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Wikipedia

Education

December 20, 2023

"Western education" redirects here. For other uses, see Western education (disambiguation) and education (disambiguation).
"Educating" redirects here. For the British TV program, see Educating...

Education is the transmission of knowledge, skills, and character traits. There are many types of education. Formal education happens in a complex institutional framework, like public schools. Non-formal education is also structured but takes place outside the formal schooling system. Informal education is unstructured learning through daily experiences. Formal and non-formal education are divided into levels. They include early childhood education, primary education, secondary education, and tertiary education. Other classifications focus on the teaching method, like teacher-centered and student-centered education. Forms of education can also be distinguished by subject, like science education, language education, and physical education. The term "education" can also refer to the mental states and qualities of educated people and the academic field studying educational phenomena.

Education is a wide phenomenon that applies to all age groups and covers formal education (top row) as well as non-formal and informal education (bottom row).

The precise definition of education is disputed and there are disagreements about what the aims of education are and to what extent education is different from indoctrination by fostering critical thinking. These disagreements affect how to identify, measure, and improve forms of education. Fundamentally, education socializes children into society by teaching cultural values and norms. It equips them with the skills needed to become productive members of society. This way, it stimulates economic growth and raises awareness of local and global problems. Organized institutions affect many aspects of education. For example, governments set education policies to determine when school classes happen, what is taught, and who can or must attend. International organizations, like UNESCO, have been influential in promoting primary education for all children.

Many factors influence whether education is successful. Psychological factors include motivation, intelligence, and personality. Social factors, like socioeconomic status, ethnicity, and gender, are often linked to discrimination. Further factors include access to educational technology, teacher quality, and parent involvement.

The main field investigating education is called education studies. It examines what education is, what aims and effects it has, and how to improve it. Education studies has many subfields, like philosophy, psychology, sociology, and economics of education. It also discusses comparative education, pedagogy, and the history of education. In prehistory, education happened informally through oral communication and imitation. With the rise of ancient civilizations, writing was invented, and the amount of knowledge grew. This caused a shift from informal to formal education. Initially, formal education was mainly available to elites and religious groups. The invention of the printing press in the 15th century made books more widely available. This increased general literacy. Beginning in the 18th and 19th centuries, public education became more important. It led to the worldwide process of making primary education available to all, free of charge, and compulsory up to a certain age.

Definitions

Main article: Definitions of education

The definition of education has been explored by theorists from various fields.[1] Many agree that education is a purposeful activity aimed at achieving goals like the transmission of knowledge, skills, and character traits.[2] There is extensive debate regarding its exact nature beyond these general features. One approach views education as a process that occurs during events such as schooling, teaching, and learning.[3] Another outlook understands education not as a process but as the mental states and dispositions of educated persons that result from this process.[4] Additionally, the term may also refer to the academic field that studies the methods, processes, and social institutions involved in teaching and learning.[5] Having a clear idea of what the term means matters when trying to identify educational phenomena, measure educational success, and improve educational practices.[6] The term "education" is derived from the Latin words educare, meaning "to bring up" and educere, meaning "to bring forth".[7][8]

Some theorists provide precise definitions by identifying the specific features that are exclusive to all forms of education. Education theorist R. S. Peters, for instance, outlines three essential features of education, which include that knowledge and understanding are imparted to the student and that this process is beneficial and done in a morally appropriate manner.[9] Such precise definitions often succeed at characterizing the most typical forms of education. However, they often face criticism because less common types of education occasionally fall outside their parameters.[10] The difficulty of dealing with counterexamples not covered by precise definitions can be avoided by offering less exact definitions based on family resemblance instead. This means that all the forms of education are similar to each other but they need not share a set of essential features that all of them have in common.[11] Some education theorists, such as Keira Sewell and Stephen Newman, hold that the term "education" is context-dependent. This implies that its meaning varies depending on the situation in which it is used.[12]

There is disagreement in the academic literature on whether education is an evaluative concept. Thick definitions[a] characterize education as an evaluative concept. They state it is part of the nature of education to be beneficial to the student or lead to some kind of improvement. Different thick definitions express differing views about what kind of improvement is involved. They contrast with thin definitions, which provide a value-neutral explanation of education.[14] A closely related distinction is between descriptive and prescriptive conceptions of education. Descriptive conceptions refer to how the term is commonly used in ordinary language. Prescriptive conceptions define what good education is or how education should be practiced.[15] Many thick and prescriptive conceptions hold that education is an activity that tries to achieve certain aims.[16] Some concentrate on epistemic aims, like knowledge and understanding. Others give more emphasis to the development of skills, like rationality and critical thinking, and character traits, like kindness and honesty.[17]

One approach is to focus on a single overarching purpose of education and see the more specific aims as means to this end.[18] According to one suggestion, socialization is the aim of education. It is realized by transmitting accumulated knowledge from one generation to the next. This process helps the student to function in society as a citizen.[19] More person-centered definitions focus on the well-being of the student instead. According to them, education is a process that helps students lead a good life or the life they wish to lead.[20] Various scholars stress the role of critical thinking to distinguish education from indoctrination.[21] They state that mere indoctrination is only interested in instilling beliefs in the student, independent of whether the beliefs are rational;[22] whereas education also fosters the rational ability to critically reflect on and question those beliefs.[23] However, it is not universally accepted that these two phenomena can be clearly distinguished. One reason for this view is that some forms of indoctrination may be necessary in the early stages of education while the child's mind is not yet sufficiently developed. This applies to cases in which young children need to learn something without being able to understand the underlying reasons, like certain safety rules and hygiene practices.[24][25]

Education can be characterized from the teacher's or the student's perspective. Teacher-centered definitions focus on the perspective and role of the teacher in the transmission of knowledge and skills in a morally appropriate way.[26] Student-centered definitions analyze education from the student's involvement in the learning process and hold that this process transforms and enriches their subsequent experiences.[27] Definitions taking both perspectives into account are also possible. This can take the form of describing the process as the shared experience of a common world. In the shared experience, different aspects of the world are discovered and problems are posed and solved.[28]

Types

There are many classifications of education. One of them depends on the institutional framework and distinguishes between formal, non-formal, and informal education. Another classification includes different levels of education based on factors like the student's age and the complexity of the content. Further categories focus on the topic, the teaching method, the medium used, and the funding.[29]

Formal, non-formal, and informal

 
 
Tutoring is an example of non-formal education, while learning how to cook from one's parents belongs to informal education.

The most common division is between formal, non-formal, and informal education.[30][b] Formal education happens in a complex institutional framework. Such frameworks have a chronological and hierarchical order: the modern schooling system has classes based on the student's age and progress, extending from primary school to university. Formal education is usually controlled and guided by the government. It tends to be compulsory up to a certain age.[32]

Non-formal and informal education take place outside the formal schooling system. Non-formal education is a middle ground. Like formal education, it is organized, systematic, and carried out with a clear purpose. Examples are tutoring, fitness classes, and the scouting movement.[33] Informal education happens in an unsystematic way through daily experiences and exposure to the environment. Unlike formal and non-formal education, there is usually no designated authority figure responsible for teaching.[34] Informal education takes place in many different settings and situations throughout one's life, usually in a spontaneous way. Examples include the way children learn their first language from their parents or learning how to prepare a dish by cooking together.[35]

Some theorists distinguish the three types based on the location of learning. Formal education takes place in school. Non-formal education happens in places that are occasionally visited. Informal education occurs in places of everyday routines.[34] There are also differences in the source of motivation. Formal education tends to be driven by extrinsic motivation for external rewards. Non-formal and informal education are closely linked to intrinsic motivation because the learning itself is enjoyed.[36] The distinction between the three types is normally clear but some forms of education do not easily fall into one category.[37]

Formal education plays a central role in modern civilization, though in primitive cultures, most of the education happened on the informal level.[38] This usually meant that there was no distinction between activities focused on education and other activities. Instead, the whole environment acted as a form of school and most adults acted as teachers. Informal education is often not efficient enough to teach large quantities of knowledge. To do so, a formal setting and well-trained teachers are usually required. This was one of the reasons why in the course of history, formal education became more and more important. In this process, the experience of education and the discussed topics became more abstract and removed from daily life while more emphasis was put on grasping general patterns and concepts instead of observing and imitating particular forms of behavior.[39]

Levels

 
Young children in a kindergarten in Japan

Types of education are often divided into levels or stages. The most influential framework is the International Standard Classification of Education, maintained by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). It covers both formal and non-formal education and distinguishes levels based on the student's age, the duration of learning, and the complexity of the discussed content. Further criteria include entry requirements, teacher qualifications, and the intended outcome of successful completion. The levels are grouped into early childhood education (level 0), primary education (level 1), secondary education (levels 2–3), post-secondary non-tertiary education (level 4), and tertiary education (levels 5–8).[40]

Early childhood education is also known as preschool education or nursery education. It is the stage of education that begins with birth and lasts until the start of primary school. It follows the holistic aim of fostering early child development at the physical, mental, and social levels. It plays a key role in socialization and personality development, and includes various basic skills in the areas of communication, learning, and problem-solving. This way, it aims to prepare children for their entry into primary education.[41] Preschool education is usually optional but in some countries, such as Brazil, it is mandatory starting from the age of four.[42]

 
Primary school classroom in Ziway, Ethiopia

Primary (or elementary) education usually starts within the ages of five to seven and lasts for four to seven years. It does not have any further entry requirements. Its main goal is to teach the basic skills in the fields of reading, writing, and mathematics. It also covers the core knowledge in other fields, like history, geography, the sciences, music, and art. A further aim is to foster personal development.[43] Today, primary education is compulsory in almost all countries and over 90% of all primary-school-age children worldwide attend primary school.[44]

Secondary education is the stage of education following primary education. It usually covers the ages of 12 to 18 years. It is commonly divided into lower secondary education (middle school or junior high school) and upper secondary education (high school, senior high school, or college depending on the country). Lower secondary education normally has the completion of primary school as its entry requirement. It aims to extend and deepen the learning outcomes. It is more focused on subject-specific curricula and teachers are specialized in only one or a few specific subjects. One of its aims is to familiarize students with the basic theoretical concepts in the different subjects. This helps create a solid basis for lifelong learning. In some cases, it also includes basic forms of vocational training.[45] Lower secondary education is compulsory in many countries in Central and East Asia, Europe, and America. In some countries, it is the last stage of compulsory education. Mandatory lower secondary education is not as prevalent in Arab states, sub-Saharan Africa, and South and West Asia.[46]

 
A high-school senior (twelfth grade) classroom in Calhan, Colorado, United States

Upper secondary education starts roughly at the age of 15 and aims to provide students with the skills and knowledge needed for employment or tertiary education. Its requirement is usually the completion of lower secondary education. Its subjects are more varied and complex. The students can often choose between a few subjects. Its successful completion is commonly tied to a formal qualification in the form of a high school diploma.[47] There are some types of education after secondary education that do not belong to tertiary education. They are categorized as post-secondary non-tertiary education and are similar in complexity to secondary education. However, they tend to focus more on vocational training to prepare students for the job market.[48]

 
Students in a laboratory, Saint Petersburg State Polytechnical University

In some countries, tertiary education is used as a synonym of higher education, while in others, tertiary education is the wider term.[49] Tertiary education expands upon the foundations of secondary education but has a more narrow and in-depth focus on a specific field or subject. Its completion leads to an academic degree. It can be divided into four levels: short-cycle tertiary, Bachelor's, Master's, and doctoral level education. These levels often form a hierarchical structure with later levels depending on the completion of previous levels.[50] Short-cycle tertiary education focuses on practical matters. It includes advanced vocational and professional training to prepare students for the job market in specialized professions.[51] Bachelor's level education is also referred to as undergraduate education. It tends to be longer than short-cycle tertiary education. It is usually offered by universities and results in an intermediary academic certification in the form of a bachelor's degree.[52] Master's level education is more specialized than undergraduate education. Many programs require independent research in the form of a master's thesis as a requirement for successful completion.[53] Doctoral level education leads to an advanced research qualification, normally in the form of a doctor's degree, such as a Doctor of Philosophy (PhD). It usually requires the submission of a substantial academic work, such as a dissertation. More advanced levels include post-doctoral studies and habilitation.[54]

Others

Many other types of education are discussed in the academic literature, like the distinction between traditional and alternative education. Traditional education concerns long-established and mainstream schooling practices. It uses teacher-centered education and takes place in a well-regulated school environment. Regulations cover many aspects of education, such as the curriculum and the timeframe when classes start and end.[55]

 
Homeschooling is one form of alternative education.

