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Pangolin

April 15, 2023

"Pholidota" redirects here. For the orchid, see Pholidota (plant).
For other uses, see Pangolin (disambiguation).

Pangolins, sometimes known as scaly anteaters,[5] are mammals of the order Pholidota (/fɒlɪˈdoʊtə/). The one extant family, the Manidae, has three genera: Manis, Phataginus, and Smutsia.[6] Manis comprises four species found in Asia, while Phataginus and Smutsia include two species each, all found in sub-Saharan Africa.[7] These species range in size from 30 to 100 cm (12 to 39 in). A number of extinct pangolin species are also known.

Pangolins
Temporal range: 64.15–0 Ma Early Paleocene – present[1]
Pangolins from families Manidae, Patriomanidae, Eomanidae and Eurotamanduidae
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Mammalia
Mirorder: Ferae
Clade: Pholidotamorpha
Order: Pholidota
Weber, 1904
Subgroups
[see classification]
Ranges of living species
Synonyms
list of synonyms:
  • Afredentata (Szalay & Schrenk, 1994)
  • Lepidota (Lane, 1910)
  • Manides (Gervais, 1854)
  • Maniformes (Zagorodniuk, 2008)[2]
  • Manitheria (Haeckel, 1895)
  • Nomarthra (Cope, 1889)[3]
  • Pholidotheria (Haeckel, 1895)
  • Pholidotiformes (Kinman, 1994)
  • Pholidotina (Pearse, 1936)[4]
  • Repentia (Newman, 1843)
  • Scutata (Murray, 1866)
  • Squamata (Huxley, 1872)
  • Squamigera (Gill, 1910)

Pangolins have large, protective keratin scales, similar in material to fingernails and toenails, covering their skin; they are the only known mammals with this feature. They live in hollow trees or burrows, depending on the species. Pangolins are nocturnal, and their diet consists of mainly ants and termites, which they capture using their long tongues. They tend to be solitary animals, meeting only to mate and produce a litter of one to three offspring, which they raise for about two years.

Pangolins are threatened by poaching (for their meat and scales, which are used in traditional medicine[8][9]) and heavy deforestation of their natural habitats, and they are the most trafficked mammals in the world.[10] As of January 2020, there are eight species of pangolin whose conservation status is listed in the threatened tier. Three (Manis culionensis, M. pentadactyla and M. javanica) are critically endangered, three (Phataginus tricuspis, Manis crassicaudata and Smutsia gigantea) are endangered and two (Phataginus tetradactyla and Smutsia temminckii) are vulnerable on the Red List of Threatened Species of the International Union for Conservation of Nature.[11]

Etymology

The name "pangolin" comes from the Malay word pengguling meaning "one who rolls up"[12] from guling or giling "to roll"; it was used for the Sunda pangolin (Manis javanica).[13] However, the modern name is tenggiling. In Javanese it is terenggiling;[13] and in the Philippine languages, it is goling, tanggiling, or balintong (with the same meaning).[14]

In ancient India, according to Aelian, it was known as the phattáge (φαττάγης).[15]

Description

 
Pangolin skeletons at the Museum of Osteology (2009)
 
Schematic drawing of pangolin scale histology

The physical appearance of a pangolin is marked by large, hardened, overlapping, plate-like scales, which are soft on newborn pangolins, but harden as the animal matures.[citation needed] They are made of keratin, the same material from which human fingernails and tetrapod claws are made, and are structurally and compositionally very different from the scales of reptiles.[16] The pangolin's scaled body is comparable in appearance to a pine cone. It can curl up into a ball when threatened, with its overlapping scales acting as armor, while it protects its face by tucking it under its tail. The scales are sharp, providing extra defense from predators.[17]

Pangolins can emit a noxious-smelling chemical from glands near the anus, similar to the spray of a skunk.[18] They have short legs, with sharp claws which they use for burrowing into ant and termite mounds and for climbing.[19]

The tongues of pangolins are extremely long, and like those of the giant anteater and the tube-lipped nectar bat, the root of the tongue is not attached to the hyoid bone, but is in the thorax between the sternum and the trachea.[20] Large pangolins can extend their tongues as much as 40 cm (16 in), with a diameter of only about 0.5 cm (1⁄5 in).[21]

Behavior

 
Ground pangolin in defensive posture
 
Indian pangolin defending itself against Asiatic lions

Most pangolins are nocturnal animals[22] which use their well-developed sense of smell to find insects. The long-tailed pangolin is also active by day, while other species of pangolins spend most of the daytime sleeping, curled up into a ball ("volvation").[21]

Arboreal pangolins live in hollow trees, whereas the ground-dwelling species dig tunnels to a depth of 3.5 m (11 ft).[21]

Some pangolins walk with their front claws bent under the foot pad, although they use the entire foot pad on their rear limbs. Furthermore, some exhibit a bipedal stance for some behaviour, and may walk a few steps bipedally.[23] Pangolins are also good swimmers.[21]

Diet

Pangolins are insectivorous. Most of their diet consists of various species of ants and termites, and may be supplemented by other insects, especially larvae. They are somewhat particular and tend to consume only one or two species of insects, even when many species are available to them. A pangolin can consume 140 to 200 g (5 to 7 oz) of insects per day.[24] Pangolins are an important regulator of termite populations in their natural habitats.[25]

Pangolins have very poor vision. They also lack teeth. They rely heavily on smell and hearing, and they have other physical characteristics to help them eat ants and termites. Their skeletal structure is sturdy and they have strong front legs that are used for tearing into termite mounds.[26] They use their powerful front claws to dig into trees, soil, and vegetation to find prey,[27] then proceed to use their long tongues to probe inside the insect tunnels and to retrieve their prey.

