japan also shows the influence of Japanese for example in a reduced vowel system and some grammatical simplification 30 Korean speakers are also found throughout the world for example in North America where Seoul Korean is the accepted standard 31 Jeju edit Main article Jeju language The speech of Jeju Island is not mutually intelligible with standard Korean suggesting that it should be treated as a separate language 32 Jeju features a back central unrounded vowel ʌ which also appears in standard 15th century texts written with the Hangul letter ㆍ but has merged with other vowels in mainland dialects 33 Jeju also features the combination jʌ which the 15th century Hunminjeongeum Haerye states was not found in the standard speech of that time but did occur in some dialects 34 This suggests that Jeju diverged from other dialects some time before the 15th century 35 Yukchin edit Main article Yukjin dialect nbsp The six garrisons in far northeastern KoreaThe Yukchin dialect spoken in the northernmost part of Korea and adjacent areas in China forms a dialect island separate from neighbouring northeastern dialects and is sometimes considered a separate language 36 1 When King Sejong drove the Jurchen from what is now the northernmost part of North Hamgyong Province in 1434 he established six garrisons Yukchin in the bend of the Tumen River Kyŏnghŭng Kyŏngwŏn Onsŏng Chongsŏng Hoeryŏng and Puryŏng populated by immigrants from southeastern Korea The speech of their descendents is thus markedly distinct from other Hamgyong dialects and preserves many archaisms 37 38 In particular Yukchin was unaffected by the palatalization found in most other dialects 39 About 10 percent of Korean speakers in central Asia use the Yukchin dialect 38 Proto Koreanic editKoreanic is a relatively shallow language family Modern varieties show limited variation most of which can be treated as derived from Late Middle Korean 15th century The few exceptions indicate a date of divergence only a few centuries earlier following the unification of the peninsula by Silla 35 40 It is possible to reach further back using internal reconstruction from Middle Korean 41 This has been supplemented with philological analysis of the fragmentary records of Old Korean 42 Phonology edit A relatively simple inventory of consonants is reconstructed for Proto Koreanic Proto Korean consonants 43 Bilabial Alveolar Palatal VelarNasal m n ŋStop p t c kFricative s hTap rApproximant jMany of the consonants in later forms of Korean are secondary developments The reinforced consonants of modern Korean arose from clusters of consonants becoming phonemically distinct after the Late Middle Korean period 43 44 The aspirated consonants of Middle and modern Korean also arose from clusters with k or h 45 46 There is some disagreement over whether aspirates were already a distinct series in the Old Korean period 47 48 However it seems clear that the process began with t and c extended to p and finally to k 49 50 51 Late Middle Korean had a series of voiced fricatives b ㅸ z ㅿ and ɦ ㆁ These occurred only in limited environments and are believed to have arisen from lenition of p s and k respectively 52 53 54 47 These fricatives have disappeared in most modern dialects but some dialects in the southeast and northeast including Yukchin retain p s and k in these words 55 Middle Korean l ㄹ does not occur initially in native words a typological characteristic shared with Altaic languages 56 Some but not all occurrences of l are attributed to lenition of t 57 53 Distinctions in the phonographic use of the Chinese characters 乙 and 尸 suggest that Old Korean probably had two sounds corresponding to later Korean l 58 59 The second of these is often spelled lh in Middle Korean and may reflect an earlier cluster with an obstruent 60 61 Late Middle Korean had seven vowels 62 Based on loans from Middle Mongolian and transcriptions in the Jilin leishi Lee Ki Moon argued for a Korean Vowel Shift between the 13th and 15th centuries a chain shift involving five of these vowels 63 William Labov found that this proposed shift followed different principles to all the other chain shifts he surveyed 64 The philological evidence for the shift has also been challenged 