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Javanese people

May 19, 2023

For other uses, see Javanese (disambiguation).
Not to be confused with Japanese people.

The Javanese (Indonesian: Orang Jawa; Javanese: ꦮꦺꦴꦁꦗꦮ, Wong Jawa (in Ngoko register); ꦠꦶꦪꦁꦗꦮꦶ, Tiyang Jawi (in Krama register))[16] are an Austronesian ethnic group native to the central and eastern part of the Indonesian island of Java. With approximately 100 million people,[17] Javanese people are the largest ethnic group in both Indonesia and in Southeast Asia as a whole. Their native language is Javanese, it is the largest of the Austronesian languages in number of native speakers and also the largest regional language in Southeast Asia.[18] The Javanese as the largest ethnic group in the region have dominated the historical, social, and political landscape in the past as well as in modern Indonesia and Southeast Asia.[19]

Javanese
A Javanese bride and groom wearing their traditional garb
Total population
c. 100 million
Regions with significant populations
 Indonesia95,217,022 (2010)[2]
 Malaysiac. 5,000,000 (including Malaysian citizens counted as "Malays")[note 1]
 Saudi Arabia150,000-1,500,000 (2014) (Javanese and Indonesian descent are often referred to as 'Al-Jawi' which means people from the Javanese islands (modern Indonesia))[6][7][8]
 Singaporec. 400,000 (including Singaporean citizens, more than 60% of Singaporean Malays are of Javanese descent)[9]
 Suriname102,000 (2019) (Javanese Surinamese)[10]
 Netherlands21,700[11][12]
 Sri Lanka8,500[13]
 New Caledonia4,100[14]
Languages
  • Native:
  • Dialects:
    • Western Javanese (North Banten, Cirebon, Tegal, Banyumasan) Central Javanese (Mataram, Pekalongan, Bagelen, Semarang, Blora, Madiunan) and Eastern Javanese (Arekan, Jombang, Tengger, Osing)
  • Other:
  •  
Religion
Predominantly
Sunni Islam (97.15%)
Minorities
Christianity 2.56% (1.59% Protestants and 0.97% Roman Catholics), Hinduism (0.17%), Buddhist (0.10%), Others (0.01%)[15]
Related ethnic groups
This article contains letters from the Javanese script. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Javanese characters.

There are very significant numbers of Javanese diaspora outside of central and eastern Java regions, including the other provinces of Indonesia, and also in another countries such as Suriname, Singapore, Malaysia, Egypt, Saudi Arabia, South Africa, Sri Lanka, Yemen and the Netherlands.[20][21][22][23] The Javanese ethnic group has many sub-groups (based on native Javanese community on the island of Java) that can be distinguished based on their characteristics, customs, traditions, dialects, or even ways of life, such as Banyumasan, Cirebonese, Mataram, Osing, Tenggerese, etc.[24] The majority of the Javanese people identify themselves as Sunni Muslims, with a small minority identifying as Christians and Hindus. With a large global population, the Javanese are considered significant as they are the largest Muslim ethnic group in the Far East and the fourth largest in the world after the Arabs,[25] Bengalis,[26] and Punjabis.[27]

Javanese civilisation has been influenced by more than a millennium of interactions between the native animism Kejawen and the Indian Hindu—Buddhist culture, and this influence is still visible in Javanese history, culture, traditions, and art forms. The ancient Javanese kingdoms of Singhasari and Majapahit were among the most powerful maritime empires in the region, whose boundaries included most of the Nusantara and parts of Indochina. Javanese heritage has created magnificent religious monuments such as Borobudur and Prambanan which are among the world's largest temples. Javanese culture has a strong influence in most of the Southeast Asian countries. In Brunei, Malaysia, and Singapore, the influence of Javanese culture can be seen in many aspects of modern Malay culture.[28] Javanese culture has greatly influenced their traditional cuisine with many dishes such as satay, sambal, ketupat, nasi kuning (pulut kuning), and rojak. Kris weapons, batik practice, gamelan musical instruments, ronggeng dance, and wayang kulit puppet[29] were introduced to them through Javanese contact. Javanese culture has also spread widely beyond Southeast Asia such as Madagascar,[30] Sri Lanka, South Africa, and Suriname, where many of the Javanese diaspora live there.[31][32]

History

For other uses, see Javanese historical texts.
See also: Javanese people § Migrations
 
As early as the 1st century CE Indonesian (Javanese) vessels made trade voyages as far as Africa. Picture: a ship carved on Borobudur in Java, c. 800 CE.

Like most Indonesian ethnic groups, including the Sundanese of West Java, the Javanese are of Austronesian origins whose ancestors are thought to have originated in Taiwan, and migrated through the Philippines[33] to reach Java between 1,500BC and 1,000BC.[34] However, according to recent genetic study, Javanese together with Sundanese and Balinese has almost equal ratio of genetic marker shared between Austronesian and Austroasiatic heritages.[35]

Ancient Javanese kingdoms and empires

 
Javanese adapted many aspects of Indian culture, such as the Ramayana epic.

Hindu and Buddhist influences arrived through trade contacts with the Indian subcontinent.[36] Hindu and Buddhist - traders and visitors, arrived in the 5th century. The Hindu, Buddhist and Javanese faiths blended into a unique local philosophy.[33]

The cradle of Javanese culture is commonly described as being in Kedu and Kewu Plain in the fertile slopes of Mount Merapi as the heart of the Mataram Kingdom.[37] The earliest Sanjaya and Sailendra dynasties had their power base there.[38]: 238–239 

The centre of Javanese culture and politics was moved towards the eastern part of the island when Mpu Sindok (r. 929–947) moved the capital of the kingdoms eastward to the valleys of the Brantas River in the 10th century CE. The move was most likely caused by the volcanic eruption of Merapi and/or invasion from Srivijaya.[38]: 238–239 

The major spread of Javanese influence occurred under King Kertanegara of Singhasari in the late 13th century. The expansionist king launched several major expeditions to Madura, Bali in 1284,[39] Borneo[when?] and most importantly to Sumatra in 1275.[38] Following the defeat of the Melayu Kingdom, Singhasari controlled trade in the Strait of Malacca.

Singhasari dominance was cut short in 1292 by Kediri's rebellion under Jayakatwang, killing Kertanegara. However, Jayakatwang's reign as king of Java soon ended as he was defeated by Kertanegara's son-in-law, Raden Wijaya with the help of invading Mongol troops in March 1293.

Raden Wijaya would later establish Majapahit near the delta of the Brantas River in modern-day Mojokerto, East Java. Kertanegara policies were later continued by the Majapahits under King Hayam Wuruk and his minister Gajah Mada.[39]

Various kingdoms of Java were actively involved in the spice trade in the sea route of the Silk Road. Although not major spice producers, these kingdoms were able to stockpile spice by trading for it with rice, of which Java was a major producer.[40] Majapahit is usually regarded as the greatest of these kingdoms. It was both an agrarian and a maritime power, combining wet-rice cultivation and foreign trade.[41] The ruin of their capital can be found in Trowulan.

Javanese sultanates

 
Sultan Amangkurat II of Mataram (upper right) watching warlord Untung Surapati fighting Captain Tack of the Dutch East India Company (VOC). Ca 1684 AD.

Islam gained its foothold in port towns on Java's northern coast such as Gresik, Ampel Denta (Surabaya), Tuban, Demak and Kudus. The spread and proselytising of Islam among the Javanese was traditionally credited to Wali Songo.[42]

Java underwent major changes as Islam spread. Following succession disputes and civil wars, Majapahit power collapsed. After this collapse, its various dependencies and vassals broke free.[43] The Sultanate of Demak became the new strongest power, gaining supremacy among city-states on the northern coast of Java.[44] Aside from its power over Javanese city-states, it also gained overlordship of the ports of Jambi and Palembang in eastern Sumatra.[44] Demak played a major role in opposing the newly arrived colonial power, the Portuguese. Demak twice attacked the Portuguese following their capture of Malacca. They also attacked the allied forces of the Portuguese and the Sunda Kingdom, establishing in the process the Sultanate of Banten.

Demak was succeeded by the Kingdom of Pajang and finally the Sultanate of Mataram. The centre of power moved from coastal Demak, to Pajang in Blora, and later further inland to Mataram lands in Kotagede, near present-day Yogyakarta. The Mataram Sultanate reached its peak of power and influence during the reign of Sultan Agung Hanyokrokusumo between 1613 and 1645.

Colonial Java

 
A Javanese courtly ceremony at Keraton Surakarta in 1932

In 1619 the Dutch established their trading headquarter in Batavia. Java slowly fell to the Dutch East India Company, which would also eventually control most of Maritime Southeast Asia. The internal intrigue and war of succession, in addition to Dutch interference, caused the Mataram Sultanate to break up into Surakarta and Yogyakarta. The further separation of the Javanese realm was marked by the establishment of the Mangkunegaran and Pakualaman princedom. Although the real political power in those days actually lay with the colonial Dutch, the Javanese kings, in their keratons, still held prestige as the supposed power centre of the Javanese realm, especially in and around Surakarta and Yogyakarta.

Dutch rule was briefly interrupted by British rule in the early 19th century. While short, the British administration led by Stamford Raffles was significant, and included the re-discovery of Borobudur. Conflict with foreign rule was exemplified by the Java War between 1825 and 1830, and the leadership of Prince Diponegoro.

Like the rest of the Dutch East Indies, Java was captured by the Empire of Japan during World War II. With Japan's defeat, independence was proclaimed in the new Republic of Indonesia.

Republic of Indonesia

When the Indonesian independence was proclaimed on 17 August 1945, the last sovereign Javanese monarchies, represented by the Sri Sultan of Yogyakarta, the Sunanate of Surakarta and Prince of Mangkunegara declared that they would become part of the Republic of Indonesia.

Yogyakarta and Pakualam were later united to form the Yogyakarta Special Region. The Sri sultan became Governor of Yogyakarta, and the Prince of Pakualaman became vice-governor; both were responsible to the President of Indonesia. The Special Region of Yogyakarta was created after the war of independence ended and formalized on 3 August 1950. Surakarta was later absorbed as part of the Central Java province.

Culture

Main article: Javanese culture
See also: Javanese dance and Javanisation
 
Javanese cultural expressions, such as wayang and gamelan, are often used to promote the excellence of Javanese culture.
 
The Javanese are the inventors of batik; it is an Indonesian culture that is widely known and popular in many countries including Singapore, Malaysia, Thailand, Philippines, Sri Lanka and East African countries.

The Javanese culture is one of the oldest civilizations and has flourished in Indonesia and Southeast Asia. It has gradually absorbed various elements and influences from other cultures, including native reverence for ancestral and natural spirits, Buddhist and Hindu dharmic values, Islamic civilization, and to a lesser extent, Christianity, Western philosophy and modern ideas.[45][46] Nevertheless, Javanese culture — especially in the Javanese cultural heartland; those of highly polished aristocratic culture of the keratons in Yogyakarta and Surakarta — demonstrates some specific traits, such as particular concern with elegance and refinement (Javanese: alus), subtlety, politeness, courtesy, indirectness, emotional restraint and consciousness to one's social stature.[47] Javanese culture values harmony and social order highly, and abhors direct conflicts and disagreements. These Javanese values are often promoted through Javanese cultural expressions, such as Javanese dance, gamelan, wayang and batik. It is also reinforced through adherence to Javanese adat (traditional rules) in ceremonies, such as Slametan, Satu Suro, Javanese weddings and Naloni Mitoni.

However, the culture of pesisiran of Javanese north coast and in Eastern Java demonstrates some slightly different traits. They tend to be more open to new and foreign ideas, more egalitarian, and less conscious of one's social stature. Some of these northern settlements — such as Demak, Kudus, Tuban, Gresik and Ampel in Surabaya — have become more overtly Islamic, traditionally because these port towns are among the earliest places that Islamic teachings gained foothold in Java.

 
Gamelan is one of Javanese cultural expression that demonstrate refinement.

Javanese culture is traditionally centered in the Central Java, Yogyakarta and East Java provinces of Indonesia. Due to various migrations, it can also be found in other parts of the world, such as Suriname (where 15% of the population are of Javanese descent),[48] the broader Indonesian archipelago region,[31] Cape Malay,[32] Malaysia, Singapore, Netherlands and other countries. The migrants bring with them various aspect of Javanese cultures such as Gamelan music, traditional dances[49] and the art of Wayang kulit shadow play.[50] The migration of Javanese people westward has created a coastal Javanese culture in West Java distinct from the inland Sundanese culture.

Language

Main article: Javanese language
See also: Javanese script and Javanese (Unicode block)

Javanese is a member of the Austronesian family of languages and is closely related to, but distinct from, other languages of Indonesia.[51] It is notable for its great number of nearly ubiquitous Sanskrit loans, found especially in literary Javanese.[52] This is due to the long history of Hindu and Buddhist influences in Java.