The structure of their tongue and stomach is key to aiding pangolins in obtaining and digesting insects. Their saliva is sticky,[26] causing ants and termites to stick to their long tongues when they are hunting through insect tunnels. Without teeth, pangolins also lack the ability to chew;[28] but while foraging, they ingest small stones (gastroliths), which accumulate in their stomachs to help to grind up ants.[29] This part of their stomach is called the gizzard, and it is also covered in keratinous spines.[30] These spines further aid in the grinding up and digestion of the pangolin's prey.

Some species, such as the tree pangolin, use their strong, prehensile tails to hang from tree branches and strip away bark from the trunk, exposing insect nests inside.[31]

Reproduction

 
A Philippine pangolin pup and its mother, a critically endangered species endemic to the Palawan island group. It is threatened by illegal poaching for the pangolin trade to China and Vietnam, where it is regarded as a luxury medicinal delicacy.[32]

Pangolins are solitary and meet only to mate, with mating typically taking place at night after the male and female pangolin meet near a watering hole. Males are larger than females, weighing up to 40% more. While the mating season is not defined, they typically mate once each year, usually during the summer or autumn. Rather than the males seeking out the females, males mark their location with urine or feces and the females find them. If competition over a female occurs, the males use their tails as clubs to fight for the opportunity to mate with her.[33]

Gestation periods differ by species, ranging from roughly 70 to 140 days.[34] African pangolin females usually give birth to a single offspring at a time, but the Asiatic species may give birth to from one to three.[21] Weight at birth is 80 to 450 g (2+3⁄4 to 15+3⁄4 oz), and the average length is 150 mm (6 in). At the time of birth, the scales are soft and white. After several days, they harden and darken to resemble those of an adult pangolin. During the vulnerable stage, the mother stays with her offspring in the burrow, nursing it, and wraps her body around it if she senses danger. The young cling to the mother's tail as she moves about, although, in burrowing species, they remain in the burrow for the first 2–4 weeks of life. At one month, they first leave the burrow riding on the mother's back. Weaning takes place around 3 months of age, when the young begin to eat insects in addition to nursing. At 2 years of age, the offspring are sexually mature and are abandoned by the mother.[35]

Classification and phylogeny

Taxonomy

The order name Pholidota comes from Ancient Greek ϕολιδωτός – "clad in scales"[36] from φολίς pholís "scale".[37]

  • Order: Pholidota (Weber, 1904) (pangolins)
    • Genus: †Euromanis (Gaudin, Emry & Wible, 2009)
      • †Euromanis krebsi (Storch & Martin, 1994)
    • Family: †Eurotamanduidae (Szalay & Schrenk, 1994)
      • Genus: †Eurotamandua (Storch, 1981)
        • †Eurotamandua joresi (Storch, 1981)
    • Incertae sedis
      • †Pholidota sp. (BC 16’08)
    • Suborder: Eupholidota (Gaudin, Emry & Wible, 2009) (true pangolins)
      • Superfamily: †Eomanoidea (Gaudin, Emry & Wible, 2009)
        • Family: †Eomanidae (Storch, 2003)
          • Genus: †Eomanis (Storch, 1978)
            • †Eomanis waldi (Storch, 1978)
      • Superfamily: Manoidea (Gaudin, Emry & Wible, 2009)

Phylogeny

Among placentals

See also: Pholidotamorpha

The order Pholidota was considered to be the sister taxon to Xenarthra (neotropical anteaters, sloths, and armadillos), but recent genetic evidence indicates their closest living relatives are the carnivorans, with which they form a clade termed either Ferae or Ostentoria.[40][41][42][43] Fossil groups like the creodonts[44] and palaeanodonts are even closer relatives to pangolins (the latter group being classified with pangolins in the clade Pholidotamorpha[45]). The split between carnivorans and pangolins is estimated to have occurred 79–87 Ma (million years) ago.[43][46]

Phylogenetic position of the order Pholidota in the order-level cladogram of Boreoeutheria
(only living groups)
 Boreoeutheria 

 Euarchontoglires
 (primates, colugos, treeshrews, rodents, rabbits)   

 Laurasiatheria 

 Eulipotyphla
 (hedgehogs, shrews, moles, solenodons)   

 Scrotifera 

 Chiroptera
 (bats and flying foxes)   

 Ferungulata 
 Ferae 

 Pholidota
 (pangolins)   

 Carnivora
 (cats, hyenas, dogs, bears, seals, etc.)   

 Euungulata 

 Perissodactyla
  (horses, tapirs, rhinos, etc.)  

 Cetartiodactyla
 (camels, pigs, ruminants, hippos, whales, etc.)   

The cladogram has been reconstructed from mitochondrial and nuclear DNA and protein characters.
Phylogenetic position of order Pholidota within clade Ferae.[47][48]
 Ferungulata 

Pan-Euungulata  

 Ferae 
 Pholidotamorpha 

Pholidota (sensu stricto)  

†Palaeanodonta  

 (Pholidota sensu lato) 
 Pan-Carnivora 
 †Oxyaenodonta 

†Oxyaenidae  

 †Hyaenodonta 

†Altacreodus

†Tinerhodon

†Altacreodus/Tinerhodon clade

†Hyaenodonta (sensu stricto)  

 sensu lato 

Carnivoramorpha (Carnivora sensu lato)  

Phylogenetic position of pangolins within order Pholidota.[7][45]
 Pholidotamorpha 

†Palaeanodonta  

 Pholidota 
 †Euromanis 

†Euromanis krebsi

 ? 

