fbpx
Wikipedia

Durga

April 26, 2023

For other uses, see Durga (disambiguation).
"Mahisasuramardini" redirects here. For the radio programme, see Mahisasuramardini (radio program).
"Demus" redirects here. For the surname, see Demus (surname). For the production company, see Demus Productions. For the subdivision in Ancient Greece, see deme.

Durga (Sanskrit: दुर्गा, IAST: Durgā) is a major Hindu goddess, worshipped as a principal aspect of the mother goddess Mahadevi. She is associated with protection, strength, motherhood, destruction, and wars.[5][6][7]

Durga
Mother Goddess;
Goddess of Strength and Protection
18th-century painting of Durga slaying the buffalo demon Mahishasura
Other namesMahishasura Mardini, Marikamba, Bhavani, Devi Maa, Mata Rani, Adi Shakti
Devanagariदुर्गा
Affiliation
AbodeManidvipa
Mantra
  • Om Shree Durgayai Namah[1]
WeaponChakra (discus), Shankha (conch shell), Trishula (trident), Gada (mace), Bow and Arrow, Khanda (sword) and Shield, Ghanta (bell)
MountLion and Tiger[2][3]
TextsDevi-Bhagavata Purana, Devi Mahatmya
FestivalsDurga Puja, Durga Ashtami, Navaratri, Vijayadashami
Personal information
SpouseShiva
Equivalents
Manipuri equivalentPanthoibi[4]
Translations of
दुर्गा (Durgā)
Sanskritदुर्गा (Durgā)
Assameseদুর্গা (Durgā)
Bengaliদুর্গা (Durgā)
Gujaratiદુર્ગા (Durgā)
Hindiदुर्गा (Durgā)
Kannadaದುರ್ಗಾ (Durgā)
Malayalamദുർഗ (Durgā)
Marathiदुर्गा (Durgā)
Nepaliदुर्गा (Durgā)
Odiaଦୁର୍ଗା (Durgā)
Punjabiਦੁਰਗਾ (Durgā)
Tamilதுர்க்கை (Dhurghghai)
Teluguదుర్గ (Durgā)
Glossary of Hinduism terms

Durga's legend centres around combating evils and demonic forces that threaten peace, prosperity, and dharma, representing the power of good over evil.[6][8] Durga is believed to unleash her divine wrath against the wicked for the liberation of the oppressed, and entails destruction to empower creation.[9] Durga is seen as a motherly figure and often depicted as a beautiful woman, riding a lion or tiger, with many arms each carrying a weapon and often defeating demons.[3][10][11][12] She is widely worshipped by the followers of the goddess-centric sect, Shaktism, and has importance in other denominations like Shaivism and Vaishnavism.[8][13]

The most important texts of Shaktism, Devi Mahatmya, and Devi Bhagavata Purana, revere Devi (the Goddess) as the primordial creator of the universe and the Brahman (ultimate truth and reality).[14][15][16] She is one of the five equivalent deities in Panchayatana puja of the Smarta tradition of Hinduism.[17][18]

Durga has a significant following all over India, Bangladesh, Nepal, and many other countries. She is mostly worshipped after spring and autumn harvests, especially during the festivals of Durga Puja, Durga Ashtami, Vijayadashami, Deepavali, and Navaratri.[19][20]

Etymology and nomenclature

 
Durga idol of Durga Puja, 2nd October, 2022

The word Durga (दुर्गा) literally means "impassable",[5][19] "invincible, unassailable".[21] It is related to the word Durg (दुर्ग) which means "fortress, something difficult to defeat or pass". According to Monier Monier-Williams, Durga is derived from the roots dur (difficult) and gam (pass, go through).[22] According to Alain Daniélou, Durga means "beyond defeat".[23]

The word Durga and related terms appear in the Vedic literature, such as in the Rigveda hymns 4.28, 5.34, 8.27, 8.47, 8.93 and 10.127, and in sections 10.1 and 12.4 of the Atharvaveda.[22][24][note 1] A deity named Durge appears in section 10.1.7 of the Taittiriya Aranyaka.[22] While the Vedic literature uses the word Durga, the description therein lacks the legendary details about her that is found in later Hindu literature.[26]

Importantly it is concluded that the Vedic Texts concluded Durga alone to be the Supreme and the Absolute facet of Brahman,[citation needed] as stated in the Devi-Atharvashirsha[27]

यस्याः परतरं नास्ति सैषा दुर्गा प्रकीर्तिता ॥२४॥

She who is renowned by the name "Durga" is the being superior to whom, no one exists.

- Devi Atharvashirhsa Upanishad, 24.

Hence, Durga alone is concluded to be the supreme deity of the Vedas in Shaktism. The word is also found in ancient post-Vedic Sanskrit texts such as in section 2.451 of the Mahabharata and section 4.27.16 of the Ramayana.[22] These usages are in different contexts. For example, Durg is the name of an Asura who had become invincible to gods, and Durga is the goddess who intervenes and slays him. Durga and its derivatives are found in sections 4.1.99 and 6.3.63 of the Ashtadhyayi by Pāṇini, the ancient Sanskrit grammarian, and in the commentary of Nirukta by Yaska.[22] Durga as a demon-slaying goddess was likely well established by the time the classic Hindu text called Devi Mahatmya was composed, which scholars variously estimate to between 400 and 600 CE.[28][29][30] The Devi Mahatmya and other mythologies describe the nature of demonic forces symbolised by Mahishasura as shape-shifting and adapting in nature, form and strategy to create difficulties and achieve their evil ends, while Durga calmly understands and counters the evil in order to achieve her solemn goals.[31][32][note 2]

There are many epithets for Durga in Shaktism and her nine appellations are (Navadurga): Shailaputri, Brahmacharini, Chandraghanta, Kushmanda, Skandamata, Katyayini, Kalaratri, Mahagauri and Siddhidatri. A list of 108 names of the goddess is recited in order to worship her and is popularly known as the "Ashtottarshat Namavali of Goddess Durga".