65 66 An analysis based on Sino Korean readings leads to a more conservative system 43 Old Korean vowels and Middle Korean reflexes 43 Front Central BackClose i gt i ㅣ ɨ gt ɨ ㅡ u gt u ㅜ Mid e gt e ㅓ e gt ʌ ㆍ o gt o ㅗ Open a gt a ㅏ The vowels ɨ gt ɨ and e gt ʌ have a limited distribution in Late Middle Korean suggesting that unaccented ɨ and e underwent syncope They may also have merged with e in accented initial position or following j 43 Some authors have proposed that Late Middle Korean je ㅕ reflects an eighth Proto Korean vowel based on its high frequency and an analysis of tongue root harmony 67 68 The Late Middle Korean script assigns to each syllable one of three pitch contours low unmarked high one dot or rising two dots 69 The rising tone is believed to be secondary arising from a contraction of a syllable with low pitch with one of high pitch 70 71 There is some evidence that pitch levels after the first high tone were not distinctive so that Middle Korean was a pitch accent language rather than a tonal language 72 In the proto language accent was probably not distinctive for verbs but may have been for nouns though with a preference for accent on the final syllable 73 Morphosyntax edit Korean uses several postnominal particles to indicate case and other relationships 74 The modern nominative case suffix i is derived from an earlier ergative case marker i 74 75 In modern Korean verbs are bound forms that cannot appear without one or more inflectional suffixes In contrast Old Korean verb stems could be used independently particularly in verb verb compounds where the first verb was typically an uninflected root 76 77 Vocabulary edit Old Korean pronouns were written with the Chinese characters for the corresponding Chinese pronouns so their pronunciation must be inferred from Middle Korean forms 78 79 The known personal pronouns are na I uri we and ne you 78 80 Koreanic numerals Proto Korean 80 Late Middle Korean 81 Jeju 82 1 het V hetan 83 hʌnah hʌna2 tupɨr tǔlh tul3 se seki 84 se jh swis4 ne neki 85 ne jh nuis5 tase tasʌ s tasʌs6 jeses jesɨ s jeses7 nirkup nilkup ilkop8 jeterp jetɨ lp jʌtʌp9 ahop ahop aop10 jer je lh jelTypology and areal features editModern Koreanic varieties have a three way contrast between plain aspirated and reinforced stops and affricates but Proto Korean is reconstructed with a single set like Proto Japonic and Ainu but unlike Tungusic Mongolic and Turkic which feature a voicing contrast 86 Korean also resembles Japonic and Ainu in having a single liquid consonant while its continental neighbours tend to distinguish l and r 86 Most modern varieties except Jeju and a few northern dialects have a form of accent marked by vowel length in central dialects and pitch in the northeast and southeast 87 The position of this accent is determined by the first high pitch syllable in Middle Korean 88 A similar pitch accent is found in Japonic and Ainu languages but not Tungusic Mongolic or Turkic 86 Like other languages in northeast Asia Korean has agglutinative morphology and head final word order with subject object verb order modifiers preceding nouns and postpositions particles 89 90 Proposed external relationships edit nbsp Larger language families of northeast Asia Turkic Mongolic Tungusic Koreanic Japonic AinuNortheast Asia is home to several relatively shallow language families 91 There have been several attempts to link Korean with other language families with the most favoured being Altaic Tungusic Mongolic and Turkic and Japonic 92 However none of these attempts has succeeded in demonstrating a common descent for Koreanic and any other language family 93 Larger proposed groupings subsuming these hypotheses such as Nostratic and Eurasiatic have even less support 94 Altaic edit The Altaic proposal grouping Tungusic Mongolic and Turkic emerged in the 19th century as a residue when the larger Ural Altaic grouping was abandoned 95 Korean was added to the proposal by Gustaf Ramstedt in 1924 and others later added Japanese 95 The languages share features such as agglutinative morphology subject object verb order and postpositions 96 97 Many cognates have been proposed and attempts have been made to reconstruct a proto language 98 99 The Altaic theory