†Pholidota sp. (BC 16’08)

 †Eurotamanduidae 
 †Eurotamandua 

†Eurotamandua joresi

 Eupholidota 
 †Eomanoidea 
 †Eomanidae 
 †Eomanis 

†Eomanis waldi

 Manoidea 
 †Patriomanidae 
 †Cryptomanis 

†Cryptomanis gobiensis

 †Patriomanis 

†Patriomanis americana

 †Necromanis 

†Necromanis franconica

†Necromanis parva

†Necromanis quercyi

 ? 

Manidae  

 sensu stricto 
 (Pholidota sensu lato) 

Among Manidae

The first dichotomy in the phylogeny of extant Manidae separates Asian pangolins (Manis) from African pangolins (Smutsia and Phataginus). Within the former, Manis pentadactyla is the sister group to a clade comprising M. crassicaudata and M. javanica. Within the latter, a split separates the large terrestrial African pangolins of the genus Smutsia from the small arboreal African pangolins of the genus Phataginus.[46]

Phylogenetic relationships of genera and species of Manidae
 Manidae 
 Maninae 
 Manis 
 (Paramanis) 
 ? 

Manis sp. (Scale_H4 & Scale_H8)

 ? 

†Manis lydekkeri

Manis crassicaudata  

 ? 

†Manis hungarica

Manis pentadactyla

 ? 

†Manidае sp. (DPC 3972 & DPC 4364)

 Smutsiinae 
 sensu lato 
The cladogram has been reconstructed from mitochondrial genomes and a handful of nuclear DNA sequences, and fossil record.[7][45][49][46]

Asian and African pangolins are thought to have diverged about 38–47 Ma ago.[43][46] Moreover, the basal position of Manis within Pholidota[43][49] suggests the group originated in Eurasia, consistent with their laurasiatherian phylogeny.[43]

Threats

See also: Pangolin trade
 
Confiscated black market pangolin scales, which are in high demand in traditional Chinese medicine,[50] set to be destroyed by authorities in Cameroon in 2017

Pangolins are in high demand in southern China and Vietnam because their scales are believed to have medicinal properties in traditional Chinese and Vietnamese medicine.[51] Their meat is also considered a delicacy.[52][53][54][55][56] 100,000 are estimated to be trafficked a year to China and Vietnam,[57] amounting to over one million over the past decade.[58][59] This makes them the most trafficked animal in the world.[58][60] This, coupled with deforestation, has led to a large decrease in the numbers of pangolins. Some species, such as Manis pentadactyla have become commercially extinct in certain ranges as a result of overhunting.[61] In November 2010, pangolins were added to the Zoological Society of London's list of evolutionarily distinct and endangered mammals.[62] All eight species of pangolin are assessed as threatened by the IUCN, while three are classified as critically endangered.[11] All pangolin species are currently listed under Appendix I of CITES which prohibits international trade, except when the product is intended for non-commercial purposes and a permit has been granted.[63]

China had been the main destination country for pangolins until 2018, when it was reportedly surpassed by Vietnam. In 2019, Vietnam was reported to have seized the largest volumes of pangolin scales, surpassing Nigeria that year.[64]

Pangolins are also hunted and eaten in Ghana and are one of the more popular types of bushmeat, while local healers use the pangolin as a source of traditional medicine.[65]

Though pangolins are protected by an international ban on their trade, populations have suffered from illegal trafficking due to beliefs in East Asia that their ground-up scales can stimulate lactation or cure cancer or asthma.[66] In the past decade, numerous seizures of illegally trafficked pangolin and pangolin meat have taken place in Asia.[67][68][69][70] In one such incident in April 2013, 10,000 kilograms (22,000 pounds) of pangolin meat were seized from a Chinese vessel that ran aground in the Philippines.[71][72] In another case in August 2016, an Indonesian man was arrested after police raided his home and found over 650 pangolins in freezers on his property.[73] The same threat is reported in Nigeria, where the animal is on the verge of extinction due to overexploitation.[74] The overexploitation comes from hunting pangolins for game meat and the reduction of their forest habitats due to deforestation caused by timber harvesting.[75] The pangolin are hunted as game meat for both medicinal purposes and food consumption.[75]

Virology

COVID-19 infection

The nucleic acid sequence of a specific receptor-binding domain of the spike protein belonging to coronaviruses taken from pangolins was found to be a 99% match with SARS coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), the virus which causes COVID-19 and is responsible for the COVID-19 pandemic.[76][77] Researchers in Guangzhou, China, hypothesized that SARS-CoV-2 had originated in bats, and prior to infecting humans, was circulating among pangolins. The illicit Chinese trade of pangolins for use in traditional Chinese medicine was suggested as a vector for human transmission.[76][78] However, whole-genome comparison found that the pangolin and human coronaviruses share only up to 92% of their RNA.[79][80] Ecologists worried that the early speculation about pangolins being the source may have led to mass slaughters, endangering them further, which was similar to what happened to Asian palm civets during the SARS outbreak.[79][81] It was later proved that the testing which suggested that pangolins were a potential host for the virus was flawed, when genetic analysis showed that the spike protein and its binding to receptors in pangolins had minimal effect from the virus, and therefore were not likely mechanisms for COVID-19 infections in humans.[82]

Pestivirus and Coltivirus

In 2020, two novel RNA viruses distantly related to pestiviruses and coltiviruses have been detected in the genomes of dead Manis javanica and Manis pentadactyla.[83] To refer to both sampling site and hosts, they were named Dongyang pangolin virus (DYPV) and Lishui pangolin virus (LSPV). The DYPV pestivirus was also identified in Amblyomma javanense nymph ticks from a diseased pangolin.[83]