Other meanings may include: "the one who cannot be accessed easily",[22] "the undefeatable goddess".[23]

One famous shloka states the definition and origin of the term 'Durga': "Durge durgati nashini", meaning Durga is the one who destroys all distress or one who eliminates suffering.[34]

History and texts

Evidence of Durga-like images can probably be traced back to the Indus Valley civilisation. According to Asko Parpola, a cylindrical seal from Kalibangan shows "a Durgā-like goddess of war, who is associated with the tiger".[35][36]

Reverence for Devi, the feminine nature of God, first appears in the 10th Maṇḍala of Rig Veda, one of the scriptures of Hinduism. This hymn is also called the Devi Suktam hymn (abridged):[37][38]

I am the Queen, the gatherer-up of treasures, most thoughtful, first of those who merit worship.
     Thus gods have established me in many places with many homes to enter and abide in.
Through me alone all eat the food that feeds them, – each man who sees, breathes, hears the word outspoken.
     They know it not, yet I reside in the essence of the Universe. Hear, one and all, the truth as I declare it.
I, verily, myself announce and utter the word that gods and men alike shall welcome.
     I make the man I love exceedingly mighty, make him nourished, a sage, and one who knows Brahman.
I bend the bow for Rudra, that his arrow may strike, and slay the hater of devotion.
     I rouse and order battle for the people, I created Earth and Heaven and reside as their Inner Controller.
On the world's summit I bring forth sky the Father: my home is in the waters, in the ocean as Mother.
     Thence I pervade all existing creatures, as their Inner Supreme Self, and manifest them with my body.
I created all worlds at my will, without any higher being, and permeate and dwell within them.
     The eternal and infinite consciousness is I, it is my greatness dwelling in everything.

– Devi Sukta, Rigveda 10.125.3 – 10.125.8,[37][38][39]

 
Artwork depicting the "Goddess Durga Slaying the Buffalo demon Mahishasura" scene of Devi Mahatmya, is found all over India, Nepal and southeast Asia. Clockwise from top: 9th-century Kashmir, 13th-century Karnataka, 9th century Prambanan Indonesia, 2nd-century Uttar Pradesh.

Devi's epithets synonymous with Durga appear in Upanishadic literature, such as Kali in verse 1.2.4 of the Mundaka Upanishad dated to about the 5th century BCE.[40] This single mention describes Kali as "terrible yet swift as thought", very red and smoky coloured manifestation of the divine with a fire-like flickering tongue, before the text begins presenting its thesis that one must seek self-knowledge and the knowledge of the eternal Brahman.[41]

Durga, in her various forms, appears as an independent deity in the Epics period of ancient India, that is the centuries around the start of the common era.[42] Both Yudhisthira and Arjuna characters of the Mahabharata invoke hymns to Durga.[40] She appears in Harivamsa in the form of Vishnu's eulogy, and in Pradyumna prayer.[42] Various Puranas from the early to late 1st millennium CE dedicate chapters of inconsistent mythologies associated with Durga.[40] Of these, the Markandeya Purana and the Devi-Bhagavata Purana are the most significant texts on Durga.[43][44] The Devi Upanishad and other Shakta Upanishads, mostly dated to have been composed in or after the 9th century, present the philosophical and mystical speculations related to Durga as Devi and other epithets, identifying her to be the same as the Brahman and Atman (self, soul).[45][46]

In the Narada Purana, Durga is associated as a form of Lakshmi.[47] In the Garuda Purana and the Vishnu Purana, Lakshmi is considered Prakriti (Mahalakshmi) and is identified with three forms — Sri, Bhu and Durga.[48] In Pancharatra texts such as the Lakshmi Tantra, Lakshmi has Durga as one of her forms and acquires the name Durga after killing the demon Durgamasura.[49][50][51] These texts identify Durga as Vishnu's māyā".[52]

Origins

The historian Ramaprasad Chanda stated in 1916 that Durga evolved over time in the Indian subcontinent. A primitive form of Durga, according to Chanda, was the result of "syncretism of a mountain-goddess worshiped by the dwellers of the Himalaya and the Vindhyas", a deity of the Abhiras conceptualised as a war-goddess. In the Virata Parvan stuti and Vaishnava texts, the Goddess is called the Māhāmāyā, or the Yoganidrā of Vishnu. These further points her Abhira or Gopa origins.[53] Durga then transformed into Kali as the personification of the all-destroying time, while aspects of her emerged as the primordial energy (Adya Sakti) integrated into the samsara (cycle of rebirths) concept and this idea was built on the foundation of the Vedic religion, mythology and philosophy.[54] There are total of nine avatars of Goddess Durga in Hinduism.

Epigraphical evidence indicates that regardless of her origins, Durga is an ancient goddess. The 6th-century CE inscriptions in early Siddhamatrika script, such as at the Nagarjuni hill cave during the Maukhari era, already mention the legend of her victory over Mahishasura (buffalo-hybrid demon).[55]

Legends

 
'Durga in Combat with the Bull, Mahishasura', 19th century painting

The most popular legend associated with the goddess is of her killing of Mahishasura. Mahishasura was a half-buffalo demon who did severe penance in order to please Brahma, the creator. After several years, Brahma, pleased with his devotion, appeared before him. The demon opened his eyes and asked the god for immortality. Brahma refused, stating that all must die one day. Mahishasura then thought for a while and asked a boon that only a woman could be able to kill him. Brahma granted the boon and disappeared. Mahishasura started to torture innocent people. He captured Svarga and was not in any kind of fear, as he thought women to be powerless and weak. The devas were worried and they went to Trimurti. The Trimurti combined their power, and gave a physical form to the sum of their divine energy, Adi Shakti, a warrior woman with many arms. Himavan, the personification of the Himalayas, gifted a lion as her mount. Durga, on her lion, appeared before Mahishasura where the demon took on different forms and attacked the goddess. Each time, Durga would destroy his forms. At last, Durga slew Mahishasura with her trident when he was transforming as a buffalo demon.[56][57]

According to Vaishnava tradition, Durga is among the various epithets and avatars of Yogamaya, the personification of the illusory power of Vishnu. Vishnu offers Durga the task of transferring the seventh child of Devaki into the womb of Rohini, as well as being born on earth as the infant daughter of Yashoda and Nanda, so that she could be swapped with Krishna. When Kamsa attempted to slay her, she manifested her true form of an eighteen-armed goddess, wearing a garland of lemons. The goddess announced that Kamsa's slayer had already been born, before vanishing.[58] Durga is often conceptualised in this role as a sister of Vishnu.[59]

Attributes and iconography

 
 
Left: Durga as buffalo-demon slayer from a 6th century Aihole Hindu temple, Karnataka; Right: in Mahabalipuram, Tamil Nadu.

