Salar language

Salar is a Turkic language spoken by the Salar people, who mainly live in the provinces of Qinghai and Gansu in China; some also live in Ili, Xinjiang. It is a primary branch and an eastern outlier of the Oghuz branch of Turkic, the other Oghuz languages (Turkish, Azerbaijani, Turkmen) being spoken mostly in Western and Central Asia. The Salar number about 105,000 people, about 70,000^[6] (2002) speak the Salar language; under 20,000^[6] monolinguals.

Salar
Salarcha 撒拉语
Native to	China
Region	Qinghai, Gansu, Xinjiang
Native speakers	70,000 (2002)^[1]
Language family	Turkic Common Turkic Oghuz^[2]^[3]^[4] Salar
Dialects	Ili Salar Gaizi (Jiezi) Mengda
Writing system	Pinyin-based Latin and Chinese characters
Official status
Official language in	China Xunhua Salar Autonomous County^[5] Jishishan Bonan, Dongxiang and Salar Autonomous County
Language codes
ISO 639-3	slr
Glottolog	sala1264
ELP	Salar
Salar is classified as Vulnerable by the UNESCO Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger
This article contains IPA phonetic symbols. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Unicode characters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see Help:IPA.

According to Salar tradition and Chinese chronicles, the Salars are the descendants of the Salur tribe, belonging to the Oghuz Turk tribe of the Western Turkic Khaganate. During the Tang dynasty, the Salur tribe dwelt within China's borders and lived since then in the Qinghai-Gansu border region.^[7][8] Contemporary Salar has some influence from Chinese and Amdo Tibetan.

Classification

Due to the ethnonym "Salur", which is also shared by some modern Turkmen tribes, linguists historically tried to establish a link between Turkmen varieties and Salar language. Most modern linguists today classify Salar as an independent primary branch of Oghuz languages.^[9][10]

History

Origins and development

Ancestor of the modern Salar language is thought to be the first language that diverged from the Proto-Oghuz language, a hypothetical language that all modern Oghuz languages believed to be descended from. It is brought to the region by a small, nomadic and Muslim community, and received significant influence from other non-Oghuz Turkic languages such as Chagatai,^[11] Kipchak and Karluk languages,^[12] along with non-Turkic languages belonging to the Sino-Tibetan family.

After the Jahriyya revolt, some Salars were deported to Ili valley and established a new community in the region. This led to the divergence of a distinctive dialect called Ili Salar influenced by the neighboring Kazakh and Uyghur languages.

Current situation

According to 2002 estimates Salars number about 105,000 people, and about 70,000 of them speak the Salar language. Only under 20,000 Salars are monolingual.^{[6][needs update]}

The Salar language is the official language in all Salar autonomous areas.^[5] Such autonomous areas are the Xunhua Salar Autonomous County and the Jishishan Bonan, Dongxiang and Salar Autonomous County. In Qinghai Province, most Salar people speak both Qinghai Mandarin (Chinese) and Salar. Rural Salars can speak Salar more fluently while urban Salars often assimilate more into the Chinese-speaking Hui Muslim population.^[13]

Phonology

Salar phonology has been influenced by Chinese and Tibetan. In addition, /k, q/ and /ɡ, ɢ/ have become separate phonemes due to loanwords, as it has in other Turkic languages.^[14]

Consonants^[14]

		Labial	Dental	Retroflex	Alveolopalatal	Velar	Uvular	Glottal
Nasal		m	n
Plosive/ Affricate	voiceless	p	t	t͡ʂ	t͡ɕ	k	q
	voiced	b	d	d͡ʐ	d͡ʑ	ɡ	ɢ
Fricative	voiceless	f	s	ʂ	ɕ	x		h
	voiced	(v)	z				ʁ
Approximant		w	l r		j