Folk medicine

Pangolin scales and flesh are used as ingredients for various traditional Chinese medicine preparations.[84] While no scientific evidence exists for the efficacy of those practices, and they have no logical mechanism of action,[84][85][86][87][88] their popularity still drives the black market for animal body parts, despite concerns about toxicity, transmission of diseases from animals to humans, and species extermination.[84][89] The ongoing demand for parts as ingredients continues to fuel pangolin poaching, hunting and trading.[90]

In the 21st century, the main uses of pangolin scales are quackery practices based on unproven claims the scales dissolve blood clots, promote blood circulation, or help lactating women secrete milk.[84][91] The supposed health effects of pangolin meat and scales claimed by folk medicine practitioners and quacks are based on their consumption of ants, long tongues, and protective scales.[84] The Chinese name chuan shan jia (穿山甲) "penetrating-the-mountain scales") emphasizes the idea of penetration or passing through even massive obstructions such as mountains, plus the distinctive scales which embody penetration and protection.[citation needed]

The official pharmacopoeia of the People's Republic of China included Chinese pangolin scales as an ingredient in TCM formulations.[91] Pangolins were removed from the pharmacopoeia starting from the first half of 2020.[92] Although pangolin scales have been removed from the list of raw ingredients, the scales are still listed as a key ingredient in various medicines.[93]

The first record of pangolin scales occurs in Ben Cao Jinji Zhu ("Variorum of Shennong's Classic of Materia Medica", 500 CE), which recommends pangolin scales for protection against ant bites; burning the scales as a cure for people crying hysterically during the night.[91] During the Tang dynasty, a recipe for expelling evil spirits with a formulation of scales, herbs, and minerals appeared in 682, and in 752 CE the idea that pangolin scales could also stimulate milk secretion in lactating women, one of the main uses today, was recommended in the Wai Tai Mi Yao ("Arcane Essentials from the Imperial Library").[91] In the Song dynasty, the notion of penetrating and clearing blockages was emphasized in the Taiping sheng hui fan ("Formulas from Benevolent Sages Compiled During the Era of Peace and Tranquility"), compiled by Wang Huaiyin in 992.[91]

Conservation

 
A coat of armor made of gilded pangolin scales from India, presented in 1875–76 to the then Prince of Wales, the later Edward VII.

As a result of increasing threats to pangolins, mainly in the form of illegal, international trade in pangolin skin, scales, and meat, these species have received increasing conservation attention in recent years.[94] As of January 2020, the IUCN considered all eight species of pangolin on its Red List of Threatened Species as threatened.[11] The IUCN SSC Pangolin Specialist Group launched a global action plan to conserve pangolins, dubbed "Scaling up Pangolin Conservation", in July 2014. This action plan aims to improve all aspects of pangolin conservation with an added emphasis on combating poaching and trafficking of the animal while educating communities on its importance.[58] Another suggested approach to fighting pangolin (and general wildlife) trafficking consists in "following the money" rather than "the animal", which aims to disrupt smugglers' profits by interrupting money flows. Financial intelligence gathering could thus become a key tool in protecting these animals, although this opportunity is often overlooked.[57] In 2018, a Chinese NGO launched the Counting Pangolins movement, calling for joint efforts to save the mammals from trafficking.[95][96][97] Wildlife conservation group TRAFFIC has identified 159 smuggling routes used by pangolin traffickers and aims to shut these down.[98]

 
Pangolins (in rectangular cages) in an illegal wildlife market in Myanmar

Many attempts have been made to breed pangolins in captivity, but due to their reliance on wide-ranging habitats and very particular diets, these attempts are often unsuccessful.[34][99] Pangolins have significantly decreased immune responses due to a genetic dysfunction, making them extremely fragile.[100] They are susceptible to diseases such as pneumonia and the development of ulcers in captivity, complications that can lead to an early death.[34] In addition, pangolins rescued from illegal trade often have a higher chance of being infected with parasites such as intestinal worms, further lessening their chance for rehabilitation and reintroduction to the wild.[34]

The idea of farming pangolins to reduce the number being illegally trafficked is being explored with little success.[101] The third Saturday in February is promoted as World Pangolin Day by the conservation NPO Annamiticus.[102] World Pangolin Day has been noted for its effectiveness in generating awareness about pangolins.[103]

In 2017, Jackie Chan made a public service announcement called WildAid: Jackie Chan & Pangolins (Kung Fu Pangolin).[104]

In December 2020, a study found that it is "not too late" to establish conservation efforts for Philippine pangolins (Manis culionensis), a species that is only found on the island province of Palawan.[105][106]

Taiwan

Taiwan is one of the few conservation grounds for pangolins in the world after the country enacted the 1989 Wildlife Conservation Act.[107] The introduction of Wildlife Rehabilitation Centers in places like Luanshan (Yanping Township) in Taitung and Xiulin townships in Hualien became important communities for protecting pangolins and their habitats and has greatly improved the survival of pangolins. These centers work with local aboriginal tribes and forest police in the National Police Agency to prevent poaching, trafficking, and smuggling of pangolins, especially to black markets in China. These centers have also helped to reveal the causes of death and injury among Taiwan's pangolin population.[108] Today, Taiwan has the highest population density of pangolins in the world.[109]

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External links

 
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Pholidota.
 
Wikispecies has information related to Pholidota.
 
Look up pangolin in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
  • ZSL Pangolin Conservation
  • Tree of Life of Pholidota
  • National Geographic video of a pangolin 23 October 2018 at the Wayback Machine
  • (PDF)
  • The Phylogeny of Living and Extinct Pangolins (Mammalia, Pholidota) and Associated Taxa: A Morphology Based Analysis 25 September 2015 at the Wayback Machine (PDF)
  • Bromley, Victoria (Director/Producer), Young, Nora (Narrator/Host), Diekmann, Maria (2018). Nature: The World's Most Wanted Animal. United States: PBS.
  • Coronavirus: Revenge of the Pangolins? The New York Times, 6 March 2020.