Durga is a warrior goddess, and she is depicted to express her martial skills. Her iconography typically resonates with these attributes, where she rides a lion or a tiger,[2] has between eight and eighteen hands, each holding a weapon to destroy and create.[60][61] She is often shown in the midst of her war with Mahishasura, the buffalo demon, at the time she victoriously kills the demonic force. Her icon shows her in action, yet her face is calm and serene.[62][63] In Hindu arts, this tranquil attribute of Durga's face is traditionally derived from the belief that she is protective and violent not because of her hatred, egotism or getting pleasure in violence, but because she acts out of necessity, for the love of the good, for liberation of those who depend on her, and a mark of the beginning of soul's journey to creative freedom.[63][64][65]

 
Durga killing Mahishasura in a Durga Puja celebration in Bengal

Durga traditionally holds the weapons of various male gods of Hindu mythology, which they give her to fight the evil forces because they feel that she is shakti (energy, power).[66] These include the chakra, conch, bow, arrow, sword, javelin, trishula, shield, and a noose.[67] These weapons are considered symbolic by Shakta Hindus, representing self-discipline, selfless service to others, self-examination, prayer, devotion, remembering her mantras, cheerfulness and meditation. Durga herself is viewed as the "Self" within and the divine mother of all creation.[68] She has been revered by warriors, blessing their new weapons.[69] Durga iconography has been flexible in the Hindu traditions, where for example some intellectuals place a pen or other writing implements in her hand since they consider their stylus as their weapon.[69]

Archeological discoveries suggest that these iconographic features of Durga became common throughout India by about the 4th century CE, states David Kinsley – a professor of religious studies specialising on Hindu goddesses.[70] Durga iconography in some temples appears as part of Mahavidyas or Saptamatrkas (seven mothers considered forms of Durga). Her icons in major Hindu temples such as in Varanasi include relief artworks that show scenes from the Devi Mahatmya.[71]

In Vaishnavism, Durga and her mount of a lion, is considered one of the three aspects or forms of Goddess Lakshmi, the other two being Sri and Bhu, in place of Niladevi.[72] According to professor Tracy Pintchman, "When the Lord Vishnu created the gunas of prakriti, there arose Lakshmi in her three forms, Sri, Bhu and Durga. Sri consisted of sattva, Bhu as rajas and Durga as tamas".[73]

Durga appears in Hindu mythology in numerous forms and names, but ultimately all these are different aspects and manifestations of one goddess. She is imagined to be terrifying and destructive when she has to be, but benevolent and nurturing when she needs to be.[74] While anthropomorphic icons of her, such as those showing her riding a lion and holding weapons, are common, the Hindu traditions use aniconic forms and geometric designs (yantra) to remember and revere what she symbolises.[75]

Worship and festivals

Durga is worshipped in Hindu temples across India and Nepal by Shakta Hindus. Her temples, worship and festivals are particularly popular in eastern and northeastern parts of Indian subcontinent during Durga puja, Dashain and Navaratri.[3][19][76][77]

Durga puja

Main article: Durga Puja
 
Durga festival images (clockwise from top): Durga Puja pandal with a Durga idol with 1 million hands standing on top a bull's head to symbolize her victory over Mahishasura in Kolkata, Dancing on Vijaya Dashami, women smearing each other with colour, and family get together for Dashain in Nepal.

As per the Markandeya Purana, Durga Puja can be performed either for 9 days or 4 days (last four in sequence). The four-day-long Durga Puja is a major annual festival in Bengal, Odisha, Assam, Jharkhand and Bihar.[3][19] It is scheduled per the Hindu luni-solar calendar in the month of Ashvina,[78] and typically falls in September or October. Since it is celebrated during Sharad (literally, season of weeds), it is called as Sharadiya Durga Puja or Akal-Bodhan to differentiate it from the one celebrated originally in spring. The festival is celebrated by communities by making special colourful images of Durga out of clay,[79] recitations of Devi Mahatmya text,[78] prayers and revelry for nine days, after which it is taken out in procession with singing and dancing, then immersed in water. The Durga puja is an occasion of major private and public festivities in the eastern and northeastern states of India.[3][80][81]

The day of Durga's victory is celebrated as Vijayadashami (Bijoya in Bengali), Dashain (Nepali) or Dussehra (in Hindi) – these words literally mean "the victory on the Tenth (day)".[82]

This festival is an old tradition of Hinduism, though it is unclear how and in which century the festival began. Surviving manuscripts from the 14th century provide guidelines for Durga puja, while historical records suggest royalty and wealthy families were sponsoring major Durga puja public festivities since at least the 16th century.[80] The 11th or 12th century Jainism text Yasatilaka by Somadeva mentions a festival and annual dates dedicated to a warrior goddess, celebrated by the king and his armed forces, and the description mirrors attributes of a Durga puja.[78]

The prominence of Durga puja increased during the British Raj in Bengal.[83] After the Hindu reformists identified Durga with India, she became an icon for the Indian independence movement.[citation needed] The city of Kolkata is famous for Durga puja.[84]

Dashain

In Nepal, the festival dedicated to Durga is called Dashain (sometimes spelled as Dasain), which literally means "the ten".[76] Dashain is the longest national holiday of Nepal, and is a public holiday in Sikkim and Bhutan. During Dashain, Durga is worshipped in ten forms (Shailaputri, Brahmacharini, Chandraghanta, Kushmanda, Skandamata, Katyayani, Kalaratri, Mahagauri, Mahakali and Durga) with one form for each day in Nepal. The festival includes animal sacrifice in some communities, as well as the purchase of new clothes and gift giving. Traditionally, the festival is celebrated over 15 days, the first nine-day are spent by the faithful by remembering Durga and her ideas, the tenth day marks Durga's victory over Mahisura, and the last five days celebrate the victory of good over evil.[76]

During the first nine days, nine aspects of Durga known as Navadurga are meditated upon, one by one during the nine-day festival by devout Hindus. Durga is occasionally worshiped as celibate goddess, but the Shaktism traditions includes the worship of Shiva along with Durga, who consider her as his consort, in addition to Lakshmi, Saraswati, Ganesha and Kartikeya, who are considered to be Durga's children by Shaktas.[85][86] Some Shaktas worship Durga's symbolism and presence as Mother Nature. In South India, especially Andhra Pradesh, Dussera Navaratri is also celebrated and the goddess is dressed each day as a different Devi, all considered equivalent but another aspect of Durga.