Alternative education is an umbrella term for forms of schooling that differ from the mainstream traditional approach. They may use a different learning environment, teach different subjects, or promote a different teacher-student relationship. Alternative schooling is characterized by voluntary participation, relatively small class and school sizes, and personalized instruction. This often results in a more welcoming and emotionally safe atmosphere. Alternative education encompasses many types like charter schools and special programs for problematic or gifted children. It also includes homeschooling and unschooling. There are many alternative schooling traditions, like Montessori schools, Waldorf schools, Round Square schools, Escuela Nueva schools, free schools, and democratic schools.[56] Alternative education also includes indigenous education, which focuses on the transmission of knowledge and skills from an indigenous heritage and employs methods like narration and storytelling.[57] Further types of alternative schools include gurukul schools in India,[58] madrasa schools in the Middle East,[59] and yeshivas in Jewish tradition.[60]

Other distinctions between types of education are based on who receives education. Categories by the age of the learner are childhood education, adolescent education, adult education, and elderly education.[61] Special education is education that is specifically adapted to meet the unique needs of students with disabilities. It covers various forms of impairments on the intellectual, social, communicative, and physical levels. It aims to overcome the challenges posed by these impairments. This way, it provides the affected students with access to an appropriate educational structure. When understood in the broadest sense, special education also includes education for very gifted children who need adjusted curricula to reach their fullest potential.[62]

Some classifications focus on the teaching method. In teacher-centered education, the teacher takes center stage in providing students with information. It contrasts with student-centered education, in which students take on a more active and responsible role in shaping classroom activities.[63] For conscious education, learning and teaching happen with a clear purpose in mind. Unconscious education occurs on its own without being consciously planned or guided.[64] This may happen in part through the personality of teachers and adults, which can have indirect effects on the development of the student's personality.[65] Evidence-based education uses well-designed scientific studies to determine which methods of education work best. Its goal is to maximize the effectiveness of educational practices and policies. This is achieved by ensuring that they are informed by the best available empirical evidence. It includes evidence-based teaching, evidence-based learning, and school effectiveness research.[66]

Autodidacticism or self-education is self-directed learning. It happens without the guidance of teachers and institutions. It mainly occurs in adult education. It is characterized by the freedom to choose what and when to study. For this reason, it can be a more fulfilling learning experience. However, the lack of structure and guidance can result in aimless learning. Due to the absence of external feedback, autodidacts may develop false ideas and inaccurately assess their learning progress.[67] Autodidacticism is closely related to lifelong education, which is an ongoing learning process throughout a person's entire life.[68]

Forms of education can also be categorized by the subject and the medium used. Types based on the subject include science education, language education, art education, religious education, and physical education.[69] Special mediums, such as radio or websites, are used in distance education. Examples include e-learning (use of computers), m-learning (use of mobile devices), and online education. They often take the form of open education, in which the courses and materials are made available with a minimal amount of barriers. They contrast with regular classroom or onsite education. Some forms of online education are not open education, such as full online degree programs offered by some universities.[70]

A further distinction is based on the type of funding. State education, also referred to as public education[c], is funded and controlled by the government and available to the general public. It normally does not require tuition fees and is thus a form of free education. Private education, by contrast, is funded and managed by private institutions. Private schools often have a more selective admission process and offer paid education by charging tuition fees.[72] A more detailed classification focuses on the social institution responsible for education, like family, school, civil society, state, and church.[73]

Compulsory education is education that people are legally required to receive. It concerns mainly children who need to visit school up to a certain age. It contrasts with voluntary education, which people pursue by personal choice without a legal requirement.[74]

Role in society

Education plays various roles in society, including in social, economic, and personal fields. On a social level, education makes it possible to establish and sustain a stable society. It helps people acquire the basic skills needed to interact with their environment and fulfill their needs and desires. In modern society, this involves a wide range of skills like being able to speak, read, and write, as well as solve problems and to perform basic arithmetic tasks. It also includes the ability to handle information and communications technology. Children are socialized into society by acquiring these skills. Another key part of socialization is to learn how to live in social groups and interact with others by coming to understand social and cultural norms and expectations. This requires an understanding of what kinds of behavior are considered appropriate in different contexts. This way, new members are introduced to the culture, norms, and values that are dominant in their society. Socialization happens throughout life but is of special relevance to early childhood education. It enables a form of social cohesion, stability, and peace needed for people to productively engage in their daily business. Education plays a key role in democracies by increasing civic participation in the form of voting and organizing, and through its tendency to promote equal opportunity for all.[75]

Education enables people to become productive members of society by learning how to contribute to it. Through education, individuals acquire the technical and analytical skills needed to pursue their profession, produce goods, and provide services to others. In early societies, there was little specialization and each child would generally learn most of the skills that the community required to function. Modern societies are increasingly complex and many professions are only mastered by relatively few people who receive specialized training in addition to general education. Some of the skills and tendencies learned to function in society may conflict with each other and their value depends on the context of their usage. For example, fostering a questioning mind is necessary to develop the ability of critical thinking but in some cases, obedience to an authority is required to ensure social stability.[76]

By helping people become productive members of society, education stimulates economic growth and reduces poverty. It helps workers become more skilled and thereby increases the quality of the produced goods and services, which in turn leads to prosperity and increased competitiveness.[77] Public education is often understood as a long-term investment to benefit society as a whole. The rate of return is especially high for investments in primary education.[78] Besides increasing economic prosperity, it can also lead to technological and scientific advances as well as decrease unemployment while promoting social equity.[79]

Education can prepare a country to adapt to changes and successfully face new challenges. It can help raise awareness and contribute to the solution of contemporary global problems. Examples are climate change and sustainability as well as the widening inequalities between the rich and the poor.[80] By making students aware of how their lives and actions affect others, it may inspire some to work toward realizing a more sustainable and fair world.[81] This way, education serves not just the purpose of maintaining the societal status quo, but can also be an instrument of social development.[82] That applies also to changing circumstances in the economic sector. For example, technological advances, particularly increased automation, are accompanied by new demands on the workforce, which education can help address.[83] Changing circumstances may render currently taught skills and knowledge redundant while shifting the importance to other areas. Education can be used to prepare people for such changes by adjusting the curriculum. This way, subjects involving digital literacy and skills in handling new technologies can be promoted.[84] Another example is online education in the form of massive open online courses.[85]

On a more individual level, education promotes personal development. This can include factors such as learning new skills, developing talents, fostering creativity, and increasing self-knowledge as well as improving problem-solving and decision-making abilities.[86] Education also has positive effects on health and well-being.[87] While education is of high relevance in childhood, it does not end at adulthood and continues throughout life. This form of lifelong learning is of specific significance in contemporary society due to the rapid changes on many levels and the need for people to adjust to them.[88] The social importance of education is recognized in the annual International Day of Education on January 24. The year 1970 was declared International Education Year.[89]

Role of institutions

 
Governmental institutions, like the Chinese Ministry of Education, affect many aspects of public education.

Organized institutions play a key role in various aspects of education. Institutions like schools, universities, teacher training institutions, and ministries of education make up the education sector. They interact both with each other and with other stakeholders, such as parents, local communities, and religious groups. Further stakeholders are Non-governmental organizations, professionals in healthcare, law enforcement, media platforms, and political leaders. Many people are directly involved in the education sector. They include students, teachers, and school principals as well as school nurses and curriculum developers.[90]

Various aspects of formal education are regulated by the policies of governmental institutions. They determine at what age children need to attend school and at what times classes are held as well as issues pertaining to the school environment, like infrastructure. Regulations also cover the exact qualifications and requirements that teachers need to fulfill. An important aspect of education policy concerns the curriculum used for teaching at schools, colleges, and universities. A curriculum is a plan of instruction or a program of learning that guides students to achieve their educational goals. The topics are usually selected based on their importance and depend on the type of school. The goals of public school curricula are usually to offer a comprehensive and well-rounded education while vocational training focuses more on specific practical skills within a field. The curricula also cover various aspects besides the topic to be discussed, such as the teaching method, the objectives to be reached, and the standards for assessing progress. By determining the curricula, governmental institutions have a strong impact on what knowledge and skills are transmitted to the students.[91] Examples of governmental institutions include the Ministry of Education in India,[92] the Department of Basic Education in South Africa,[93] and the Secretariat of Public Education in Mexico.[94]

 
International organizations, like UNESCO, have been influential in shaping educational standards and policies worldwide.

International organizations also play a key role in education. For instance, UNESCO is an intergovernmental organization that promotes education in many ways. One of its activities is to advocate education policies, like the treaty Convention on the Rights of the Child, which states that education is a human right of all children and young people. Another was the Education for All initiative. It aimed to offer basic education to all children, adolescents, and adults by the year 2015 and was later replaced by the initiative Sustainable Development Goals as goal 4.[95] Related policies include the Convention against Discrimination in Education and the Futures of Education initiative.[96]

Some influential organizations are not intergovernmental, but non-governmental. For example, the International Association of Universities promotes collaboration and the exchange of knowledge between colleges and universities around the world, while the International Baccalaureate offers international diploma programs.[97] Institutions, like the Erasmus Programme, facilitate student exchanges between countries,[98] while initiatives such as the Fulbright Program provide a similar service for teachers.[99]

Factors of educational success

Several factors influence educational achievement. They include psychological factors, which concern the student as an individual, and sociological factors, which pertain to the student's social environment. Further factors are access to educational technology, teacher quality, and parent involvement. Many of these factors overlap and influence each other.[100]

Psychological

On a psychological level, relevant factors include motivation, intelligence, and personality.[101] Motivation is the internal force propelling people to engage in learning.[102] Motivated students are more likely to interact with the content to be learned by participating in classroom activities like discussions. This often results in a deeper understanding of the subject. Motivation can also help students overcome difficulties and setbacks. An important distinction is between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. Intrinsically motivated students are driven by an interest in the subject and the learning experience itself. Extrinsically motivated students seek external rewards. They may strive for good grades and recognition from their peers. Intrinsic motivation tends to be more beneficial by leading to increased creativity and engagement as well as long-term commitment.[103] Educational psychologists try to discover how to increase motivation. This can be achieved, for instance, by encouraging some competition among students while ensuring a balance of positive and negative feedback in the form of praise and criticism.[104]

Intelligence is another important factor in how people respond to education. It is a mental quality linked to the ability to learn from experience, to understand, and to employ knowledge and skills to solve problems. Those who have higher scores in intelligence metrics tend to perform better at school and go on to higher levels of education.[105] Intelligence is often primarily associated with the so-called IQ, a standardized numerical metric for assessing intelligence. However, it has been argued that there different types of intelligences pertaining to distinct areas. According to psychologist Howard Gardner, they can be distinguished into areas like mathematics, logic, spatial cognition, language, and music. Further types affect how a person interacts with other people and with themselves. These forms are largely independent of each other, meaning that someone may excel at one type while scoring low on another.[106]

A closely related factor concerns learning styles. A learning style is a preferred form of acquiring knowledge and skills. According to proponents of learning style theory, students with an auditory learning style find it easy to follow spoken lectures and discussions while visual learners benefit if information is presented visually in diagrams and videos. For efficient learning, it may be beneficial to include a wide variety of learning modalities.[107] The learner's personality may also affect educational achievement. For example, the features of conscientiousness and openness to experience from the Big Five personality traits are linked to academic success.[108] Further mental factors include self-efficacy, self-esteem, and metacognitive abilities.[109]

Sociological

Sociological factors focus not on psychological attributes of learners but on their environment and position in society. They include socioeconomic status, ethnicity, and cultural background, as well as gender. They are of interest to researchers since they are associated with inequality and discrimination. For this reason, they play a key role in policy-making in attempts to mitigate their effects.[110]

Socioeconomic status depends on income but includes other factors, such as financial security, social status, and social class, as well as quality of life attributes. Low socioeconomic status affects educational success in various ways. It is linked to slower cognitive developments in language and memory and higher dropout rates. Poor families may not have enough money to meet basic the nutritional needs of their children, causing poor development. They may also lack the means to invest in educational resources like stimulating toys, books, and computers. Additionally, they may be unable to afford tuition at prestigious schools and are more likely to attend schools in poorer areas. Such schools tend to offer lower standards of teaching because of teacher shortages or because they lack educational materials and facilities, like libraries. Poor parents may also be unable to afford private lessons if their children fall behind. In some cases, students from an economically disadvantaged background are forced to dropout from school to provide income to their families. They also have less access to information on higher education and may face additional difficulties in securing and repaying student loans. Low socioeconomic status also has many indirect negative effects by being linked to lower physical and mental health. Due to these factors, social inequalities on the level of the parents are often reproduced in the children.[111]

Ethnic background is linked to cultural differences and language barriers, which make it more difficult for students to adapt to the school environment and follow classes. Additional factors are explicit and implicit biases and discrimination toward ethnic minorities. This may affect the students' self-esteem and motivation as well as their access to educational opportunities. For example, teachers may hold stereotypical views even if they are not overtly racist, which can lead them to grade comparable performances differently based on the child's ethnicity.[112]

Historically, gender has been a central factor in education since the roles of men and women were defined differently in many societies. Education tended to strongly favor men, who were expected to provide for the family. Women, by contrast, were expected to manage the household and rear children, which barred most educational opportunities available to them. And while these inequalities have improved in most modern societies, there are still gender differences in education. Among other things, this concerns biases and stereotypes linked to the role of gender in education. They affect subjects like science, technology, engineering, and mathematics, which are often presented as male fields. This discourages female students from following them.[113] In various cases, discrimination based on gender and social factors happens openly as part of official educational policy, such as the severe restrictions on female education instituted by the Taliban in Afghanistan[114] and the school segregation of migrants and locals in urban China under the hukou system.[115]