April 15, 2023
pangolin, pholidota, redirects, here, orchid, pholidota, plant, other, uses, disambiguation, sometimes, known, scaly, anteaters, mammals, order, pholidota, extant, family, manidae, three, genera, manis, phataginus, smutsia, manis, comprises, four, species, fou. Pholidota redirects here For the orchid see Pholidota plant For other uses see Pangolin disambiguation Pangolins sometimes known as scaly anteaters 5 are mammals of the order Pholidota f ɒ l ɪ ˈ d oʊ t e The one extant family the Manidae has three genera Manis Phataginus and Smutsia 6 Manis comprises four species found in Asia while Phataginus and Smutsia include two species each all found in sub Saharan Africa 7 These species range in size from 30 to 100 cm 12 to 39 in A number of extinct pangolin species are also known PangolinsTemporal range 64 15 0 Ma PreꞒ Ꞓ O S D C P T J K Pg N Early Paleocene present 1 Pangolins from families Manidae Patriomanidae Eomanidae and EurotamanduidaeScientific classificationKingdom AnimaliaPhylum ChordataClass MammaliaMirorder FeraeClade PholidotamorphaOrder PholidotaWeber 1904Subgroups see classification Ranges of living speciesSynonymslist of synonyms Afredentata Szalay amp Schrenk 1994 Lepidota Lane 1910 Manides Gervais 1854 Maniformes Zagorodniuk 2008 2 Manitheria Haeckel 1895 Nomarthra Cope 1889 3 Pholidotheria Haeckel 1895 Pholidotiformes Kinman 1994 Pholidotina Pearse 1936 4 Repentia Newman 1843 Scutata Murray 1866 Squamata Huxley 1872 Squamigera Gill 1910 Pangolins have large protective keratin scales similar in material to fingernails and toenails covering their skin they are the only known mammals with this feature They live in hollow trees or burrows depending on the species Pangolins are nocturnal and their diet consists of mainly ants and termites which they capture using their long tongues They tend to be solitary animals meeting only to mate and produce a litter of one to three offspring which they raise for about two years Pangolins are threatened by poaching for their meat and scales which are used in traditional medicine 8 9 and heavy deforestation of their natural habitats and they are the most trafficked mammals in the world 10 As of January 2020 update there are eight species of pangolin whose conservation status is listed in the threatened tier Three Manis culionensis M pentadactyla and M javanica are critically endangered three Phataginus tricuspis Manis crassicaudata and Smutsia gigantea are endangered and two Phataginus tetradactyla and Smutsia temminckii are vulnerable on the Red List of Threatened Species of the International Union for Conservation of Nature 11 Contents 1 Etymology 2 Description 3 Behavior 3 1 Diet 3 2 Reproduction 4 Classification and phylogeny 4 1 Taxonomy 4 2 Phylogeny 4 2 1 Among placentals 4 2 2 Among Manidae 5 Threats 6 Virology 6 1 COVID 19 infection 6 2 Pestivirus and Coltivirus 7 Folk medicine 8 Conservation 8 1 Taiwan 9 References 10 External linksEtymology EditThe name pangolin comes from the Malay word pengguling meaning one who rolls up 12 from guling or giling to roll it was used for the Sunda pangolin Manis javanica 13 However the modern name is tenggiling In Javanese it is terenggiling 13 and in the Philippine languages it is goling tanggiling or balintong with the same meaning 14 In ancient India according to Aelian it was known as the phattage fattaghs 15 Description Edit Pangolin skeletons at the Museum of Osteology 2009 Schematic drawing of pangolin scale histology The physical appearance of a pangolin is marked by large hardened overlapping plate like scales which are soft on newborn pangolins but harden as the animal matures citation needed They are made of keratin the same material from which human fingernails and tetrapod claws are made and are structurally and compositionally very different from the scales of reptiles 16 The pangolin s scaled body is comparable in appearance to a pine cone It can curl up into a ball when threatened with its overlapping scales acting as armor while it protects its face by tucking it under its tail The scales are sharp providing extra defense from predators 17 Pangolins can emit a noxious smelling chemical from glands near the anus similar to the spray of a skunk 18 They have short legs with sharp claws which they use for burrowing into ant and termite mounds and for climbing 19 The tongues of pangolins are extremely long and like those of the giant anteater and the tube lipped nectar bat the root of the tongue is not attached to the hyoid bone but is in the thorax between the sternum and the trachea 20 Large pangolins can extend their tongues as much as 40 cm 16 in with a diameter of only about 0 5 cm 1 5 in 21 Behavior Edit Ground pangolin in defensive posture Indian pangolin defending itself against Asiatic lions Most pangolins are nocturnal animals 22 which use their well developed sense of smell to find insects The long tailed pangolin is also active by day while other species of pangolins spend most of the daytime sleeping curled up into a ball volvation 21 Arboreal pangolins live in hollow trees whereas the ground dwelling species dig tunnels to a depth of 3 5 m 11 ft 21 Some pangolins walk with their front claws bent under the foot pad although they use the entire foot pad on their rear limbs Furthermore some exhibit a bipedal stance for some behaviour and may walk a few steps bipedally 23 Pangolins are also good swimmers 21 Diet Edit Pangolins are insectivorous Most of their diet consists of various species of ants and termites and may be supplemented by other insects especially larvae They are somewhat particular and tend to consume only one or two species of insects even when many species are available to them A pangolin can consume 140 to 200 g 5 to 7 oz of insects per day 24 Pangolins are an important regulator of termite populations in their natural habitats 25 Pangolins have very poor vision They also lack teeth They rely heavily on smell and hearing and they have other physical characteristics to help them eat ants and termites Their skeletal