Cao Wei
Wei (Hanzi: 魏; pinyin: Wèi < Middle Chinese: *ŋjweiC < Eastern Han Chinese: *ŋuiC[10]) (220–266), known as Cao Wei or Former Wei in historiography,[11][12] was one of the three major states that competed for supremacy over China in the Three Kingdoms period (220–280). With its capital initially located at Xuchang, and thereafter Luoyang, the state was established by Cao Pi in 220, based upon the foundations laid by his father, Cao Cao, towards the end of the Eastern Han dynasty. The name "Wei" first became associated with Cao Cao when he was named the Duke of Wei by the Eastern Han government in 213, and became the name of the state when Cao Pi proclaimed himself emperor in 220. Historians often add the prefix "Cao" to distinguish it from other Chinese states known as "Wei", such as Wei of the Warring States period and Northern Wei of the Northern and Southern dynasties. The authority of the ruling Cao family dramatically weakened in the aftermath of the deposing and execution of Cao Shuang and his siblings, the former being one of the regents for the third Wei emperor, Cao Fang, with state authority gradually falling into the hands of Sima Yi, another Wei regent, and his family, from 249 onwards. The last Wei emperors would remain largely as puppet rulers under the control of the Simas until Sima Yi's grandson, Sima Yan, forced the last Wei ruler, Cao Huan, to abdicate the throne and established the Jin dynasty.
Wei 魏 | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 220–266 | |||||
The territories of Cao Wei (in yellow), 262 AD. | |||||
| Capital | Xuchang (220–226),[1] Luoyang (226–266) | ||||
| Common languages | Old Chinese | ||||
| Religion | Taoism, Confucianism, Chinese folk religion | ||||
| Government | Monarchy | ||||
| Emperor | |||||
• Dec 220 – Jun 226 | Cao Pi | ||||
• Jun 226 – Jan 239 | Cao Rui | ||||
• Jan 239 – Oct 254 | Cao Fang | ||||
• Oct 254 – Jun 260 | Cao Mao | ||||
• Jun 260 – Feb 266 | Cao Huan | ||||
| Historical era | Three Kingdoms | ||||
• Abdication of Emperor Xian of Han | 11 December 220[2][3] | ||||
• Eastern Wu declaring independence from Wei | 222 | ||||
• Cao Wei conquers Shu Han | 263 | ||||
• Abdication of Cao Huan | 4 February 266[a] | ||||
| Population | |||||
• 260 | 4,432,881 (disputed)[5][b] | ||||
| Currency | Chinese coin, Chinese cash (Wu Zhu) | ||||
| |||||
| Today part of | China North Korea Vietnam[c] | ||||
| Cao Wei | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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| Traditional Chinese | 曹魏 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Simplified Chinese | 曹魏 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Hanyu Pinyin | Cáo Wèi | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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History
Beginnings and founding
Towards the end of the Eastern Han dynasty, northern China came under the control of Cao Cao, the chancellor to the last Han ruler, Emperor Xian. In 213, Emperor Xian granted Cao Cao the title of "Duke of Wei" (魏公) and gave him ten cities as his dukedom. The area was named "Wei". At that time, the southern part of China was divided into two areas controlled by two other warlords, Liu Bei and Sun Quan. In 216, Emperor Xian promoted Cao Cao to the status of a vassal king – "King of Wei (魏王)" – and granted him more territories.[citation needed]
Cao Cao died on 15 March 220 and his vassal king title was inherited by his son Cao Pi. Later that year, on 11 December, Cao Pi forced Emperor Xian to abdicate in his favour and took over the throne, establishing the state of Wei. However, Liu Bei immediately contested Cao Pi's claim to the Han throne and declared himself "Emperor of Han" a year later. Sun Quan was nominally a vassal king under Wei, but he declared independence in 222 and eventually proclaimed himself "Emperor of Wu" in 229.[citation needed]
To distinguish the state from other historical Chinese states of the same name, historians have added a relevant character to the state's original name: the state that called itself "Wei" (魏) is also known as "Cao Wei" (曹魏)[citation needed]