Other cultures

In Bangladesh, the four-day-long Sharadiya Durga Puja is the most important religious festival for the Hindus and celebrated across the country with Vijayadashami being a national holiday. In Sri Lanka, Durga in the form of Vaishnavi, bearing Vishnu's iconographic symbolism is celebrated. This tradition has been continued by Sri Lankan diaspora.[87]

Outside Hinduism

In Buddhism

 
The Buddhist goddess Palden Lhamo shares some attributes of Durga.[88]

According to scholars, over its history, Buddhist Tantric traditions have adopted several Hindu deities into its fold.[89][90][91] The Tantric traditions of Buddhism included Durga and developed the idea further.[92] In Japanese Buddhism, she appears as Butsu-mo (sometimes called Koti-sri).[93] In Tibet, the goddess Palden Lhamo is similar to the protective and fierce Durga.[88][94] Several aspects of Tārā are believed to have originated as a form of the goddess Durga, including her fierce guardian form.[95]

In Jainism

The Sacciya mata found in major medieval era Jain temples mirrors Durga, and she has been identified by Jainism scholars to be the same or sharing a more ancient common lineage.[96] In the Ellora Caves, the Jain temples feature Durga with her lion mount. However, she is not shown as killing the buffalo demon in the Jain cave, but she is presented as a peaceful deity.[97]

In Sikhism

See also: Chandi di Var
 
Mural of Durga crushing Mahikasur from the Guru Ram Rai Udasin Akhara located in Dehradun

Durga is exalted as the divine in Dasam Granth, a sacred text of Sikhism that is traditionally attributed to Guru Gobind Singh.[98] According to Eleanor Nesbitt, this view has been challenged by Sikhs who consider Sikhism to be monotheistic, who hold that a feminine form of the Supreme and a reverence for the Goddess is "unmistakably of Hindu character".[98]

Outside the Indian subcontinent

 
Goddess Durga in Southeast Asia, from left: 7th/8th century Cambodia, 10/11th century Vietnam, 8th/9th century Indonesia.

Archeological site excavations in Indonesia, particularly on the island of Java, have yielded numerous statues of Durga. These have been dated to be from 6th century onwards.[99] Of the numerous early to mid medieval era Hindu deity stone statues uncovered on Indonesian islands, at least 135 statues are of Durga.[100] In parts of Java, she is known as Loro Jonggrang (literally, "slender maiden").[101]

In Cambodia, during its era of Hindu kings, Durga was popular and numerous sculptures of her have been found. However, most differ from the Indian representation in one detail. The Cambodian Durga iconography shows her standing on top of the cut buffalo demon head.[102]

Durga statues have been discovered at stone temples and archaeological sites in Vietnam, likely related to Champa or Cham dynasty era.[103][104]

Influence

Durga as the mother goddess is the inspiration behind the song Vande Mataram, written by Bankim Chandra Chatterjee, during the Indian independence movement, later the official national song of India. Durga is present in Indian nationalism where Bharat Mata i.e. Mother India is viewed as a form of Durga. This is completely secular and keeping in line with the ancient ideology of Durga as Mother and protector to Indians. She is present in pop culture and blockbuster Bollywood movies like Jai Santoshi Maa. The Indian Army uses Hindustani phrases like "Durga Mata ki Jai!" and "Kaali Mata ki Jai!". Any woman who takes up a cause to fight for goodness and justice is said to have the spirit of Durga in her.[105][106]

Notes

  1. ^ It appears in Khila (appendix, supplementary) text to Rigveda 10.127, 4th Adhyaya, per J. Scheftelowitz.[25]
  2. ^ In the Shakta tradition of Hinduism, many of the stories about obstacles and battles have been considered metaphors for the divine and demonic within each human being, with liberation being the state of self-understanding whereby a virtuous nature and society emerging victorious over the vicious.[33]