Many Javanese in Indonesia are bilingual, being fluent in Indonesian (the standardized variant of the Malay language) and Javanese.[53] In a public poll held c. 1990, approximately 12% of Javanese used Indonesian, around 18% used both Javanese and Indonesian, and the rest used Javanese exclusively.[clarification needed][citation needed]

The Javanese language was formerly written with a script descended from the Brahmi script, natively known as Hanacaraka or Carakan. In addition, Javanese language can also written with right-to-left script descended from the Arabic script called Pegon. Upon Indonesian independence it was replaced with a form of the Latin alphabet. While Javanese was not made an official language of Indonesia, it has the status of regional language for communication in the Javanese-majority regions. The language also can be viewed as an ethnic language because it is one of the defining characteristics of the Javanese ethnic identity.[51]

Literature and philosophy

Main articles: Javanese literature and Javanese poetry
 
The Serat Selarasa (MSS Jav. 28) is the most beautiful illuminated Javanese manuscript in the British Library. It is dated 1804, making it perhaps the earliest finely-illustrated Javanese manuscript known.

Javanese intellectuals, writers, poets and men of letters are known for their ability to formulate ideas and creating idioms for high cultural purpose, through stringing words to express a deeper philosophical meanings. Several philosophical idioms sprung from Javanese classical literature, Javanese historical texts and oral traditions, and have spread into several media and promoted as popular mottos. For example, "Bhinneka Tunggal Ika", used as the national motto of the Republic of Indonesia, "Gemah Ripah Loh Jinawi, Toto Tentrem Kerto Raharjo", "Jer Basuki Mawa Bea", "Rawe-Rawe rantas, Malang-Malang putung" and "Tut Wuri Handayani".[54]

Social structure

 
Javanese priyayi (aristocrat) and servants, c. 1865

American anthropologist Clifford Geertz divided in the 1960s the Javanese community into three aliran or "streams": santri, abangan and priyayi. According to him, the Santri followed an orthodox interpretation Islam, the abangan followed a syncretic form of Islam that mixed Hindu and animist elements (often termed Kejawen), and the priyayi were the nobility.[55]

The Geertz opinion is often opposed today because he mixed the social groups with belief groups. It was also difficult to apply this social categorization in classing outsiders, for example other non-indigenous Indonesians such as persons of Arab, Chinese and Indian descent.

Social stratification is much less rigid in northern coast area.

Calendar

Main article: Javanese calendar

The Javanese calendar is used by the Javanese people concurrently with two other calendars, the Gregorian calendar and the Islamic calendar. The Gregorian calendar is the official calendar of Indonesia, while the Islamic calendar is used by Muslims and Indonesian government for religious worship and deciding relevant Islamic holidays. The Javanese calendar is presently used mostly for cultural events (such as Siji Suro). The Javanese calendar system is currently a lunar calendar adopted by Sultan Agung in 1633, based on the Islamic calendar. Previously, Javanese people used a solar system based on the Hindu calendar.

Unlike many other calendars, the Javanese calendar uses a 5-day week known as the Pasaran cycle. This is still in use today and is superimposed with 7-day week of the Gregorian calendar and Islamic calendar to become what is known as the 35-day Wetonan cycle.

Architecture

Historical temples located in Central Java and East Java

Main article: Candi of Indonesia
 
There are hundreds of temples found in central and eastern Java (Javanese area); this is the most of any area in Indonesia and Southeast Asia.
 
Sukuh temple near Tawang Mangu, Central Java
 
Borobudur, the world's largest Buddhist temple

Throughout their long history, the Javanese have produced many important buildings, ranging from Hindu monuments, Buddhist stupa, mortuary temples, palace complexes, and mosques.

Before the rise of Islam, between the 5th to 15th centuries, Dharmic faiths (Hinduism and Buddhism) were the majority in the Indonesian archipelago, especially in Java. As a result, numerous Hindu temples, locally known as Candi, were constructed and dominated the landscape of Java. According to local beliefs, the Java valley had thousands of Hindu temples that co-existed with Buddhist temples, most of which were buried in the massive eruption of Mount Merapi in 1006 AD.[56]

Two important religious monuments are the Hindu temple of Prambanan and the Buddhist temple of Borobudur. Both of them are 9th century temples and UNESCO World Heritage Sites. Both are located near Yogyakarta in the slope of Mount Merapi.

Meanwhile, examples of secular buildings can be seen in the ruins of the former capital city of the Majapahit Kingdom (14th to 16th century AD) in Trowulan, East Java. The complex covers an area of 11 km x 9 km. It consists of various brick buildings, a canal ranging from 20 to 40 meters wide, purification pools, temples and iconic split gates.[57] The capital complex is currently being considered as a candidate for becoming a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

Traditional Javanese buildings

Main article: Javanese traditional house
 
Traditional Javanese house

Traditional Javanese buildings can be identified by their trapezoid shaped roofs supported by wooden pillars.[58] Another common feature in Javanese buildings are pendopo, pavilions with open-sides and four large pillars. The pillars and other parts of the buildings can be richly carved. This architecture style can be found at kraton, or palaces, of the Sultanates of Yogyakarta (palaces of Hamengkubuwono and Pakualaman) and Surakarta (palaces of Pakubuwono and Mangkunegaran).[59]

Traditional mosques in Java maintain a distinctive Javanese style. The pendopo model is used as the main feature of mosques as prayer halls. A trapezoidal roof is used instead of the more typically Muslim dome. These roofs are often multi-tiered and tiled.[60] In addition to not using domes, traditional Javanese mosques also often lack minarets.[61] The split gate from earlier Hindu-Buddhist period is still used in many mosques and public buildings in Java.

Some notable examples of mosques using traditional Javanese architecture include the Agung Demak Mosque, the Menara Kudus Mosque and the Great Mosque of Banten. The Kudus Mosque is also of note because it incorporates Hindu-style stone architecture.

Cuisine

Main article: Javanese cuisine
 
The Javanese may have invented tempeh
 
Sambal is a typical Javanese chili sauce that is very popular in the region and influences many traditional dishes.
 
Nasi tumpeng, the quintessentially Javanese rice dish, symbolises the volcano.

Rice is the staple crop of Javanese cuisine; a meal in Java is not considered a meal without it.[62] It is also an important part of the Javanese cultural identity, differentiating them from residents of other Indonesian islands who eat sago (for example Moluccans) and expatriates from western countries who tend more towards bread. Rice is seen as a symbol of development and prosperity, whereas tuber vegetables like cassava are associated with poverty.[63]

Javanese cuisine varies by region. Eastern Java has a preference for hot and salty foods,[63] while the Central Javanese tend to prefer sweeter foods.

A famous food in Javanese cuisine is Rujak Cingur,[64] marinated cow lips and noses served with vegetable, shrimp prawn and peanut sauce with chili. Rujak Cingur is considered a traditional food in Surabaya in East Java.

Gudeg is a traditional food from Yogyakarta[65] and Central Java which is made from young Nangka (jack fruit) boiled for several hours with palm sugar, and coconut milk.

Pecel, a type of peanut sauce with chili[66] is a common ingredient in Javanese cuisine. It is used in various types of Rujak and Gado-gado. It can also be used as stand-alone sauce with rice, prawns, eggs and vegetables as Nasi Pecel (Pecel rice).[67]

Tumpeng, is a rice served in the shape of a conical volcano,[68] usually with rice coloured yellow using turmeric. It is an important part of many ceremonies in Java. Tumpeng is served at landmark events such as birthdays, moving house, or other ceremonies.[69] Traditionally, Tumpeng is served alongside fried chicken, boiled egg, vegetables, and goat meat on a round plate made from bamboo called besek.

A notable food in Java is tempeh, a meat substitute made from soybean fermented with mould. It is a staple source of protein in Java and popular around the world as a meat substitute for vegetarians.

Names

Main article: Javanese names

Javanese do not usually have family names or surnames, with only a single name. Javanese names may come from traditional Javanese languages, many of which are derived from Sanskrit. Names with the prefix Su-, which means good, are very popular. After the advent of Islam, many Javanese began to use Arabic names, especially coast populations, where Islamic influences are stronger. Commoners usually only have one-word names, while nobilities use two-or-more-word names, but rarely a surname. Some people use a patronymic. Due to the influence of other cultures, many people started using names from other languages, mainly European languages. Christian Javanese usually use Latin baptism names followed by a traditional Javanese name.

Religion

Religions Total
Islam 92,107,046
Christianity 2,428,121
Hinduism 160,090
Buddhism 90,465
Others 12,456
Overall 94,788,943

[70]

Religion of Javanese[15]

  Sunni Islam (97.17%)
  Protestantism (1.59%)
  Roman Catholic (0.97%)
  Hinduism (0.16%)
  Buddhism (0.10%)
  Other, mostly Kejawen (0.01%)

Today, most Javanese officially follow Sunni Islam as their religion,[71] first recorded instance of Islamic contact in Java is dated from 475 Hijri (1082 AD), as attested in the grave of Fatimah binti Maimun.[72]: 56  However Islamic development only became more intensive during the Majapahit period, when they traded or made tributary relations with various states like Perlak and Samudra Pasai in modern-day Aceh.[41] In the Troloyo/Tralaya cemetery of Trowulan (the capital of Majapahit), there are several Muslim tombstones with dates from the 14th century (1368 AD, 1376 AD). The close proximity of the site with the kraton means there were Muslim people in close relation with the court.[73]: 6 

A minority of Javanese also follow Christianity (Protestantism and Catholicism), which are concentrated in Central Java (particularly Semarang, Surakarta, Salatiga, Magelang) and Yogyakarta for Catholicism. Native Christian churches such as the Javanese Christian Church (Gereja Kristen Jawa) and East Java Christian Church (Gereja Kristen Jawi Wetan) also exist. On a smaller scale, Hinduism and Buddhism are also found in the Javanese community. The Javanese of the Tengger tribe continue to practice Javanese-Hindu today, and live in villages on the slope of Mount Bromo.[74]

Kebatinan, also called Kejawèn,[75] Agama Jawa[76] and Kepercayaan[77] is a Javanese religious tradition, consisting of an amalgam of animistic, Hindu-Buddhist, and Islamic, especially Sufi, beliefs and practices. It is rooted in Javanese history and religiosity, syncretising aspects of different religions.

Occupations

In Indonesia, Javanese people can be found in all occupations, especially in the government and the military.

Farming

Traditionally, most Javanese people are farmers. Farming is especially common because of the fertile volcanic soil in Java. The most important agricultural commodity is rice. In 1997, it was estimated that Java produced 55% of Indonesia's total output of the crop.[78] Most farmers work in small-scale rice fields, with around 42% of farmers working and cultivating less than 0.5 hectares of land.[78] In region where soil is less fertile of where rainy season is short, other staple crops is cultivated, such as cassava.[79]

Merchant-sailor

 
A Javanese sailor

Javanese merchants and sailors were already in frequent voyage in the seas between India and China as early as 1st century CE.[80]: 31–35 [81]: 25 

Champa was assaulted by Javanese or Kunlun vessels in 774 and 787.[82][83][84] In 774 an assault was launched on Po-Nagar in Nha-trang where the pirates demolished temples, while in 787 an assault was launched on Phang-rang.[85][86][87] Several Champa coastal cities suffered naval raids and assault from Java. Java armadas was called as Javabala-sanghair-nāvāgataiḥ (fleets from Java) which are recorded in Champa epigraphs.[88][89]

The Javanese may have contacted Australia in 10th century AD, and migrated there, their settlement existing until early 1600s. According to Waharu IV inscription (931 AD) and Garaman inscription (1053 AD),[90][91] the Mataram kingdom and Airlangga's era Kahuripan kingdom (1000–1049 AD) of Java experienced a long prosperity so that it needed a lot of manpower, especially to bring crops, packings, and send them to ports. Black labor was imported from Jenggi (Zanzibar), Pujut (Australia), and Bondan (Papua).[92][93] According to Naerssen, they arrived in Java by trading (bought by merchants) or being taken prisoner during a war and then made slaves.[94] According to Chiaymasiouro, the king of Demak, in 1601 AD a subgroup of Javanese people already settled in a land called Luca Antara, which is believed to be Australia.[95] But when Eredia's servant went to Luca Antara in 1610, the land had seemingly been abandoned.[96]

The 10th century Arab account Ajayeb al-Hind (Marvels of India) gives an account of invasion in Africa by people called Wakwak or Waqwaq,[97]: 110  probably the Malay people of Srivijaya or Javanese people of Mataram kingdom,[98]: 27 [99]: 39  in 945–946 CE. They arrived in the coast of Tanganyika and Mozambique with 1000 boats and attempted to take the citadel of Qanbaloh, though eventually failed. The reason of the attack is because that place had goods suitable for their country and for China, such as ivory, tortoise shells, panther skins, and ambergris, and also because they wanted black slaves from Bantu people (called Zeng or Zenj by Arabs, Jenggi by Javanese) who were strong and make good slaves.[97]: 110  The existence of black Africans was recorded until the 15th century in Old Javanese inscriptions[100][101] and the Javanese were still recorded as exporting black slaves during the Ming dynasty era.[102]

The Malagasy people have genetic links to various Maritime Southeast Asian groups, particularly from southern Borneo.[103] Parts of the Malagasy language are sourced from the Ma'anyan language with loan words from Sanskrit, with all the local linguistic modifications via Javanese or Malay language.[104] As the Ma'anyan and Dayak people are not a sailor and were dry-rice cultivators while some Malagasy are wet rice farmers, it is likely that they are carried by the Javanese and Malay people in their trading fleets, as labor or slaves.[97]: 114–115 