Vowels

	Front		Back
	unrounded	rounded	unrounded	rounded
Close	i	y	ɯ	u
Open	e	ø	a	o

Salar vowels are as in Turkish, with the back vowels /a, ɯ, o, u/ and the corresponding front vowels /e, i, ø, y/.^[15] In Ili Salar, the i and y high front vowels, when placed after an initial glides are spirantized with j transforming into ʝ.^[16] Qinghai and Ili Salar have mostly the same consonantal development.^[17]

Vocabulary

In Qinghai Province, the Salar language has a notable influence from Chinese and Tibetan.^[18] Although of Turkic origin, major linguistic structures have been absorbed from Chinese. Around 20% of the vocabulary is of Chinese origin and 10% is also of Tibetan origin. Yet the official Communist Chinese government policy deliberately covers up these influences in academic and linguistics studies, trying to emphasize the Turkic element and completely ignoring the Chinese in the Salar language.^[19][why?] The Salar language has taken loans and influence from neighboring varieties of Chinese.^[20] Vice versa, the neighboring variants of the Chinese language have also adopted loan words from the Salar language.^[21]

For the verb "to do" Salar uses "ät" (compare Turkish et).^[22] For the word "lips" Salar uses "dodax" (compare Turkish dudak).^[23] The participle miš is used by Salar (compare Turkish -mış).^[24][25]

Dialects

The Qing Empire deported some Salars who belonged to the Jahriyya Sufi order to the Ili valley which is in modern-day Xinjiang. Today, a community of about four thousand Salars speaking a distinct dialect of Salar still live in Ili. Salar migrants from Amdo (Qinghai) came to settle the region as religious exiles, migrants, and as soldiers enlisted in the Chinese army to fight rebels in Ili, often following the Hui.^[26] The distinctive dialect of the Ili Salar differs from the other Salar dialects because the neighboring Kazakh and Uyghur languages in Ili influenced it.^[27] The Ili Salar population numbers around 4,000 people.^[28] There have been instances of misunderstanding between speakers of Ili Salar and Qinghai Salar due to the divergence of the dialects.^[29] The differences between the two dialect result in a "clear isogloss".^[30]

However, Lin Lianyun and Han Jianye divide the Salar into two dialects by including the Western Salar in the Gaizi dialect: the Gaizi dialect^[31] and the Mengda dialect.^[32][33] The Gaizi dialect is mainly distributed in Jiezi, Qingshui and Baizhuang in Xunhua County, Gandu in Hualong County, Dahejia in Linxia Hui Autonomous Prefecture of Gansu Province and Yining County, Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region. The Mengda dialect is distributed in the Mengda area of Xunhua County. The Mengda dialect is b-Salar, while the Gaizi (or Jiezi) dialect is v-Salar. For example; It lives in the Ili and Jiezi as vol- "to be", ver- "to give", vax- "to look", and in the Mengda dialect as bol- "to be", ber- "to give", bax- "to look". Also, Mengda lost its gh phoneme and the phonemes turn into x phonemes: Gaizi deɣ- "to touch", Mengda dex- "to touch"; Gaizi yaʁ- "to rain", Mengda yaχ- "to rain". While the m phonemes stood in the Gaizi dialect, it turned to the n sound in Mengda dialect: Gaizi qamjü "whip", Mengda qanjü "whip"; Gaizi göm- "to embed", Mengda gön- "to embed".^[32]

Tenishev's comparison of Jiezi and Mengda (IPA)^[34]^[23]
Jiezi (Gaizi)	/t^h/	/v/	/e/	/i/	/ɘ/	/ɨ/	/ø/
Mengda	/ʒ^h/	/p/	/ɑ/	/e/	/ɑ/	/i/	/o/

Although Ili Salar is far from other speakers, the dialects of the Salar language are very close to each other. The difference between them is mostly phonological.^[32] For example; Ili Salar^[35] gölök, Qinghai^[32] gölix, gölex "cow".