One aspect of many social factors is given by the expectations associated with stereotypes. They work both on an external level, based on how other people react to a person belonging to a certain group, and on an internal level, based on how the person internalizes them and acts accordingly. In this sense, the expectations may turn into self-fulfilling prophecies by causing the educational outcomes they anticipate. This can happen both for positive and negative stereotypes.[116]

Technology and others

Technology plays another significant role in educational success. Educational technology is commonly associated with the use of modern digital devices, like computers. But understood in the broadest sense, it involves a wide range of resources and tools for learning, including basic aids that do not involve the use of machines, like regular books and worksheets.[117]

 
A One Laptop per Child device being introduced to children in Haiti

Educational technology can benefit learning in various ways. In the form of media, it often takes the role of the primary supplier of information in the classroom. This means that the teacher can focus their time and energy on other tasks, like planning the lesson and guiding students as well as assessing educational performance.[118] Educational technology can also make information easier to understand by presenting it using graphics and videos rather than through mere text. In this regard, interactive elements may be used to make the learning experience more engaging in the form of educational games. Technology can be employed to make educational materials accessible to many people, like when using online resources. It additionally facilitates collaboration between students and communication with teachers.[119] Lack of educational technology affects developing countries in particular. Many efforts are made to address it through organisations such as the One Laptop per Child initiative, the African Library Project, and Pratham.[120]

A closely related issue concerns the effects of school infrastructure. It includes physical aspects of the school, like its location and size as well as the available school facilities and equipment. A healthy and safe environment, well-maintained classrooms, and suitable classroom furniture as well as the availability of a library and a canteen tend to contribute to educational success.[121] The quality of the teacher also has an important impact on student achievement. Skilled teachers know how to motivate and inspire students and are able to adjust their instructions to the students' abilities and needs. Important in this regard are the teacher's own education and training as well as their past teaching experience.[122] A meta-analysis by Engin Karadağ et al. concludes that, compared to other influences, factors related to the school and the teacher have the biggest impact on educational success.[123]

An additional factor to boost student achievement is parent involvement. It can make children more motivated and invested if they are aware that their parents care about their educational efforts. This tends to lead to increased self-esteem, better attendance rates, and more constructive behavior at school. Parent involvement also includes communication with teachers and other school staff to make other parties aware of current issues and how they may be resolved.[124] Further relevant factors sometimes discussed in the academic literature include historical, political, demographic, religious, and legal aspects.[125]

Education studies

Main article: Education sciences
 
John Locke's book Some Thoughts Concerning Education from 1693 is one of the foundational works of education studies.[126]

The main discipline investigating education is called education studies, also referred to as education sciences. It tries to determine how people transmit and acquire knowledge by studying the methods and forms of education. It is interested in its aims, effects, and value as well as the cultural, societal, governmental, and historical contexts that shape education.[127] Education theorists integrate insights from many other fields of inquiry, including philosophy, psychology, sociology, economics, history, politics, and international relations. Because of these influences, some theorists claim that education studies is not an independent academic discipline like physics or history since its method and subject are not as clearly defined.[128] Education studies differs from regular training programs, such as teacher training, since its focus on academic analysis and critical reflection goes beyond the skills needed to be a good teacher. It is not restricted to the topic of formal education but examines all forms and aspects of education.[129]

Various research methods are used to study educational phenomena. They can roughly be divided into quantitative, qualitative, and mixed-methods approaches. Quantitative research emulates the methods found in the natural sciences by using precise numerical measurements to gather data from many observations and employs statistical tools to analyze it. It aims to arrive at an objective and impersonal understanding. Qualitative research usually has a much smaller sample size and tries to get an in-depth insight into more subjective and personal factors, like how different actors experience the process of education. Mixed-methods research aims to combine data gathered from both approaches to arrive at a balanced and comprehensive understanding. Data can be collected in various ways, like using direct observation or test scores as well as interviews and questionnaires.[130] Some research projects study basic factors affecting all forms of education while others concentrate on one specific application. Some investigations look for solutions to concrete problems while others examine the effectiveness of educational projects and policies.[131]

Subfields

Education studies encompasses various subfields like philosophy of education, pedagogy, psychology of education, sociology of education, economics of education, comparative education, and history of education.[132] The philosophy of education is the branch of applied philosophy that examines many of the basic assumptions underlying the theory and practice of education. It studies education both as a process and as a discipline while trying to provide exact definitions of its nature and how it differs from other phenomena. It further examines the purpose of education, its different types, and how to conceptualize teachers, students, and their relation.[133] It includes educational ethics, which investigates the moral implications of education; for example, what ethical principles direct it and how teachers should apply them to specific cases. The philosophy of education has a long history and was discussed in ancient Greek philosophy.[134]

The term "pedagogy" is sometimes used as a synonym for education studies but when understood in a more restricted sense, it refers to the subfield interested in teaching methods.[135] It studies how the aims of education, like the transmission of knowledge or fostering skills and character traits, can be realized.[136] It is interested in the methods and practices used for teaching in regular schools. Some definitions restrict it to this domain, but in a wider sense, it covers all types of education, including forms of teaching outside schools.[137] In this general sense, it explores how teachers can bring about experiences in learners to advance their understanding of the studied topic and how the learning itself takes place.[138]

The psychology of education studies how education happens on the mental level, specifically how new knowledge and skills are acquired as well as how personal growth takes place. It examines the factors responsible for successful education and how these factors may differ between individuals. Important factors include intelligence, motivation, and personality. A central topic in this field is the interplay between nature and nurture and how it affects educational success. Influential psychological theories of education are behaviorism, cognitivism, and constructivism.[139] Closely related fields are the neurology of education and educational neuroscience, which are interested in the neuropsychological processes and changes brought about through learning.[140]

The sociology of education is concerned with how social factors influence education and how it leads to socialization. Often-discussed factors are socioeconomic status, ethnicity, and gender. The sociology of education studies how these factors, together with the dominant ideology in society, affect what kind of education is available to a person and how successful they are. Closely related questions include how education affects different groups in society and how educational experiences can form someone's personal identity. The sociology of education is specifically interested in aspects that result in inequalities. Its insights are relevant to education policy for trying to identify and mitigate factors that cause inequality.[141] Two influential schools of thought are consensus theory and conflict theory. Consensus theorists hold that education benefits society as a whole by preparing people for their roles. Conflict theories have a more negative outlook on the resulting inequalities and see education as a force used by the ruling class to promote their own agenda.[142]

The economics of education is the field of inquiry studying how education is produced, distributed, and consumed. It tries to determine how resources should be used to improve education. An example is the question to what extent the quality of teachers is increased by raising their salary. Other questions are how smaller class sizes affect educational success and how to invest in new educational technologies. This way, the economics of education helps policy-makers decide how to distribute the limited resources most efficiently to benefit society as a whole. It also tries to understand what long-term role education plays for the economy of a country by providing a highly skilled labor force and increasing its competitiveness. A closely related issue concerns the economic advantages and disadvantages of different systems of education.[143]

Comparative education is the discipline that examines and contrasts systems of education. Comparisons can happen from a general perspective or focus on specific factors, like social, political, or economic aspects. Comparative education is often applied to different countries to assess the similarities and differences of their educational institutions and practices as well as to evaluate the consequences of the distinct approaches. It can be used to learn from other countries which education policies work and how one's own system of education may be improved.[144] This practice is known as policy borrowing. It comes with many difficulties since the success of policies can depend to a large degree on the social and cultural context of students and teachers. A closely related and controversial topic concerns the question of whether the educational systems of developed countries are superior and should be exported to less developed countries.[145] Other key topics are the internationalization of education and the role of education in transitioning from an authoritarian regime to a democracy.[146]

The history of education examines the evolution of educational practices, systems, and institutions. It discusses various key processes, their possible causes and effects, and their relations to each other.[147]

Aims and ideologies

A central topic in education studies concerns the question of how people should be educated and what goals should guide this process. Many aims of education have been suggested. On a basic level, education is about the acquisition of knowledge and skills but may also include personal development and fostering of character traits. Common suggestions encompass features like curiosity, creativity, rationality, and critical thinking as well as the tendency to think, feel, and act morally. Some scholars focus on liberal values linked to freedom, autonomy, and open-mindedness. Others prioritize qualities like obedience to authority, ideological purity, piety, and religious faith. An important discussion in this regard is about the role of critical thinking and the extent to which indoctrination forms part of education. On a social level, it is often stressed that education should socialize people.[148] A controversial issue concerns who primarily benefits from education: the educated person, society as a whole, or dominant groups within society.[149]

Educational ideologies are systems of basic philosophical assumptions and principles that can be used to interpret, understand, and evaluate existing educational practicies and policies. They cover various additional issues besides the aims of education, like what topics are learned and how the learning activity is structured. Other themes include the role of the teacher and how educational progress should be assessed. They also include claims on how to structure the institutional framework and policies. There are many ideologies and they often overlap in various ways. Teacher-centered ideologies place the main emphasis on the teacher's role in transmitting knowledge to students while student-centered ideologies give a more active role to the students in the process. Process-based ideologies focus on what the processes of teaching and learning should be like. They contrast with product-based ideologies, which discuss education from the perspective of the result to be achieved. Another classification contrasts progressivism with more traditional and conservative ideologies. Further categories are humanism, romanticism, essentialism, encyclopaedism, and pragmatism. There are also distinct types for authoritarian and democratic ideologies.[150]

Learning theories and teaching methods

Learning theories try to explain how learning happens. Influential theories are behaviorism, cognitivism, and constructivism. Behaviorism understands learning as a change in behavior in response to environmental stimuli. This happens by presenting the learner with a stimulus, associating this stimulus with the desired response, and solidifying this stimulus-response pair. Cognitivism sees learning as a change in cognitive structures and focuses on the mental processes involved in storing, retrieving, and processing information. According to constructivism, learning is based on the personal experience of each individual. It puts more emphasis on social interactions and how they are interpreted by the learner. These theories have important implications for how to teach. For example, behaviorists tend to focus on drills while cognitivists may advocate the use of mnemonics and constructivists tend to employ collaborative learning strategies.[151]

Various theories suggest that learning is more efficient when it is based on personal experience. An additional factor is to aim at a deeper understanding by connecting new to pre-existing knowledge rather than merely memorizing a list of unrelated facts.[152] An influential developmental theory of learning is proposed by psychologist Jean Piaget. He outlines four stages of learning through which children pass on their way to adulthood. They are the sensorimotor, the pre-operational, the concrete operational, and the formal operational stage. They correspond to different levels of abstraction. Early stages focus more on simple sensory and motor activities. Later stages include more complex internal representations and information processing in the form of logical reasoning.[153]

The teaching method concerns the way the content is presented by the teacher, for example, whether group work is used instead of a focus on individual learning. There are many teaching methods available. Which one is most efficient in a case depends on various factors, like the subject matter as well as the learner's age and competence level.[154] This is reflected in the fact that modern school systems organize students by age, competence, specialization, and native language into different classes to ensure a productive learning process. Different subjects frequently use very different approaches. Language education often focuses on verbal learning while mathematical education is about abstract and symbolic thinking together with deductive reasoning.[155] One central requirement for teaching methodologies is to ensure that the learner remains motivated because of interest and curiosity or through external rewards.[156]

Further aspects of teaching methods include the instructional media used, such as books, worksheets, and audio-visual recordings, and having some form of test or assessment to evaluate the learning progress. An important pedagogical aspect in many forms of modern education is that each lesson is part of a larger educational enterprise governed by a syllabus. It often covers several months or years.[157] According to Herbartianism, teaching is divided into phases. The initial phase consists of preparing the student's mind for new information. Next, new ideas are first presented to the learner and then associated with ideas with which the learner is already familiar. In later phases, the understanding shifts to a more general level behind the specific instances and the ideas are then put into concrete practice.[158]

History

Main article: History of education

The history of education studies the processes, methods, and institutions involved in teaching and learning. It tries to explain how they have interacted with each other and shaped educational practice until the present day.[159] Education in prehistory took place as a form of enculturation and focused on practical knowledge and skills relevant to everyday concerns, for example, in relation to food, clothing, shelter, and protection. There were no formal schools or specialized teachers and most adults in the community performed that role. Learning happened informally during everyday activities, for example, when children observed and imitated their elders. For these oral societies, storytelling played a key role in transferring cultural and religious ideas from one generation to the next.[160][d] Beginning with the emergence of agriculture around 9000 BCE, a slow educational change towards more specialization began to occur as people formed larger groups and more complex artisanal and technical skills were needed.[162]

Starting in the 4th millennium BCE and the following millennia, a major shift in educational practices started to take place with the invention of writing in regions such as Mesopotamia, ancient Egypt, the Indus Valley, and ancient China.[163][e] This development had a significant influence on the history of education as a whole. Through writing, it was possible to store, preserve, and communicate information. This facilitated various subsequent developments; for example, the creation of educational tools, like textbooks, and the formation of institutions, like schools.[165]

 
Plato's Academy is often seen as the first school of higher learning. (Mosaic from Pompeii).