Reigns of Cao Pi and Cao Rui
Cao Pi ruled for six years until his death in 226 and was succeeded by his son, Cao Rui, who ruled until his death in 239.[citation needed] Throughout the reigns of Cao Pi and Cao Rui, Wei had been fighting numerous wars with its two rival states – Shu and Wu.[citation needed]
Between 228 and 234, Zhuge Liang, the Shu chancellor and regent, led a series of five military campaigns to attack Wei's western borders (within present-day Gansu and Shaanxi), with the aim of conquering Chang'an, a strategic city which lay on the road to the Wei capital, Luoyang.[citation needed] The Shu invasions were repelled by the Wei armies led by the generals Cao Zhen, Sima Yi, Zhang He and others; Shu did not make any significant gains in the expeditions.[citation needed]
On its southern and eastern borders, Wei engaged Wu in a series of armed conflicts throughout the 220s and 230s, including the battles of Dongkou (222–223), Jiangling (223) and Shiting (228).[citation needed] However, most of the battles resulted in stalemate and neither side managed to significantly expand its territory.[citation needed]
Sima Yi's Liaodong Campaign
After Guanqiu Jian failed to subjugate the Gongsun clan of the Liaodong Commandery,[13] it was Sima Yi who, in June 238, as the Grand Commandant (太尉), launched an invasion with 40,000 troops at the behest of Emperor Cao Rui against Liaodong,[14] which at this point had been firmly rooted under Gongsun control for 4 decades. After a three-month long siege, involving some assistance from the Goguryeo Kingdom, Sima Yi managed to capture the capital city of Xiangping, resulting in the conquest of the commandery by late September of the same year.[15]
Goguryeo–Wei Wars
Around that time, as the Korean kingdom Goguryeo consolidated its power, it proceeded to conquer the territories on the Korean peninsula which were under Chinese rule.[16] Goguryeo initiated the Goguryeo–Wei Wars in 242, trying to cut off Chinese access to its territories in Korea by attempting to take a Chinese fort. However, Wei responded by invading and defeated Goguryeo. Hwando was destroyed in a reprisal raid by Wei forces in 244.[16] The invasions sent its king fleeing, and broke the tributary relationships between Goguryeo and the other tribes of Korea that formed much of Goguryeo's economy. Although the king evaded capture and eventually settled in a new capital, Goguryeo was reduced to such insignificance that for half a century there was no mention of the state in Chinese historical texts.[17]
Fall of Wei
In 249, during the reign of Cao Rui's successor, Cao Fang, the regent Sima Yi seized state power from his co-regent, Cao Shuang, in a coup. This event marked the collapse of imperial authority in Wei, as Cao Fang's role had been reduced to that of a puppet ruler while Sima Yi wielded state power firmly in his hands. Wang Ling, a Wei general, tried to rebel against Sima Yi, but was swiftly dealt with, and took his own life. Sima Yi died on 7 September 251, passing on his authority to his eldest son, Sima Shi, who continued ruling as regent.[citation needed]
Sima Shi deposed Cao Fang in 254, on grounds of planning to stage a rebellion, and replaced him with Cao Mao. In response, Guanqiu Jian and Wen Qin staged a rebellion, but were crushed by Sima Shi in an event that nevertheless took a heavy toll on Sima Shi's health, having undergone eye surgery prior to the insurrection, causing him to die on 23 March 255, but not before handing his power and regency over to his younger brother, Sima Zhao.[citation needed]