Writing system

Salars mostly use Chinese for written purposes while using Salar language for spoken purposes.^[36][37][38]

Salar hasn't had an official script, but it has sometimes been written down using the Arabic script.^[39] Some Salar call for a Latin script and some Salar who dislike the Pinyin-based Latin script desire to use Chinese characters instead.^[40] This lack of an official script has led most Salar to use the Chinese writing system.^[41] China offered the Salar an official writing system quite similar to the Uyghur Yengi Yezik, but it was rejected for similar reasons as Yengi Yezik was rejected in Xinjiang.

Young Salar have also started to use a Salar script based on the orthography for Turkic languages. It is quite popular with Salars for writing Salar on the internet. There are two main variants that are used, TB30 and TB31. Arabic script is also still popular among the Salar. The Arabic script has historical precedent among the Salar; centuries-old documents in the Salar language were written in the Arabic script when discovered.^{[42][better source needed]}

Grigory Potanin used the Cyrillic alphabet to record a glossary of Salar,^[43][44][45] Western Yugur language and Eastern Yugur language^{[46][47][48][49]} in his 1893 Russian language book The Tangut-Tibetan Borderlands of China and Central Mongolia with assistance from Vasily Radlov.^[50]

William Woodville Rockhill wrote a glossary of Salar in his 1894 book Diary of a Journey through Mongolia and Tibet in 1891 and 1892 using the Latin alphabet based on the Wade–Giles romanization system used for Chinese.^[51][52][53]

TB30

Aa Bb Cc Çç Dd Ee Ff Gg
Ğğ Hh İi Iı Kk Ll Mm Nn Ññ
Oo Öö Pp Qq Rr Ss Şş Tt
Uu Üü Yy Vv Zz

Pinyin-based Latin alphabet

A romanization of the Mengda dialect of Salar based on Pinyin has been developed, created by a Salar, Ma Quanlin, who lives in Xunhua.^[54] Like Pinyin, which is used to romanize Mandarin Chinese, this Salar romanization is divided into categories of consonants and vowels.^[55] Letters that occur both in Pinyin and romanization of Mengda Salar share the same sound values.^[56]

consonants

Pinyin	IPA	English approximation	Explanation
b	[p]	spit	unaspirated p, as in spit
p	[pʰ]	pay	strongly aspirated p, as in pit
m	[m]	may	as in English mummy
f	[f]	fair	as in English fun
d	[t]	stop	unaspirated t, as in stop
t	[tʰ]	take	strongly aspirated t, as in top
n	[n]	nay	as in English nit
l	[l]	lay	as in English love
l	/ð/	those	as in English the
g	[k]	skill	unaspirated k, as in skill
g̲	/ɣ/	no equivalent in English	"thicker and deeper" version of g
k	[kʰ]	kay	strongly aspirated k, as in kill
h	[x]	loch	roughly like the Scots ch. English h as in hay or hot is an acceptable approximation.
j	[tɕ]	hatch	No equivalent in English. Like q, but unaspirated. Not the s in Asia, despite the common English pronunciation of "Beijing".
q	[tɕʰ]	cheek	No equivalent in English. Like cheek, with the lips spread wide with ee. Curl the tip of the tongue downwards to stick it at the back of the teeth and strongly aspirate.
x	[ɕ]	she	No equivalent in English. Like she, with the lips spread and the tip of your tongue curled downwards and stuck to the back of teeth when you say ee.
zh	[tʂ]	junk	Rather like ch (a sound between choke, joke, true, and drew, tongue tip curled more upwards). Voiced in a toneless syllable.
ch	[tʂʰ]	church	as in chin, but with the tongue curled upwards; very similar to nurture in American English, but strongly aspirated.
sh	[ʂ]	shirt	as in shoe, but with the tongue curled upwards; very similar to marsh in American English
r	[ʐ], [ɻ]	ray	Similar to the English z in azure and r in reduce, but with the tongue curled upwards, like a cross between English "r" and French "j". In Cyrillised Chinese the sound is rendered with the letter "ж".
z	[ts]	reads	unaspirated c, similar to something between suds and cats; as in suds in a toneless syllable
c	[tsʰ]	hats	like the English ts in cats, but strongly aspirated, very similar to the Czech and Polish c.
s	[s]	say	as in sun
y	[j], [ɥ]	yea	as in yes. Before a u, pronounce it with rounded lips.*
w	[w]	way	as in water.*
v	[v]	vitamin	as in very.