was incorporated into the influential two wave migration model of Korean ethnic history proposed in the 1970s by the archaeologist Kim Won yong who attributed cultural transitions in prehistoric Korea to migrations of distinct ethnic groups from the north 100 101 102 The appearance of Neolithic Jeulmun pottery was interpreted as a migration of a Paleosiberian group while the arrival of bronze was attributed to a Tungusic migration of the ancestral Korean population identified with the Yemaek of later Chinese sources 103 104 South Korean culture historians tended to project contemporary Korean homogeneity into the distant past assuming that a preformed Korean people arrived in the peninsula from elsewhere ignoring the possibility of local evolution and interaction 105 106 However no evidence of these migrations has been found and archaeologists now believe that the Korean peninsula and adjacent areas of eastern Manchuria have been continuously occupied since the Late Pleistocene 107 108 The projection of the Yemaek back to this period has also been criticized as unjustified 109 110 Moreover most comparativists no longer accept the core Altaic family itself even without Korean believing most of the commonalities to be the result of prolonged contact 89 111 The shared features turned out to be rather common among languages across the world and typology is no longer considered evidence of a genetic relationship 112 While many cognates are found between adjacent groups few are attested across all three The proposed sound correspondences have also been criticized for invoking too many phonemes such as the four phonemes that are said to have merged as y in proto Turkic 113 Similarly Koreanic r is said to result from the merger of four proto Altaic liquids 114 In any case most of the proposed matches with Korean were from the neighbouring Tungusic group 115 A detailed comparison of Korean and Tungusic was published by Kim Dongso in 1981 but it has been criticized for teleological reconstructions failing to distinguish loanwords and poor semantic matches leaving too few comparisons to establish correspondences 116 Much of this work relies on comparisons with modern languages particularly Manchu rather than reconstructed proto Tungusic 117 Many of the best matches are found only in Manchu and closely related languages and thus could be the result of language contact 118 Japonic edit See also Comparison of Japanese and Korean Scholars outside of Korea have given greater attention to possible links with Japonic which were first investigated by William George Aston in 1879 119 The phoneme inventories of the two proto languages are similar with a single series of obstruents a single liquid consonant and six or seven vowels 120 Samuel Martin John Whitman and others have proposed hundreds of possible cognates with sound correspondences 121 122 However Koreanic and Japonic have a long history of interaction making it difficult to distinguish inherited vocabulary from ancient loanwords 123 The early Japanese state received many cultural innovations via Korea which may also have influenced the language 124 Alexander Vovin points out that Old Japanese contains several pairs of words of similar meaning in which one word matches a Korean form while the other is also found in Ryukyuan and Eastern Old Japanese 125 He thus suggests that the former group represent early loans from Korean and that Old Japanese morphemes should not be assigned a Japonic origin unless they are also attested in Southern Ryukyuan or Eastern Old Japanese leaving fewer than a dozen possible cognates 126 Most linguists studying the Japonic family believe that it was brought to the Japanese archipelago from the Korean peninsula around 700 300 BC by wet rice farmers of the Yayoi culture 127 121 Placename glosses in the Samguk sagi and other evidence suggest that Japonic languages persisted in central and southwestern parts of the peninsula into the early centuries of the common era 128 Koreanic and Japonic were thus in contact over an extended period which may explain the grammatical similarities and the residue of shared vocabulary 129 130 Most of the shared words concern the natural environment and agriculture 131 132 