References

  1. ^ "Dharm News Article by Punjab Kesari". Punjab Kesari (in Hindi). 9 April 2015. from the original on 1 October 2022. Retrieved 28 April 2022.
  2. ^ a b Robert S Ellwood & Gregory D Alles 2007, p. 126.
  3. ^ a b c d e Wendy Doniger 1999, p. 306.
  4. ^ Singh, Moirangthem Kirti (1998). "Recent Researches in Oriental Indological Studies: Including Meiteilogy". from the original on 19 August 2021. Retrieved 3 May 2021.
  5. ^ a b Encyclopedia Britannica 2015.
  6. ^ a b David R Kinsley 1989, pp. 3–4.
  7. ^ Charles Phillips, Michael Kerrigan & David Gould 2011, pp. 93–94.
  8. ^ a b Paul Reid-Bowen 2012, pp. 212–213.
  9. ^ Laura Amazzone 2012, pp. 3–5.
  10. ^ David R Kinsley 1989, pp. 3–5.
  11. ^ Laura Amazzone 2011, pp. 71–73.
  12. ^ Donald J LaRocca 1996, pp. 5–6.
  13. ^ Lynn Foulston & Stuart Abbott 2009, pp. 9–17.
  14. ^ June McDaniel 2004, pp. 215–216.
  15. ^ David Kinsley 1998, pp. 101–102.
  16. ^ Laura Amazzone 2012, p. xi.
  17. ^ Flood 1996, pp. 17, 153.
  18. ^ "Panch Dev Puja Worship". ABP (in Hindi). 17 November 2021. from the original on 1 October 2022. Retrieved 17 July 2022.
  19. ^ a b c d James G Lochtefeld 2002, p. 208.
  20. ^ Constance Jones & James D Ryan 2006, pp. 139–140, 308–309.
  21. ^ Laura Amazzone 2012, p. xxii.
  22. ^ a b c d e f Monier Monier Williams (1899), Sanskrit English Dictionary with Etymology, Oxford University Press, page 487
  23. ^ a b Alain Daniélou 1991, p. 21.
  24. ^ Maurice Bloomfield (1906), A Vedic concordance, Series editor: Charles Lanman, Harvard University Press, page 486;
    Example Sanskrit original: "अहन्निन्द्रो अदहदग्निरिन्दो पुरा दस्यून्मध्यंदिनादभीके । दुर्गे दुरोणे क्रत्वा न यातां पुरू सहस्रा शर्वा नि बर्हीत् ॥३॥ – Rigveda 4.28.8, Wikisource Archived 5 November 2018 at the Wayback Machine
  25. ^ J Scheftelowitz (1906). Indische Forschungen. Verlag von M & H Marcus. pp. 112 line 13a. from the original on 17 February 2017. Retrieved 15 February 2017.
  26. ^ David Kinsley 1998, pp. 95–96.
  27. ^ "Devi Atharvashirsha Stotram in Sanskrit". 11 February 2020. from the original on 4 August 2022. Retrieved 4 August 2022.
  28. ^ Cheever Mackenzie Brown 1998, p. 77 note 28.
  29. ^ Thomas B. Coburn 1991, pp. 13.
  30. ^ Thomas B. Coburn 2002, pp. 1–7.
  31. ^ Alain Daniélou 1991, p. 288.
  32. ^ June McDaniel 2004, pp. 215–219.
  33. ^ June McDaniel 2004, pp. 20–21, 217–219.
  34. ^ "Chant these powerful Durga Mantras to turn your life around for good". The Times of India. 9 August 2019. from the original on 11 November 2021. Retrieved 11 November 2021.
  35. ^ Hiltebeitel, Alf (1988). The Cult of Draupadi, Volume 2: On Hindu Ritual and the Goddess. University of Chicago Press. p. 386. ISBN 978-0-226-34048-7. from the original on 23 July 2021. Retrieved 1 October 2020.
  36. ^ Thapar, Valmik (1997). Land of the Tiger: A Natural History of the Indian Subcontinent. University of California Press. p. 15. ISBN 978-0-520-21470-5. from the original on 23 July 2021. Retrieved 1 October 2020.
  37. ^ a b June McDaniel 2004, p. 90.
  38. ^ a b Cheever Mackenzie Brown 1998, p. 26.
  39. ^ The Rig Veda/Mandala 10/Hymn 125 Archived 11 October 2016 at the Wayback Machine Ralph T.H. Griffith (Translator); for Sanskrit original see: ऋग्वेद: सूक्तं १०.१२५ Archived 11 October 2016 at the Wayback Machine
  40. ^ a b c Rachel Fell McDermott 2001, pp. 162–163.
  41. ^ Mundaka Upanishad, Robert Hume, The Thirteen Principal Upanishads, Oxford University Press, pp. 368–377 with verse 1.2.4
  42. ^ a b Rachel Fell McDermott 2001, p. 162.
  43. ^ Ludo Rocher 1986, pp. 168–172, 191–193.
  44. ^ C Mackenzie Brown 1990, pp. 44–45, 129, 247–248 with notes 57–60.
  45. ^ Douglas Renfrew Brooks 1992, pp. 76–80.
  46. ^ June McDaniel 2004, pp. 89–91.
  47. ^ Chitralekha Singh; Prem Nath (2001). Lakshmi. Crest Publishing House. p. 20. ISBN 9788124201732. from the original on 16 August 2021. Retrieved 16 November 2021.
  48. ^ Tracy Pintchman (21 June 2001). Seeking Mahadevi: Constructing the Identities of the Hindu Great Goddess. SUNY Press. p. 82. ISBN 9780791450079. from the original on 16 August 2021. Retrieved 16 November 2021.
  49. ^ Gupta, Sanjukta (2000). Laksmi Tantra. Motilal Banarsidass Publishe. ISBN 978-8120817357.
  50. ^ S. Rangachar (1991). Philosophy of Pancaratras. Sridevi Prakashana. p. 94. from the original on 1 October 2022. Retrieved 10 January 2022.
  51. ^ Upendra Nath Dhal (1978). Goddess Laksmi: Origin and Development. Oriental Publishers & Distributors. p. 195. from the original on 30 September 2021. Retrieved 18 January 2022. Like the Devi Māhātmya , the Lakşmi Tantra describes the individual incarnations of Lakşmi thus : During the reign of Svāyambhuva (Manu) for the destruction of the demon Mahisa, Mahālakṣmi appeared Mahişāmardini.
  52. ^ David Kinsley 1998, p. 104.
  53. ^ Aiyar, Indira S. (1997). Durga As Mahisasuramardini. Gyan Publishing House, 1997. p. 217. ISBN 9788121205108. from the original on 1 October 2022. Retrieved 2 January 2022.
  54. ^ June McDaniel 2004, p. 214.
  55. ^ Richard Salomon (1998). Indian Epigraphy: A Guide to the Study of Inscriptions in Sanskrit, Prakrit, and the Other Indo-Aryan Languages. Oxford University Press. pp. 200–201. ISBN 978-0-19-509984-3. from the original on 17 April 2017. Retrieved 16 April 2017.
  56. ^ Roa, Subba (April 1971). Tales of Durga. Amar Chitra Katha Private Limited. p. 25. ISBN 81-89999-35-4.
  57. ^ Kumar, Anu (30 November 2012). Mahishasura: The Buffalo Demon. Hachette India. ISBN 978-93-5009-538-6. from the original on 16 August 2021. Retrieved 1 October 2020.
  58. ^ Flueckiger, Joyce Burkhalter (23 July 2013). When the World Becomes Female: Guises of a South Indian Goddess. Indiana University Press. p. 133. ISBN 978-0-253-00960-9. from the original on 13 September 2022. Retrieved 13 September 2022.
  59. ^ Verma, Archana (18 January 2011). Performance and Culture: Narrative, Image and Enactment in India. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. p. 48. ISBN 978-1-4438-2832-1. from the original on 1 October 2022. Retrieved 1 October 2022.
  60. ^ Laura Amazzone 2012, pp. 4–5.
  61. ^ Chitrita Banerji 2006, pp. 3–5.
  62. ^ Donald J LaRocca 1996, pp. 5–7.
  63. ^ a b Linda Johnsen (2002). The Living Goddess: Reclaiming the Tradition of the Mother of the Universe. Yes International Publishers. pp. 83–84. ISBN 978-0-936663-28-9. from the original on 17 February 2017. Retrieved 15 February 2017.