structure is sturdy and they have strong front legs that are used for tearing into termite mounds 26 They use their powerful front claws to dig into trees soil and vegetation to find prey 27 then proceed to use their long tongues to probe inside the insect tunnels and to retrieve their prey The structure of their tongue and stomach is key to aiding pangolins in obtaining and digesting insects Their saliva is sticky 26 causing ants and termites to stick to their long tongues when they are hunting through insect tunnels Without teeth pangolins also lack the ability to chew 28 but while foraging they ingest small stones gastroliths which accumulate in their stomachs to help to grind up ants 29 This part of their stomach is called the gizzard and it is also covered in keratinous spines 30 These spines further aid in the grinding up and digestion of the pangolin s prey Some species such as the tree pangolin use their strong prehensile tails to hang from tree branches and strip away bark from the trunk exposing insect nests inside 31 Reproduction Edit A Philippine pangolin pup and its mother a critically endangered species endemic to the Palawan island group It is threatened by illegal poaching for the pangolin trade to China and Vietnam where it is regarded as a luxury medicinal delicacy 32 Pangolins are solitary and meet only to mate with mating typically taking place at night after the male and female pangolin meet near a watering hole Males are larger than females weighing up to 40 more While the mating season is not defined they typically mate once each year usually during the summer or autumn Rather than the males seeking out the females males mark their location with urine or feces and the females find them If competition over a female occurs the males use their tails as clubs to fight for the opportunity to mate with her 33 Gestation periods differ by species ranging from roughly 70 to 140 days 34 African pangolin females usually give birth to a single offspring at a time but the Asiatic species may give birth to from one to three 21 Weight at birth is 80 to 450 g 2 3 4 to 15 3 4 oz and the average length is 150 mm 6 in At the time of birth the scales are soft and white After several days they harden and darken to resemble those of an adult pangolin During the vulnerable stage the mother stays with her offspring in the burrow nursing it and wraps her body around it if she senses danger The young cling to the mother s tail as she moves about although in burrowing species they remain in the burrow for the first 2 4 weeks of life At one month they first leave the burrow riding on the mother s back Weaning takes place around 3 months of age when the young begin to eat insects in addition to nursing At 2 years of age the offspring are sexually mature and are abandoned by the mother 35 Classification and phylogeny EditTaxonomy Edit The order name Pholidota comes from Ancient Greek ϕolidwtos clad in scales 36 from folis pholis scale 37 Order Pholidota Weber 1904 pangolins Genus Euromanis Gaudin Emry amp Wible 2009 Euromanis krebsi Storch amp Martin 1994 Family Eurotamanduidae Szalay amp Schrenk 1994 Genus Eurotamandua Storch 1981 Eurotamandua joresi Storch 1981 Incertae sedis Pholidota sp BC 16 08 Suborder Eupholidota Gaudin Emry amp Wible 2009 true pangolins Superfamily Eomanoidea Gaudin Emry amp Wible 2009 Family Eomanidae Storch 2003 Genus Eomanis Storch 1978 Eomanis waldi Storch 1978 Superfamily Manoidea Gaudin Emry amp Wible 2009 Family Manidae Gray 1821 pangolins Subfamily Maninae Gray 1821 Asiatic pangolins Genus Manis Linnaeus 1758 Asiatic pangolins Manis crassicaudata Gray 1827 Indian pangolin Manis pentadactyla Linnaeus 1758 Chinese pangolin Manis sp Scale H4 amp Scale H8 Manis hungarica Kormos 1934 Manis lydekkeri Dubois 1908 Subgenus Paramanis Pocock 1924 Manis javanica Desmarest 1822 Sunda pangolin Manis culionensis de Elera 1895 Philippine pangolin Manis palaeojavanica Dubois 1907 Giant asian pangolin Subfamily Phatagininae Gaubert 2017 small African pangolins Genus Phataginus Rafinesque 1821 African tree pangolins Phataginus tetradactyla Linnaeus 1766 Long tailed pangolin Phataginus tricuspis Rafinesque 1821 Tree pangolin Subfamily Smutsiinae Gray 1873 large African pangolins Genus Smutsia Gray 1865 African ground pangolins Smutsia gigantea Illiger 1815 Giant pangolin Smutsia temmincki Smuts 1832 Ground pangolin Smutsia olteniensis Terhune 2021 38 Incertae sedis Fayum pangolin Manidae sp DPC 3972 amp DPC 4364 Gebo amp Rasmussen 1985 39 Family Patriomanidae Szalay amp Schrenk 1998 sensu Gaudin Emry amp Pogue 2006 Genus Cryptomanis Gaudin Emry amp Pogue 2006 Cryptomanis gobiensis Gaudin Emry amp Pogue 2006 Genus Patriomanis Emry 1970 Patriomanis americana Emry 1970 Incertae sedis Genus Necromanis Filhol 1893 Necromanis franconica Quenstedt 1886 Necromanis parva Koenigswald 1969 Necromanis quercyi Filhol 1893 Phylogeny Edit Among placentals Edit See also Pholidotamorpha The order Pholidota was considered to be the sister taxon to Xenarthra neotropical anteaters sloths and armadillos but recent genetic evidence indicates their closest living relatives are the carnivorans with which they form a clade termed either Ferae or Ostentoria 40 41 42 43 Fossil groups like the creodonts 44 and palaeanodonts are even closer relatives to pangolins the latter group being classified with pangolins in the clade Pholidotamorpha 45 The split between carnivorans and pangolins is estimated to have occurred 79 87 Ma million years ago 43 46 Phylogenetic position of the order Pholidota in the order level cladogram of Boreoeutheria only living groups Boreoeutheria Euarchontoglires primates colugos treeshrews rodents rabbits Laurasiatheria Eulipotyphla hedgehogs shrews moles solenodons Scrotifera Chiroptera bats and flying foxes Ferungulata Ferae Pholidota pangolins Carnivora cats hyenas dogs bears seals etc Euungulata Perissodactyla horses tapirs rhinos etc Cetartiodactyla camels pigs ruminants hippos whales etc The cladogram has been reconstructed from mitochondrial and