Others edit See also Dravido Korean languages A link with Dravidian was first proposed by Homer Hulbert in 1905 and explored by Morgan Clippinger in 1984 but has attracted little interest since the 1980s 133 134 There have also been proposals to link Korean with Austronesian but these have few adherents 135 136 Early history editSee also History of the Korean language All modern varieties are descended from the language of Unified Silla 137 138 Evidence for the earlier linguistic history of the Korean peninsula is extremely sparse Various proposals have been based on archaeological and ethnological theories and vague references in early Chinese histories 139 There is a tendency in Korea to assume that all languages formerly spoken on the peninsula were early forms of Korean but the evidence indicates much greater linguistic variety in the past 140 Early Chinese descriptions edit See also Puyŏ languages and Han languages nbsp Chinese commanderies in purple and their eastern neighbours mentioned in the Records of the Three Kingdoms 141 Chinese histories provide the only contemporaneous descriptions of peoples of the Korean peninsula and eastern Manchuria in the early centuries of the common era 140 They contain impressionistic remarks about the customs and languages of the area based on second hand reports and sometimes contradict one another 142 The later Korean histories lack any discussion of languages 142 In 108 BC the Chinese Han dynasty conquered northern Korea and established the Four Commanderies of Han the most important being Lelang which was centred on the basin of the Taedong River and lasted until 314 AD 143 Chapter 30 of the Records of the Three Kingdoms b late 3rd century and Chapter 85 of the Book of the Later Han 5th century contain parallel accounts of peoples neighbouring the commanderies apparently both based on a survey carried out by the Chinese state of Wei after their defeat of Goguryeo in 244 144 145 146 To the north and east the Buyeo Goguryeo and Ye were described as speaking similar languages with the language of Okjeo only slightly different from them 145 Their languages were said to differ from that of the Yilou to the northeast The latter language is completely unattested but is believed on the basis of the description of the people and their location to have been Tungusic 147 To the south lay the Samhan three Han Mahan Byeonhan and Jinhan who were described in quite different terms from Buyeo and Goguryeo 147 c The Mahan were said to have a different language from Jinhan but the two accounts differ on the relationship between the languages of Byeonhan and Jinhan with the Records of the Three Kingdoms describing them as similar but the Book of the Later Han referring to differences 149 The Zhōuhu 州胡 people on a large island to the west of Mahan possibly Jeju were described as speaking a different language to Mahan 150 151 Based on this text Lee Ki Moon divided the languages spoken on the Korean peninsula at that time into Puyŏ and Han groups 152 Lee originally proposed that these were two branches of a Koreanic language family a view that was widely adopted by scholars in Korea 153 154 155 He later argued that the Puyŏ languages were intermediate between Korean and Japanese 156 Alexander Vovin and James Marshall Unger argue that the Han languages were Japonic and were replaced by Koreanic Puyŏ languages in the 4th century 157 158 Some authors believe that the Puyŏ languages belong to the Tungusic family 159 160 Others believe that there is insufficient evidence to support a classification 161 Three Kingdoms period edit See also Placename glosses in the Samguk sagi Goguryeo language and Baekje language nbsp The Korean peninsula in the late 5th centuryAs Chinese power ebbed in the early 4th century centralized states arose on the peninsula 162 The Lelang commandery was overrun by Goguryeo in 314 In the south Baekje the Gaya confederacy and Silla arose from Mahan Byeonhan and Jinhan respectively 163 164 d Thus began the Three Kingdoms period referring to Goguryeo Baekje and Silla Gaya was absorbed by Silla in the 6th century The period ended in the late 7th century when Silla conquered the other kingdoms in alliance with the Chinese Tang dynasty and