During the Majapahit era, almost all of the commodities from Asia were found in Java. This is because of extensive shipping by the Majapahit empire using various type of ships, particularly the jong, for trading to faraway places.[99]: 267–293  Early 16th century European accounts noted the places which the Javanese merchants visited, which include Maluku Islands, Timor, Banda, Sumatra, Malacca, China, Tenasserim, Pegu (Bago), Bengal, Pulicat, Coromandel, Malabar, Cambay (Khambat), and Aden. There were also those who went to the Maldives, Calicut (Kozhikode), Oman, Aden, and the Red Sea.[105]: 191–193 [106]: 199  Ma Huan (Zheng He's translator) who visited Java in 1413, stated that ports in Java were trading goods and offer services that were more numerous and more complete than other ports in Southeast Asia.[99]: 233–234, 239–240  It was also during Majapahit era that Nusantaran exploration reached its greatest accomplishment. Ludovico di Varthema (1470–1517), in his book Itinerario de Ludouico de Varthema Bolognese stated that the Southern Javanese people sailed to "far Southern lands" up to the point they arrived at an island where a day only lasted four hours long and was "colder than in any part of the world". Modern studies have determined that such place is located at least 900 nautical miles (1666 km) south of the southernmost point of Tasmania.[107]: 248–251  When Afonso de Albuquerque conquered Malacca, the Portuguese recovered a chart from a Javanese maritime pilot, which already included part of the Americas. Regarding the chart Albuquerque said:[108]: 64 [109]: 98–99 

"...a large map of a Javanese pilot, containing the Cape of Good Hope, Portugal and the land of Brazil, the Red Sea and the Sea of Persia, the Clove Islands, the navigation of the Chinese and the Gores, with their rhumbs and direct routes followed by the ships, and the hinterland, and how the kingdoms border on each other. It seems to me. Sir, that this was the best thing I have ever seen, and Your Highness will be very pleased to see it; it had the names in Javanese writing, but I had with me a Javanese who could read and write. I send this piece to Your Highness, which Francisco Rodrigues traced from the other, in which Your Highness can truly see where the Chinese and Gores come from, and the course your ships must take to the Clove Islands, and where the gold mines lie, and the islands of Java and Banda, of nutmeg and mace, and the land of the King of Siam, and also the end of the land of the navigation of the Chinese, the direction it takes, and how they do not navigate farther."

— Letter of Albuquerque to King Manuel I of Portugal, 1 April 1512.

The Javanese people, like other Austronesian ethnicities, use a solid navigation system: Orientation at sea is carried out using a variety of different natural signs, and by using a very distinctive astronomy technique called "star path navigation". Basically, the navigators determine the bow of the ship to the islands that are recognized by using the position of rising and setting of certain stars above the horizon.[110]: 10  In the Majapahit era, compasses and magnets were used, and cartography (mapping science) was developed. In 1293 AD Raden Wijaya presented a map and census record to the Yuan Mongol invader, suggesting that mapmaking has been a formal part of governmental affair in Java.[111]: 53  The use of maps full of longitudinal and transverse lines, rhumb lines, and direct route lines traveled by ships were recorded by Europeans, to the point that the Portuguese considered the Javanese maps were the best map in the early 1500s.[107]: 249 [112]: lxxix [109][99]: 163–164, 166–168 [113]

European colonial presence diminished the range of the Javanese merchant-sailors. In 1645, Diogo do Couto noted that the Javanese had communicated with the east coast of Madagascar.[114] The decision of Amangkurat I of the Mataram Sultanate to destroy ships in coastal cities and close ports to prevent them from rebelling in the mid-17th century further reduced the Javanese people's ability in long-distance sailing.[115]: 79–80  In 1705 there is an agreement signed by VOC and Pakubuwana I of Mataram, which forbade the Javanese to sail to the east of Lombok, to the north of Kalimantan, and to the west of Lampung. In the second half of the 18th century, most of the Javanese merchant-sailors were restricted to only short-range travel.[110]: 20–21 [116]: 116–117 

Shipbuilder

 
 
Ships of the Javanese people:

The Javanese were known to produce large ships called K'un-lun po (po of the K'un-lun people). These ships already plied the seas between India and China as early as 2nd century CE, carrying up to 1000 people alongside 250–1000 tons of cargo. The characteristics of this ship are that it is large (more than 50–60 m long), the hull is made of multiple plankings, has no outrigger, mounted with many masts and sails, the sail is in the form of a tanja sail, and has a plank fastening technique in the form of stitching with plant fibers.[117]: 27–28 [118]: 41 [119]: 275 [120]: 262 [121]: 347 

Javanese trading and slaving activities in Africa caused a strong influence on boatbuilding on Madagascar and the East African coast. This is indicated by the existence of outriggers and oculi (eye ornament) on African boats.[122]: 253–288 

Another large ship built by the Javanese was the jong, first recorded in an Old Javanese inscription from the 9th century AD.[115]: 60  Although the characteristics may be similar, it has some differences from the po that it was using wooden dowels for joining the planks and has double passenger-to-deadweight ratio. During the Majapahit era, a jong usually carried 600–700 men with 1200–1400 tons deadweight, and was about 69.26–72.55 m LOD and 76.18–79.81 m LOA. The largest ones, carried 1000 men with 2000 tons deadweight, was about 80.51 m LOD and 88.56 m LOA.[123] The jong was mainly constructed in two major shipbuilding centres around Java: north coastal Java, especially around Rembang–Demak (along the Muria strait) and Cirebon; and the south coast of Borneo (Banjarmasin) and the adjacent islands.[124]: 33  Pegu, which is a large shipbuilding port at the 16th century, also produced jong, built by Javanese who resided there.[125]: 250 

Impressed by the Javanese's skill in shipbuilding, Afonso de Albuquerque hired 60 Javanese carpenters and shipbuilders to work in India for the Portuguese. They never arrived in India, as they mutinied and took the Portuguese ship they boarded to Pasai, where they were welcomed extraordinarily.[126]: 102–103  The Dutch also realized Javanese proficiency in shipbuilding, in the 18th century, shipbuilding yards in Amsterdam employed Javanese people as the foremen.[127]: 202  The shipbuilding in Java was hampered when the VOC gained a foothold in Java starting in the early 17th century. However, in the 18th century, the Javanese shipbuilding areas (particularly Rembang and Juwana) started building large European-styled vessels (bark and brigantine type),[110]: 20  such ships may reach 400–600 tons burthen, with an average of 92 lasts (165.6–184 metric tons).[128] In 1856, John Crawfurd noted that Javanese shipbuilding activity still existed on the north coast of Java, with the shipyards supervised by Europeans, but all of the workers were Javanese. The ships that were built in the 19th century had a maximum tonnage of 50 tons and were used for river transport.[98]: 95 

Blacksmith

  •  

    A decorative kris with a figure of Semar as the handle. The bilah has thirteen luk.

  •  

    Varieties of Javanese keris

  •  

    Weapons of Java: machetes, maces, bow and arrows, blowpipe, and sling

  •  

    Keris of Java

  •  

    Short swords, shields, and a matchlock gun (istinggar)

  •  

    Javanese weapons and standards

  •  

    Various keris and pole weapons of Java

  •  

    Javanese weapons: Spears, an istinggar and senapan, and a model of a cannon in its carriage.

Blacksmiths are traditionally valued. Some blacksmiths fast and meditate to reach perfection. Javanese blacksmiths create a range of tools and farming equipment, and also cultural items such as gamelan instruments and kris.[79] The art of kris-making provided the technical skills applied to gunmaking. Cannon and firearms required special expertise and may have been made by the same individuals. The blacksmith's spiritual power was said to be transferred to the guns.[129]: 384  Majapahit under Mahapatih (prime minister) Gajah Mada (in office 1331–1364) utilized gunpowder technology obtained from Yuan dynasty for use in the naval fleet.[130]: 57  Pole gun (bedil tombak) was recorded as being used by Javanese people in 1413.[131][132]: 245 

Duarte Barbosa ca. 1514 said that the inhabitants of Java are great masters in casting artillery and very good artillerymen. They make many one-pounder cannons (cetbang or rentaka), long muskets, spingarde (arquebus), schioppi (hand cannon), Greek fire, guns (cannons), and other fire-works. Every place are considered excellent in casting artillery, and in the knowledge of using it.[107]: 254 [105]: 198 [133]: 224  In 1513, the Javanese fleet led by Pati Unus, sailed to attack Portuguese Malacca "with much artillery made in Java, for the Javanese are skilled in founding and casting, and in all works in iron, exceeding what they have in India".[134]: 162 [135]: 23 

Zhang Xie in Dong Xi Yang Kao (1618) mentioned that city of Palembang, which has been conquered by Javanese, produces the furious fiery oil (meng huo yu), which according to the Hua I Kao is a kind of tree secretion (shu chin), and is also called mud oil (ni yu). Zhang Xie wrote:[136]: 88 

It much resemble camphor, and can corrode human flesh. When ignited and thrown on water, its light and flame become all the more intense. The barbarians use it as a fire-weapon and produce great conflagrations in which sails, bulwarks, upperworks and oars all catch fire and cannot withstand it. Fishes and tortoises coming in contact with it cannot escape from being scorched.

Because there was no mention of projector pump, the weapon is probably breakable bottles with fuses.[136]: 88 

Kris knives are important items, with many heirloom kris holding significant historical value. The design of the kris is to tear apart an opponent's abdomen, making the injury more severe.

Kota Gede is famous for its silverworks and silver handicrafts.[137]

Javanese people made several types of armor such as karambalangan, kawaca, siping-siping, and waju rante. They also made steel helmets called rukuh. However, they are probably only popular with high-ranking soldiers and trained/salaried troops, as most of the Javanese armies consisted of peasant levy who fought bare-chested.[99]: 320–321 [138]: 75–80 [139]: 111–113 

Batik making

Batik are worn by both men and women, with patterns varying to denote social stature. Batik are also used ceremonially, with certain designs used to bring good luck to a newborn infant or a newly wed couple and their families.[140][141] Some towns and villages have specialized in making batik, such as Pekalongan, Kauman, Kampung Taman and Laweyan.

Wood carving

The Javanese art of wood carving is traditionally applied to various cultural attributes such as statues, (wayang-)dolls, and masks. Woodcarving also prominent as house ornamentation and details. The elaborately carved Omah Kudus is a fine example of Javanese woodcarving mastery. The Central Java town of Jepara is famous as a center of Javanese woodcarving workshops, where artists and carpenters especially working on Javan teak wood.[142]

  •  

    Javanese woodworkers making traditional masks during the Dutch East Indies era

  •  

    The carpenters' tools of the Javanese people

  •  

    Javanese agricultural tools

  •  

    A drawing of Javanese manufacturing tools, handicrafts, and musical instruments

  •  

    Javanese musical instruments, many of which require the skills of blacksmith and carpenters

  •  

    Javanese masks

Migrations

Main article: Javanese diaspora
See also: Javanese contact with Australia, Javanese Malaysians, and Indonesian Malaysians § Javanese

The Javanese were probably involved in the Austronesian migration to Madagascar in the first centuries C.E. While the culture of the migration is most closely related with the Ma'anyan people of Borneo, a portion of the Malagasy language is derived from loanwords from the Javanese language.[30] It is possible that Ma'anyan people (or other indigenous people of Kalimantan closely related to the Ma'anyans) were brought as labourer and slaves by their Javanese masters in their trading fleets, which reached Madagascar by ca. 50–500 AD.[143][144][97]: 114–115 

A Portuguese account described how the Javanese people already had advanced seafaring skills and had communicated with Madagascar in 1645:[114][145]: 311 [115]: 57 [146]: 51 

The Javanese are all men very experienced in the art of navigation, to the point that they claim to be the most ancient of all, although many others give this honor to the Chinese, and affirm that this art was handed on from them to the Javanese. But it is certain that they formerly navigated to the Cape of Good Hope and were in communication with the east coast of the island of São Lourenço (San Laurenzo — Madagascar), where there are many brown and Javanese-like natives who say they are descended from them.
— Diogo do Couto, Decada Quarta da Asia

Since the Hindu kingdom period, Javanese merchants settled at many places in the Indonesian archipelago.[38]: 247  In the late 15th century, following the collapse of Majapahit and the rise of Muslim principalities on the northern coast of Java, many Hindu nobilities, artisans and courtiers migrated to Bali,[39] where they would contribute to the refined culture of Bali. Others who refused to convert to Islam retreated to Tengger mountain, retaining their Hindu religion and becoming the Tenggerese people.

In the conflicts during the transitions of power between the Demak, the Pajang and the Mataram in the late 16th century, some Javanese migrated to Palembang in southern Sumatra. There they established a sultanate and formed a mix of Malay and Javanese culture.[28] Palembang language is a dialect of Malay language with heavy influence of Javanese.