nuclear DNA and protein characters Phylogenetic position of order Pholidota within clade Ferae 47 48 Ferungulata Pan Euungulata Ferae Pholidotamorpha Pholidota sensu stricto Palaeanodonta Pholidota sensu lato Pan Carnivora Oxyaenodonta Oxyaenidae Hyaenodonta Altacreodus Tinerhodon Altacreodus Tinerhodon clade Hyaenodonta sensu stricto sensu lato Carnivoramorpha Carnivora sensu lato Phylogenetic position of pangolins within order Pholidota 7 45 Pholidotamorpha Palaeanodonta Pholidota Euromanis Euromanis krebsi Pholidota sp BC 16 08 Eurotamanduidae Eurotamandua Eurotamandua joresi Eupholidota Eomanoidea Eomanidae Eomanis Eomanis waldi Manoidea Patriomanidae Cryptomanis Cryptomanis gobiensis Patriomanis Patriomanis americana Necromanis Necromanis franconica Necromanis parva Necromanis quercyi Manidae sensu stricto Pholidota sensu lato Among Manidae Edit The first dichotomy in the phylogeny of extant Manidae separates Asian pangolins Manis from African pangolins Smutsia and Phataginus Within the former Manis pentadactyla is the sister group to a clade comprising M crassicaudata and M javanica Within the latter a split separates the large terrestrial African pangolins of the genus Smutsia from the small arboreal African pangolins of the genus Phataginus 46 Phylogenetic relationships of genera and species of Manidae Manidae Maninae Manis Paramanis Manis culionensisManis javanica Manis palaeojavanica Manis sp Scale H4 amp Scale H8 Manis lydekkeriManis crassicaudata Manis hungaricaManis pentadactyla Manidae sp DPC 3972 amp DPC 4364 Smutsiinae Phatagininae Phataginus Phataginus tetradactyla Phataginus tricuspis Smutsiinae Smutsia Smutsia gigantea Smutsia olteniensisSmutsia temminckii sensu stricto sensu lato The cladogram has been reconstructed from mitochondrial genomes and a handful of nuclear DNA sequences and fossil record 7 45 49 46 Asian and African pangolins are thought to have diverged about 38 47 Ma ago 43 46 Moreover the basal position of Manis within Pholidota 43 49 suggests the group originated in Eurasia consistent with their laurasiatherian phylogeny 43 Threats EditSee also Pangolin trade Confiscated black market pangolin scales which are in high demand in traditional Chinese medicine 50 set to be destroyed by authorities in Cameroon in 2017 Pangolins are in high demand in southern China and Vietnam because their scales are believed to have medicinal properties in traditional Chinese and Vietnamese medicine 51 Their meat is also considered a delicacy 52 53 54 55 56 100 000 are estimated to be trafficked a year to China and Vietnam 57 amounting to over one million over the past decade 58 59 This makes them the most trafficked animal in the world 58 60 This coupled with deforestation has led to a large decrease in the numbers of pangolins Some species such as Manis pentadactyla have become commercially extinct in certain ranges as a result of overhunting 61 In November 2010 pangolins were added to the Zoological Society of London s list of evolutionarily distinct and endangered mammals 62 All eight species of pangolin are assessed as threatened by the IUCN while three are classified as critically endangered 11 All pangolin species are currently listed under Appendix I of CITES which prohibits international trade except when the product is intended for non commercial purposes and a permit has been granted 63 China had been the main destination country for pangolins until 2018 when it was reportedly surpassed by Vietnam In 2019 Vietnam was reported to have seized the largest volumes of pangolin scales surpassing Nigeria that year 64 Pangolins are also hunted and eaten in Ghana and are one of the more popular types of bushmeat while local healers use the pangolin as a source of traditional medicine 65 Though pangolins are protected by an international ban on their trade populations have suffered from illegal trafficking due to beliefs in East Asia that their ground up scales can stimulate lactation or cure cancer or asthma 66 In the past decade numerous seizures of illegally trafficked pangolin and pangolin meat have taken place in Asia 67 68 69 70 In one such incident in April 2013 10 000 kilograms 22 000 pounds of pangolin meat were seized from a Chinese vessel that ran aground in the Philippines 71 72 In another case in August 2016 an Indonesian man was arrested after police raided his home and found over 650 pangolins in freezers on his property 73 The same threat is reported in Nigeria where the animal is on the verge of extinction due to overexploitation 74 The overexploitation comes from hunting pangolins for game meat and the reduction of their forest habitats due to deforestation caused by timber harvesting 75 The pangolin are hunted as game meat for both medicinal purposes and food consumption 75 Virology EditCOVID 19 infection Edit The nucleic acid sequence of a specific receptor binding domain of the spike protein belonging to coronaviruses taken from pangolins was found to be a 99 match with SARS coronavirus 2 SARS CoV 2 the virus which causes COVID 19 and is responsible for the COVID 19 pandemic 76 77 Researchers in Guangzhou China hypothesized that SARS CoV 2 had originated in bats and prior to infecting humans was circulating among pangolins The illicit Chinese trade of pangolins for use in traditional Chinese medicine was suggested as a vector for human transmission 76 78 However whole genome comparison found that the pangolin and human coronaviruses share only up to 92 of their RNA 79 80 Ecologists worried that the early speculation about pangolins being the source may have led to mass slaughters endangering them further which was similar to what happened to Asian palm civets during the SARS outbreak 79 81 It was later proved that the testing which suggested that pangolins were a potential host for the virus was flawed when genetic analysis showed that the spike protein and its binding to receptors in pangolins had minimal effect from the virus and therefore were not likely mechanisms for COVID 19 infections in humans 82 Pestivirus and Coltivirus