Another key aspect of ancient education was the establishment of formal education. This became necessary since the amount of knowledge grew as civilizations evolved and informal education proved insufficient to transmit all requisite knowledge between generations. Teachers would act as specialists to impart knowledge and education became more abstract and further removed from daily life. Formal education was still quite rare in ancient societies and was restricted to the intellectual elites.[166] It covered fields like reading and writing, record keeping, leadership, civic and political life, religion, and technical skills associated with specific professions.[167] Formal education introduced a new way of teaching that gave more emphasis to discipline and drills than the earlier informal modes of education.[168] Two often-discussed achievements of ancient education are the establishment of Plato's Academy in Ancient Greece, which is sometimes considered the first institute of higher learning,[169] and the creation of the Great Library of Alexandria in Ancient Egypt as one of the most prestigious libraries of the ancient world.[170]

Many aspects of education in the medieval period were shaped by religious traditions. In Europe, the Catholic Church wielded a significant influence over formal education.[171] In the Arab world, the newly founded religion of Islam spread rapidly and led to various educational developments during the Islamic Golden Age, for example, by integrating classical and religious knowledge and by establishing madrasa schools.[172] In Jewish communities, yeshivas were established as institutions dedicated to the study of religious texts and Jewish law.[173] In China, an expansive state educational and exam system influenced by Confucian teachings was established.[174] New complex societies began to evolve in other regions, such as Africa, the Americas, Northern Europe, and Japan. Some incorporated preexisting educational practices while others developed new traditions.[175] Additionally, this period saw the establishment of various institutes of higher education and research. The first universities in Europe were the University of Bologna, the University of Paris, and Oxford University.[176] Other influential centers of higher learning were the Al-Qarawiyyin University in Morocco,[177] the Al-Azhar University in Egypt,[178] and the House of Wisdom in Iraq.[179] Another key development was the creation of guilds. Guilds were associations of skilled craftsmen and merchants who controlled the practice of their trades. They were responsible for vocational education and new members had to pass through different stages on their way to masterhood.[180]

 
The invention of the printing press made written media widely available and led to a significant increase in general literacy.

Starting in the early modern period, education in Europe during the Renaissance slowly began to shift from a religious approach towards one which was more secular. This development was tied to an increased appreciation of the importance of education and a broadened range of topics, including a revived interest in ancient literary texts and educational programs.[181] The turn toward secularization was accelerated during the Age of Enlightenment starting in the 17th century, which emphasized the role of reason and the empirical sciences.[182] European colonization affected education in the Americas through Christian missionary initiatives.[183] In China, the state educational system was further expanded and focused more on the teachings of neo-Confucianism.[184] In the Islamic world, the outreach of formal education increased and remained under the influence of religion.[185] A key development in the early modern period was the invention and popularization of the printing press in the middle of the 15th century, which had a profound impact on general education. It significantly reduced the cost of producing books, which were hand-written before, and thereby augmented the dissemination of written documents, including new forms like newspapers and pamphlets. The increased availability of written media had a major influence on the general literacy of the population.[186]

These changes prepared the rise of public education in the 18th and 19th centuries. This period saw the establishment of publicly funded schools with the aim of providing education for all. This contrasts with earlier periods when formal education was primarily provided by private schools, religious institutions, and individual tutors.[187] Aztec civilization was an exception in this regard since formal education was mandatory for the youth regardless of social class as early as the 14th century.[188] Closely related changes were to make education compulsory and free of charge for all children up to a certain age.[189] Initiatives to promote public education and universal access to education made significant progress in the 20th and the 21st centuries and were promoted by intergovernmental organizations like the UN. Examples include the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the Convention on the Rights of the Child, the Education for All initiative, the Millennium Development Goals, and the Sustainable Development Goals.[190] These efforts resulted in a steady rise of all forms of education but affected primary education in particular. In 1970, 28% of all primary-school-age children worldwide did not attend school; in 2015, this number dropped to 9%.[44]

The establishment of public education was accompanied by the introduction of standardized curricula for public schools as well as standardized tests to assess the student's progress. Contemporary examples include the Test of English as a Foreign Language, which is a globally used test to assess English language proficiency of non-native English speakers, and the Programme for International Student Assessment, which evaluates education systems worldwide based on how 15-year-old students perform in the fields of reading, mathematics, and science. Similar changes also affected teachers by setting in place institutions and norms to guide and oversee teacher training, like certification requirements for teaching at public schools.[191]

A further influence on contemporary education was the emergence of new educational technologies. The widespread availability of computers and the internet dramatically increased access to educational resources and made new types of education possible, such as online education. This was of particular relevance during the COVID-19 pandemic when schools globally closed for extended periods and many offered remote learning through video conferencing or pre-recorded video lessons to continue instruction.[192] A further contemporary factor is the increased globalization and internationalization of education.[193]

See also

References

Notes

  1. ^ A thick concept is a concept that includes both descriptive and evaluative content.[13]
  2. ^ Some theorists only distinguish between formal and informal education.[31]
  3. ^ In some regions, these two terms have different meanings. In the United Kingdom, for example, public schools are run by private institution and charge fees while state schools are controlled by the government and provide free education.[71]
  4. ^ Research on prehistoric education often relies on studies of surviving hunting and gathering societies.[161]
  5. ^ There is no consensus when exactly writing was invented and various forms of proto-writing have existed for much longer.[164]