In 258, Sima Zhao quelled Zhuge Dan's rebellion, marking an end to what are known as the Three Rebellions in Shouchun. In 260, Cao Mao attempted to seize back state power from Sima Zhao in a coup, but was killed by Cheng Ji, a military officer who was serving under Jia Chong, a subordinate to the Simas. After Cao Mao's death, Cao Huan was enthroned as the fifth ruler of Wei. However, Cao Huan was also a mere figurehead under Sima Zhao's control, much like his predecessor. In 263, Wei armies led by Zhong Hui and Deng Ai conquered Shu. Afterwards, Zhong Hui and former Shu general Jiang Wei grouped and plotted together in order to oust Sima Zhao from power, however, various Wei officials turned against them when it was found out that Jiang Wei had urged Zhong Hui to get rid of these officials before the planned coup. Sima Zhao himself received and finally accepted the nine bestowments and the title Duke of Jin in 263, and was further bestowed with the title King of Jin by Cao Huan in 264, but he died on 6 September 265, leaving the final step of usurpation up to his eldest son, Sima Yan.[citation needed]
On 4 February 266,[a] Sima Zhao's son, Sima Yan, forced Cao Huan to abdicate in his favor, replacing Wei with the Jin dynasty on 8 February 266.[d] Cao Huan himself was spared, though, and continued to live until 302, before dying.[citation needed]
Government
The system of government in Wei inherited many aspects from that of the Eastern Han dynasty. During his reign, Cao Pi established two separate government bodies – the Central Inspectorate (中書監) and the Mobile Imperial Secretariat (行尚書臺) — to reduce the authority of the Imperial Secretariat (尚書臺) and consolidate the power of the central government.[citation needed]
During this time, the minister Chen Qun developed the nine-rank system for civil service nomination, which was adopted by later dynasties until it was superseded by the imperial examination system in the Sui dynasty.[citation needed]
Cao Pi felt that the Han dynasty collapsed because the Governors (州牧) of the various provinces wielded too much power and fell outside the control of the central government. He reduced the role of a Governor to that of an Inspector (刺史), and permitted the Inspectors to administer only civil affairs in their respective provinces, while military affairs were handled by military personnel based in regional offices or in the capital.[citation needed]
Culture
The kaishu style of Chinese calligraphy was developed at some time between the late Eastern Han dynasty and the Cao Wei dynasty, as well as the Jian'an poetry style. The first known master of the former was Zhong Yao, an official of Wei,[19] of the latter; Cao Cao's son, Cao Zhi.[citation needed]
Since the beginning of the Cao Wei dynasty, finding their roots in Cao Cao's administrative influences, intellectual constraints were relaxed, leading to the formation of new groups of intellectuals, such as the Seven Sages of the Bamboo Grove. These intellectual freedoms were overturned by the time of the Jin dynasty (it was Sima Yi himself who associated with the orthodox Confucianists, who despised these new intellectual groups, and therefore were more willing to offer their support to the Sima clan).[citation needed]
Ruling class
According to the Book of Wei, the Cao family descended from the Yellow Emperor through his grandson Zhuanxu. They were of the same lineage as Emperor Shun. Another account says that the Cao family descended from Emperor Shun. This account was attacked by Chiang Chi, who claimed that those with the family name "Tian" descended from Shun, but not those surnamed "Cao". He also claimed that "Gui" (媯) was Emperor Shun's family name.[20]
List of territories
| Province | Commanderies and Kingdoms/Principalities |
|---|---|
| You | Fanyang (范陽), Dai (代), Yuyang (漁陽), Youbeiping (右北平), Liaoxi (遼西), Lelang (樂浪), Shanggu (上谷), Yan (principality) (燕國), Changli (昌黎), Xuantu (玄菟), Liaodong (遼東), Daifang (帶方) |
| Ji | Wei (魏), Yangping (陽平), Guangping (廣平), Qinghe (清河), Julu (鉅鹿), Zhao (principality) (趙國), Changshan (常山), Anping (安平), Pingyuan (平原), Leling (principality) (樂陵), Hejian (河間), Bohai (渤海), Zhongshan (principality) (中山國) |
| Qing | Chengyang (城陽), Donglai (東萊), Beihai (principality) (北海國), Qi (principality) (齊國), Le'an (樂安), Jinan (principality) (濟南國) |
| Bing | Shangdang (上黨), Xihe (西河), Taiyuan (太原), Leping (樂平), Xinxing (新興), Yanmen (雁門) |