Vowels

Pinyin	IPA	Form with zero initial	Explanation
a	[ɑ]	a	as in "father"
o	[ɔ]	(n/a)	Approximately as in "office" in British accent; the lips are much more rounded.
e	[ɯ̯ʌ], [ə]	e	a diphthong consisting first of a back, unrounded semivowel (which can be formed by first pronouncing "w" and then spreading the lips without changing the position of the tongue) followed by a vowel similar to English "duh". Many unstressed syllables in Chinese use the schwa [ə] (idea), and this is also written as e.
i	[i]	yi	like English bee.
u	[u]	wu	like English "oo"
ai	[aɪ̯]	ai	like English "eye", but a bit lighter
ei	[eɪ̯]	ei	as in "hey"
ui	[u̯eɪ̯]	wei	as u + ei;
ao	[ɑʊ̯]	ao	approximately as in "cow"; the a is much more audible than the o
iu	[i̯ɤʊ̯]	you	as i + ou
ie	[i̯ɛ]	ye	as i + ê; but is very short; e (pronounced like ê) is pronounced longer and carries the main stress (similar to the initial sound ye in yet)
an	[an]	an	as in "ban" in British English (a more open fronted a)
en	[ən]	en	as in "taken"
in	[in]	yin	as i + n
un	[yn]	yun	as ü + n;
ang	[ɑŋ]	ang	as in German Angst (starts with the vowel sound in father and ends in the velar nasal; like song in some dialects of American English)
eng	[əŋ]	eng	like e in en above but with ng added to it at the back
ing	[iŋ]	ying	as i + ng
ong	[ʊŋ], [u̯əŋ]	weng	starts with the vowel sound in book and ends with the velar nasal sound in sing; as u + eng in zero initial.

Sample text

Here is given an excerpt of the "kiš yiγen ġadïn kiš" ("people-eating woman") story from Ma Wei, Ma Jianzhong & Kevin Stuart's work The Folklore of China's Islamic Salar Nationality.^[57][58]

oholdï bir ninor vumiš aŋa kiǰičix anor vara bir gunor ninačux anasini parlïǰani ziden yanbar(r) yarïm yoldï ulïr xari ġadïnkïšor učiramiš xari ġadïnkiščix daš išdende zoğziba(r) bu ninačix yana varǰani aŋnišmiš e xari nina sen eyiŋ bir kiščuγïŋ munda natburi dimiš	Long ago there was a granny. She had a little daughter. One day, the granny came back from the market with her daughter. Halfway they run into an old woman. The old woman was sitting on a stone. This granny came towards her and struck up a conversation: "Hey old granny, what are you doing here, one person all by yourself ”, she said.