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December 20, 2023
education, western, education, redirects, here, other, uses, western, education, disambiguation, education, disambiguation, educating, redirects, here, british, program, educating, transmission, knowledge, skills, character, traits, there, many, types, educati. Western education redirects here For other uses see Western education disambiguation and education disambiguation Educating redirects here For the British TV program see Educating Education is the transmission of knowledge skills and character traits There are many types of education Formal education happens in a complex institutional framework like public schools Non formal education is also structured but takes place outside the formal schooling system Informal education is unstructured learning through daily experiences Formal and non formal education are divided into levels They include early childhood education primary education secondary education and tertiary education Other classifications focus on the teaching method like teacher centered and student centered education Forms of education can also be distinguished by subject like science education language education and physical education The term education can also refer to the mental states and qualities of educated people and the academic field studying educational phenomena Education is a wide phenomenon that applies to all age groups and covers formal education top row as well as non formal and informal education bottom row The precise definition of education is disputed and there are disagreements about what the aims of education are and to what extent education is different from indoctrination by fostering critical thinking These disagreements affect how to identify measure and improve forms of education Fundamentally education socializes children into society by teaching cultural values and norms It equips them with the skills needed to become productive members of society This way it stimulates economic growth and raises awareness of local and global problems Organized institutions affect many aspects of education For example governments set education policies to determine when school classes happen what is taught and who can or must attend International organizations like UNESCO have been influential in promoting primary education for all children Many factors influence whether education is successful Psychological factors include motivation intelligence and personality Social factors like socioeconomic status ethnicity and gender are often linked to discrimination Further factors include access to educational technology teacher quality and parent involvement The main field investigating education is called education studies It examines what education is what aims and effects it has and how to improve it Education studies has many subfields like philosophy psychology sociology and economics of education It also discusses comparative education pedagogy and the history of education In prehistory education happened informally through oral communication and imitation With the rise of ancient civilizations writing was invented and the amount of knowledge grew This caused a shift from informal to formal education Initially formal education was mainly available to elites and religious groups The invention of the printing press in the 15th century made books more widely available This increased general literacy Beginning in the 18th and 19th centuries public education became more important It led to the worldwide process of making primary education available to all free of charge and compulsory up to a certain age Contents 1 Definitions 2 Types 2 1 Formal non formal and informal 2 2 Levels 2 3 Others 3 Role in society 4 Role of institutions 5 Factors of educational success 5 1 Psychological 5 2 Sociological 5 3 Technology and others 6 Education studies 6 1 Subfields 6 2 Aims and ideologies 6 3 Learning theories and teaching methods 7 History 8 See also 9 References 9 1 Notes 9 2 Citations 9 3 Sources 10 External linksDefinitionsMain article Definitions of education The definition of education has been explored by theorists from various fields 1 Many agree that education is a purposeful activity aimed at achieving goals like the transmission of knowledge skills and character traits 2 There is extensive debate regarding its exact nature beyond these general features One approach views education as a process that occurs during events such as schooling teaching and learning 3 Another outlook understands education not as a process but as the mental states and dispositions of educated persons that result from this process 4 Additionally the term may also refer to the academic field that studies the methods processes and social institutions involved in teaching and learning 5 Having a clear idea of what the term means matters when trying to identify educational phenomena measure educational success and improve educational practices 6 The term education is derived from the Latin words educare meaning to bring up and educere meaning to bring forth 7 8 Some theorists provide precise definitions by identifying the specific features that are exclusive to all forms of education Education theorist R S Peters for instance outlines three essential features of education which include that knowledge and understanding are imparted to the student and that this process is beneficial and done in a morally appropriate manner 9 Such precise definitions often succeed at characterizing the most typical forms of education However they often face criticism because less common types of education occasionally fall outside their parameters 10 The difficulty of dealing with counterexamples not covered by precise definitions can be avoided by offering less exact definitions based on family resemblance instead This means that all the forms of education are similar to each other but they need not share a set of essential features that all of them have in common 11 Some education theorists such as Keira Sewell and Stephen Newman hold that the term education is context dependent This implies that its meaning varies depending on the situation in which it is used 12 There is disagreement in the academic literature on whether education is an evaluative concept Thick definitions a characterize education as an evaluative concept They state it is part of the nature of education to be beneficial to the student or lead to some kind of improvement Different thick definitions express differing views about what kind of improvement is involved They contrast with thin definitions which provide a value neutral explanation of education 14 A closely related distinction is between descriptive and prescriptive conceptions of education Descriptive conceptions refer to how the term is commonly used in ordinary language Prescriptive conceptions define what good education is or how education should be practiced 15 Many thick and prescriptive conceptions hold that education is an activity that tries to achieve certain aims 16 Some concentrate on epistemic aims like knowledge and understanding Others give more emphasis to the development of skills like rationality and critical thinking and character traits like kindness and honesty 17 One approach is to focus on a single overarching purpose of education and see the more specific aims as means to this end 18 According to one suggestion socialization is the aim of education It is realized by transmitting accumulated knowledge from one generation to the next This process helps the student to function in society as a citizen 19 More person centered definitions focus on the well being of the student instead According to them education is a process that helps students lead a good life or the life they wish to lead 20 Various scholars stress the role of critical thinking to distinguish education from indoctrination 21 They state that mere indoctrination is only interested in instilling beliefs in the student independent of whether the beliefs are rational 22 whereas education also fosters the rational ability to critically reflect on and question those beliefs 23 However it is not universally accepted that these two phenomena can be clearly distinguished One reason for this view is that some forms of indoctrination may be necessary in the early stages of education while the child s mind is not yet sufficiently developed This applies to cases in which young children need to learn something without being able to understand the underlying reasons like certain safety rules and hygiene practices 24 25 Education can be characterized from the teacher s or the student s perspective Teacher centered definitions focus on the perspective and role of the teacher in the transmission of knowledge and skills in a morally appropriate way 26 Student centered definitions analyze education from the student s involvement in the learning process and hold that this process transforms and enriches their subsequent experiences 27 Definitions taking both perspectives into account are also possible This can take the form of describing the process as the shared experience of a common world In the shared experience different aspects of the world are discovered and problems are posed and solved 28 TypesThere are many classifications of education One of them depends on the institutional framework and distinguishes between formal non formal and informal education Another classification includes different levels of education based on factors like the student s age and the complexity of the content Further categories focus on the topic the teaching method the medium used and the funding 29 Formal non formal and informal nbsp nbsp Tutoring is an example of non formal education while learning how to cook from one s parents belongs to informal education The most common division is between formal non formal and informal education 30 b Formal education happens in a complex institutional framework Such frameworks have a chronological and hierarchical order the modern schooling system has classes based on the student s age and progress extending from primary school to university Formal education is usually controlled and guided by the government It tends to be compulsory up to a certain age 32 Non formal and informal education take place outside the formal schooling system Non formal education is a middle ground Like formal education it is organized systematic and carried out with a clear purpose Examples are tutoring fitness classes and the scouting movement 33 Informal education happens in an unsystematic way through daily experiences and exposure to the environment Unlike formal and non formal education there is usually no designated authority figure responsible for teaching 34 Informal education takes place in many different settings and situations throughout one s life usually in a spontaneous way Examples include the way children learn their first language from their parents or learning how to prepare a dish by cooking together 35 Some theorists distinguish the three types based on the location of learning Formal education takes place in school Non formal education happens in places that are occasionally visited Informal education occurs in places of everyday routines 34 There are also differences in the source of motivation Formal education tends to be driven by extrinsic motivation for external rewards Non formal and informal education are closely linked to intrinsic motivation because the learning itself is enjoyed 36 The distinction between the three types is normally clear but some forms of education do not easily fall into one category 37 Formal education plays a central role in modern civilization though in primitive cultures most of the education happened on the informal level 38 This usually meant that there was no distinction between activities focused on education and other activities Instead the whole environment acted as a form of school and most adults acted as teachers Informal education is often not efficient enough to teach large quantities of knowledge To do so a formal setting and well trained teachers are usually required This was one of the reasons why in the course of history formal education became more and more important In this process the experience of education and the discussed topics became more abstract and removed from daily life while more emphasis was put on grasping general patterns and concepts instead of observing and imitating particular forms of behavior 39 Levels nbsp Young children in a kindergarten in JapanTypes of education are often divided into levels or stages The most influential framework is the International Standard Classification of Education maintained by the United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization UNESCO It covers both formal and non formal education and distinguishes levels based on the student s age the duration of learning and the complexity of the discussed content Further criteria include entry requirements teacher qualifications and the intended outcome of successful completion The levels are grouped into early childhood education level 0 primary education level 1 secondary education levels 2 3 post secondary non tertiary education level 4 and tertiary education levels 5 8 40 Early childhood education is also known as preschool education or nursery education It is the stage of education that begins with birth and lasts until the start of primary school It follows the holistic aim of fostering early child development at the physical mental and social levels It plays a key role in socialization and personality development and includes various basic skills in the areas of communication learning and problem solving This way it aims to prepare children for their entry into primary education 41 Preschool education is usually optional but in some countries such as Brazil it is mandatory starting from the age of four 42 nbsp Primary school classroom in Ziway EthiopiaPrimary or elementary education usually starts within the ages of five to seven and lasts for four to seven years It does not have any further entry requirements Its main goal is to teach the basic skills in the fields of reading writing and mathematics It also covers the core knowledge in other fields like history geography the sciences music and art A further aim is to foster personal development 43 Today primary education is compulsory in almost all countries and over 90 of all primary school age children worldwide attend primary school 44 Secondary education is the stage of education following primary education It usually covers the ages of 12 to 18 years It is commonly divided into lower secondary education middle school or junior high school and upper secondary education high school senior high school or college depending on the country Lower secondary education normally has the completion of primary school as its entry requirement It aims to extend and deepen the learning outcomes It is more focused on subject specific curricula and teachers are specialized in only one or a few specific subjects One of its aims is to familiarize students with the basic theoretical concepts in the different subjects This helps create a solid basis for lifelong learning In some cases it also includes basic forms of vocational training 45 Lower secondary education is compulsory in many countries in Central and East Asia Europe and America In some countries it is the last stage of compulsory education Mandatory lower secondary education is not as prevalent in Arab states sub Saharan Africa and South and West Asia 46 nbsp A high school senior twelfth grade classroom in Calhan Colorado United StatesUpper secondary education starts roughly at the age of 15 and aims to provide students with the skills and knowledge needed for employment or tertiary education Its requirement is usually the completion of lower secondary education Its subjects are more varied and complex The students can often choose between a few subjects Its successful completion is commonly tied to a formal qualification in the form of a high school diploma 47 There are some types of education after secondary education that do not belong to tertiary education They are categorized as post secondary non tertiary education and are similar in complexity to secondary education However they tend to focus more on vocational training to prepare students for the job market 48 nbsp Students in a laboratory Saint Petersburg State Polytechnical UniversityIn some countries tertiary education is used as a synonym of higher education while in others tertiary education is the wider term 49 Tertiary education expands upon the foundations of secondary education but has a more narrow and in depth focus on a specific field or subject Its completion leads to an academic degree It can be divided into four levels short cycle tertiary Bachelor s Master s and doctoral level education These levels often form a hierarchical structure with later levels depending on the completion of previous levels 50 Short cycle tertiary education focuses on practical matters It includes advanced vocational and professional training to prepare students for the job market in specialized professions 51 Bachelor s level education is also referred to as undergraduate education It tends to be longer than short cycle tertiary education It is usually offered by universities and results in an intermediary academic certification in the form of a bachelor s degree 52 Master s level education is more specialized than undergraduate education Many programs require independent research in the form of a master s thesis as a requirement for successful completion 53 Doctoral level education leads to an advanced research qualification normally in the form of a doctor s degree such as a Doctor of Philosophy PhD It usually requires the submission of a substantial academic work such as a dissertation More advanced levels include post doctoral studies and habilitation 54 Others Many other types of education are discussed in the academic literature like the distinction between traditional and alternative education Traditional education concerns long established and mainstream schooling practices It uses teacher centered education and takes place in a well regulated school environment Regulations cover many aspects of education such as the curriculum and the timeframe when classes start and end 55 nbsp Homeschooling is one form of alternative education Alternative education is an umbrella term for forms of schooling that differ from the mainstream traditional approach They may use a different learning environment teach different subjects or promote a different teacher student relationship Alternative schooling is characterized by voluntary participation relatively small class and school sizes and personalized instruction This often results in a more welcoming and emotionally safe atmosphere Alternative education encompasses many types like charter schools and special programs for problematic or gifted children It also includes homeschooling and unschooling There are many alternative schooling traditions like Montessori schools Waldorf schools Round Square schools Escuela Nueva schools free schools and democratic schools 56 Alternative education also includes indigenous education which focuses on the transmission of knowledge and skills from an indigenous heritage and employs methods like narration and storytelling 57 Further types of alternative schools