  64. ^ Laura Amazzone 2012, pp. 4–9, 14–17.
  65. ^ Malcolm McLean 1998, pp. 60–65.
  66. ^ Alf Hiltebeitel; Kathleen M. Erndl (2000). Is the Goddess a Feminist?: The Politics of South Asian Goddesses. New York University Press. pp. 157–158. ISBN 978-0-8147-3619-7. from the original on 17 February 2017. Retrieved 15 February 2017.
  67. ^ Charles Russell Coulter & Patricia Turner 2013, p. 158.
  68. ^ Linda Johnsen (2002). The Living Goddess: Reclaiming the Tradition of the Mother of the Universe. Yes International Publishers. pp. 89–90. ISBN 978-0-936663-28-9. from the original on 17 February 2017. Retrieved 15 February 2017.
  69. ^ a b Alf Hiltebeitel; Kathleen M. Erndl (2000). Is the Goddess a Feminist?: The Politics of South Asian Goddesses. New York University Press. pp. 15–16. ISBN 978-0-8147-3619-7. from the original on 17 February 2017. Retrieved 15 February 2017.
  70. ^ David Kinsley 1998, pp. 95–105.
  71. ^ David Kinsley 1997, pp. 30–35, 60, 16–22, 149.
  72. ^ Isaeva 1993, p. 252.
  73. ^ Pintchman 2014, p. 82.
  74. ^ Patricia Monaghan 2011, pp. 73–74.
  75. ^ Patricia Monaghan 2011, pp. 73–78.
  76. ^ a b c J Gordon Melton (2011). Religious Celebrations: An Encyclopedia of Holidays, Festivals, Solemn Observances, and Spiritual Commemorations. ABC-CLIO. pp. 239–241. ISBN 978-1-59884-206-7. from the original on 17 February 2017. Retrieved 15 February 2017.
  77. ^ "Durga Puja – Hindu festival". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2015. from the original on 30 October 2020. Retrieved 18 February 2017.
  78. ^ a b c David Kinsley 1998, pp. 106–108.
  79. ^ David Kinsley 1997, pp. 18–19.
  80. ^ a b Rachel Fell McDermott 2001, pp. 172–174.
  81. ^ Lynn Foulston & Stuart Abbott 2009, pp. 162–169.
  82. ^ Esposito, John L.; Darrell J Fasching; Todd Vernon Lewis (2007). Religion & globalization: world religions in historical perspective. Oxford University Press. p. 341. ISBN 978-0-19-517695-7.
  83. ^ . Archived from the original on 28 December 2015. Retrieved 11 October 2013.
  84. ^ "Durga puja:আগমনীর ডাকে সেজে উঠেছে তিলোত্তমা শহরে এবার 'রক্তমাংসের দুর্গা' ভাইরাল ভিডিয়ো". The Bengali Chronicle (in Bengali). 6 August 2022. from the original on 9 August 2022. Retrieved 9 August 2022.
  85. ^ Bruce M. Sullivan (2001). The A to Z of Hinduism. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 72. ISBN 9780810840706. from the original on 15 April 2021. Retrieved 3 May 2021. Durga is usually regarded as a celibate goddess whose asceticism empowers her, but she may also be regarded as the consort and Sakti of Siva, depending on tradition.
  86. ^ David Kinsley 1998, p. 95.
  87. ^ Joanne Punzo Waghorne (2004). Diaspora of the Gods: Modern Hindu Temples in an Urban Middle-Class World. Oxford University Press. pp. 222–224. ISBN 978-0-19-803557-2. from the original on 17 February 2017. Retrieved 15 February 2017.
  88. ^ a b Miranda Eberle Shaw (2006). Buddhist Goddesses of India. Princeton University Press. pp. 240–241. ISBN 0-691-12758-1.
  89. ^ Wayman, Alex; The Buddhist Tantras light on Indo-Tibetan esotericism, Routledge, (2008), page 23.
  90. ^ Williams, Tribe and Wynne; Buddhist Thought: A Complete Introduction to the Indian Tradition, chapter 7
  91. ^ Hajime Nakamura (1980). Indian Buddhism: A Survey with Bibliographical Notes. Motilal Banarsidass. p. 315. ISBN 978-81-208-0272-8. from the original on 17 February 2017. Retrieved 15 February 2017.
  92. ^ Shoko Watanabe (1955), On Durga and Tantric Buddhism, Chizan Gakuho, number 18, pp. 36–44
  93. ^ Louis-Frédéric (1995). Buddhism. Flammarion. p. 174. ISBN 978-2-08-013558-2. from the original on 17 February 2017. Retrieved 15 February 2017.
  94. ^ Bernard Faure (2009). The Power of Denial: Buddhism, Purity, and Gender. Princeton University Press. p. 127. ISBN 978-1400825615. from the original on 7 December 2016. Retrieved 15 February 2017.
  95. ^ Mallar Ghosh (1980). Development of Buddhist Iconography in Eastern India. Munshiram Manoharlal. p. 17. ISBN 81-215-0208-X.
  96. ^ Lawrence A. Babb (1998). Ascetics and kings in a Jain ritual culture. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 146–147, 157. ISBN 978-81-208-1538-4. from the original on 17 February 2017. Retrieved 15 February 2017.
  97. ^ Lisa Owen (2012). Carving Devotion in the Jain Caves at Ellora. BRILL Academic. pp. 111–112. ISBN 978-90-04-20630-4. from the original on 17 February 2017. Retrieved 15 February 2017.
  98. ^ a b Eleanor Nesbitt (2016). Sikhism: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press. pp. 108–109. ISBN 978-0-19-106277-3. from the original on 26 January 2021. Retrieved 11 October 2020.
  99. ^ John N. Miksic (2007). Icons of Art: The Collections of the National Museum of Indonesia. BAB Pub. Indonesia. pp. 106, 224–238. ISBN 978-979-8926-25-9. from the original on 17 February 2017. Retrieved 15 February 2017.
  100. ^ Ann R Kinney; Marijke J Klokke; Lydia Kieven (2003). Worshiping Siva and Buddha: The Temple Art of East Java. University of Hawaii Press. pp. 131–145. ISBN 978-0-8248-2779-3. from the original on 25 November 2020. Retrieved 15 February 2017.
  101. ^ Roy E Jordaan; Koninklijk Instituut voor Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde (Netherlands) (1996). In praise of Prambanan: Dutch essays on the Loro Jonggrang temple complex. KITLV Press. pp. 147–149. ISBN 978-90-6718-105-1. from the original on 17 February 2017. Retrieved 16 February 2017.
  102. ^ Trudy Jacobsen (2008). Lost Goddesses: The Denial of Female Power in Cambodian History. Copenhagen: Nordic Institute of Asian Studies Press. pp. 20–21 with figure 2.2. ISBN 978-87-7694-001-0. from the original on 17 February 2017. Retrieved 15 February 2017.
  103. ^ Heidi Tan (2008). Vietnam: from myth to modernity. Singapore: Asian Civilisations Museum. pp. 56, 62–63. ISBN 978-981-07-0012-6. from the original on 17 February 2017. Retrieved 16 February 2017.
  104. ^ Catherine Noppe; Jean-François Hubert (2003). Art of Vietnam. Parkstone. p. 104. ISBN 978-1-85995-860-5. from the original on 17 February 2017. Retrieved 16 February 2017.
  105. ^ Sabyasachi Bhattacharya (2003). Vande Mataram, the Biography of a Song. Penguin. pp. 5, 90–99. ISBN 978-0-14-303055-3. from the original on 19 February 2017. Retrieved 18 February 2017.
  106. ^ Sumathi Ramaswamy (2009). The Goddess and the Nation: Mapping Mother India. Duke University Press. pp. 106–108. ISBN 978-0-8223-9153-1.