 
Inhabitants of Jave la Grande (Great Java island), from Nicholas Vallard's manuscript sea atlas (1547)

Declaraçam de Malaca e India Meridional com o Cathay by Manuel Godinho de Eredia (1613), described what he called India Meridional (Meridional India — Southern/South India). In his book he relates about the voyage of Chiaymasiouro (or Chiay Masiuro), king of Damuth (Demak) in Java, to a Southern land called Luca Antara (or Lucaantara, a peninsula in North Australia).[note 2][note 3] The book explained that in Meridional India already settled a subgroup of Javanese people. A brief description of this country is given in a letter written by Chiaymasiouro to the King of Pahang and in a certificate made by Pedro de Carvalhaes at Malacca on 4 October 1601.[147] In Report of Meridional India (1610) Eredia mentioned that the Javanese people of Luca Antara in all of their customs and in figure resemble the Javanese of Sunda (west Java),[note 4] only a slight difference in the language, which he described as "much the same as between the Castillian and the Portuguese". The hair extends as far as the shoulders, the tonsure resembles the tonsure of Balinese people, with a curiously curved contour.[96]

During the reign of Sultan Agung (1613–1645), some Javanese began to establish settlements in coastal West Java around Cirebon, Indramayu and Karawang. These Javanese settlements were originally commissioned by Sultan Agung as rice farming villages to support the Javanese troop logistics on his military campaign against Dutch Batavia.

The Javanese were also present in Peninsular Malaya since early times.[148] The Link between Java and Malacca was important during spread of Islam in Indonesia, when religious missionaries were sent from Malacca to seaports on the northern coast of Java.[41] Large migrations to the Malay Peninsula occurred during the colonial period, mostly from Central Java to British Malaya. Migration also took place from 1880 to 1930 from other parts of Java with a secondary migration Javanese from Sumatra. Those migrations were to seek a new life away from the Dutch colonists who ruled Indonesia at that time. Today these people live throughout Peninsular Malaysia and are mainly concentrated in parts of Johor, Perak and Selangor and cities such as Kuala Lumpur.

Today, the Javanese of Malaysia are included in the Malay race along with other native Indonesian ethnic groups, the so-called bumiputera. Many immigrants of the colonial period retain their Javanese identity, and the Javanese language is still spoken, although the younger generation in urban centers mostly has shifted to Malay.[149]

In Singapore, approximately 50–60% of its Malay population have some degree of Javanese ancestry. Most of them have identified themselves as Malays, rather than Javanese.[150]

Javanese merchants were also present in the Maluku Islands as part of the spice trade. Following the Islamisation of Java, they spread Islam in the islands, with Ternate being a Muslim sultanate circa 1484.[151] Javanese merchants also converted coastal cities in Borneo to Islam.[152] The Javanese thus played an important part in transmitting Islam from the western part to the eastern part of the Archipelago with trade based from northern coast of Java.

 
Javanese migrant workers in Suriname, circa 1940

New migration patterns emerged during colonial periods. During the rise of VOC power starting in the 17th century, many Javanese were exiled, enslaved or hired as mercenaries for the Dutch colonies of Ceylon in South Asia and the Cape colony in South Africa. These included princes and nobility who lost their dispute with the company and were exiled along with their retinues. These, along with exiles from other ethnicities like Bugis and Malay became the Sri Lankan Malay[31] and Cape Malay[32] ethnic groups respectively. Other political prisoners were transported to closer places. Prince Diponegoro and his followers were transported to North Sulawesi, following his defeat in Java War in the early 19th century. Their descendants are well known as Jaton (abbreviation of "Jawa Tondano"/Tondano Javanese).

Major migrations started during the Dutch colonial period under transmigration programs. The Dutch needed many labourers for their plantations and moved many Javanese under the program as contract workers, mostly to other parts of the colony in Sumatra. They also sent Javanese workers to Suriname in South America.[153] As of 2019, approximately 13.7% of the Suriname population is of Javanese ancestry.[10] Outside of the Dutch colonies, Javanese workers were also sent to plantations administrated by the Dutch colonial government in New Caledonia, a French territory.[153]

The transmigration program that was created by the Dutch continued following independence. A significant Javanese population can be found in the Jabodetabek (Greater Jakarta) area, Lampung, South Sumatra and Jambi provinces. Several paguyuban (traditional community organisation) were formed by these Javanese immigrants, such as "Pujakesuma" (abbreviation of Indonesian: Putra Jawa Kelahiran Sumatera or Sumatra-born Javanese).

Notable people

Main article: List of Javanese people

See also

Notes

  1. ^ It is very difficult to find exact figures because Malaysian census data does not consider the Javanese as one ethnicity but part of the "Malays", according to the 1950 Malaysian census it was estimated that more than 189,000 Malaysian Malays were born to Javanese parents. This figure is very significant considering the number of Malaysian Malays at that time was just under 3 million. Javanese descendants form large communities in Johor, Selangor, Perak and other states in Malaysia.[3][4][5]
  2. ^ Luca antara: i.e. Nusa antara, the southern land which Eredia claims to have discovered The name Nusa antara occurs in the Pararaton, a Javanese historical work of about the 16th century. Blagden adopts Brandes’ explanation that the expression Nusantara refers to the Archipelago in general. (JRASSB . No. 53. (1909). p. 144). Crawfurd says that the expression Nusa antara denoted Madura. Janssen thinks that Eredia’s Luca antara was Australia or one of the islands off the north Australian coast: Hamy considers it to be Sumba. (Janssen. Malaca, Vlnde Meridionale ei le Cathay. (1882). pp, xi, xii). Major thinks it was Madura.
  3. ^ According to Ferrand, the word nusa is only used in Java, Madura, and Madagascar (nusi); elsewhere, island is generally represented by the name pulaw, pulo, or some dialectical variant thereof. (Journal Asiatique. Tome XX. (1920). p. 190). Nusa may be connected, through Sanskrit, with the Greek νῆσος (nesos). It would appear that the human tongue has a tendency to corrupt an "N" into an "L" thus "Nakhon" has become "Lakhon" (Ligor) and the Malay word nuri has become lory. Linschoten’s map of the Eastern Seas contains the forms Lusa (Luca) and Nusa.
  4. ^ Likely what he meant here is the Cirebonese people, an Austronesian ethnic group with mixed culture of Javanese and Sundanese (heavier influence from Javanese).

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Sources

  • Caldarola, Carlo (1982), Religion and Societies: Asia and the Middle East, Walter de Gruyter
  • Gin, Ooi Keat (2004), Southeast Asia: A Historical Encyclopedia, from Angkor Wat to Timor. R-Z. Volume three, ABC-CLIO
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Further reading

  • de Eredia, Manuel Godinho (1613). Description of Malacca and Meridional India. Translated from the Portuguese with notes by J. V. Mills in Eredia's Description of Malaca, Meridional India, and Cathay, Journal of the Malayan Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society. Vol. VIII, April 1930.
  • Kuncaraningrat Raden Mas; Southeast Asian Studies Program (Institute of Southeast Asian Studies) (1985), Javanese culture, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-582542-8
  • Nugroho, Irawan Djoko (2011). Majapahit Peradaban Maritim. Suluh Nuswantara Bakti. ISBN 9786029346008.
  • Triastanti, Ani. Perdagangan Internasional pada Masa Jawa Kuno; Tinjauan Terhadap Data Tertulis Abad X-XII. Essay of Faculty of Cultural Studies. Gadjah Mada University of Yogyakarta, 2007.
 
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Javanese people.