include gurukul schools in India 58 madrasa schools in the Middle East 59 and yeshivas in Jewish tradition 60 Other distinctions between types of education are based on who receives education Categories by the age of the learner are childhood education adolescent education adult education and elderly education 61 Special education is education that is specifically adapted to meet the unique needs of students with disabilities It covers various forms of impairments on the intellectual social communicative and physical levels It aims to overcome the challenges posed by these impairments This way it provides the affected students with access to an appropriate educational structure When understood in the broadest sense special education also includes education for very gifted children who need adjusted curricula to reach their fullest potential 62 Some classifications focus on the teaching method In teacher centered education the teacher takes center stage in providing students with information It contrasts with student centered education in which students take on a more active and responsible role in shaping classroom activities 63 For conscious education learning and teaching happen with a clear purpose in mind Unconscious education occurs on its own without being consciously planned or guided 64 This may happen in part through the personality of teachers and adults which can have indirect effects on the development of the student s personality 65 Evidence based education uses well designed scientific studies to determine which methods of education work best Its goal is to maximize the effectiveness of educational practices and policies This is achieved by ensuring that they are informed by the best available empirical evidence It includes evidence based teaching evidence based learning and school effectiveness research 66 Autodidacticism or self education is self directed learning It happens without the guidance of teachers and institutions It mainly occurs in adult education It is characterized by the freedom to choose what and when to study For this reason it can be a more fulfilling learning experience However the lack of structure and guidance can result in aimless learning Due to the absence of external feedback autodidacts may develop false ideas and inaccurately assess their learning progress 67 Autodidacticism is closely related to lifelong education which is an ongoing learning process throughout a person s entire life 68 Forms of education can also be categorized by the subject and the medium used Types based on the subject include science education language education art education religious education and physical education 69 Special mediums such as radio or websites are used in distance education Examples include e learning use of computers m learning use of mobile devices and online education They often take the form of open education in which the courses and materials are made available with a minimal amount of barriers They contrast with regular classroom or onsite education Some forms of online education are not open education such as full online degree programs offered by some universities 70 A further distinction is based on the type of funding State education also referred to as public education c is funded and controlled by the government and available to the general public It normally does not require tuition fees and is thus a form of free education Private education by contrast is funded and managed by private institutions Private schools often have a more selective admission process and offer paid education by charging tuition fees 72 A more detailed classification focuses on the social institution responsible for education like family school civil society state and church 73 Compulsory education is education that people are legally required to receive It concerns mainly children who need to visit school up to a certain age It contrasts with voluntary education which people pursue by personal choice without a legal requirement 74 Role in societyEducation plays various roles in society including in social economic and personal fields On a social level education makes it possible to establish and sustain a stable society It helps people acquire the basic skills needed to interact with their environment and fulfill their needs and desires In modern society this involves a wide range of skills like being able to speak read and write as well as solve problems and to perform basic arithmetic tasks It also includes the ability to handle information and communications technology Children are socialized into society by acquiring these skills Another key part of socialization is to learn how to live in social groups and interact with others by coming to understand social and cultural norms and expectations This requires an understanding of what kinds of behavior are considered appropriate in different contexts This way new members are introduced to the culture norms and values that are dominant in their society Socialization happens throughout life but is of special relevance to early childhood education It enables a form of social cohesion stability and peace needed for people to productively engage in their daily business Education plays a key role in democracies by increasing civic participation in the form of voting and organizing and through its tendency to promote equal opportunity for all 75 Education enables people to become productive members of society by learning how to contribute to it Through education individuals acquire the technical and analytical skills needed to pursue their profession produce goods and provide services to others In early societies there was little specialization and each child would generally learn most of the skills that the community required to function Modern societies are increasingly complex and many professions are only mastered by relatively few people who receive specialized training in addition to general education Some of the skills and tendencies learned to function in society may conflict with each other and their value depends on the context of their usage For example fostering a questioning mind is necessary to develop the ability of critical thinking but in some cases obedience to an authority is required to ensure social stability 76 By helping people become productive members of society education stimulates economic growth and reduces poverty It helps workers become more skilled and thereby increases the quality of the produced goods and services which in turn leads to prosperity and increased competitiveness 77 Public education is often understood as a long term investment to benefit society as a whole The rate of return is especially high for investments in primary education 78 Besides increasing economic prosperity it can also lead to technological and scientific advances as well as decrease unemployment while promoting social equity 79 Education can prepare a country to adapt to changes and successfully face new challenges It can help raise awareness and contribute to the solution of contemporary global problems Examples are climate change and sustainability as well as the widening inequalities between the rich and the poor 80 By making students aware of how their lives and actions affect others it may inspire some to work toward realizing a more sustainable and fair world 81 This way education serves not just the purpose of maintaining the societal status quo but can also be an instrument of social development 82 That applies also to changing circumstances in the economic sector For example technological advances particularly increased automation are accompanied by new demands on the workforce which education can help address 83 Changing circumstances may render currently taught skills and knowledge redundant while shifting the importance to other areas Education can be used to prepare people for such changes by adjusting the curriculum This way subjects involving digital literacy and skills in handling new technologies can be promoted 84 Another example is online education in the form of massive open online courses 85 On a more individual level education promotes personal development This can include factors such as learning new skills developing talents fostering creativity and increasing self knowledge as well as improving problem solving and decision making abilities 86 Education also has positive effects on health and well being 87 While education is of high relevance in childhood it does not end at adulthood and continues throughout life This form of lifelong learning is of specific significance in contemporary society due to the rapid changes on many levels and the need for people to adjust to them 88 The social importance of education is recognized in the annual International Day of Education on January 24 The year 1970 was declared International Education Year 89 Role of institutions nbsp Governmental institutions like the Chinese Ministry of Education affect many aspects of public education Organized institutions play a key role in various aspects of education Institutions like schools universities teacher training institutions and ministries of education make up the education sector They interact both with each other and with other stakeholders such as parents local communities and religious groups Further stakeholders are Non governmental organizations professionals in healthcare law enforcement media platforms and political leaders Many people are directly involved in the education sector They include students teachers and school principals as well as school nurses and curriculum developers 90 Various aspects of formal education are regulated by the policies of governmental institutions They determine at what age children need to attend school and at what times classes are held as well as issues pertaining to the school environment like infrastructure Regulations also cover the exact qualifications and requirements that teachers need to fulfill An important aspect of education policy concerns the curriculum used for teaching at schools colleges and universities A curriculum is a plan of instruction or a program of learning that guides students to achieve their educational goals The topics are usually selected based on their importance and depend on the type of school The goals of public school curricula are usually to offer a comprehensive and well rounded education while vocational training focuses more on specific practical skills within a field The curricula also cover various aspects besides the topic to be discussed such as the teaching method the objectives to be reached and the standards for assessing progress By determining the curricula governmental institutions have a strong impact on what knowledge and skills are transmitted to the students 91 Examples of governmental institutions include the Ministry of Education in India 92 the Department of Basic Education in South Africa 93 and the Secretariat of Public Education in Mexico 94 nbsp International organizations like UNESCO have been influential in shaping educational standards and policies worldwide International organizations also play a key role in education For instance UNESCO is an intergovernmental organization that promotes education in many ways One of its activities is to advocate education policies like the treaty Convention on the Rights of the Child which states that education is a human right of all children and young people Another was the Education for All initiative It aimed to offer basic education to all children adolescents and adults by the year 2015 and was later replaced by the initiative Sustainable Development Goals as goal 4 95 Related policies include the Convention against Discrimination in Education and the Futures of Education initiative 96 Some influential organizations are not intergovernmental but non governmental For example the International Association of Universities promotes collaboration and the exchange of knowledge between colleges and universities around the world while the International Baccalaureate offers international diploma programs 97 Institutions like the Erasmus Programme facilitate student exchanges between countries 98 while initiatives such as the Fulbright Program provide a similar service for teachers 99 Factors of educational successSeveral factors influence educational achievement They include psychological factors which concern the student as an individual and sociological factors which pertain to the student s social environment Further factors are access to educational technology teacher quality and parent involvement Many of these factors overlap and influence each other 100 Psychological On a psychological level relevant factors include motivation intelligence and personality 101 Motivation is the internal force propelling people to engage in learning 102 Motivated students are more likely to interact with the content to be learned by participating in classroom activities like discussions This often results in a deeper understanding of the subject Motivation can also help students overcome difficulties and setbacks An important distinction is between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation Intrinsically motivated students are driven by an interest in the subject and the learning experience itself Extrinsically motivated students seek external rewards They may strive for good grades and recognition from their peers Intrinsic motivation tends to be more beneficial by leading to increased creativity and engagement as well as long term commitment 103 Educational psychologists try to discover how to increase motivation This can be achieved for instance by encouraging some competition among students while ensuring a balance of positive and negative feedback in the form of praise and criticism 104 Intelligence is another important factor in how people respond to education It is a mental quality linked to the ability to learn from experience to understand and to employ knowledge and skills to solve problems Those who have higher scores in intelligence metrics tend to perform better at school and go on to higher levels of education 105 Intelligence is often primarily associated with the so called IQ a standardized numerical metric for assessing intelligence However it has been argued that there different types of intelligences pertaining to distinct areas According to psychologist Howard Gardner they can be distinguished into areas like mathematics logic spatial cognition language and music Further types affect how a person interacts with other people and with themselves These forms are largely independent of each other meaning that someone may excel at one type while scoring low on another 106 A closely related factor concerns learning styles A learning style is a preferred form of acquiring knowledge and skills According to proponents of learning style theory students with an auditory learning style find it easy to follow spoken lectures and discussions while visual learners benefit if information is presented visually in diagrams and videos For efficient learning it may be beneficial to include a wide variety of learning modalities 107 The learner s personality may also affect educational achievement For example the features of conscientiousness and openness to experience from the Big Five personality traits are linked to academic success 108 Further mental factors include self efficacy self esteem and metacognitive abilities 109 Sociological Sociological factors focus not on psychological attributes of learners but on their environment and position in society They include socioeconomic status ethnicity and cultural background as well as gender They are of interest to researchers since they are associated with inequality and discrimination For this reason they play a key role in policy making in attempts to mitigate their effects 110 Socioeconomic status depends on income but includes other factors such as financial security social status and social class as well as quality of life attributes Low socioeconomic status affects educational success in various ways It is linked to slower cognitive developments in language and memory and higher dropout rates Poor families may not have enough money to meet basic the nutritional needs of their children causing poor development They may also lack the means to invest in educational resources like stimulating toys books and computers Additionally they may be unable to afford tuition at prestigious schools and are more likely to attend schools in poorer areas Such schools tend to offer lower standards of teaching because of teacher shortages or because they lack educational materials and facilities like libraries Poor parents may also be unable to afford private lessons if their children fall behind In some cases students from an economically disadvantaged background are forced to dropout from school to provide income to their families They also have less access to information on higher education and may face additional difficulties in securing and repaying student loans Low socioeconomic status also has many indirect negative effects by being linked to lower physical and mental health Due to these factors social inequalities on the level of the parents are often reproduced in the children 111 Ethnic background is linked to cultural differences and language barriers which make it more difficult for students to adapt to the school environment and follow classes Additional factors are explicit and implicit biases and discrimination toward ethnic minorities This may affect the students self esteem and motivation as well as their access to educational opportunities For example teachers may hold stereotypical views even if they are not overtly racist which can lead them to grade comparable performances differently based on the child s ethnicity 112 Historically gender has been a central factor in education since the roles of men and women were defined differently in many societies Education tended to strongly favor men who were expected to provide for the family Women by contrast were expected to manage the household and rear children which barred most educational opportunities available to them And while these inequalities have improved in most modern societies there are still gender differences in education Among other things this concerns biases and stereotypes linked to the role of gender in education They affect subjects like science technology engineering and mathematics which are often presented as male fields This discourages female students from following them 113 In various cases discrimination based on gender and social factors happens openly as part of official educational policy such as the severe restrictions on female education instituted by the Taliban in Afghanistan 114 and the school segregation of migrants and locals in urban China under the hukou system 115 One aspect of many social factors is given by the expectations associated with stereotypes They work both on an external level based on how other people react to a person belonging to a certain group and on an internal level based on how the person internalizes them and acts accordingly In this sense the expectations may turn into self fulfilling prophecies by causing the educational outcomes they anticipate This can happen both for positive and negative stereotypes 116 Technology and others Technology plays another significant role in educational success Educational technology is commonly