Bibliography

  • Laura Amazzone (2012). Goddess Durga and Sacred Female Power. University Press of America. ISBN 978-0-7618-5314-5. from the original on 17 March 2020. Retrieved 26 November 2015.
  • Laura Amazzone (2011). Patricia Monaghan (ed.). Goddesses in World Culture. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-0-313-35465-6. from the original on 17 February 2017. Retrieved 15 February 2017.
  • Chitrita Banerji (2006). The Hour of the Goddess: Memories of Women, Food, and Ritual in Bengal. Penguin Books India. ISBN 978-0-14-400142-2. from the original on 17 February 2017. Retrieved 15 February 2017.
  • Douglas Renfrew Brooks (1992). Auspicious Wisdom. State University of New York Press. ISBN 978-0-7914-1145-2. from the original on 27 June 2014. Retrieved 15 February 2017.
  • C Mackenzie Brown (1990). The Triumph of the Goddess: The Canonical Models and Theological Visions of the Devi-Bhagavata Purana. State University of New York Press. ISBN 978-0-7914-0364-8. from the original on 26 December 2019. Retrieved 15 February 2017.
  • Cheever Mackenzie Brown (1998). The Devi Gita: The Song of the Goddess: A Translation, Annotation, and Commentary. State University of New York Press. ISBN 978-0-7914-3939-5. from the original on 24 December 2019. Retrieved 15 February 2017.
  • Thomas B. Coburn (1991). Encountering the Goddess: A translation of the Devi-Mahatmya and a Study of Its Interpretation. State University of New York Press. ISBN 978-0-7914-0446-1. from the original on 5 February 2017. Retrieved 15 February 2017.
  • Thomas B. Coburn (2002). Devī Māhātmya, The Crystallization of the Goddess Tradition. South Asia Books. ISBN 81-208-0557-7. from the original on 9 December 2021. Retrieved 15 February 2017.
  • Parthasarathy, V. R. (2009). Devi: Goddesses in Indian Art and Literature. Bharatiya Kala Prakashan. ISBN 978-8-1809-0203-1. from the original on 1 October 2022. Retrieved 18 November 2020.
  • Charles Russell Coulter; Patricia Turner (2013). Encyclopedia of Ancient Deities. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-135-96397-2. from the original on 26 October 2021. Retrieved 15 February 2017.
  • Paul Reid-Bowen (2012). Denise Cush; Catherine Robinson; Michael York (eds.). Encyclopedia of Hinduism. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-135-18979-2. from the original on 24 December 2016. Retrieved 15 February 2017.
  • Alain Daniélou (1991). The Myths and Gods of India: The Classic Work on Hindu Polytheism from the Princeton Bollingen Series. Inner Traditions / Bear & Co. ISBN 978-0-89281-354-4.
  • Wendy Doniger (1999). Merriam-Webster's Encyclopedia of World Religions. Merriam-Webster. ISBN 978-0-87779-044-0.
  • Robert S Ellwood; Gregory D Alles (2007). The Encyclopedia of World Religions. Infobase Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4381-1038-7. from the original on 17 February 2017. Retrieved 15 February 2017.
  • Lynn Foulston; Stuart Abbott (2009). Hindu Goddesses: Beliefs and Practices. Sussex Academic Press. ISBN 978-1-902210-43-8.
  • Constance Jones; James D Ryan (2006). Encyclopedia of Hinduism. Infobase Publishing. ISBN 978-0-8160-7564-5. from the original on 23 March 2017. Retrieved 15 February 2017.
  • David R Kinsley (1989). The Goddesses' Mirror: Visions of the Divine from East and West. State University of New York Press. ISBN 978-0-88706-835-5. from the original on 17 February 2017. Retrieved 15 February 2017.
  • David Kinsley (1998) [First published 1986]. Hindu Goddesses: Visions of the Divine Feminine in the Hindu Religious Tradition. Motilal Banarsidass Publications. ISBN 978-81-208-0394-7. from the original on 28 October 2020. Retrieved 26 November 2015.
  • David Kinsley (1997). Tantric Visions of the Divine Feminine: The Ten Mahavidyas. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-91772-9.
  • Donald J LaRocca (1996). The Gods of War: Sacred Imagery and the Decoration of Arms and Armor. Metropolitan Museum of Art. ISBN 978-0-87099-779-2.
  • James G Lochtefeld (2002). The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism: A-M. The Rosen Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-8239-3179-8.
  • June McDaniel (2004). Offering Flowers, Feeding Skulls: Popular Goddess Worship in West Bengal. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-534713-5. from the original on 4 January 2017. Retrieved 26 November 2015.
  • Rachel Fell McDermott (2001). Mother of My Heart, Daughter of My Dreams: Kali and Uma in the Devotional Poetry of Bengal. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-803071-3. from the original on 17 February 2017. Retrieved 15 February 2017.
  • Flood, Gavin (1996). An Introduction to Hinduism. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-43878-0.
  • Malcolm McLean (1998). Devoted to the Goddess: The Life and Work of Ramprasad. State University of New York Press. ISBN 978-0-7914-3689-9. from the original on 17 February 2017. Retrieved 15 February 2017.
  • Patricia Monaghan (2011). Goddesses in World Culture. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-0-313-35465-6. from the original on 17 February 2017. Retrieved 15 February 2017.
  • Sree Padma (2014). Inventing and Reinventing the Goddess: Contemporary Iterations of Hindu Deities on the Move. Lexington Books. ISBN 978-0-7391-9002-9. from the original on 16 August 2021. Retrieved 15 February 2017.
  • Charles Phillips; Michael Kerrigan; David Gould (2011). Ancient India's Myths and Beliefs. The Rosen Publishing Group. ISBN 978-1-4488-5990-0. from the original on 17 February 2017. Retrieved 15 February 2017.
  • Ludo Rocher (1986). The Puranas. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. ISBN 978-3447025225.
  • Sen Ramprasad (1720–1781). Grace and Mercy in Her Wild Hair: Selected Poems to the Mother Goddess. Hohm Press. ISBN 0-934252-94-7.
  • Hillary Rodrigues (2003). Ritual Worship of the Great Goddess: The Liturgy of the Durga Puja with Interpretations. SUNY Press. ISBN 978-0-7914-8844-7. from the original on 8 November 2020. Retrieved 15 February 2017.
  • Brown, C. Mackenzie (1990). The Triumph of the Goddess: The Canonical Models and Theological Visions of the Devi-Bhagavata Purana. SUNY Press. ISBN 9780791403648. from the original on 26 December 2019. Retrieved 15 February 2017.
  • "Durga - Hindu mythology". Encyclopedia Britannica. 19 February 2015. from the original on 7 May 2017. Retrieved 15 February 2017.
  • Isaeva, N. V. (1993), Shankara and Indian Philosophy, SUNY Press, ISBN 978-0791412817, from the original on 14 January 2020, retrieved 18 October 2020
  • Pintchman, Tracy (2014), Seeking Mahadevi: Constructing the Identities of the Hindu Great Goddess, SUNY Press, ISBN 978-0791490495, from the original on 19 August 2020, retrieved 18 October 2020
  • Chiulli, M. C. Kalavati (2007), Hairakhandi Mantra & Bhajans, J. Amba Edizioni publishing house, ISBN 978-8886340465, from the original on 26 January 2021, retrieved 18 October 2020