May 19, 2023
javanese, people, other, uses, javanese, disambiguation, confused, with, japanese, people, javanese, indonesian, orang, jawa, javanese, ꦗꦮ, wong, jawa, ngoko, register, ꦗꦮ, tiyang, jawi, krama, register, austronesian, ethnic, group, native, central, eastern, p. For other uses see Javanese disambiguation Not to be confused with Japanese people The Javanese Indonesian Orang Jawa Javanese ꦮ ꦗꦮ Wong Jawa in Ngoko register ꦠ ꦪ ꦗꦮ Tiyang Jawi in Krama register 16 are an Austronesian ethnic group native to the central and eastern part of the Indonesian island of Java With approximately 100 million people 17 Javanese people are the largest ethnic group in both Indonesia and in Southeast Asia as a whole Their native language is Javanese it is the largest of the Austronesian languages in number of native speakers and also the largest regional language in Southeast Asia 18 The Javanese as the largest ethnic group in the region have dominated the historical social and political landscape in the past as well as in modern Indonesia and Southeast Asia 19 Javaneseꦮ ꦗꦮ Wong Jawa in Ngoko register ꦠ ꦪ ꦗꦮ Tiyang Jawi in Krama register 1 A Javanese bride and groom wearing their traditional garbTotal populationc 100 millionRegions with significant populations Indonesia95 217 022 2010 2 Malaysiac 5 000 000 including Malaysian citizens counted as Malays note 1 Saudi Arabia150 000 1 500 000 2014 Javanese and Indonesian descent are often referred to as Al Jawi which means people from the Javanese islands modern Indonesia 6 7 8 Singaporec 400 000 including Singaporean citizens more than 60 of Singaporean Malays are of Javanese descent 9 Suriname102 000 2019 Javanese Surinamese 10 Netherlands21 700 11 12 Sri Lanka8 500 13 New Caledonia4 100 14 LanguagesNative JavaneseOld Javanese used in rituals Indonesian Dialects Western Javanese North Banten Cirebon Tegal Banyumasan Central Javanese Mataram Pekalongan Bagelen Semarang Blora Madiunan and Eastern Javanese Arekan Jombang Tengger Osing Other MalayDutchFrenchPeranakanReligionPredominantly Sunni Islam 97 15 Minorities Christianity 2 56 1 59 Protestants and 0 97 Roman Catholics Hinduism 0 17 Buddhist 0 10 Others 0 01 15 Related ethnic groupsAustronesian peoples BalineseBanteneseBetawiCireboneseKangeaneseMaduresePalembangSundaneseCape MalaysCocos MalaysSri Lankan MalaysThis article contains letters from the Javanese script Without proper rendering support you may see question marks boxes or other symbols instead of Javanese characters There are very significant numbers of Javanese diaspora outside of central and eastern Java regions including the other provinces of Indonesia and also in another countries such as Suriname Singapore Malaysia Egypt Saudi Arabia South Africa Sri Lanka Yemen and the Netherlands 20 21 22 23 The Javanese ethnic group has many sub groups based on native Javanese community on the island of Java that can be distinguished based on their characteristics customs traditions dialects or even ways of life such as Banyumasan Cirebonese Mataram Osing Tenggerese etc 24 The majority of the Javanese people identify themselves as Sunni Muslims with a small minority identifying as Christians and Hindus With a large global population the Javanese are considered significant as they are the largest Muslim ethnic group in the Far East and the fourth largest in the world after the Arabs 25 Bengalis 26 and Punjabis 27 Javanese civilisation has been influenced by more than a millennium of interactions between the native animism Kejawen and the Indian Hindu Buddhist culture and this influence is still visible in Javanese history culture traditions and art forms The ancient Javanese kingdoms of Singhasari and Majapahit were among the most powerful maritime empires in the region whose boundaries included most of the Nusantara and parts of Indochina Javanese heritage has created magnificent religious monuments such as Borobudur and Prambanan which are among the world s largest temples Javanese culture has a strong influence in most of the Southeast Asian countries In Brunei Malaysia and Singapore the influence of Javanese culture can be seen in many aspects of modern Malay culture 28 Javanese culture has greatly influenced their traditional cuisine with many dishes such as satay sambal ketupat nasi kuning pulut kuning and rojak Kris weapons batik practice gamelan musical instruments ronggeng dance and wayang kulit puppet 29 were introduced to them through Javanese contact Javanese culture has also spread widely beyond Southeast Asia such as Madagascar 30 Sri Lanka South Africa and Suriname where many of the Javanese diaspora live there 31 32 Contents 1 History 1 1 Ancient Javanese kingdoms and empires 1 2 Javanese sultanates 1 3 Colonial Java 1 4 Republic of Indonesia 2 Culture 2 1 Language 2 2 Literature and philosophy 2 3 Social structure 2 4 Calendar 2 5 Architecture 2 5 1 Historical temples located in Central Java and East Java 2 5 2 Traditional Javanese buildings 2 6 Cuisine 2 7 Names 2 8 Religion 3 Occupations 3 1 Farming 3 2 Merchant sailor 3 3 Shipbuilder 3 4 Blacksmith 3 5 Batik making 3 6 Wood carving 4 Migrations 5 Notable people 6 See also 7 Notes 8 References 9 Sources 10 Further readingHistory EditFor other uses see Javanese historical texts See also Javanese people Migrations As early as the 1st century CE Indonesian Javanese vessels made trade voyages as far as Africa Picture a ship carved on Borobudur in Java c 800 CE Like most Indonesian ethnic groups including the Sundanese of West Java the Javanese are of Austronesian origins whose ancestors are thought to have originated in Taiwan and migrated through the Philippines 33 to reach Java between 1 500BC and 1 000BC 34 However according to recent genetic study Javanese together with Sundanese and Balinese has almost equal ratio of genetic marker shared between Austronesian and Austroasiatic heritages 35 Ancient Javanese kingdoms and empires Edit Javanese adapted many aspects of Indian culture such as the Ramayana epic Hindu and Buddhist influences arrived through trade contacts with the Indian subcontinent 36 Hindu and Buddhist traders and visitors arrived in the 5th century The Hindu Buddhist and Javanese faiths blended into a unique local philosophy 33 The cradle of Javanese culture is commonly described as being in Kedu and Kewu Plain in the fertile slopes of Mount Merapi as the heart of the Mataram Kingdom 37 The earliest Sanjaya and Sailendra dynasties had their power base there 38 238 239 The centre of Javanese culture and politics was moved towards the eastern part of the island when Mpu Sindok r 929 947 moved the capital of the kingdoms eastward to the valleys of the Brantas River in the 10th century CE The move was most likely caused by the volcanic eruption of Merapi and or invasion from Srivijaya 38 238 239 The major spread of Javanese influence occurred under King Kertanegara of Singhasari in the late 13th century The expansionist king launched several major expeditions to Madura Bali in 1284 39 Borneo when and most importantly to Sumatra in 1275 38 Following the defeat of the Melayu Kingdom Singhasari controlled trade in the Strait of Malacca Singhasari dominance was cut short in 1292 by Kediri s rebellion under Jayakatwang killing Kertanegara However Jayakatwang s reign as king of Java soon ended as he was defeated by Kertanegara s son in law Raden Wijaya with the help of invading Mongol troops in March 1293 Raden Wijaya would later establish Majapahit near the delta of the Brantas River in modern day Mojokerto East Java Kertanegara policies were later continued by the Majapahits under King Hayam Wuruk and his minister Gajah Mada 39 Various kingdoms of Java were actively involved in the spice trade in the sea route of the Silk Road Although not major spice producers these kingdoms were able to stockpile spice by trading for it with rice of which Java was a major producer 40 Majapahit is usually regarded as the greatest of these kingdoms It was both an agrarian and a maritime power combining wet rice cultivation and foreign trade 41 The ruin of their capital can be found in Trowulan Javanese sultanates Edit Sultan Amangkurat II of Mataram upper right watching warlord Untung Surapati fighting Captain Tack of the Dutch East India Company VOC Ca 1684 AD Islam gained its foothold in port towns on Java s northern coast such as Gresik Ampel Denta Surabaya Tuban Demak and Kudus The spread and proselytising of Islam among the Javanese was traditionally credited to Wali Songo 42 Java underwent major changes as Islam spread Following succession disputes and civil wars Majapahit power collapsed After this collapse its various dependencies and vassals broke free 43 The Sultanate of Demak became the new strongest power gaining supremacy among city states on the northern coast of Java 44 Aside from its power over Javanese city states it also gained overlordship of the ports of Jambi and Palembang in eastern Sumatra 44 Demak played a major role in opposing the newly arrived colonial power the Portuguese Demak twice attacked the Portuguese following their capture of Malacca They also attacked the allied forces of the Portuguese and the Sunda Kingdom establishing in the process the Sultanate of Banten Demak was succeeded by the Kingdom of Pajang and finally the Sultanate of Mataram The centre of power moved from coastal Demak to Pajang in Blora and later further inland to Mataram lands in Kotagede near present day Yogyakarta The Mataram Sultanate reached its peak of power and influence during the reign of Sultan Agung Hanyokrokusumo between 1613 and 1645 Colonial Java Edit A Javanese courtly ceremony at Keraton Surakarta in 1932 In 1619 the Dutch established their trading headquarter in Batavia Java slowly fell to the Dutch East India Company which would also eventually control most of Maritime Southeast Asia The internal intrigue and war of succession in addition to Dutch interference caused the Mataram Sultanate to break up into Surakarta and Yogyakarta The further separation of the Javanese realm was marked by the establishment of the Mangkunegaran and Pakualaman princedom Although the real political power in those days actually lay with the colonial Dutch the Javanese kings in their keratons still held prestige as the supposed power centre of the Javanese realm especially in and around Surakarta and Yogyakarta Dutch rule was briefly interrupted by British rule in the early 19th century While short the British administration led by Stamford Raffles was significant and included the re discovery of Borobudur Conflict with foreign rule was exemplified by the Java War between 1825 and 1830 and the leadership of Prince Diponegoro Like the rest of the Dutch East Indies Java was captured by the Empire of Japan during World War II With Japan s defeat independence was proclaimed in the new Republic of Indonesia Republic of Indonesia Edit When the Indonesian independence was proclaimed on 17 August 1945 the last sovereign Javanese monarchies represented by the Sri Sultan of Yogyakarta the Sunanate of Surakarta and Prince of Mangkunegara declared that they would become part of the Republic of Indonesia Yogyakarta and Pakualam were later united to form the Yogyakarta Special Region The Sri sultan became Governor of Yogyakarta and the Prince of Pakualaman became vice governor both were responsible to the President of Indonesia The Special Region of Yogyakarta was created after the war of independence ended and formalized on 3 August 1950 Surakarta was later absorbed as part of the Central Java province Culture EditMain article Javanese culture See also Javanese dance and Javanisation Javanese cultural expressions such as wayang and gamelan are often used to promote the excellence of Javanese culture The Javanese are the inventors of batik it is an Indonesian culture that is widely known and popular in many countries including Singapore Malaysia Thailand Philippines Sri Lanka and East African countries The Javanese culture is one of the oldest civilizations and has flourished in Indonesia and Southeast Asia It has gradually absorbed various elements and influences from other cultures including native reverence for ancestral and natural spirits Buddhist and Hindu dharmic values Islamic civilization and to a lesser extent Christianity Western philosophy and modern ideas 45 46 Nevertheless Javanese culture especially in the Javanese cultural heartland those of highly polished aristocratic culture of the keratons in Yogyakarta and Surakarta demonstrates some specific traits such as particular concern with elegance and refinement Javanese alus subtlety politeness courtesy indirectness emotional restraint and consciousness to one s social stature 47 Javanese culture values harmony and social order highly and abhors direct conflicts and disagreements These Javanese values are often promoted through Javanese cultural expressions such as Javanese dance gamelan wayang and batik It is also reinforced through adherence to Javanese adat traditional rules in ceremonies such as Slametan Satu Suro Javanese weddings and Naloni Mitoni However the culture of pesisiran of Javanese north coast and in Eastern Java demonstrates some slightly different traits They tend to be more open to new and foreign ideas more egalitarian and less conscious of one s social stature Some of these northern settlements such as Demak Kudus Tuban Gresik and Ampel in Surabaya have become more overtly Islamic traditionally because these port towns are among the earliest places that Islamic teachings gained foothold in Java Gamelan is one of Javanese cultural expression that demonstrate refinement Javanese culture is traditionally centered in the Central Java Yogyakarta and East Java provinces of Indonesia Due to various migrations it can also be found in other parts of the world such as Suriname where 15 of the population are of Javanese descent 48 the broader Indonesian archipelago region 31 Cape Malay 32 Malaysia Singapore Netherlands and other countries The migrants bring with them various aspect of Javanese cultures such as Gamelan music traditional dances 49 and the art of Wayang kulit shadow play 50 The migration of Javanese people westward has created a coastal Javanese culture in West Java distinct from the inland Sundanese culture Language Edit Main article Javanese language See also Javanese script and Javanese Unicode block Javanese is a member of the Austronesian family of languages and is closely related to but distinct from other languages of Indonesia 51 It is notable for its great number of nearly ubiquitous Sanskrit loans found especially in literary Javanese 52 This is due to the long history of Hindu and Buddhist influences in Java Many Javanese in Indonesia are bilingual being fluent in Indonesian the standardized variant of the Malay language and Javanese 53 In a public poll held c 1990 approximately 12 of Javanese used Indonesian around 18 used both Javanese and Indonesian and the rest used Javanese exclusively clarification needed citation needed Javanese abugida The Javanese language was formerly written with a script descended from the Brahmi script natively known as Hanacaraka or Carakan In addition Javanese language can also written with right to left script descended from the Arabic script called Pegon Upon Indonesian independence it was replaced with a form of the Latin alphabet While Javanese was not made an official language of Indonesia it has the status of regional language for communication in the Javanese majority regions The language also can be viewed as an ethnic language because it is one of the defining characteristics of the Javanese ethnic identity 51 Literature and philosophy Edit Main articles Javanese literature and Javanese poetry The Serat Selarasa MSS Jav 28 is the most beautiful illuminated Javanese manuscript in the British Library It is dated 1804 