associated with the use of modern digital devices like computers But understood in the broadest sense it involves a wide range of resources and tools for learning including basic aids that do not involve the use of machines like regular books and worksheets 117 nbsp A One Laptop per Child device being introduced to children in HaitiEducational technology can benefit learning in various ways In the form of media it often takes the role of the primary supplier of information in the classroom This means that the teacher can focus their time and energy on other tasks like planning the lesson and guiding students as well as assessing educational performance 118 Educational technology can also make information easier to understand by presenting it using graphics and videos rather than through mere text In this regard interactive elements may be used to make the learning experience more engaging in the form of educational games Technology can be employed to make educational materials accessible to many people like when using online resources It additionally facilitates collaboration between students and communication with teachers 119 Lack of educational technology affects developing countries in particular Many efforts are made to address it through organisations such as the One Laptop per Child initiative the African Library Project and Pratham 120 A closely related issue concerns the effects of school infrastructure It includes physical aspects of the school like its location and size as well as the available school facilities and equipment A healthy and safe environment well maintained classrooms and suitable classroom furniture as well as the availability of a library and a canteen tend to contribute to educational success 121 The quality of the teacher also has an important impact on student achievement Skilled teachers know how to motivate and inspire students and are able to adjust their instructions to the students abilities and needs Important in this regard are the teacher s own education and training as well as their past teaching experience 122 A meta analysis by Engin Karadag et al concludes that compared to other influences factors related to the school and the teacher have the biggest impact on educational success 123 An additional factor to boost student achievement is parent involvement It can make children more motivated and invested if they are aware that their parents care about their educational efforts This tends to lead to increased self esteem better attendance rates and more constructive behavior at school Parent involvement also includes communication with teachers and other school staff to make other parties aware of current issues and how they may be resolved 124 Further relevant factors sometimes discussed in the academic literature include historical political demographic religious and legal aspects 125 Education studiesMain article Education sciences nbsp John Locke s book Some Thoughts Concerning Education from 1693 is one of the foundational works of education studies 126 The main discipline investigating education is called education studies also referred to as education sciences It tries to determine how people transmit and acquire knowledge by studying the methods and forms of education It is interested in its aims effects and value as well as the cultural societal governmental and historical contexts that shape education 127 Education theorists integrate insights from many other fields of inquiry including philosophy psychology sociology economics history politics and international relations Because of these influences some theorists claim that education studies is not an independent academic discipline like physics or history since its method and subject are not as clearly defined 128 Education studies differs from regular training programs such as teacher training since its focus on academic analysis and critical reflection goes beyond the skills needed to be a good teacher It is not restricted to the topic of formal education but examines all forms and aspects of education 129 Various research methods are used to study educational phenomena They can roughly be divided into quantitative qualitative and mixed methods approaches Quantitative research emulates the methods found in the natural sciences by using precise numerical measurements to gather data from many observations and employs statistical tools to analyze it It aims to arrive at an objective and impersonal understanding Qualitative research usually has a much smaller sample size and tries to get an in depth insight into more subjective and personal factors like how different actors experience the process of education Mixed methods research aims to combine data gathered from both approaches to arrive at a balanced and comprehensive understanding Data can be collected in various ways like using direct observation or test scores as well as interviews and questionnaires 130 Some research projects study basic factors affecting all forms of education while others concentrate on one specific application Some investigations look for solutions to concrete problems while others examine the effectiveness of educational projects and policies 131 Subfields Education studies encompasses various subfields like philosophy of education pedagogy psychology of education sociology of education economics of education comparative education and history of education 132 The philosophy of education is the branch of applied philosophy that examines many of the basic assumptions underlying the theory and practice of education It studies education both as a process and as a discipline while trying to provide exact definitions of its nature and how it differs from other phenomena It further examines the purpose of education its different types and how to conceptualize teachers students and their relation 133 It includes educational ethics which investigates the moral implications of education for example what ethical principles direct it and how teachers should apply them to specific cases The philosophy of education has a long history and was discussed in ancient Greek philosophy 134 The term pedagogy is sometimes used as a synonym for education studies but when understood in a more restricted sense it refers to the subfield interested in teaching methods 135 It studies how the aims of education like the transmission of knowledge or fostering skills and character traits can be realized 136 It is interested in the methods and practices used for teaching in regular schools Some definitions restrict it to this domain but in a wider sense it covers all types of education including forms of teaching outside schools 137 In this general sense it explores how teachers can bring about experiences in learners to advance their understanding of the studied topic and how the learning itself takes place 138 The psychology of education studies how education happens on the mental level specifically how new knowledge and skills are acquired as well as how personal growth takes place It examines the factors responsible for successful education and how these factors may differ between individuals Important factors include intelligence motivation and personality A central topic in this field is the interplay between nature and nurture and how it affects educational success Influential psychological theories of education are behaviorism cognitivism and constructivism 139 Closely related fields are the neurology of education and educational neuroscience which are interested in the neuropsychological processes and changes brought about through learning 140 The sociology of education is concerned with how social factors influence education and how it leads to socialization Often discussed factors are socioeconomic status ethnicity and gender The sociology of education studies how these factors together with the dominant ideology in society affect what kind of education is available to a person and how successful they are Closely related questions include how education affects different groups in society and how educational experiences can form someone s personal identity The sociology of education is specifically interested in aspects that result in inequalities Its insights are relevant to education policy for trying to identify and mitigate factors that cause inequality 141 Two influential schools of thought are consensus theory and conflict theory Consensus theorists hold that education benefits society as a whole by preparing people for their roles Conflict theories have a more negative outlook on the resulting inequalities and see education as a force used by the ruling class to promote their own agenda 142 The economics of education is the field of inquiry studying how education is produced distributed and consumed It tries to determine how resources should be used to improve education An example is the question to what extent the quality of teachers is increased by raising their salary Other questions are how smaller class sizes affect educational success and how to invest in new educational technologies This way the economics of education helps policy makers decide how to distribute the limited resources most efficiently to benefit society as a whole It also tries to understand what long term role education plays for the economy of a country by providing a highly skilled labor force and increasing its competitiveness A closely related issue concerns the economic advantages and disadvantages of different systems of education 143 Comparative education is the discipline that examines and contrasts systems of education Comparisons can happen from a general perspective or focus on specific factors like social political or economic aspects Comparative education is often applied to different countries to assess the similarities and differences of their educational institutions and practices as well as to evaluate the consequences of the distinct approaches It can be used to learn from other countries which education policies work and how one s own system of education may be improved 144 This practice is known as policy borrowing It comes with many difficulties since the success of policies can depend to a large degree on the social and cultural context of students and teachers A closely related and controversial topic concerns the question of whether the educational systems of developed countries are superior and should be exported to less developed countries 145 Other key topics are the internationalization of education and the role of education in transitioning from an authoritarian regime to a democracy 146 The history of education examines the evolution of educational practices systems and institutions It discusses various key processes their possible causes and effects and their relations to each other 147 Aims and ideologies A central topic in education studies concerns the question of how people should be educated and what goals should guide this process Many aims of education have been suggested On a basic level education is about the acquisition of knowledge and skills but may also include personal development and fostering of character traits Common suggestions encompass features like curiosity creativity rationality and critical thinking as well as the tendency to think feel and act morally Some scholars focus on liberal values linked to freedom autonomy and open mindedness Others prioritize qualities like obedience to authority ideological purity piety and religious faith An important discussion in this regard is about the role of critical thinking and the extent to which indoctrination forms part of education On a social level it is often stressed that education should socialize people 148 A controversial issue concerns who primarily benefits from education the educated person society as a whole or dominant groups within society 149 Educational ideologies are systems of basic philosophical assumptions and principles that can be used to interpret understand and evaluate existing educational practicies and policies They cover various additional issues besides the aims of education like what topics are learned and how the learning activity is structured Other themes include the role of the teacher and how educational progress should be assessed They also include claims on how to structure the institutional framework and policies There are many ideologies and they often overlap in various ways Teacher centered ideologies place the main emphasis on the teacher s role in transmitting knowledge to students while student centered ideologies give a more active role to the students in the process Process based ideologies focus on what the processes of teaching and learning should be like They contrast with product based ideologies which discuss education from the perspective of the result to be achieved Another classification contrasts progressivism with more traditional and conservative ideologies Further categories are humanism romanticism essentialism encyclopaedism and pragmatism There are also distinct types for authoritarian and democratic ideologies 150 Learning theories and teaching methods Learning theories try to explain how learning happens Influential theories are behaviorism cognitivism and constructivism Behaviorism understands learning as a change in behavior in response to environmental stimuli This happens by presenting the learner with a stimulus associating this stimulus with the desired response and solidifying this stimulus response pair Cognitivism sees learning as a change in cognitive structures and focuses on the mental processes involved in storing retrieving and processing information According to constructivism learning is based on the personal experience of each individual It puts more emphasis on social interactions and how they are interpreted by the learner These theories have important implications for how to teach For example behaviorists tend to focus on drills while cognitivists may advocate the use of mnemonics and constructivists tend to employ collaborative learning strategies 151 Various theories suggest that learning is more efficient when it is based on personal experience An additional factor is to aim at a deeper understanding by connecting new to pre existing knowledge rather than merely memorizing a list of unrelated facts 152 An influential developmental theory of learning is proposed by psychologist Jean Piaget He outlines four stages of learning through which children pass on their way to adulthood They are the sensorimotor the pre operational the concrete operational and the formal operational stage They correspond to different levels of abstraction Early stages focus more on simple sensory and motor activities Later stages include more complex internal representations and information processing in the form of logical reasoning 153 The teaching method concerns the way the content is presented by the teacher for example whether group work is used instead of a focus on individual learning There are many teaching methods available Which one is most efficient in a case depends on various factors like the subject matter as well as the learner s age and competence level 154 This is reflected in the fact that modern school systems organize students by age competence specialization and native language into different classes to ensure a productive learning process Different subjects frequently use very different approaches Language education often focuses on verbal learning while mathematical education is about abstract and symbolic thinking together with deductive reasoning 155 One central requirement for teaching methodologies is to ensure that the learner remains motivated because of interest and curiosity or through external rewards 156 Further aspects of teaching methods include the instructional media used such as books worksheets and audio visual recordings and having some form of test or assessment to evaluate the learning progress An important pedagogical aspect in many forms of modern education is that each lesson is part of a larger educational enterprise governed by a syllabus It often covers several months or years 157 According to Herbartianism teaching is divided into phases The initial phase consists of preparing the student s mind for new information Next new ideas are first presented to the learner and then associated with ideas with which the learner is already familiar In later phases the understanding shifts to a more general level behind the specific instances and the ideas are then put into concrete practice 158 HistoryMain article History of education The history of education studies the processes methods and institutions involved in teaching and learning It tries to explain how they have interacted with each other and shaped educational practice until the present day 159 Education in prehistory took place as a form of enculturation and focused on practical knowledge and skills relevant to everyday concerns for example in relation to food clothing shelter and protection There were no formal schools or specialized teachers and most adults in the community performed that role Learning happened informally during everyday activities for example when children observed and imitated their elders For these oral societies storytelling played a key role in transferring cultural and religious ideas from one generation to the next 160 d Beginning with the emergence of agriculture around 9000 BCE a slow educational change towards more specialization began to occur as people formed larger groups and more complex artisanal and technical skills were needed 162 Starting in the 4th millennium BCE and the following millennia a major shift in educational practices started to take place with the invention of writing in regions such as Mesopotamia ancient Egypt the Indus Valley and ancient China 163 e This development had a significant influence on the history of education as a whole Through writing it was possible to store preserve and communicate information This facilitated various subsequent developments for example the creation of educational tools like textbooks and the formation of institutions like schools 165 nbsp Plato s Academy is often seen as the first school of higher learning Mosaic from Pompeii Another key aspect of ancient education was the establishment of formal education This became necessary since the amount of knowledge grew as civilizations evolved and informal education proved insufficient to transmit all requisite knowledge between generations Teachers would act as specialists to impart knowledge and education became more abstract and further removed from daily life Formal education was still quite rare in ancient societies and was restricted to the intellectual elites 166 It covered fields like reading and writing record keeping leadership civic and political life religion and technical skills associated with specific professions 167 Formal education introduced a new way of teaching that gave more emphasis to discipline and drills than the earlier informal modes of education 168 Two often discussed achievements of ancient education are the establishment of Plato s Academy in Ancient Greece which is sometimes considered the first institute of higher learning 169 and the creation of the Great Library of Alexandria in Ancient Egypt as one of the most prestigious libraries of the ancient world 170 Many aspects of education in the medieval period were shaped by religious traditions In Europe the