| Si | Henan (河南尹), Hongnong (弘農), Henei (河內), Hedong (河東), Pingyang (平陽) |
| Yan | Taishan (泰山), Jibei (principality) (濟北國), Dongping (principality) (東平國), Dong (東), Rencheng (任城), Shanyang (山陽), Jiyin (濟陰), Chenliu (principality) (陳留國) |
| Xu | Dongguan (東莞), Langye (principality) (琅琊國), Donghai (principality) (東海國), Guangling (廣陵), Xiapi (下邳), Pengcheng (principality) (彭城國) |
| Yong | Jingzhao (京兆), Pingyi (馮翊), Fufeng (扶風), Beidi (北地), Xinping (新平), Anding (安定), Guangwei (廣魏), Tianshui (天水), Nan'an (南安), Longxi (隴西) |
| Yu | Chen (陳), Yingchuan (潁川), Runan (汝南), Liang (principality) (梁國), Pei (principality) (沛國), Qiao (譙), Lu (魯), Yiyang (弋陽), Anfeng (安豐) |
| Liang | Wuwei (武威), Jincheng (金城), Xiping (西平), Zhangye (張掖), Jiuquan (酒泉), Xihai (西海), Dunhuang (敦煌) |
| Yan | Huainan (淮南), Lujiang (廬江) |
| Jing | Jiangxia (江夏), Xiangyang (襄陽), Xincheng (新城), Nanyang (南陽), Nanxiang (南鄉), Shangyong (上庸), Weixing (魏興), Zhangling (Yiyang) (章陵 / 義陽) |
List of sovereigns
| Temple name | Posthumous name | Family name (in bold) and personal name | Reign | Era names and their year ranges | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| (N/A) | Emperor Gao 高皇帝 | Cao Teng 曹騰 | (N/A) | (N/A) | Cao Teng's posthumous name was granted posthumously by Cao Rui. |
| (N/A) | Emperor Tai 太皇帝 | Cao Song 曹嵩 | (N/A) | (N/A) | Cao Song's posthumous name was granted posthumously by Cao Pi. |
| Taizu 太祖 | Emperor Wu 武皇帝 | Cao Cao 曹操 | 216–220 | (N/A) | Cao Cao's temple and posthumous names were granted posthumously by Cao Pi. |
| Shizu 世祖 | Emperor Wen 文皇帝 | Cao Pi 曹丕 | 220–226 |
| |
| Liezu 烈祖 | Emperor Ming 明皇帝 | Cao Rui 曹叡 | 227–239 |
| |
| (N/A) | (N/A) | Cao Fang 曹芳 | 240–249 |
| Cao Fang became "Prince of Qi" (齊王) after his dethronement. He was posthumously granted the title "Duke Li of Shaoling" (邵陵厲公) in the Western Jin dynasty. |
| (N/A) | (N/A) | Cao Mao 曹髦 | 254–260 |
| Cao Mao was granted the posthumous name of "Duke of Gaogui" (高貴鄉公). |
| (N/A) | Emperor Yuan 元皇帝 | Cao Huan 曹奐 | 260–266 |
|
Cao Wei family tree
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| - - - - - = The dashed line denotes an adoption
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See also
Notes
- ^ a b Cao Huan abdicated on the renxu (壬戌) day of the 12th month in the 1st year of the Taishi era of the reign of Emperor Wu of Jin.[4] This date corresponds to 4 February 266 in the Gregorian calendar.
- ^ This figure, based on numbers given in the Sanguozhi, has been called into question since the census system is claimed to have been flawed. The actual population is likely to be far greater.[6] Tanner (2009) estimates the population of Wei to be over ⅔ of the Han population.[7]
- ^ (221–222—through Eastern Wu vassalage;[8][9] 263–266)
- ^ On the bingyin (丙寅) day of the 12th month of the 1st year of the Taishi era, Sima Yan became emperor and adopted "Taishi" (泰始) as the era name of his reign.[18] This date corresponds to 8 February 266 in the Gregorian calendar.
References
- ^ Achilles Fang. Chronicles of the Three Kingdoms.
Spring, first month (Feb. 15 – Mar. 15). The Emperor was about to come to Xu-chang when the south gate of Xu-chang collapsed from some unexplained cause. The Emperor was displeased at this and did not enter the city.
- ^ Achilles Fang. Chronicles of the Three Kingdoms.
In the tenth month of 220 (November), various ministers proposed that Cao Pi replace Liu Xie as the emperor, citing various astrological signs. On November 25, Liu Xie performed various ceremonies in preparation for abdicating the throne. On December 11, Liu Xie formally abdicated the throne and Cao Pi ascended as the new emperor.
- ^ Rafe de Crespigny. To Establish Peace.
On 11 December Cao Cao's son and successor Cao Pi received the abdication of the Han Emperor and took the imperial title for himself, with a new reign period Huangchu "Yellow Beginning" named in honour of the new Power of Yellow and Earth which had been foretold should succeed to the Red and Fire of Han. (Cf. note 84 to Jian'an 24.)