making it perhaps the earliest finely illustrated Javanese manuscript known Javanese intellectuals writers poets and men of letters are known for their ability to formulate ideas and creating idioms for high cultural purpose through stringing words to express a deeper philosophical meanings Several philosophical idioms sprung from Javanese classical literature Javanese historical texts and oral traditions and have spread into several media and promoted as popular mottos For example Bhinneka Tunggal Ika used as the national motto of the Republic of Indonesia Gemah Ripah Loh Jinawi Toto Tentrem Kerto Raharjo Jer Basuki Mawa Bea Rawe Rawe rantas Malang Malang putung and Tut Wuri Handayani 54 Social structure Edit Javanese priyayi aristocrat and servants c 1865 American anthropologist Clifford Geertz divided in the 1960s the Javanese community into three aliran or streams santri abangan and priyayi According to him the Santri followed an orthodox interpretation Islam the abangan followed a syncretic form of Islam that mixed Hindu and animist elements often termed Kejawen and the priyayi were the nobility 55 The Geertz opinion is often opposed today because he mixed the social groups with belief groups It was also difficult to apply this social categorization in classing outsiders for example other non indigenous Indonesians such as persons of Arab Chinese and Indian descent Social stratification is much less rigid in northern coast area Calendar Edit Main article Javanese calendar The Javanese calendar is used by the Javanese people concurrently with two other calendars the Gregorian calendar and the Islamic calendar The Gregorian calendar is the official calendar of Indonesia while the Islamic calendar is used by Muslims and Indonesian government for religious worship and deciding relevant Islamic holidays The Javanese calendar is presently used mostly for cultural events such as Siji Suro The Javanese calendar system is currently a lunar calendar adopted by Sultan Agung in 1633 based on the Islamic calendar Previously Javanese people used a solar system based on the Hindu calendar Unlike many other calendars the Javanese calendar uses a 5 day week known as the Pasaran cycle This is still in use today and is superimposed with 7 day week of the Gregorian calendar and Islamic calendar to become what is known as the 35 day Wetonan cycle Architecture Edit Historical temples located in Central Java and East Java Edit Main article Candi of Indonesia There are hundreds of temples found in central and eastern Java Javanese area this is the most of any area in Indonesia and Southeast Asia Sukuh temple near Tawang Mangu Central Java Borobudur the world s largest Buddhist temple Throughout their long history the Javanese have produced many important buildings ranging from Hindu monuments Buddhist stupa mortuary temples palace complexes and mosques Before the rise of Islam between the 5th to 15th centuries Dharmic faiths Hinduism and Buddhism were the majority in the Indonesian archipelago especially in Java As a result numerous Hindu temples locally known as Candi were constructed and dominated the landscape of Java According to local beliefs the Java valley had thousands of Hindu temples that co existed with Buddhist temples most of which were buried in the massive eruption of Mount Merapi in 1006 AD 56 Two important religious monuments are the Hindu temple of Prambanan and the Buddhist temple of Borobudur Both of them are 9th century temples and UNESCO World Heritage Sites Both are located near Yogyakarta in the slope of Mount Merapi Meanwhile examples of secular buildings can be seen in the ruins of the former capital city of the Majapahit Kingdom 14th to 16th century AD in Trowulan East Java The complex covers an area of 11 km x 9 km It consists of various brick buildings a canal ranging from 20 to 40 meters wide purification pools temples and iconic split gates 57 The capital complex is currently being considered as a candidate for becoming a UNESCO World Heritage Site Traditional Javanese buildings Edit Main article Javanese traditional house Traditional Javanese house Traditional Javanese buildings can be identified by their trapezoid shaped roofs supported by wooden pillars 58 Another common feature in Javanese buildings are pendopo pavilions with open sides and four large pillars The pillars and other parts of the buildings can be richly carved This architecture style can be found at kraton or palaces of the Sultanates of Yogyakarta palaces of Hamengkubuwono and Pakualaman and Surakarta palaces of Pakubuwono and Mangkunegaran 59 Traditional mosques in Java maintain a distinctive Javanese style The pendopo model is used as the main feature of mosques as prayer halls A trapezoidal roof is used instead of the more typically Muslim dome These roofs are often multi tiered and tiled 60 In addition to not using domes traditional Javanese mosques also often lack minarets 61 The split gate from earlier Hindu Buddhist period is still used in many mosques and public buildings in Java Some notable examples of mosques using traditional Javanese architecture include the Agung Demak Mosque the Menara Kudus Mosque and the Great Mosque of Banten The Kudus Mosque is also of note because it incorporates Hindu style stone architecture Cuisine Edit Main article Javanese cuisine The Javanese may have invented tempeh Sambal is a typical Javanese chili sauce that is very popular in the region and influences many traditional dishes Nasi tumpeng the quintessentially Javanese rice dish symbolises the volcano Rice is the staple crop of Javanese cuisine a meal in Java is not considered a meal without it 62 It is also an important part of the Javanese cultural identity differentiating them from residents of other Indonesian islands who eat sago for example Moluccans and expatriates from western countries who tend more towards bread Rice is seen as a symbol of development and prosperity whereas tuber vegetables like cassava are associated with poverty 63 Javanese cuisine varies by region Eastern Java has a preference for hot and salty foods 63 while the Central Javanese tend to prefer sweeter foods A famous food in Javanese cuisine is Rujak Cingur 64 marinated cow lips and noses served with vegetable shrimp prawn and peanut sauce with chili Rujak Cingur is considered a traditional food in Surabaya in East Java Gudeg is a traditional food from Yogyakarta 65 and Central Java which is made from young Nangka jack fruit boiled for several hours with palm sugar and coconut milk Pecel a type of peanut sauce with chili 66 is a common ingredient in Javanese cuisine It is used in various types of Rujak and Gado gado It can also be used as stand alone sauce with rice prawns eggs and vegetables as Nasi Pecel Pecel rice 67 Tumpeng is a rice served in the shape of a conical volcano 68 usually with rice coloured yellow using turmeric It is an important part of many ceremonies in Java Tumpeng is served at landmark events such as birthdays moving house or other ceremonies 69 Traditionally Tumpeng is served alongside fried chicken boiled egg vegetables and goat meat on a round plate made from bamboo called besek A notable food in Java is tempeh a meat substitute made from soybean fermented with mould It is a staple source of protein in Java and popular around the world as a meat substitute for vegetarians Names Edit Main article Javanese names Javanese do not usually have family names or surnames with only a single name Javanese names may come from traditional Javanese languages many of which are derived from Sanskrit Names with the prefix Su which means good are very popular After the advent of Islam many Javanese began to use Arabic names especially coast populations where Islamic influences are stronger Commoners usually only have one word names while nobilities use two or more word names but rarely a surname Some people use a patronymic Due to the influence of other cultures many people started using names from other languages mainly European languages Christian Javanese usually use Latin baptism names followed by a traditional Javanese name Religion Edit Religions TotalIslam 92 107 046Christianity 2 428 121Hinduism 160 090Buddhism 90 465Others 12 456Overall 94 788 943 70 Religion of Javanese 15 Sunni Islam 97 17 Protestantism 1 59 Roman Catholic 0 97 Hinduism 0 16 Buddhism 0 10 Other mostly Kejawen 0 01 Today most Javanese officially follow Sunni Islam as their religion 71 first recorded instance of Islamic contact in Java is dated from 475 Hijri 1082 AD as attested in the grave of Fatimah binti Maimun 72 56 However Islamic development only became more intensive during the Majapahit period when they traded or made tributary relations with various states like Perlak and Samudra Pasai in modern day Aceh 41 In the Troloyo Tralaya cemetery of Trowulan the capital of Majapahit there are several Muslim tombstones with dates from the 14th century 1368 AD 1376 AD The close proximity of the site with the kraton means there were Muslim people in close relation with the court 73 6 A minority of Javanese also follow Christianity Protestantism and Catholicism which are concentrated in Central Java particularly Semarang Surakarta Salatiga Magelang and Yogyakarta for Catholicism Native Christian churches such as the Javanese Christian Church Gereja Kristen Jawa and East Java Christian Church Gereja Kristen Jawi Wetan also exist On a smaller scale Hinduism and Buddhism are also found in the Javanese community The Javanese of the Tengger tribe continue to practice Javanese Hindu today and live in villages on the slope of Mount Bromo 74 Kebatinan also called Kejawen 75 Agama Jawa 76 and Kepercayaan 77 is a Javanese religious tradition consisting of an amalgam of animistic Hindu Buddhist and Islamic especially Sufi beliefs and practices It is rooted in Javanese history and religiosity syncretising aspects of different religions Occupations EditIn Indonesia Javanese people can be found in all occupations especially in the government and the military Farming Edit Traditionally most Javanese people are farmers Farming is especially common because of the fertile volcanic soil in Java The most important agricultural commodity is rice In 1997 it was estimated that Java produced 55 of Indonesia s total output of the crop 78 Most farmers work in small scale rice fields with around 42 of farmers working and cultivating less than 0 5 hectares of land 78 In region where soil is less fertile of where rainy season is short other staple crops is cultivated such as cassava 79 Merchant sailor Edit A Javanese sailor Javanese merchants and sailors were already in frequent voyage in the seas between India and China as early as 1st century CE 80 31 35 81 25 Champa was assaulted by Javanese or Kunlun vessels in 774 and 787 82 83 84 In 774 an assault was launched on Po Nagar in Nha trang where the pirates demolished temples while in 787 an assault was launched on Phang rang 85 86 87 Several Champa coastal cities suffered naval raids and assault from Java Java armadas was called as Javabala sanghair navagataiḥ fleets from Java which are recorded in Champa epigraphs 88 89 The Javanese may have contacted Australia in 10th century AD and migrated there their settlement existing until early 1600s According to Waharu IV inscription 931 AD and Garaman inscription 1053 AD 90 91 the Mataram kingdom and Airlangga s era Kahuripan kingdom 1000 1049 AD of Java experienced a long prosperity so that it needed a lot of manpower especially to bring crops packings and send them to ports Black labor was imported from Jenggi Zanzibar Pujut Australia and Bondan Papua 92 93 According to Naerssen they arrived in Java by trading bought by merchants or being taken prisoner during a war and then made slaves 94 According to Chiaymasiouro the king of Demak in 1601 AD a subgroup of Javanese people already settled in a land called Luca Antara which is believed to be Australia 95 But when Eredia s servant went to Luca Antara in 1610 the land had seemingly been abandoned 96 The 10th century Arab account Ajayeb al Hind Marvels of India gives an account of invasion in Africa by people called Wakwak or Waqwaq 97 110 probably the Malay people of Srivijaya or Javanese people of Mataram kingdom 98 27 99 39 in 945 946 CE They arrived in the coast of Tanganyika and Mozambique with 1000 boats and attempted to take the citadel of Qanbaloh though eventually failed The reason of the attack is because that place had goods suitable for their country and for China such as ivory tortoise shells panther skins and ambergris and also because they wanted black slaves from Bantu people called Zeng or Zenj by Arabs Jenggi by Javanese who were strong and make good slaves 97 110 The existence of black Africans was recorded until the 15th century in Old Javanese inscriptions 100 101 and the Javanese were still recorded as exporting black slaves during the Ming dynasty era 102 The Malagasy people have genetic links to various Maritime Southeast Asian groups particularly from southern Borneo 103 Parts of the Malagasy language are sourced from the Ma anyan language with loan words from Sanskrit with all the local linguistic modifications via Javanese or Malay language 104 As the Ma anyan and Dayak people are not a sailor and were dry rice cultivators while some Malagasy are wet rice farmers it is likely that they are carried by the Javanese and Malay people in their trading fleets as labor or slaves 97 114 115 During the Majapahit era almost all of the commodities from Asia were found in Java This is because of extensive shipping by the Majapahit empire using various type of ships particularly the jong for trading to faraway places 99 267 293 Early 16th century European accounts noted the places which the Javanese merchants visited which include Maluku Islands Timor Banda Sumatra Malacca China Tenasserim Pegu Bago Bengal Pulicat Coromandel Malabar Cambay Khambat and Aden There were also those who went to the Maldives Calicut Kozhikode Oman Aden and the Red Sea 105 191 193 106 199 Ma Huan Zheng He s translator who visited Java in 1413 stated that ports in Java were trading goods and offer services that were more numerous and more complete than other ports in Southeast Asia 99 233 234 239 240 It was also during Majapahit era that Nusantaran exploration reached its greatest accomplishment Ludovico di Varthema 1470 1517 in his book Itinerario de Ludouico de Varthema Bolognese stated that the Southern Javanese people sailed to far Southern lands up to the point they arrived at an island where a day only lasted four hours long and was colder than in any part of the world Modern studies have determined that such place is located at least 900 nautical miles 1666 km south of the southernmost point of Tasmania 107 248 251 When Afonso de Albuquerque conquered Malacca the Portuguese recovered a chart from a Javanese maritime pilot which already included part of the Americas Regarding the chart Albuquerque said 108 64 109 98 99 a large map of a Javanese pilot containing the Cape of Good Hope Portugal and the land of Brazil the Red Sea and the Sea of Persia the Clove Islands the navigation of the Chinese and the Gores with their rhumbs and direct routes followed by the ships and the hinterland and how the kingdoms border on each other It seems to me Sir that this was the best thing I have ever seen and Your Highness will be very pleased to see it it had the names in Javanese writing but I had with me a Javanese who could read and write I send this piece to Your Highness which Francisco Rodrigues traced from the other in which Your Highness can truly see where the Chinese and Gores come from and the course your ships must take to the Clove Islands and where the gold mines lie and the islands of Java and Banda of nutmeg and mace and the land of the King of Siam and also the end of the land of the