Notes

1. Salar at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required)
2. Concise Encyclopedia of Languages of the World. Contributors Keith Brown, Sarah Ogilvie (revised ed.). Elsevier. 2010. p. 1109. ISBN 978-0080877754. Retrieved 24 April 2014.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: others (link)
3. Olson, James Stuart (1998). An Ethnohistorical Dictionary of China. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 297. ISBN 978-0313288531. Retrieved 24 April 2014.
4. Roos, Marti (1998). "Preaspiration in Western Yugur monosyllables". In Johanson, Lars (ed.). The Mainz Meeting: Proceedings of the Seventh International Conference on Turkish Linguistics, August 3–6, 1994. Turcologica Series. Contributor Éva Ágnes Csató. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. p. 28. ISBN 978-3447038645. Retrieved 24 April 2014.
5. Martí, Fèlix; et al. (2005). Words and worlds: world languages review (illustrated ed.). Multilingual Matters. p. 123. ISBN 978-1-85359-827-2. Retrieved 2011-06-03.
6. Ethnologue.com :report for language code:slr
7. Erdal, Marcel; Nevskaya, Irina, eds. (2006). Exploring the Eastern Frontiers of Turkic. Vol. 60 of Turcologica Series. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. p. xi. ISBN 978-3447053105. Retrieved 24 April 2014.
8. . Cultural-china.com. Cultural China. 2007–2014. Archived from the original on 5 October 2013. Retrieved 1 April 2013.
9. Erdal, Marcel (2015). "Ana Oğuzca Ve Selçuklu Oğuzcasi". 5. Uluslararası Türkiyat Araştırmaları Sempozyumu Bildirileri.
10. "Glottolog 4.4 - Salar". glottolog.org. Retrieved 2021-07-27.
11. Turkic Languages, Volumes 1–2. Harrassowitz Verlag. 1998. pp. 50, 55, 62. Retrieved 24 April 2014.
12. Johanson, Lars; Csató, Éva, eds. (1998). The Turkic Languages. Vol. 60 of Turcologica Series (illustrated, reprint ed.). Taylor & Francis. p. 400. ISBN 978-0415082006. Retrieved 24 April 2014.
13. Dwyer (2007:90)
14. Dwyer (2007:96)
15. Dwyer (2007:121)
16. Dwyer (2007:116)
17. Dwyer (2007:212)
18. Johanson, Lars; Utas, Bo, eds. (2000). Evidentials: Turkic, Iranian and Neighbouring Languages. Vol. 24 of Empirical approaches to language typology. Walter de Gruyter. p. 58. ISBN 978-3110161588. ISSN 0933-761X. Retrieved 24 April 2014.
19. William Safran (1998). William Safran (ed.). Nationalism and ethnoregional identities in China. Vol. 1 of Cass series—nationalism and ethnicity (illustrated ed.). Psychology Press. p. 72. ISBN 978-0-7146-4921-4. Retrieved 2010-06-28.
20. Raymond Hickey (2010). Raymond Hickey (ed.). The Handbook of Language Contact (illustrated ed.). John Wiley and Sons. p. 664. ISBN 978-1-4051-7580-7. Retrieved 2010-06-28.
21. Raymond Hickey (2010). Raymond Hickey (ed.). The Handbook of Language Contact (illustrated ed.). John Wiley and Sons. p. 664. ISBN 978-1-4051-7580-7. Retrieved 2010-06-28.
22. Hickey, Raymond, ed. (2010). The Handbook of Language Contact (illustrated ed.). John Wiley & Sons. p. 665. ISBN 978-1405175807. Retrieved 24 April 2014.
23. Lin, Lianyun (1985). 撒拉语简志 [A Brief History of Salar] (in Chinese). Beijing: 民族出版社出版: 琴書店. p. 8. ISBN 9049•41. {{cite book}}: Check |isbn= value: invalid character (help)
24. Göksel, Aslı; Kerslake, Celia, eds. (2000). Studies on Turkish and Turkic Languages: Proceedings of the Ninth International Conference on Turkish Linguistics, Lincoln College, Oxford, August 12–14, 1998. Vol. 46 of Turcologica Series (illustrated ed.). Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. p. 201. ISBN 978-3447042932. Retrieved 24 April 2014.