then expelled the Tang from the peninsula 166 Linguistic evidence from these states is sparse and being recorded in Chinese characters difficult to interpret Most of these materials come from Silla whose language is generally believed to be ancestral to all extant Korean varieties 167 There is no agreement on the relationship of Sillan to the languages of the other kingdoms The issue is politically charged in Korea with scholars who point out differences being accused by nationalists of trying to divide the homeland 168 Apart from placenames whose interpretation is controversial data on the languages of Goguryeo and Baekje is extremely sparse 169 The most widely cited evidence for Goguryeo is chapter 37 of the Samguk sagi a history of the Three Kingdoms period written in Classical Chinese and compiled in 1145 from earlier records that are no longer extant 170 This chapter surveys the part of Goguryeo annexed by Silla listing pronunciations and meanings of placenames from which a vocabulary of 80 to 100 words has been extracted 171 Although the pronunciations recorded using Chinese characters are difficult to interpret some of these words appear to resemble Tungusic Korean or Japonic words 172 173 Scholars who take these words as representing the language of Goguryeo have come to a range of conclusions about the language some holding that it was Koreanic others that it was Japonic and others that it was somehow intermediate between the three families 128 174 175 Other authors point out that most of the place names come from central Korea an area captured by Goguryeo from Baekje and other states in the 5th century and none from the historical homeland of Goguryeo north of the Taedong River 176 These authors suggest that the place names reflect the languages of those states rather than that of Goguryeo 177 178 This would explain why they seem to reflect multiple language groups 179 It is generally agreed that these glosses demonstrate that Japonic languages were once spoken in part of the Korean peninsula but there is no consensus on the identity of the speakers 128 A small number of inscriptions have been found in Goguryeo the earliest being the Gwanggaeto Stele erected in Ji an in 414 All are written in Classical Chinese but feature some irregularities including occasional use of object verb order as found in Korean and other northeast Asian languages instead of the usual Chinese verb object order and particles 之 and 伊 for which some authors have proposed Korean interpretations 180 181 Alexander Vovin argues that the Goguryeo language was the ancestor of Koreanic citing a few Goguryeo words in Chinese texts such as the Book of Wei 6th century that appear to have Korean etymologies as well as Koreanic loanwords in Jurchen and Manchu 182 The Book of Liang 635 states that the language of Baekje was the same as that of Goguryeo 156 According to Korean traditional history the kingdom of Baekje was founded by immigrants from Goguryeo who took over Mahan 183 The Japanese history Nihon Shoki compiled in the early 8th century from earlier documents including some from Baekje records 42 Baekje words These are transcribed as Old Japanese syllables which are restricted to the form C V limiting the precision of the transcription About half of them appear to be Koreanic 184 Based on these words and a passage in the Book of Zhou 636 Kōno Rokurō argued that the kingdom of Baekje was bilingual with the gentry speaking a Puyŏ language and the common people a Han language 185 186 Notes edit Nam Pung hyun considers Old Korean as spanning the period from the Three Kingdoms to the Mongol invasion mid 13th century 17 The title refers to the Chinese Three Kingdoms period 220 280 AD not the Three Kingdoms of Korea 4th to 7th centuries The name Han 韓 is unrelated to the Chinese Han dynasty but is analysed as Korean ha great with the nominalizer suffix n meaning chieftain 148 Traditional histories give founding dates for Baekje and Silla of 18 BC and 57 BC respectively and these dates are repeated in textbooks but archaeological and documentary evidence indicates that these kingdoms were founded in the 4th century 165 References edit a b Vovin 2013c p 201 NGII 2017 p 37 King 1987 p 34 CASS 2012 Map