navigation of the Chinese the direction it takes and how they do not navigate farther Letter of Albuquerque to King Manuel I of Portugal 1 April 1512 The Javanese people like other Austronesian ethnicities use a solid navigation system Orientation at sea is carried out using a variety of different natural signs and by using a very distinctive astronomy technique called star path navigation Basically the navigators determine the bow of the ship to the islands that are recognized by using the position of rising and setting of certain stars above the horizon 110 10 In the Majapahit era compasses and magnets were used and cartography mapping science was developed In 1293 AD Raden Wijaya presented a map and census record to the Yuan Mongol invader suggesting that mapmaking has been a formal part of governmental affair in Java 111 53 The use of maps full of longitudinal and transverse lines rhumb lines and direct route lines traveled by ships were recorded by Europeans to the point that the Portuguese considered the Javanese maps were the best map in the early 1500s 107 249 112 lxxix 109 99 163 164 166 168 113 European colonial presence diminished the range of the Javanese merchant sailors In 1645 Diogo do Couto noted that the Javanese had communicated with the east coast of Madagascar 114 The decision of Amangkurat I of the Mataram Sultanate to destroy ships in coastal cities and close ports to prevent them from rebelling in the mid 17th century further reduced the Javanese people s ability in long distance sailing 115 79 80 In 1705 there is an agreement signed by VOC and Pakubuwana I of Mataram which forbade the Javanese to sail to the east of Lombok to the north of Kalimantan and to the west of Lampung In the second half of the 18th century most of the Javanese merchant sailors were restricted to only short range travel 110 20 21 116 116 117 Shipbuilder Edit Ships of the Javanese people Borobudur ship from Borobudur temple 8th century AD Javanese jong in Banten bay 1610 The Javanese were known to produce large ships called K un lun po po of the K un lun people These ships already plied the seas between India and China as early as 2nd century CE carrying up to 1000 people alongside 250 1000 tons of cargo The characteristics of this ship are that it is large more than 50 60 m long the hull is made of multiple plankings has no outrigger mounted with many masts and sails the sail is in the form of a tanja sail and has a plank fastening technique in the form of stitching with plant fibers 117 27 28 118 41 119 275 120 262 121 347 Javanese trading and slaving activities in Africa caused a strong influence on boatbuilding on Madagascar and the East African coast This is indicated by the existence of outriggers and oculi eye ornament on African boats 122 253 288 Another large ship built by the Javanese was the jong first recorded in an Old Javanese inscription from the 9th century AD 115 60 Although the characteristics may be similar it has some differences from the po that it was using wooden dowels for joining the planks and has double passenger to deadweight ratio During the Majapahit era a jong usually carried 600 700 men with 1200 1400 tons deadweight and was about 69 26 72 55 m LOD and 76 18 79 81 m LOA The largest ones carried 1000 men with 2000 tons deadweight was about 80 51 m LOD and 88 56 m LOA 123 The jong was mainly constructed in two major shipbuilding centres around Java north coastal Java especially around Rembang Demak along the Muria strait and Cirebon and the south coast of Borneo Banjarmasin and the adjacent islands 124 33 Pegu which is a large shipbuilding port at the 16th century also produced jong built by Javanese who resided there 125 250 Impressed by the Javanese s skill in shipbuilding Afonso de Albuquerque hired 60 Javanese carpenters and shipbuilders to work in India for the Portuguese They never arrived in India as they mutinied and took the Portuguese ship they boarded to Pasai where they were welcomed extraordinarily 126 102 103 The Dutch also realized Javanese proficiency in shipbuilding in the 18th century shipbuilding yards in Amsterdam employed Javanese people as the foremen 127 202 The shipbuilding in Java was hampered when the VOC gained a foothold in Java starting in the early 17th century However in the 18th century the Javanese shipbuilding areas particularly Rembang and Juwana started building large European styled vessels bark and brigantine type 110 20 such ships may reach 400 600 tons burthen with an average of 92 lasts 165 6 184 metric tons 128 In 1856 John Crawfurd noted that Javanese shipbuilding activity still existed on the north coast of Java with the shipyards supervised by Europeans but all of the workers were Javanese The ships that were built in the 19th century had a maximum tonnage of 50 tons and were used for river transport 98 95 Blacksmith Edit A decorative kris with a figure of Semar as the handle The bilah has thirteen luk Varieties of Javanese keris Weapons of Java machetes maces bow and arrows blowpipe and sling Keris of Java Short swords shields and a matchlock gun istinggar Javanese weapons and standards Various keris and pole weapons of Java Javanese weapons Spears an istinggar and senapan and a model of a cannon in its carriage Blacksmiths are traditionally valued Some blacksmiths fast and meditate to reach perfection Javanese blacksmiths create a range of tools and farming equipment and also cultural items such as gamelan instruments and kris 79 The art of kris making provided the technical skills applied to gunmaking Cannon and firearms required special expertise and may have been made by the same individuals The blacksmith s spiritual power was said to be transferred to the guns 129 384 Majapahit under Mahapatih prime minister Gajah Mada in office 1331 1364 utilized gunpowder technology obtained from Yuan dynasty for use in the naval fleet 130 57 Pole gun bedil tombak was recorded as being used by Javanese people in 1413 131 132 245 Duarte Barbosa ca 1514 said that the inhabitants of Java are great masters in casting artillery and very good artillerymen They make many one pounder cannons cetbang or rentaka long muskets spingarde arquebus schioppi hand cannon Greek fire guns cannons and other fire works Every place are considered excellent in casting artillery and in the knowledge of using it 107 254 105 198 133 224 In 1513 the Javanese fleet led by Pati Unus sailed to attack Portuguese Malacca with much artillery made in Java for the Javanese are skilled in founding and casting and in all works in iron exceeding what they have in India 134 162 135 23 Zhang Xie in Dong Xi Yang Kao 1618 mentioned that city of Palembang which has been conquered by Javanese produces the furious fiery oil meng huo yu which according to the Hua I Kao is a kind of tree secretion shu chin and is also called mud oil ni yu Zhang Xie wrote 136 88 It much resemble camphor and can corrode human flesh When ignited and thrown on water its light and flame become all the more intense The barbarians use it as a fire weapon and produce great conflagrations in which sails bulwarks upperworks and oars all catch fire and cannot withstand it Fishes and tortoises coming in contact with it cannot escape from being scorched Because there was no mention of projector pump the weapon is probably breakable bottles with fuses 136 88 Kris knives are important items with many heirloom kris holding significant historical value The design of the kris is to tear apart an opponent s abdomen making the injury more severe Kota Gede is famous for its silverworks and silver handicrafts 137 Javanese people made several types of armor such as karambalangan kawaca siping siping and waju rante They also made steel helmets called rukuh However they are probably only popular with high ranking soldiers and trained salaried troops as most of the Javanese armies consisted of peasant levy who fought bare chested 99 320 321 138 75 80 139 111 113 Batik making Edit Batik are worn by both men and women with patterns varying to denote social stature Batik are also used ceremonially with certain designs used to bring good luck to a newborn infant or a newly wed couple and their families 140 141 Some towns and villages have specialized in making batik such as Pekalongan Kauman Kampung Taman and Laweyan Wood carving Edit The Javanese art of wood carving is traditionally applied to various cultural attributes such as statues wayang dolls and masks Woodcarving also prominent as house ornamentation and details The elaborately carved Omah Kudus is a fine example of Javanese woodcarving mastery The Central Java town of Jepara is famous as a center of Javanese woodcarving workshops where artists and carpenters especially working on Javan teak wood 142 Javanese woodworkers making traditional masks during the Dutch East Indies era The carpenters tools of the Javanese people Javanese agricultural tools A drawing of Javanese manufacturing tools handicrafts and musical instruments Javanese musical instruments many of which require the skills of blacksmith and carpenters Javanese masksMigrations EditMain article Javanese diaspora See also Javanese contact with Australia Javanese Malaysians and Indonesian Malaysians Javanese The Javanese were probably involved in the Austronesian migration to Madagascar in the first centuries C E While the culture of the migration is most closely related with the Ma anyan people of Borneo a portion of the Malagasy language is derived from loanwords from the Javanese language 30 It is possible that Ma anyan people or other indigenous people of Kalimantan closely related to the Ma anyans were brought as labourer and slaves by their Javanese masters in their trading fleets which reached Madagascar by ca 50 500 AD 143 144 97 114 115 A Portuguese account described how the Javanese people already had advanced seafaring skills and had communicated with Madagascar in 1645 114 145 311 115 57 146 51 The Javanese are all men very experienced in the art of navigation to the point that they claim to be the most ancient of all although many others give this honor to the Chinese and affirm that this art was handed on from them to the Javanese But it is certain that they formerly navigated to the Cape of Good Hope and were in communication with the east coast of the island of Sao Lourenco San Laurenzo Madagascar where there are many brown and Javanese like natives who say they are descended from them Diogo do Couto Decada Quarta da Asia Since the Hindu kingdom period Javanese merchants settled at many places in the Indonesian archipelago 38 247 In the late 15th century following the collapse of Majapahit and the rise of Muslim principalities on the northern coast of Java many Hindu nobilities artisans and courtiers migrated to Bali 39 where they would contribute to the refined culture of Bali Others who refused to convert to Islam retreated to Tengger mountain retaining their Hindu religion and becoming the Tenggerese people In the conflicts during the transitions of power between the Demak the Pajang and the Mataram in the late 16th century some Javanese migrated to Palembang in southern Sumatra There they established a sultanate and formed a mix of Malay and Javanese culture 28 Palembang language is a dialect of Malay language with heavy influence of Javanese Inhabitants of Jave la Grande Great Java island from Nicholas Vallard s manuscript sea atlas 1547 Declaracam de Malaca e India Meridional com o Cathay by Manuel Godinho de Eredia 1613 described what he called India Meridional Meridional India Southern South India In his book he relates about the voyage of Chiaymasiouro or Chiay Masiuro king of Damuth Demak in Java to a Southern land called Luca Antara or Lucaantara a peninsula in North Australia note 2 note 3 The book explained that in Meridional India already settled a subgroup of Javanese people A brief description of this country is given in a letter written by Chiaymasiouro to the King of Pahang and in a certificate made by Pedro de Carvalhaes at Malacca on 4 October 1601 147 In Report of Meridional India 1610 Eredia mentioned that the Javanese people of Luca Antara in all of their customs and in figure resemble the Javanese of Sunda west Java note 4 only a slight difference in the language which he described as much the same as between the Castillian and the Portuguese The hair extends as far as the shoulders the tonsure resembles the tonsure of Balinese people with a curiously curved contour 96 During the reign of Sultan Agung 1613 1645 some Javanese began to establish settlements in coastal West Java around Cirebon Indramayu and Karawang These Javanese settlements were originally commissioned by Sultan Agung as rice farming villages to support the Javanese troop logistics on his military campaign against Dutch Batavia The Javanese were also present in Peninsular Malaya since early times 148 The Link between Java and Malacca was important during spread of Islam in Indonesia when religious missionaries were sent from Malacca to seaports on the northern coast of Java 41 Large migrations to the Malay Peninsula occurred during the colonial period mostly from Central Java to British Malaya Migration also took place from 1880 to 1930 from other parts of Java with a secondary migration Javanese from Sumatra Those migrations were to seek a new life away from the Dutch colonists who ruled Indonesia at that time Today these people live throughout Peninsular Malaysia and are mainly concentrated in parts of Johor Perak and Selangor and cities such as Kuala Lumpur Today the Javanese of Malaysia are included in the Malay race along with other native Indonesian ethnic groups the so called bumiputera Many immigrants of the colonial period retain their Javanese identity and the Javanese language is still spoken although the younger generation in urban centers mostly has shifted to Malay 149 In Singapore approximately 50 60 of its Malay population have some degree of Javanese ancestry Most of them have identified themselves as Malays rather than Javanese 150 Javanese merchants were also present in the Maluku Islands as part of the spice trade Following the Islamisation of Java they spread Islam in the islands with Ternate being a Muslim sultanate circa 1484 151 Javanese merchants also converted coastal cities in Borneo to Islam 152 The Javanese thus played an important part in transmitting Islam from the western part to the eastern part of the Archipelago with trade based from northern coast of Java Javanese migrant workers in Suriname circa 1940 New migration patterns emerged during colonial periods During the rise of VOC power starting in the 17th century many Javanese were exiled enslaved or hired as mercenaries for the Dutch colonies of Ceylon in South Asia and the Cape colony in South Africa These included princes and nobility who lost their dispute with the company and were exiled along with their retinues These along with exiles from other ethnicities like Bugis and Malay became the Sri Lankan Malay 31 and Cape Malay 32 ethnic groups respectively Other political prisoners were transported to closer places Prince Diponegoro and his followers were transported to North Sulawesi following his defeat in Java War in the early 19th century Their descendants are well known as Jaton abbreviation of Jawa Tondano Tondano Javanese Major migrations started during the Dutch colonial period under transmigration programs The Dutch needed many labourers for their plantations and moved many Javanese under the program as contract workers mostly to other parts of the colony in Sumatra They also sent Javanese workers to Suriname in South America 153 As of 2019 approximately 13 7 of the Suriname population is of Javanese ancestry 10 Outside of the Dutch colonies Javanese workers were also sent to plantations administrated by the Dutch colonial government in New Caledonia