Edit In 2020 two novel RNA viruses distantly related to pestiviruses and coltiviruses have been detected in the genomes of dead Manis javanica and Manis pentadactyla 83 To refer to both sampling site and hosts they were named Dongyang pangolin virus DYPV and Lishui pangolin virus LSPV The DYPV pestivirus was also identified in Amblyomma javanense nymph ticks from a diseased pangolin 83 Folk medicine EditPangolin scales and flesh are used as ingredients for various traditional Chinese medicine preparations 84 While no scientific evidence exists for the efficacy of those practices and they have no logical mechanism of action 84 85 86 87 88 their popularity still drives the black market for animal body parts despite concerns about toxicity transmission of diseases from animals to humans and species extermination 84 89 The ongoing demand for parts as ingredients continues to fuel pangolin poaching hunting and trading 90 In the 21st century the main uses of pangolin scales are quackery practices based on unproven claims the scales dissolve blood clots promote blood circulation or help lactating women secrete milk 84 91 The supposed health effects of pangolin meat and scales claimed by folk medicine practitioners and quacks are based on their consumption of ants long tongues and protective scales 84 The Chinese name chuan shan jia 穿山甲 penetrating the mountain scales emphasizes the idea of penetration or passing through even massive obstructions such as mountains plus the distinctive scales which embody penetration and protection citation needed The official pharmacopoeia of the People s Republic of China included Chinese pangolin scales as an ingredient in TCM formulations 91 Pangolins were removed from the pharmacopoeia starting from the first half of 2020 92 Although pangolin scales have been removed from the list of raw ingredients the scales are still listed as a key ingredient in various medicines 93 The first record of pangolin scales occurs in Ben Cao Jinji Zhu Variorum of Shennong s Classic of Materia Medica 500 CE which recommends pangolin scales for protection against ant bites burning the scales as a cure for people crying hysterically during the night 91 During the Tang dynasty a recipe for expelling evil spirits with a formulation of scales herbs and minerals appeared in 682 and in 752 CE the idea that pangolin scales could also stimulate milk secretion in lactating women one of the main uses today was recommended in the Wai Tai Mi Yao Arcane Essentials from the Imperial Library 91 In the Song dynasty the notion of penetrating and clearing blockages was emphasized in the Taiping sheng hui fan Formulas from Benevolent Sages Compiled During the Era of Peace and Tranquility compiled by Wang Huaiyin in 992 91 Conservation Edit A coat of armor made of gilded pangolin scales from India presented in 1875 76 to the then Prince of Wales the later Edward VII As a result of increasing threats to pangolins mainly in the form of illegal international trade in pangolin skin scales and meat these species have received increasing conservation attention in recent years 94 As of January 2020 update the IUCN considered all eight species of pangolin on its Red List of Threatened Species as threatened 11 The IUCN SSC Pangolin Specialist Group launched a global action plan to conserve pangolins dubbed Scaling up Pangolin Conservation in July 2014 This action plan aims to improve all aspects of pangolin conservation with an added emphasis on combating poaching and trafficking of the animal while educating communities on its importance 58 Another suggested approach to fighting pangolin and general wildlife trafficking consists in following the money rather than the animal which aims to disrupt smugglers profits by interrupting money flows Financial intelligence gathering could thus become a key tool in protecting these animals although this opportunity is often overlooked 57 In 2018 a Chinese NGO launched the Counting Pangolins movement calling for joint efforts to save the mammals from trafficking 95 96 97 Wildlife conservation group TRAFFIC has identified 159 smuggling routes used by pangolin traffickers and aims to shut these down 98 Pangolins in rectangular cages in an illegal wildlife market in Myanmar Many attempts have been made to breed pangolins in captivity but due to their reliance on wide ranging habitats and very particular diets these attempts are often unsuccessful 34 99 Pangolins have significantly decreased immune responses due to a genetic dysfunction making them extremely fragile 100 They are susceptible to diseases such as pneumonia and the development of ulcers in captivity complications that can lead to an early death 34 In addition pangolins rescued from illegal trade often have a higher chance of being infected with parasites such as intestinal worms further lessening their chance for rehabilitation and reintroduction to the wild 34 The idea of farming pangolins to reduce the number being illegally 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Wikimedia Commons has media related to Pholidota Wikispecies has information related to Pholidota Look up pangolin in Wiktionary the free dictionary ZSL Pangolin Conservation Pangolin Wildlife summary from the African Wildlife Foundation Tree of Life of Pholidota National Geographic video of a pangolin Archived 23 October 2018 at the Wayback Machine Proceedings of the Workshop on Trade and Conservation of Pangolins Native to South and Southeast Asia PDF The Phylogeny of Living and Extinct Pangolins Mammalia Pholidota and Associated Taxa A Morphology Based Analysis Archived 25 September 2015 at the Wayback Machine PDF Bromley Victoria Director Producer Young Nora Narrator Host Diekmann Maria 2018 Nature The World s Most Wanted Animal United States PBS Coronavirus Revenge of the Pangolins The New York Times 6 March 2020 Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Pangolin amp oldid 1149788562, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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