- ^ ([泰始元年]十二月，壬戌，魏帝禪位于晉；) Zizhi Tongjian vol. 79.
- ^ Zou Jiwan (Chinese: 鄒紀萬), Zhongguo Tongshi – Weijin Nanbeichao Shi 中國通史·魏晉南北朝史, (1992).
- ^ Institute of Advanced Studies (December 1991). Barme, Gerome (ed.). East Asian History: THE CONTINUATION OF Papers on Far Eastern History (PDF) (Number 2 ed.). Canberra, Australia: Australian National University. pp. 149–152. Retrieved 29 March 2015.
- ^ Tanner, Harold M. (13 March 2009). "Chapter 5: The Age of Warriors and Buddhists". China: A History. Hackett Publishing. p. 142.
When it was established, Wu had only one-sixth of the population of the Eastern Han Empire (Cao Wei held over two-thirds of the Han population).
- ^ Sima Guang. Zizhi Tongjian.
In the eighth month of 221, Sun Quan sent ambassadors to Wei declaring himself a subject of Cao Pi's state
- ^ Achilles Fang. Chronicles of the Three Kingdoms.
Eighth month (Sept. 5 – Oct. 3). Sun Quan sent an envoy to declare himself the subject of the Wei
- ^ Schuessler, Axel. (2009) Minimal Old Chinese and Later Han Chinese. Honolulu: University of Hawai'i. p. 291
- ^ BSod-nams-rgyal-mtshan, Per K. Sørensen (1994). The Mirror Illuminating the Royal Genealogies. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. p. 80. ISBN 3447035102.
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: uses authors parameter (link) - ^ Ching-hsiung Wu, ed. (1940). T'ien Hsia Monthly. Vol. 11. Kelly and Walsh. p. 370.
- ^ Achilles Fang. Chronicles of the Three Kingdoms.
The Emperor sent a sealed edict to summon Gongsun Yuan. In the end, Gongsun Yuan arose in an armed rebellion, meeting Guanqiu Jian at Liaosui. It so happened that it rained for more than ten days and the water of Liaosui rose greatly. Guanqiu Jian fought him, but was unsuccessful and withdrew his troops to Youbeiping.
- ^ Achilles Fang. Chronicles of the Three Kingdoms.
The Emperor summoned Sima Yi from Chang'an and had him lead an army of forty thousand men in a campaign against Liaodong.
- ^ Achilles Fang. Chronicles of the Three Kingdoms.
On the day ren-wu (September 29), Xiangping fell. Gongsun Yuan and his son Gongsun Xiu, leading several hundred mounted men, got through the encirclement and fled towards the southeast. The large Wei forces instantly struck at them and killed Gongsun Yuan and his son on the Liangshui.
- ^ a b Charles Roger Tennant (1996). A history of Korea. Kegan Paul International. p. 22. ISBN 0-7103-0532-X.
capital on the middle reaches of the Yalu near the modern Chinese town of Ji'an, calling it 'Hwando'. By developing both their iron weapons and their political organization, they had reached a stage where in the turmoil that accompanied the break-up of the Han empire they were able to threaten the Chinese colonies
- ^ Byington, Mark E. Journal of Northeast Asian History volume 4, number 1 (June 2007):93.
- ^ ([泰始元年十二月]丙寅，王卽皇帝位，大赦，改元。) Zizhi Tongjian vol. 79.
- ^ Qiu Xigui (2000). Chinese Writing. Translated by Mattos and Jerry Norman. Early China Special Monograph Series No. 4. Berkeley: The Society for the Study of Early China and the Institute of East Asian Studies, University of California, Berkeley. ISBN 1-55729-071-7, pp. 142–143
- ^ Howard L. Goodman (1998). Ts'ao P'i transcendent: the political culture of dynasty-founding in China at the end of the Han (illustrated ed.). Psychology Press. p. 70. ISBN 0-9666300-0-9. Retrieved 2012-04-01.
Further reading
- de Crespigny, Rafe. "To Establish Peace: being the Chronicle of the Later Han dynasty for the years 201 to 220 AD as recorded in Chapters 64 to 69 of the Zizhi tongjian of Sima Guang". Volume 2. 2012-03-29 at the Wayback Machine Faculty of Asian Studies, The Australian National University, Canberra. 1996. ISBN 0-7315-2526-4.