C1 7 a b Cho amp Whitman 2019 p 13 Sohn 1999 pp 57 59 Yeon 2012 p 168 Sohn 1999 pp 60 66 Yeon 2012 pp 169 172 Sohn 1999 p 45 Lee amp Ramsey 2011 pp 5 6 Lee amp Ramsey 2011 pp 79 81 Sohn 1999 p 44 Sohn 1999 p 87 Lee amp Ramsey 2000 p 136 Lee amp Ramsey 2011 pp 51 59 Nam 2012 p 41 a b Lee amp Ramsey 2000 pp 309 310 Yeon 2012 pp 180 184 Sohn 1999 pp 82 83 Yeon 2012 pp 181 182 Yeon 2012 p 184 a b c Brown amp Yeon 2015 p 465 King 1987 pp 233 234 Janhunen 1996 p 42 King 1987 pp 238 241 Yeon 2012 pp 179 180 King 1987 p 235 Janhunen 1996 p 43 Brown amp Yeon 2015 pp 466 468 Brown amp Yeon 2015 pp 468 469 Yang et al 2018 Yeon 2012 pp 170 178 Lee amp Ramsey 2011 pp 159 160 a b Whitman 2011 p 155 King 1987 p 238 King 1987 pp 236 238 a b King 1992 p 202 King 1987 p 236 Janhunen 1999 pp 2 3 Whitman 2012 pp 27 28 Lee amp Ramsey 2011 pp 63 159 160 a b c d e Whitman 2012 p 28 Lee amp Ramsey 2011 p 128 Vovin 2010 p 11 Whitman 2012 pp 28 29 a b Whitman 2015 p 431 Lee amp Ramsey 2011 pp 64 65 Lee amp Ramsey 2011 p 65 Whitman 2015 p 432 Kim 2015 Vovin 2010 pp 12 32 a b Whitman 2012 p 29 Lee amp Ramsey 2011 p 64 Lee amp Ramsey 2000 pp 320 321 Sohn 1999 p 89 Martin 1996 pp 20 21 Lee amp Ramsey 2011 p 66 Vovin 2013b pp 200 202 Whitman 1990 p 542 n 5 Whitman 2015 p 434 Lee amp Ramsey 2011 p 156 Lee amp Ramsey 2011 pp 94 95 Labov 1994 pp 138 139 Whitman 2013 pp 254 255 Whitman 2015 p 429 Whitman 2015 p 430 Cho amp Whitman 2019 pp 18 19 Lee amp Ramsey 2011 p 163 Martin 1996 pp 35 40 Lee amp Ramsey 2011 pp 163 165 Lee amp Ramsey 2011 pp 167 168 Martin 1996 p 60 a b Whitman 2012 p 34 Vovin 2010 p 45 Nam 2012 pp 64 65 Whitman 2015 pp 434 435 a b Vovin 2010 p 62 Lee amp Ramsey 2011 p 71 a b Whitman 2012 p 33 Lee amp Ramsey 2011 p 175 Yang Yang amp O Grady 2019 p 70 Vovin 2010 p 220 Vovin 2010 p 181 Vovin 2010 p 211 a b c Tranter 2012 p 7 Sohn 1999 pp 60 62 Lee amp Ramsey 2011 pp 165 167 a b Tranter 2012 p 6 Sohn 1999 pp 265 266 Janhunen 2010 pp 289 290 Lee amp Ramsey 2011 pp 14 15 Sohn 1999 pp 17 18 Campbell amp Poser 2008 pp 243 266 a b Campbell amp Poser 2008 p 235 Tranter 2012 pp 6 7 Sohn 1999 pp 263 265 266 Sohn 1999 pp 18 25 Lee amp Ramsey 2011 pp 15 23 Kim 1983 pp 1 2 Lee amp Ramsey 2000 p 5 Yi 2014 pp 586 587 Kim 1987 p 882 Park amp Wee 2016 pp 313 314 Nelson 1995 pp 220 221 223 230 Pai 2000 pp 97 99 Yi 2014 p 587 Nelson 1995 p 230 Nelson 1995 pp 226 229 Pai 2000 pp 104 111 Whitman 2013 p 248 Campbell amp Poser 2008 pp 236 240 Campbell amp Poser 2008 p 239 Lee amp Ramsey 2011 pp 20 21 Lee amp Ramsey 2011 pp 23 24 Janhunen amp Kho 1982 pp 4 5 Whitman 2013 p 249 Cho amp Whitman 2019 p 12 Lee amp Ramsey 2011 pp 26 29 Whitman 2012 pp 24 26 28 a b Vovin 2017 Sohn 1999 pp 29 35 Janhunen 1999 pp 1 2 Janhunen 1999 p 6 Vovin 2010 pp 92 94 Vovin 2010 pp 6 237 240 Serafim 2008 p 98 a b c Whitman 2011 p 154 Vovin 2010 pp 237 240 Janhunen 1999 pp 6 7 Janhunen 1996 p 200 Whitman 2011 p 156 Sohn 1999 pp 27 29 Lee amp Ramsey 2011 p 15 Sohn 1999 pp 25 27 Kim 1987 pp 881 882 Sohn 1999 p 40 Lee amp Ramsey 2011 p 4 Sohn 1999 p 17 a b Lee amp Ramsey 2011 p 31 Shin 2014 pp 16 19 a b Lee amp Ramsey 2011 p 36 Seth 2016 pp 17 19 Byington amp Barnes 2014 pp 97 98 a b Lee amp Ramsey 2011 p 34 Seth 2016 pp 19 23 a b Lee amp Ramsey 2011 p 35 Nam 2012 p 55 Lee amp Ramsey 2011 pp 35 36 Byington amp Barnes 2014 p 105 Seth 2016 p 22 Lee amp Ramsey 2011 pp 34 36 Kim 1987 pp 882 883 Whitman 2013 pp 249 250 Kim 1983 p 2 a b Lee amp Ramsey 2011 p 44 Vovin 2013a pp 237 238 Unger 2009 p 87 Sohn 1999 p 39 Beckwith 2004 p 19 Georg 2017 p 151 Seth 2016 p 35 Pai 2000 p 234 Seth 2016 pp 30 33 Seth 2016 p 29 Seth 2016 pp 29 30 Lee amp Ramsey 2000 pp 274 275 Lee amp Ramsey 2000 p 276 Whitman 2015 p 423 Lee amp Ramsey 2011 p 37 Lee amp Ramsey 2011 p 39 Lee amp Ramsey 2011 pp 37 44 Itabashi 2003 Beckwith 2004 pp 27 28 Lee amp Ramsey 2011 pp 43 44 Lee amp Ramsey 2011 pp 40 41 Lee amp Ramsey 2011 p 40 Toh 2005 pp 23 26 Whitman 2013 pp 251 252 Vovin 2005 pp 117 119 Nam 2012 p 42 Vovin 2013a pp 224 226 228 232 Sohn 1999 p 38 Bentley 2000 pp 424 427 436 438 Vovin 2005 p 119 Kōno 1987 pp 84 85 Works cited edit Beckwith Christopher I 2004 Koguryo the Language of Japan s Continental Relatives Brill ISBN 978 90 04 13949 7 Bentley John R 2000 A new