25. Hahn, Reinhard F. (1988). "Notes on the Origin and Development of the Salar Language". Acta Orientalia Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae. 42 (2/3): 248, 259, 260. JSTOR 23657773.
26. Dwyer (2007:79)
27. Boeschoten, Hendrik; Rentzsch, Julian, eds. (2010). Turcology in Mainz. Vol. 82 of Turcologica Series. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. p. 279. ISBN 978-3447061131. Retrieved 1 April 2013.
28. Dwyer (2007:77)
29. Dwyer (2007:82)
30. Dwyer (2007:86)
31. "Salar: Jiezi dil". globalrecordings.net (in Turkish). Retrieved 2022-09-14.
32. 马伟 (Ma Wei); 朝克 (Chao Ke) (2016), in  濒危语言——撒拉语研究 [Endangered Languages - Salar Language Studies], 青海 (Qinghai): 国家社会科学基金项目 (National Social Science Foundation Project), pp. 86-95, 263
33. Kaşgarli, Raile ABDULVAHİT (2018-04-29). "SALAR TÜRKÇESİNDEKİ ÇİNCE UNSURLAR". Littera Turca Journal of Turkish Language and Literature (in Turkish). 4 (2): 428–445. doi:10.20322/littera.409800.
34. Tenishev, Edhem (1976), in Stroj salárskovo jazyká [Grammar of Salar], Moscow: Nauka, p. 250
35. Yakup, Abdurishid (2002). An Ili Salar Vocabulary: Introduction and a Provisional Salar-English Lexicon. Tokyo: University of Tokyo. ISBN 9784903875040.
36. Guo, Rongxing (2012). Understanding the Chinese Economies. Academic Press. p. 39. ISBN 978-0123978264. Retrieved 1 April 2013.
37. . cultural-china.com. Cultural China. 2007–2014. Archived from the original on 23 September 2012. Retrieved 1 April 2013.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
38. . cultural-china.com. Cultural China. 2007–2014. Archived from the original on 22 May 2012. Retrieved 1 April 2013.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
39. Embree, Ainslie Thomas; Lewis, Robin Jeanne (1988). Embree, Ainslie Thomas (ed.). Encyclopedia of Asian history. Vol. 4 (2 ed.). Scribner. p. 154. ISBN 978-0-684-18901-7.
40. Safran (1998). Nationalism and Ethnoregional Identities in China (illustrated ed.). London: Frank Cass. p. 77. ISBN 0-7146-4921-X.
41. Evans, Thammy (2006). Great Wall of China: Beijing & Northern China (illustrated ed.). Bradt Travel Guides. p. 42. ISBN 978-1-84162-158-6.
42. Dwyer (2007:91)
43. Potanin, Grigory Nikolayevich (Григорий Николаевич Потанин) (1893). Tangutsko-Tibetskaya okraina Kitaya i Tsentralnaya Mongoliya: puteshestvie G.N. Potanina 1884–1886 Тангутско-Тибетская окраина Китая и Центральная Монголія: путешествіе Г.Н. Потанина 1884–1886. Typ. A. S. Suvoryna. pp. 1–.
44. Potanin, Grigory Nikolayevich (Григорий Николаевич Потанин) (1893). Tangutsko-Tibetskaya okraina Kitaya i Tsentralnaya Mongoliya: puteshestvie G.N. Potanina 1884–1886 Тангутско-Тибетская окраина Китая и Центральная Монголія: путешествіе Г.Н. Потанина 1884–1886. Typ. A. S. Suvoryna. pp. 426–.
45. Potanin, Grigory Nikolayevich (Григорий Николаевич Потанин) (1893). Tangutsko-Tibetskaya okraina Kitaya i Tsentralnaya Mongoliya: puteshestvie G.N. Potanina 1884–1886 Тангутско-Тибетская окраина Китая и Центральная Монголія: путешествіе Г.Н. Потанина 1884–1886. Vol. 2. Typ. A. S. Suvoryna. p. 426.
46. . The Western Yugur Steppe. Archived from the original on October 5, 2003.
47. Potanin, Grigory Nikolayevich (Григорий Николаевич Потанин) (1893). Tangutsko-Tibetskaya okraina Kitaya i Tsentralnaya Mongoliya: puteshestvie G.N. Potanina 1884–1886 Тангутско-Тибетская окраина Китая и Центральная Монголія: путешествіе Г.Н. Потанина 1884–1886. Typ. A. S. Suvoryna.