a French territory 153 The transmigration program that was created by the Dutch continued following independence A significant Javanese population can be found in the Jabodetabek Greater Jakarta area Lampung South Sumatra and Jambi provinces Several paguyuban traditional community organisation were formed by these Javanese immigrants such as Pujakesuma abbreviation of Indonesian Putra Jawa Kelahiran Sumatera or Sumatra born Javanese Notable people EditMain article List of Javanese peopleSee also Edit Indonesia portalBudi Utomo Kejawen Subud Saminism Movement Javanese cuisine Javanese literature Javanese New Caledonians Javanese Kshatriya Javanese Surinamese Javanese Malaysian Javanisation Hinduism in Java Sundanese people Indonesians in Hong Kong Indonesians in Saudi Arabia Indonesians in TaiwanNotes Edit It is very difficult to find exact figures because Malaysian census data does not consider the Javanese as one ethnicity but part of the Malays according to the 1950 Malaysian census it was estimated that more than 189 000 Malaysian Malays were born to Javanese parents This figure is very significant considering the number of Malaysian Malays at that time was just under 3 million Javanese descendants form large communities in Johor Selangor Perak and other states in Malaysia 3 4 5 Luca antara i e Nusa antara the southern land which Eredia claims to have discovered The name Nusa antara occurs in the Pararaton a Javanese historical work of about the 16th century Blagden adopts Brandes explanation that the expression Nusantara refers to the Archipelago in general JRASSB No 53 1909 p 144 Crawfurd says that the expression Nusa antara denoted Madura Janssen thinks that Eredia s Luca antara was Australia or one of the islands off the north Australian coast Hamy considers it to be Sumba Janssen Malaca Vlnde Meridionale ei le Cathay 1882 pp xi xii Major thinks it was Madura According to Ferrand the word nusa is only used in Java Madura and Madagascar nusi elsewhere island is generally represented by the name pulaw pulo or some dialectical variant thereof Journal Asiatique Tome XX 1920 p 190 Nusa may be connected through Sanskrit with the Greek nῆsos nesos It would appear that the human tongue has a tendency to corrupt an N into an L thus Nakhon has become Lakhon Ligor and the Malay word nuri has become lory Linschoten s map of the Eastern Seas contains the forms Lusa Luca and Nusa Likely what he meant here is the Cirebonese people an Austronesian ethnic group with mixed culture of Javanese and Sundanese heavier influence from Javanese References Edit Pramono S B 2013 Piwulang Basa Jawa Pepak Grafindo Litera Media ISBN 978 979 3896 38 0 Kewarganegaraan Suku Bangsa Agama dan Bahasa Sehari hari Penduduk Indonesia Hasil Sensus Penduduk 2010 Citizenship Ethnicity Religion and Languages of the Indonesian Population Results of the 2010 Population Census in Indonesian Jakarta Central Bureau of National Statistics of the Republic of Indonesia 2010 History of Javanese Migration to Malaysia in Indonesian Kompas 5 August 2022 Retrieved 3 December 2022 The Javanese connection in Malaysia MalaysiaKini 21 November 2021 Retrieved 20 September 2022 A Preliminary Report on the Javanese in Selangor Malaysia PDF Southeast Asian Studies Vol 26 No 2 2 September 2022 Retrieved 2 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Series 19 1 53 Tōyō Bunko Japan 1972 Memoirs of the Research Department p 6 Tōyō Bunko Japan 1972 Memoirs of the Research Department of the Toyo Bunko the Oriental Library Toyo Bunko p 6 Proceedings of the Symposium on 100 Years Development of Krakatau and Its Surroundings Jakarta 23 27 August 1983 Indonesian Institute of Sciences 1985 p 8 Greater India Society 1934 Journal p 69 Ralph Bernard Smith 1979 Early South East Asia essays in archaeology history and historical geography Oxford University Press p 447 ISBN 978 0 19 713587 7 Charles Alfred Fisher 1964 South east Asia a social economic and political geography Methuen p 108 ISBN 9789070080600 Ronald Duane Renard Mahawitthayalai Phayap 1986 Anuson Walter Vella Walter F Vella Fund Payap University University of Hawaii at Manoa Center for Asian and Pacific Studies p 121 Bulletin de l Ecole francaise d Extreme Orient L Ecole 1941 p 263 Daniel George Edward Hall Phut Tấn Nguyễn 1968 Đong Nam A sử lược Pacific Northwest Trading Company p 136 Nastiti 2003 in Ani Triastanti 2007 p 39 Nastiti 2003 in Ani Triastanti 2007 p 34 Nugroho 2011 p 39 Nugroho 2011 p 73 Kartikaningsih 1992 p 42 in Ani Triastanti 2007 p 34 de Eredia 1613 p 63 a b de Eredia 1613 p 262 a b c d Kumar Ann 2012 Dominion Over Palm and Pine Early Indonesia s Maritime Reach in Geoff Wade ed Anthony Reid and the Study of the Southeast Asian Past Singapore Institute of Southeast Asian Studies 101 122 a b Lombard Denys 2005 Nusa Jawa Silang Budaya Bagian 2 Jaringan Asia Jakarta Gramedia Pustaka Utama An Indonesian translation of Lombard Denys 1990 Le carrefour javanais Essai d histoire globale The Javanese Crossroads Towards a Global History vol 2 Paris Editions de l Ecole des Hautes Etudes en Sciences Sociales a b c d e Nugroho Irawan Djoko 2011 Majapahit Peradaban Maritim Suluh Nuswantara Bakti ISBN 978 602 9346 00 8 Maziyah Siti 2022 Analysing the Presence of Enslaved Black People in Ancient Java Society Journal of Maritime Studies and National Integration 6 1 62 69 doi 10 14710 jmsni v6i1 14010 ISSN 2579 9215 S2CID 249731102 Jakl Jiri 2017 Black Africans on the maritime silk route Indonesia and the Malay World 45 133 334 351 doi 10 1080 13639811 2017 1344050 ISSN 1363 9811 S2CID 165650197 Shu Yuan ed 2017 中国与南海周边关系史 History of China s Relations with the South China Sea Beijing Book Co Inc ISBN 9787226051870 一 药材 胡椒 空青 荜拨 番木鳖子 芦荟 闷虫药 没药 荜澄茄 血竭 苏木 大枫子 乌爹泥 金刚子 番红土 肉豆蔻 白豆蔻 藤竭 碗石 黄蜡 阿魏 二 香料 降香 奇南香 檀香 麻滕香 速香 龙脑香 木香 乳香 蔷薇露 黄熟香 安息香 乌香 丁皮 香 三 珍宝 黄金 宝石 犀角 珍珠 珊瑙 象牙 龟筒 孔雀尾 翠毛 珊瑚 四 动物 马 西马 红鹦鹉 白鹦鹉 绿鹦鹉 火鸡 白 鹿 白鹤 象 白猴 犀 神鹿 摸 鹤顶 鸟 五色鹦鹉 奥里羔兽 五 金 属制品 西洋铁 铁枪 锡 折铁刀 铜鼓 六 布匹 布 油红布 绞布 4 此 外 爪哇还向明朝输入黑奴 叭喇唬船 爪哇铣 硫黄 瓷釉颜料等 爪哇朝贡贸易 输人物资不仅种类多 而且数虽可观 如洪武十五年 1382年 一次进贡的胡椒就达 七万五千斤 5 而民间贸易显更大 据葡商Francisco de Sa记载 万丹 雅加达等港 口每年自漳州有帆船20艘驶来装载3万奎塔尔 quiutai 的胡椒 1奎塔尔约合59 公斤则当年从爪哇输入中国胡椒达177万公斤 Kusuma Pradiptajati Brucato Nicolas Cox Murray P Pierron Denis Razafindrazaka Harilanto Adelaar Alexander Sudoyo Herawati Letellier Thierry Ricaut Francois Xavier 18 May 2016 Contrasting Linguistic and Genetic Origins of the Asian Source Populations of Malagasy Scientific Reports 6 1 26066 Bibcode 2016NatSR 626066K doi 10 1038 srep26066 ISSN 2045 2322 PMC 4870696 PMID 27188237 Murray P Cox Michael G Nelson Meryanne K Tumonggor Francois X Ricaut Herawati Sudoyo 2012 A small cohort of Island Southeast Asian women founded Madagascar Proceedings of the Royal Society B 279 1739 2761 8 doi 10 1098 rspb 2012 0012 PMC 3367776 PMID 22438500 a b Stanley Henry Edward John 1866 A Description of the Coasts of East Africa and Malabar in the Beginning of the Sixteenth Century by Duarte Barbosa The Hakluyt Society Manguin Pierre Yves 1993 The Vanishing Jong Insular Southeast Asian Fleets in Trade and War Fifteenth to Seventeenth Centuries in Anthony Reid ed Southeast Asia in the Early Modern Era Ithaca Cornell University Press 197 213 a b c Jones John Winter 1863 The travels of Ludovico di Varthema in Egypt Syria Arabia Deserta and Arabia Felix in Persia India and Ethiopia A D 1503 to 1508 Hakluyt Society Carta IX 1 April 1512 In Pato Raymundo Antonio de Bulhao 1884 Cartas de Affonso de Albuquerque Seguidas de Documentos que as Elucidam tomo I pp 29 65 Lisboa Typographia da Academia Real das Sciencas a b Olshin Benjamin B 1996 A sixteenth century Portuguese report concerning an early Javanese world map Historia Ciencias Saude Manguinhos 2 3 97 104 doi 10 1590 s0104 59701996000400005 ISSN 0104 5970 a b c Liebner Horst H 2005 Perahu Perahu Tradisional Nusantara Suatu Tinjauan Perkapalan dan Pelayaran in Edi Sedyawati ed Eksplorasi Sumberdaya Budaya Maritim Jakarta Pusat Riset Wilayah Laut dan Sumber Daya Nonhayati Badan Riset Kelautan dan Perikanan Pusat Penelitian Kemasyarakatan dan Budaya Universitas Indonesia pp 53 124 Suarez Thomas 2012 Early Mapping of Southeast Asia The Epic Story of Seafarers Adventurers and Cartographers Who First Mapped the Regions Between China and India Tuttle Publishing Cortesao Armando 1944 The Suma oriental of Tome Pires an account of the East from the Red Sea to Japan written in Malacca and India in 1512 1515 and the book of Francisco Rodrigues rutter of a voyage in the Red Sea nautical rules almanack and maps written and drawn in the East before 1515 volume I London The Hakluyt Society ISBN 9784000085052 This article incorporates text from this source which is in the public domain Majapahit era Technologies Nusantara Review 2 October 2018 Retrieved 11 June 2020 a b Couto Diogo do 1645 Da Asia Decada Quarta Lisbon Regia Officina Typografica 1778 1788 Reprint Lisbon 1974 Decada IV part iii p 169 a b c Reid Anthony 2000 Charting the Shape of Early Modern Southeast Asia Silkworm Books ISBN 9747551063 Ricklefs Merle Calvin 2008 A History of Modern Indonesia Since c 1200 Fourth Edition E Book version 4th ed New York Palgrave Macmillan ISBN 9780230546851 Dick Read Robert July 2006 Indonesia and Africa questioning the origins of some of Africa s most famous icons The Journal for Transdisciplinary Research in Southern 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Jurnal Pendidik Dan Peneliti Sejarah 5 1 57 64 doi 10 17509 historia v5i1 39181 S2CID 247335671 Tarling Nicholas 1999 The Cambridge History of Southeast Asia Cambridge Cambridge University Press ISBN 9780521663700 Cortesao Armando 1944 The Suma oriental of Tome Pires an account of the East from the Red Sea to Japan written in Malacca and India in 1512 1515 and the book of Francisco Rodrigues rutter of a voyage in the Red Sea nautical rules almanack and maps written and drawn in the East before 1515 volume II London The Hakluyt Society This article incorporates text from this source which is in the public domain Reid Anthony 1988 Southeast Asia in the Age of Commerce 1450 1680 Volume One The Lands Below the Winds Yale University Press ISBN 9780300039214 Unger Richard W 2013 Chapter Five The Technology and Teaching of Shipbuilding 1300 1800 Technology Skills and the Pre Modern Economy in the East and the West BRILL ISBN 9789004251571 Lee Kam Hing 1986 The Shipping Lists of Dutch Melaka A Source for the Study of Coastal Trade and Shipping in the Malay Peninsula During the 17th and 18th Centuries in Mohd Y Hashim ed Ships and Sunken Treasure Kuala Lumpur Persatuan Muzium Malaysia 53 76 Tarling Nicholas 1992 The Cambridge History of Southeast Asia Volume 1 From Early Times to C 1800 Cambridge University Press ISBN 9780521355056 Pramono Djoko 2005 Budaya Bahari Gramedia Pustaka Utama ISBN 9789792213768 Mayers 1876 Chinese explorations of the Indian Ocean during the fifteenth century The China Review IV p 178 Manguin Pierre Yves 1976 L Artillerie legere nousantarienne A propos de six canons conserves dans des collections portugaises PDF Arts Asiatiques 32 233 268 doi 10 3406 arasi 1976 1103 S2CID 191565174 Partington J R 1999 A History of Greek Fire and Gunpowder JHU Press ISBN 978 0 8018 5954 0 Wade Geoff Tana Li eds 2012 Anthony Reid and the Study of the Southeast Asian Past Singapore Institute of Southeast Asian Studies ISBN 978 981 4311 96 0 Crawfurd John 1856 A Descriptive Dictionary of the Indian Islands and Adjacent Countries Bradbury and Evans a b Needham Joseph 1986 Science and Civilisation in China Volume 5 Chemistry and Chemical Technology Part 7 Military Technology The Gunpowder Epic Cambridge Cambridge University Press Tadie J 1998 Guillaud Dominique Seysset M Walter Annie eds Kota Gede le devenir identitaire d un quartier peripherique historique de Yogyakarta Indonesie Le voyage inacheve a Joel Bonnemaison ORSTOM retrieved 20 April 2012 Jakl Jiri 2014 Literary Representations of War and Warfare in Old Javanese Kakawin Poetry PhD thesis The University of Queensland Oktorino Nino 2020 Hikayat Majapahit Kebangkitan dan Keruntuhan Kerajaan Terbesar di Nusantara Jakarta Elex Media Komputindo ISBN 978 623 00 1741 4 Stephenson Nina 1993 The Past Present and Future of Javanese Batik A Bibliographic Essay Art Documentation Journal of the Art Libraries Society of North America 12 3 107 113 doi 10 1086 adx 12 3 27948560 JSTOR 27948560 S2CID 163835838 via JSTOR UNESCO Indonesian Batik ich unesco org Retrieved 15 May 2022 In a Central Java town local wood enterprises carve a niche in the global market CIFOR Forests News CIFOR Forests News 6 March 2018 Retrieved 1 June 2018 Dewar Robert E Wright Henry T 1993 The culture history of Madagascar Journal of World Prehistory 7 4 417 466 doi 10 1007 bf00997802 hdl 2027 42 45256 S2CID 21753825 Burney DA Burney LP Godfrey LR Jungers WL Goodman SM Wright HT Jull AJ August 2004 A chronology for late prehistoric Madagascar Journal of Human Evolution 47 1 2 25 63 doi 10 1016 j jhevol 2004 05 005 PMID 15288523 Hornell James December 1934 Indonesian Influence on East African Culture The Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland 64 305 332 doi 10 2307 2843812 JSTOR 2843812 Manguin Pierre Yves 2016 Austronesian Shipping in the Indian Ocean From Outrigger Boats to Trading Ships In Campbell Gwyn ed Early Exchange between Africa and the Wider Indian Ocean World Palgrave Macmillan pp 51 76 ISBN 9783319338224 Mills 1930 p 3 Crawfurd John 1856 A descriptive dictionary of the Indian islands amp adjacent countries Bradbury amp Evans pp 244 Miyazaki Koji 2000 Javanese Malay Between Adaptation and Alienation Sojourn Journal of Social Issues in Southeast Asia 15 1 76 99 doi 10 1355 SJ15 1D JSTOR 41057030 P 83 Generally speaking however as one might expect younger Javanese Malays can hardly understand Javanese and are Malay monolingual LePoer Barbara Leitch 1991 Singapore a country study Federal Research Division Library of Congress p 83 ISBN 9780160342646 Retrieved 17 February 2013 Singapore Malay community leaders estimated that some 50 to 60 percent of the community traced their origins to Java and an additional 15 to 20 percent to Bawean Island in the Java Sea north of the city of Surabaya Storch Tanya 2006 Religions and missionaries around the Pacific 1500 1900 Ashgate Publishing ISBN 978 0 7546 0667 3 Lapidus Ira Marvin 2002 A history of Islamic societies Cambridge University Press p 384 ISBN 978 0 521 77933 3 a b Martinez J T Vickers A H 2012 Indonesians overseas deep histories and the view from below Indonesia and the Malay World 40 117 111 121 doi 10 1080 13639811 2012 683667 S2CID 161553591 Retrieved 28 December 2019 Sources EditCaldarola Carlo 1982 Religion and Societies Asia and the Middle East Walter de Gruyter Gin Ooi Keat 2004 Southeast Asia A Historical Encyclopedia from Angkor Wat to Timor R Z Volume three ABC CLIO Hooker M B 1988 Islam in South East Asia BrillFurther reading Editde Eredia Manuel Godinho 1613 Description of Malacca and Meridional India Translated from the Portuguese with notes by J V Mills in Eredia s Description of Malaca Meridional India and Cathay Journal of the Malayan Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society Vol VIII April 1930 Kuncaraningrat Raden Mas Southeast Asian Studies Program Institute of Southeast Asian Studies 1985 Javanese culture Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 582542 8 Nugroho Irawan Djoko 2011 Majapahit Peradaban Maritim Suluh Nuswantara Bakti ISBN 9786029346008 Triastanti Ani Perdagangan Internasional pada Masa Jawa Kuno Tinjauan Terhadap Data Tertulis Abad X XII Essay of Faculty of Cultural Studies Gadjah Mada University of Yogyakarta 2007 Wikimedia Commons has media related to Javanese people Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Javanese people amp oldid 1155372571, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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