look at Paekche and Korean data from the Nihon shoki Language Research 36 2 417 443 hdl 10371 86143 Brown Lucien Yeon Jaehoon 2015 Varieties of contemporary Korean in Brown Lucien Yeon Jaehoon eds The Handbook of Korean Linguistics Wiley pp 459 476 ISBN 978 1 118 35491 9 Byington Mark E Barnes Gina 2014 Comparison of Texts between the Accounts of Han 韓 in the Sanguo zhi 三國志 in the Fragments of the Weilue 魏略 and in the Hou Han shu 後漢書 PDF Crossroads 9 97 112 archived from the original PDF on 2020 06 06 retrieved 2020 05 07 Campbell Lyle Poser William J 2008 Language Classification History and Method Cambridge University Press ISBN 978 0 521 88005 3 Chinese Academy of Social Sciences CASS 2012 Zhōngguo yǔyan ditu ji di 2 bǎn Shǎoshu minzu yǔyan juǎn 中国语言地图集 第2版 少数民族语言卷 Language Atlas of China 2nd edition Minority language volume in Chinese Beijing The Commercial Press ISBN 978 7 100 07053 9 Cho Sungdai Whitman John 2019 Korean A Linguistic Introduction Cambridge University Press ISBN 978 0 521 51485 9 Georg Stefan 2017 Other isolated languages of Asia in Campbell Lyle ed Language Isolates Routledge pp 139 161 ISBN 978 1 317 61090 8 Itabashi Yoshizo 2003 Kōkuri no chimei kara Kōkurigo to Chōsengo Nihongo to no shiteki kankei wo saguru 高句麗の地名から高句麗語と朝鮮語 日本語との史的関係をさぐる A study of the historical relationship of the Koguryo language the Old Japanese language and the Middle Korean language on the basis of fragmentary glosses preserved as place names in the Samguk sagi in Vovin Alexander Osada Toshiki eds Nihongo keitoron no genzai 日本語系統論の現在 Perspectives on the Origins of the Japanese Language in Japanese vol 31 Kyoto International Center for Japanese Studies pp 131 185 doi 10 15055 00005276 Janhunen Juha 1996 Manchuria An Ethnic History Finno Ugrian Society ISBN 978 951 9403 84 7 1999 A Contextual Approach to the Convergence and Divergence of Korean and Japanese PDF Central Asian Studies 4 archived from the original PDF on 2021 02 26 retrieved 2020 05 07 2010 Reconstructing the Language Map of Prehistorical Northeast Asia Studia Orientalia 108 281 303 Janhunen Juha Kho Songmoo 1982 Is Korean related to Tungusic Hangul 177 179 190 Kim Won yong 1983 Recent Archaeological Discoveries in the Republic of Korea Tokyo Centre for East Asian Cultural Studies UNESCO ISBN 978 92 3 102001 8 Kim Nam Kil 1987 Korean in Comrie Bernard ed The World s Major Languages Oxford University Press pp 881 898 ISBN 978 0 19 520521 3 Kim Sun Mi 2015 Adoption of Aspiration Feature in Sino Korean Phonology PhD thesis Seattle University of Washington hdl 1773 33458 King J R P 1987 An introduction to Soviet Korean Language Research 23 2 233 274 hdl 10371 85771 1992 Archaisms and Innovations in Soviet Korean dialects Language Research 28 2 201 223 hdl 10371 85946 Kōno Rokurō 1987 The bilingualism of the Paekche language Memoirs of the Research Department of the Toyo Bunko 45 75 86 Labov William 1994 Principles of Linguistic Change Volume 1 Internal Factors Cambridge Massachusetts Blackwell ISBN 978 0 631 17913 9 Lee Iksop Ramsey S Robert 2000 The Korean Language SUNY Press ISBN 978 0 7914 4831 1 Lee Ki Moon Ramsey S Robert 2011 A History of the Korean Language Cambridge University Press ISBN 978 1 139 49448 9 Martin Samuel E 1996 Consonant Lenition in Korean and the Macro Altaic Question University of Hawaii Press ISBN 978 0 82481 809 8 Nam Pung hyun 2012 Old Korean in Tranter Nicolas ed The Languages of Japan and Korea Routledge pp 41 72 ISBN 978 0 415 46287 7 National Geography Information Institute NGII 2017 The National Atlas of Korea Seoul Ministry of Land Infrastructure and Transport Nelson Sara M 1995 The Politics of Ethnicity in Prehistoric Korea in Kohl Philip L Fawcett Clare eds Nationalism Politics and the Practice of Archaeology Cambridge University Press pp 218 231 ISBN 978 0 521 55839 6 Pai Hyung Il 裵炯逸 2000 Constructing Korean Origins A Critical Review of Archaeology Historiography and Racial Myth in Korean State formation Theories Harvard University Asia Center ISBN 978 0 674 00244 9 Park Hae Woon Wee Kaya 2016 The Nationalistic Trend in South Korean Archaeology Documenting the Development of a Unilinear Evolutionary Trajectory of a Homogeneous Korean Peoples Archaeologies 12 3 304 339 doi 10 1007 