48. Potanin, Grigory Nikolayevich (Григорий Николаевич Потанин) (1893). Tangutsko-Tibetskaya okraina Kitaya i Tsentralnaya Mongoliya: puteshestvie G.N. Potanina 1884–1886 Тангутско-Тибетская окраина Китая и Центральная Монголія: путешествіе Г.Н. Потанина 1884–1886. Vol. 2. Typ. A. S. Suvoryna.
49. Potanin, Grigory Nikolayevich (Григорий Николаевич Потанин) (1893). Tangutsko-Tibetskaya okraina Kitaya i Tsentralnaya Mongoliya: puteshestvie G.N. Potanina 1884–1886 Тангутско-Тибетская окраина Китая и Центральная Монголія: путешествіе Г.Н. Потанина 1884–1886. Typ. A. S. Suvoryna.
50. Poppe, Nicholas (1953). (PDF). Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies. 16 (3/4): 438–477. doi:10.2307/2718250. JSTOR 2718250. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2012-03-16.
51. Poppe, Nicholas (1953). (PDF). Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies. 16 (3/4): 438–477. doi:10.2307/2718250. JSTOR 2718250. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2012-03-16.
52. William Woodville Rockhill (1894). Diary of a Journey Through Mongolia and Tibet in 1891 and 1892. Smithsonian Institution. pp. 373–376.
53. Rockhill, W. W. (1892). "[Letter from W. W. Rockhill]". Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland: 598–602. JSTOR 25197112.
54. Ma, Quanlin; Ma, Wanxiang; Ma, Zhicheng (1993). Stuart, Kevin (ed.). Salar Language Materials (PDF). Sino-Platonic Papers, No. 43. Philadelphia, PA: Department of East Asian Languages and Civilizations University of Pennsylvania. p. 3. Retrieved September 30, 2012.
55. Ma, Quanlin; Ma, Wanxiang; Ma, Zhicheng (1993). Stuart, Kevin (ed.). Salar Language Materials (PDF). Sino-Platonic Papers, No. 43. Philadelphia, PA: Department of East Asian Languages and Civilizations University of Pennsylvania. p. 3. Retrieved September 30, 2012.
56. Ma, Quanlin; Ma, Wanxiang; Ma, Zhicheng (1993). Stuart, Kevin (ed.). Salar Language Materials (PDF). Sino-Platonic Papers, No. 43. Philadelphia, PA: Department of East Asian Languages and Civilizations University of Pennsylvania. p. 3. Retrieved September 30, 2012.
57. Ma, Wei; Ma, Jianzhong; Stuart, Kevin (2001). The Folklore of China's Islamic Salar Nationality. Lewiston, NY: E. Mellen Press. OCLC 606504539.
58. Robbeets, Martin; Cuyckens, Hubert, eds. (2013). Shared Grammaticalization: With Special Focus on the Transeurasian Languages. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. pp. 248–249. ISBN 978-90-272-0599-5. OCLC 875771914.

Sources

• Hahn, R. F. 1988. Notes on the Origin and Development of the Salar Language, Acta Orientalia Hungarica XLII (2–3), 235–237.
• Dwyer, A. 1996. Salar Phonology. Unpublished dissertation University of Washington.
• Dwyer, A. M. 1998. The Turkic strata of Salar: An Oghuz in Chaghatay clothes? Turkic Languages 2, 49–83.^[1][2]
• Dwyer, Arienne M (2007). Salar: A Study in Inner Asian Language Contact Processes; Part 1: Phonology. Harrassowitz Verlag. ISBN 978-3-447-04091-4.

References

1. Johanson, Lars; Utas, Bo, eds. (2000). Evidentials: Turkic, Iranian and Neighbouring Languages. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. p. 59. ISBN 3-11-016158-3.
2. Yakup, Abdurishid (2005). The Turfan Dialect of Uyghur (illustrated ed.). Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. p. 479. ISBN 3-447-05233-3.

External links

 

Salar language test of Wikipedia at Wikimedia Incubator

• Abstract of Article on Salar, includes some phrases (The Salar is written in Chinese Pinyin, not the Salar alphabet)
• Remarks on the Salar Language
• Salar Language Materials