Catholic Church wielded a significant influence over formal education 171 In the Arab world the newly founded religion of Islam spread rapidly and led to various educational developments during the Islamic Golden Age for example by integrating classical and religious knowledge and by establishing madrasa schools 172 In Jewish communities yeshivas were established as institutions dedicated to the study of religious texts and Jewish law 173 In China an expansive state educational and exam system influenced by Confucian teachings was established 174 New complex societies began to evolve in other regions such as Africa the Americas Northern Europe and Japan Some incorporated preexisting educational practices while others developed new traditions 175 Additionally this period saw the establishment of various institutes of higher education and research The first universities in Europe were the University of Bologna the University of Paris and Oxford University 176 Other influential centers of higher learning were the Al Qarawiyyin University in Morocco 177 the Al Azhar University in Egypt 178 and the House of Wisdom in Iraq 179 Another key development was the creation of guilds Guilds were associations of skilled craftsmen and merchants who controlled the practice of their trades They were responsible for vocational education and new members had to pass through different stages on their way to masterhood 180 nbsp The invention of the printing press made written media widely available and led to a significant increase in general literacy Starting in the early modern period education in Europe during the Renaissance slowly began to shift from a religious approach towards one which was more secular This development was tied to an increased appreciation of the importance of education and a broadened range of topics including a revived interest in ancient literary texts and educational programs 181 The turn toward secularization was accelerated during the Age of Enlightenment starting in the 17th century which emphasized the role of reason and the empirical sciences 182 European colonization affected education in the Americas through Christian missionary initiatives 183 In China the state educational system was further expanded and focused more on the teachings of neo Confucianism 184 In the Islamic world the outreach of formal education increased and remained under the influence of religion 185 A key development in the early modern period was the invention and popularization of the printing press in the middle of the 15th century which had a profound impact on general education It significantly reduced the cost of producing books which were hand written before and thereby augmented the dissemination of written documents including new forms like newspapers and pamphlets The increased availability of written media had a major influence on the general literacy of the population 186 These changes prepared the rise of public education in the 18th and 19th centuries This period saw the establishment of publicly funded schools with the aim of providing education for all This contrasts with earlier periods when formal education was primarily provided by private schools religious institutions and individual tutors 187 Aztec civilization was an exception in this regard since formal education was mandatory for the youth regardless of social class as early as the 14th century 188 Closely related changes were to make education compulsory and free of charge for all children up to a certain age 189 Initiatives to promote public education and universal access to education made significant progress in the 20th and the 21st centuries and were promoted by intergovernmental organizations like the UN Examples include the Universal Declaration of Human Rights the Convention on the Rights of the Child the Education for All initiative the Millennium Development Goals and the Sustainable Development Goals 190 These efforts resulted in a steady rise of all forms of education but affected primary education in particular In 1970 28 of all primary school age children worldwide did not attend school in 2015 this number dropped to 9 44 The establishment of public education was accompanied by the introduction of standardized curricula for public schools as well as standardized tests to assess the student s progress Contemporary examples include the Test of English as a Foreign Language which is a globally used test to assess English language proficiency of non native English speakers and the Programme for International Student Assessment which evaluates education systems worldwide based on how 15 year old students perform in the fields of reading mathematics and science Similar changes also affected teachers by setting in place institutions and norms to guide and oversee teacher training like certification requirements for teaching at public schools 191 A further influence on contemporary education was the emergence of new educational technologies The widespread availability of computers and the internet dramatically increased access to educational resources and made new types of education possible such as online education This was of particular relevance during the COVID 19 pandemic when schools globally closed for extended periods and many offered remote learning through video conferencing or pre recorded video lessons to continue instruction 192 A further contemporary factor is the increased globalization and internationalization of education 193 See alsoBildung German tradition of self cultivation Criticism of schooling Multiple positions critical of compulsory schooling laws Glossary of education terms Index of education articles List of education articles by country Mixed sex education System of education where males and females are educated together Outline of education Overview of and topical guide to educationReferencesNotes A thick concept is a concept that includes both descriptive and evaluative content 13 Some theorists only distinguish between formal and informal education 31 In some regions these two terms have different meanings In the United Kingdom for example public schools are run by private institution and charge fees while state schools are controlled by the government and provide free education 71 Research on prehistoric education often relies on studies of surviving hunting and gathering societies 161 There is no consensus when exactly writing was invented and various forms of proto writing have existed for much longer 164 Citations Marshall 2006 pp 33 37Sewell amp Newman 2013 pp 3 4 6 7 9 10 1 What Is Education Matheson 2014 pp 1 3 What Is Education Chazan 2022 pp 15 16 What Is Education Marshall 2006 pp 33 37UNESCO 2018 Peters 2009 p 1 What Is an Educational Process HarperCollins staff 2023Sewell amp Newman 2013 p 4 1 What Is Education Peters 2009 pp 4 6 What Is an Educational Process HarperCollins staff 2023Sewell amp Newman 2013 p 4 1 What Is Education HarperCollins staff 2023 Wilson 2003 pp 101 108Watson 2016 p 148Biesta 2015 pp 75 78 Hoad 1993 p 142 Vico 1999 p 327 Peters 2015 p 45Beckett 2011 p 241Marshall 2006 pp 33 37 Beckett 2011 pp 242 243Peters Woods amp Dray 1973 Aims of Education A Conceptual InquirySewell amp Newman 2013 pp 3 5 1 What Is Education Marshall 2006 pp 33 37Biletzki amp Matar 2021Sluga 2006 pp 1 2 Sewell amp Newman 2013 pp 6 7 1 What Is Education Webb Mitchell 2003 p 11Traxler amp Crompton 2020 p 11 Kirchin 2013 pp 1 2 Watson 2016 pp 148 149Kotzee 2011 pp 549 550 Chazan 2022 pp 13 14 What Is Education Smith 2020 pp 781 783 Siegel 2023Siegel Phillips amp Callan 2018 2 Analytic Philosophy of Education and Its InfluenceSiegel 2010 pp 3 9 Introduction Philosophy of Education and Philosophy Watson 2016 pp 152 155 Haack 1981 pp 289 290 293Siegel Phillips amp Callan 2018 3 3 Social Epistemology Virtue Epistemology and the Epistemology of Education Chazan 2022 pp 15 16 What Is Education Bowen Gelpi amp Anweiler 2023 IntroductionSewell amp Newman 2013 pp 3 4 7 1 What Is Education Chazan 2022 pp 15 16 What Is Education Haack 1981 pp 289 291Sewell amp Newman 2013 pp 3 4 1 What Is Education Siegel Phillips amp Callan 2018 2 Analytic Philosophy of Education and Its InfluenceSiegel 2010 pp 3 9 Introduction Philosophy of Education and PhilosophyCurren 1996 1 Philosophical Analysis and Theory Siegel Phillips amp Callan 2018 2 Analytic Philosophy of Education and Its InfluenceSiegel 2023 Davies amp Barnett 2015 pp 1 2 Introduction Siegel Phillips amp Callan 2018 2 Analytic Philosophy of Education and Its Influence 3 3 Social Epistemology Virtue Epistemology and the Epistemology of Education Kay 2004 p 107 Beckett 2018 pp 380 381Sewell amp Newman 2013 pp 3 4 1 What Is Education Peters 2015 pp 35 37 45 1 Criteria of Education Dewey 2004 6 Education as Conservative and ProgressiveBeckett 2011 pp 250 251 254 255 Beckett 2011 p 245Beckett 2018 pp 383 384Freire 1970 p 80 Chapter 2 La Belle 1982 pp 159 161 162UNESCO 2012 pp 6 25 73 75Emaliana 2017 pp 59 60Cobb amp Glass 2021 p 11 La Belle 1982 pp 159 161 162Eshach 2007 p 171Sewell amp Newman 2013 p 7 1 What Is Education Singh 2015 pp 1 2 Introduction Strauss 1984 p 195 La Belle 1982 pp 159 162Tudor 2013 pp 821 826 La Belle 1982 pp 159 162 167Tudor 2013 pp 821 826Sewell amp Newman 2013 p 7 1 What Is Education Pazmino 2002 pp 62 63 a b Eshach 2007 pp 171 174 La Belle 1982 pp 161 164Tudor 2013 pp 821 826Sewell amp Newman 2013 p 7 1 What Is Education Eshach 2007 pp 173 174 La Belle 1982 p 162Eshach 2007 pp 172 173 Bowen Gelpi amp Anweiler 2023 IntroductionScribner amp Cole 1973 pp 553 559Mead 1943 pp 633 639 Bowen Gelpi amp Anweiler 2023 IntroductionScribner amp Cole 1973 pp 553 559 OECD 2018 pp 80 85Salganik Matheson amp Phelps 1997 p 19UNESCO 2012 pp 6 11 12 25 New amp Cochran 2007 p 1046OECD 2018 pp 80 85Salganik Matheson amp Phelps 1997 p 19UNESCO 2012 pp 26 29 Raikes Alvarenga Lima amp Abuchaim 2023 p 4 UNESCO 2012 pp 30 32OECD 2018 pp 80 85OECD 2015 pp 29 32 a b Roser amp Ortiz Ospina 2013 OECD 2018 pp 80 85OECD 2015 pp 39 43UNESCO 2012 pp 33 37 Claire et al 2011 p 137Close 2014 p 76 OECD 2018 pp 80 85OECD 2015 pp 47 52UNESCO 2012 pp 38 42 OECD 2015 pp 59 63UNESCO 2012 pp 43 45 OECD 2012 p 30 OECD 2015 pp 69 71OECD 2018 pp 80 85UNESCO 2012 pp 46 47 OECD 2015 pp 73 76OECD 2018 pp 80 85UNESCO 2012 pp 48 50 OECD 2015 pp 81 84OECD 2018 pp 80 85UNESCO 2012 pp 51 54 OECD 2015 pp 89 92OECD 2018 pp 80 85UNESCO 2012 pp 55 58 OECD 2015 pp 97 100OECD 2018 pp 80 85UNESCO 2012 pp 59 61 Liu 2023 p 1642The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica 2023Bryant 2001 p 12 Make the Curriculum OECD 2013 p 20Barr amp Parrett 2003b pp 82 86The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica 2023Aron 2006 pp 3 4Sliwka 2008 pp 93 96 The Contribution of Alternative Education Jacob Cheng amp Porter 2015 p 3Iseke 2013 pp 559 560Reyhner amp Singh 2021 Johnson 2009 Gurukula Bowker 2003 Madrasa Bowker 2003 Yeshivah Bullard amp Hitz 1997 pp 15 22DeVitis amp Irwin DeVitis 2010 pp xi xiii PrefaceLee 2021 pp 714 715 Mazurek amp Winzer 1994 p xviiTomlinson 2012 p 73HarperCollins staff 2023a Emaliana 2017 pp 59 61 Jackson 2011 pp 73 76 6 In Pursuit of Perfection Main 2012 pp 82 83 Wagner Deindl amp Schmolzer 2023 p 99Brown amp Williams 2005 pp 3 4Cook Tankersley amp Landrum 2013 pp 9 10Bearman 2005 p 27 Jarvis 2012 p 44Morgan Trofimova amp Kliucharev 2018 pp 75 76Tiem Moseley amp Dessinger 2012 pp 261 262Chou amp Zou 2020 pp 1 3 Giuseffi 2019 p 169Charungkaittikul 2021 pp 567 568 UNESCO 2012 pp 73 75Berry 2016 pp 459 460Li 2006 p 6 Adarkwah 2021 p 258Sewell amp Newman 2013 pp 7 9 1 What Is Education Bowen Gelpi amp Anweiler 2023 Global Trends in EducationZawacki Richter et al 2020 pp 319 321 Dolgopolov 2016 p 272Todd amp Hancock 2005 p 196 Hill Pierce amp Guthrie 2009 p 30OUP staffCobb amp Glass 2021 p 11Collins staffSmith amp Meier 2016 p 70 Rosenkranz amp Brackett 1872 pp 95Harris 1881 pp 215 216 Monds 2022 p 111National Education League 1875 p 52Quinn 2013 p 27 Bartlett amp Burton 2007 pp 14 15 20 212 216Murphy Mufti amp Kassem 2009 pp 37 38Glaeser Ponzetto amp Shleifer 2007 pp 77 78Kantzara 2016 pp 1 3 Education Social Functions of Bartlett amp Burton 2007 pp 15 16Johnes Portela amp Thanassoulis 2017 pp 331 332Paechter 2001 pp 9 10 Bartlett amp Burton 2007 pp 6 8 212 216Allen 2011 pp 88 89Krueger amp Lindahl 2001 pp 1101 1103 Allen 2011 pp 85 89Johnes Portela amp Thanassoulis 2017 pp 331 332 Chimombo 2005 pp 129 130 Hicks 2004 pp 19 22International Commission on the Futures of Education 2022 pp iii 7 8Reimers 2020 p ixHicks 2004a pp 36 37 Hicks 2004a pp 41 42 Bartlett amp Burton 2007 p 20 Srinivasan 2019The economist data team 2018Manyika et al Vincent 2017 Jong Wha 2018Krishnan 2020Staats Waks 2019 pp 183 184 Taylor 1999 pp 531 532Burman et al 2005 pp 42 43 Raghupathi amp Raghupathi 2020 p 20 Murphy Mufti amp Kassem 2009 pp 89 91Warren 2009 pp 8 9Illanes et al Hankin 2009 pp 147 149 UN 2023UN 2023a UNESCO 2016 p 54Gary amp Crime 2017 p 7 Bartlett amp Burton 2007 pp 74 77 81 85Hand 2014 pp 48 49Murphy Mufti amp Kassem 2009 p 7 MoE Staff DBE Staff SEP Staff UNESCO 2021 pp 8 10Francois 2015 pp 30 32Warren 2009 p 2Yamada 2016 pp 68 69Warren amp Waltham 2009 p 42 UNESCOInternational Commission on the Futures of Education 2022 Short Summary Francois 2015 pp 30 32Curran Rujas amp Castejon 2022 pp 1 2Bartlett amp Burton 2003 pp 239 241 245 246 Yeravdekar amp Tiwari 2016 p 182 Crawford 1986 p 81 Portes 1999 pp 489 491Bartlett amp Burton 2007 pp 5 6Waller 2011 pp 106 107 132 133Karadag 2017 pp 271 272Haleem et al 2022 pp 275 276Hughes 2009 p 90 Bartlett amp Burton 2007 pp 96 97 Bartlett amp Burton 2007 p 107Weiner 2000 pp 314 316 Motivation An OverviewHelms 2006 Motivation and Motivation Theory Meece Blumenfeld amp Hoyle 1988 pp 514 515McInerney 2019 pp 427 429Honeybourne 2005 p 80Dhiman 2017 p 39 Bartlett amp Burton 2007 p 107Gallard amp Garden 2011 pp 132 133 Butler Marsh amp Sheppard 1985 pp 349 351Sternberg 2022Bartlett amp Burton 2007 p 109Gallard amp Garden 2011 pp 145 147 Fogarty amp Stoehr 2008 pp 6 7Grigorenko 2008 Multiple Intelligences Theory Bartlett amp Burton 2007 pp 130 131Page amp Page 2010 pp 36 37Skowron 2015 p 137Willingham Hughes amp Dobolyi 2015 pp 266 267Pashler et al 2008 pp 105 106 Verbree et al 2021 p 1 Bartlett amp Burton 2007 pp 96 97Lane Lane amp Kyprianou 2004 pp 247 248 Bartlett amp Burton 2007 p 17Becares amp Priest 2015 pp 1 2Hart 2019 pp 582 583Warren 2009 pp 4 5 Bartlett amp Burton 2007 pp 146 149Murphy Mufti amp Kassem 2009 p 123APA staffMaluccio et al 2009 pp 734 735 Murphy Mufti amp Kassem 2009 p 122Archer amp Francis 2006 pp 11 12Isik et al 2018 pp 1 2Bartlett amp Burton 2007 p 166 Bartlett amp Burton 2007 pp 157 161Murphy Mufti amp Kassem 2009 p 119Sullivan 2019 pp 3 7 Marsden 1998 p 88Johnson 2018 p 74 Xu amp Wu 2022 pp 433 434Musterd 2023 p 96 Murphy Mufti amp Kassem 2009 pp 116 126 127 Sampath 1981 pp 30 32Technology 1973 pp 120 122 Sampath 1981 pp 30 32 Williams et al 2003a Technology in EducationKimmons 2015 p 664Haleem et al 2022 pp 275 276 Selwyn 2013 p 128Robertson 2018Rodriguez Segura 2022 pp 171 173Dent Goodman amp Kevane 2014 p 252Corbridge Harriss amp Jeffrey 2013 p 290 Figueroa Lim amp Lee 2016 pp 273 276Barrett et al 2019 pp 1 2 Lareau amp Ferguson 2018 p 114Moore 2004 p 52Winters 2012 pp 16 18Burroughs et al 2019 pp 7 9 A Review of the Literature on Teacher Effectiveness and Student Outcomes Karadag 2017 pp 325 330 Karadag 2017 pp 271 272Schmid amp Garrels 2021 pp 456 458Shute et al 2011 pp 1 3 Hughes 2009 p 90Horwitz 2021 pp 107 109 Aitchison 2022 p 7 Frankena Burbules amp Raybeck 2003 p 1877Kassem Mufti amp Robinson 2006 p xvMurphy Mufti amp Kassem 2009 pp 8 10Bartlett amp Burton 2007 pp 3 4 Ward 2004 p 2Bartlett amp Burton 2007 pp 3 4 Bartlett amp Burton 2007 p 4Ward 2004 p 1Warren 2009 p 5 Cohen Manion amp Morrison 2018 pp 1 31 33Bartlett amp Burton 2007 pp 29 30 40 44 57 Bartlett amp Burton 2007 p 37 Warren 2009 pp 1 2Noddings 1995 pp 1 6 Bartlett amp Burton 2007 p 5Frankena Burbules amp Raybeck 2003 Philosophy of EducationCurtis 2011 pp 59 60 Curtis 2011 pp 59 60Coombs 1998 pp 555 556Warren amp Waltham 2009 pp 39 40 Watkins amp Mortimore 1999 pp 1 2 1 Pedagogy What Do We Know Murphy 2003 pp 9 10 1 Defining PedagogySalvatori 2003 p 264 Peel 2023Murphy 2003 pp 9 10 1 Defining PedagogyGabriel 2022 p 16 Anderson 2005 pp 53 54 3 The Meaning of PedagogyKraftl 2014 p 169McHugh 2016 p 167 Peel 2023Murphy 2003 pp 9 10 15 16 1 Defining Pedagogy Bartlett amp Burton 2007 pp 6 96 97 118Gallard amp Garden 2011 pp 132 133Oliveira amp Bittencourt 2019 p 9 Murphy Mufti amp Kassem 2009 pp 89 90Marquis 1942 pp 153 154Ansari amp Coch 2006 pp 146 151Goswami 2006 pp 406 411 Bartlett amp Burton 2007 pp 5 145Waller 2011 pp 106 107 Murphy Mufti amp Kassem 2009 pp 103 107 114Browne 2011 pp 39 40 Bartlett amp Burton 2007 pp 6 8Blaug 2014 pp xii xiiiAllen 2011 pp 85 86 Bartram 2009 pp 25 27Bartlett amp Burton 2007 p 7Le Play 2011 pp 159 162 Bartlett amp Burton 2007 p 8Le Play 2011 pp 163 164 171 172Bartram 2009 pp 27 28 33 35 Le Play 2011 p 166Buckner 2019 pp 315 316 Bartlett amp Burton 2007 p 6 Siegel Phillips amp Callan 2018 3 1 The Content of the Curriculum and the Aims and Functions of SchoolingSiegel 2010 pp 3 9 Introduction Philosophy of Education and PhilosophyGingell amp Winch 2002 pp 10 13Brighouse 2009 pp 35 36 42 Moral and Political Aims of EducationCurren 1996 Lead Section 1 Philosophical Analysis and TheoryVan Hiel et al 2018 pp 1 2 Bartlett amp Burton 2007 pp 17 18Reid 2018 p 190Kiracofe Hirth amp Hutton 2022 p 19 Murphy Mufti amp Kassem 2009 pp 26 31Bartram 2009 p 28Bartlett amp Burton 2007 pp 22 25 Atienza 2010 p 130 8 Strategies in Teaching Large GroupsDreeben 2010 pp 178 179Murphy Mufti amp Kassem 2009 p 92Kimble 2023 Murphy Mufti amp Kassem 2009 pp 91 92Smith amp Ragan 2004 pp 152 154 Murphy Mufti amp Kassem 2009 pp 90 91Bartlett amp Burton 2007 pp 96 97 Bartlett amp Burton 2007 pp 81 5Peel 2023Murphy 2003 pp 5 19 20 1 Defining Pedagogy Peel 2023Salganik Matheson amp Phelps 1997 p 19 Peel 2023Turuthi Njagi amp Chemwei 2017 p 365 Peel 2023Bukoye 2019 p 1395 Utilization of Instruction Materials as Tools for Effective Academic Performance of Students Implications for Counselling The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica 2014Cordasco 1976 p 102 Ramsay 2008 pp 283 287Briggs 2012 p 168Johnson amp Stearns 2023 pp 1 2 Johnson amp Stearns 2023 pp 5 9 10 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p 10 Johnson amp Stearns 2023 pp 5 43 44Patzuk Russell 2021 p 1 Johnson amp Stearns 2023 pp 5 60Kemmis amp Edwards Groves 2017 pp 50 Aqil Babekri amp Nadmi 2020 p 156 Morocco Contributions to Mathematics Education From Morocco Cosman amp Jones 2009 p 148 Gilliot 2018 p 81 Power 1970 pp 243 244Nicholas 2014 p 129 Johnson amp Stearns 2023 pp 6 81 83Dekker 2023 pp 1 2Grendler 2005 Lead Section From the Renaissance to the Enlightenment Johnson amp Stearns 2023 pp 6 100 101Grendler 2005 Lead Section From the Renaissance to the Enlightenment Johnson amp Stearns 2023 pp 81 83Lightman 2019 p 316 Johnson amp Stearns 2023 pp 116 117Elman 2016 Civil Service Examinations Johnson amp Stearns 2023 pp 116 117 Ornstein et al 2016 p 78Danesi 2013 pp 169 170Poe 2011 pp 104 105 112Sampath 1981 p 30 Scott amp Vare 2020 pp 54 56Schuknecht 2020 pp 40 41Bowen Gelpi amp Anweiler 2023 Western Education in the 19th CenturyGross 2018 pp 1 3 9 11Archer 2013 p 326 Reagan 2005 p 108Murphy 2014 p 80Kte pi 2013 p 63 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