s11759 017 9307 9 S2CID 133125509 Serafim Leon A 2008 The uses of Ryukyuan in understanding Japanese language history in Frellesvig Bjarke Whitman John eds Proto Japanese Issues and Prospects John Benjamins pp 79 99 ISBN 978 90 272 4809 1 Seth Michael J 2016 A Concise History of Premodern Korea 2nd ed Rowman amp Littlefield ISBN 978 1 4422 6043 6 Shin Michael D ed 2014 Korean History in Maps Cambridge University Press ISBN 978 1 107 09846 6 Sohn Ho Min 1999 The Korean Language Cambridge Cambridge University Press ISBN 978 0 521 36123 1 Toh Soo Hee 2005 About Early Paekche language mistaken as being Koguryŏ language Journal of Inner and East Asian Studies 2 2 13 31 Tranter Nicholas 2012 Introduction typology and area in Japan and Korea in Tranter Nicolas ed The Languages of Japan and Korea Routledge pp 3 23 ISBN 978 0 415 46287 7 Unger J Marshall 2009 The role of contact in the origins of the Japanese and Korean languages Honolulu University of Hawaii Press ISBN 978 0 8248 3279 7 Vovin Alexander 2005 Koguryŏ and Paekche different languages or dialects of Old Korean Journal of Inner and East Asian Studies 2 2 107 140 2010 Korea Japonica A Re evaluation of a Common Genetic Origin University of Hawaii Press ISBN 978 0 8248 3278 0 2013a From Koguryo to Tamna Slowly riding to the South with speakers of Proto Korean Korean Linguistics 15 2 222 240 doi 10 1075 kl 15 2 03vov 2013b Mongolian names for Korea and Korean and their significance for the history of the Korean language in Sohn Sung Ock Cho Sungdai You Seok Hoon eds Studies in Korean Linguistics and Language Pedagogy Festschrift for Ho min Sohn Korea University Press pp 200 206 ISBN 978 89 7641 830 2 2013c Northeastern and Central Asia Altaic linguistic history in Bellwood Peter ed The Global Prehistory of Human Migration Wiley Blackwell pp 197 203 ISBN 978 1 118 97059 1 2017 Origins of the Japanese Language Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Linguistics Oxford University Press doi 10 1093 acrefore 9780199384655 013 277 ISBN 978 0 19 938465 5 Whitman John 1990 A rule of medial r loss in pre Old Japanese in Baldi Philip ed Change and Reconstruction Methodology Berlin de Gruyter pp 511 545 ISBN 3 11 011908 0 2011 Northeast Asian Linguistic Ecology and the Advent of Rice Agriculture in Korea and Japan Rice 4 3 4 149 158 doi 10 1007 s12284 011 9080 0 2012 The relationship between Japanese and Korean PDF in Tranter Nicolas ed The Languages of Japan and Korea Routledge pp 24 38 ISBN 978 0 415 46287 7 2013 A History of the Korean Language by Ki Moon Lee and Robert Ramsey Korean Linguistics 15 2 246 260 doi 10 1075 kl 15 2 05whi 2015 Old Korean PDF in Brown Lucien Yeon Jaehoon eds The Handbook of Korean Linguistics Wiley pp 421 438 ISBN 978 1 118 35491 9 Yang Changyong O Grady William Yang Sejung Hilton Nanna Kang Sang Gu Kim So Young 2018 Brunn Stanley D Kehrein Roland eds Handbook of the Changing World Language Map Springer ISBN 978 3 319 73400 2 Yang Changyong Yang Sejung O Grady William 2019 Jejueo The Language of Korea s Jeju Island Honolulu University of Hawaiʻi Press ISBN 978 0 8248 7443 8 Yeon Jaehoon 2012 Korean dialects a general survey in Tranter Nicolas ed The Languages of Japan and Korea Routledge pp 168 185 ISBN 978 0 415 46287 7 Yi Seonbok 2014 Korea archaeology in Bellwood Peter ed The Global Prehistory of Human Migration Wiley pp 586 597 ISBN 978 1 118 97059 1 Further reading editByington Mark E 2006 Christopher I Beckwith Koguryo the Language of Japan s Continental Relatives Leiden Brill 2004 Acta Koreana 9 1 141 166 Kang Yeng pong ed 2009 Revised Jeju Dictionary in Korean Jeju Province ISBN 978 89 962572 5 7 Martin Samuel E 1992 A Reference Grammar of Korean Charles E Tuttle ISBN 978 0 8048 1887 2 Pellard Thomas 2005 Koguryo the Language of Japan s Continental Relatives An Introduction to the Historical Comparative Study of the Japanese Koguryoic Languages with a Preliminary Description of Archaic Northeastern Middle Chinese By Christopher I Beckwith Korean Studies 29 167 170 doi 10 1353 ks 2006 0008 Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Koreanic languages amp oldid 1187503315, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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