External links

  •   Media related to Durga at Wikimedia Commons
  •   Quotations related to Durga at Wikiquote
  • Durga Battling the Buffalo Demon: Iconography, Carlos Museum, Emory University
  • , Arthur M. Sackler Gallery and Freer Gallery of Art, Smithsonian Institution
  • Overview Of World Religions – Devotion to Durga

April 26, 2023
durga, other, uses, disambiguation, mahisasuramardini, redirects, here, radio, programme, mahisasuramardini, radio, program, demus, redirects, here, surname, demus, surname, production, company, demus, productions, subdivision, ancient, greece, deme, sanskrit,. For other uses see Durga disambiguation Mahisasuramardini redirects here For the radio programme see Mahisasuramardini radio program Demus redirects here For the surname see Demus surname For the production company see Demus Productions For the subdivision in Ancient Greece see deme Durga Sanskrit द र ग IAST Durga is a major Hindu goddess worshipped as a principal aspect of the mother goddess Mahadevi She is associated with protection strength motherhood destruction and wars 5 6 7 DurgaMother Goddess Goddess of Strength and Protection18th century painting of Durga slaying the buffalo demon MahishasuraOther namesMahishasura Mardini Marikamba Bhavani Devi Maa Mata Rani Adi ShaktiDevanagariद र ग AffiliationMahadevi DeviAbodeManidvipaMantraOm Shree Durgayai Namah 1 WeaponChakra discus Shankha conch shell Trishula trident Gada mace Bow and Arrow Khanda sword and Shield Ghanta bell MountLion and Tiger 2 3 TextsDevi Bhagavata Purana Devi MahatmyaFestivalsDurga Puja Durga Ashtami Navaratri VijayadashamiPersonal informationSpouseShivaEquivalentsManipuri equivalentPanthoibi 4 Translations ofद र ग Durga Sanskritद र ग Durga Assameseদ র গ Durga Bengaliদ র গ Durga Gujaratiદ ર ગ Durga Hindiद र ग Durga Kannadaದ ರ ಗ Durga Malayalamദ ർഗ Durga Marathiद र ग Durga Nepaliद र ग Durga Odiaଦ ର ଗ Durga Punjabiਦ ਰਗ Durga Tamilத ர க க Dhurghghai Teluguద ర గ Durga Glossary of Hinduism termsDurga s legend centres around combating evils and demonic forces that threaten peace prosperity and dharma representing the power of good over evil 6 8 Durga is believed to unleash her divine wrath against the wicked for the liberation of the oppressed and entails destruction to empower creation 9 Durga is seen as a motherly figure and often depicted as a beautiful woman riding a lion or tiger with many arms each carrying a weapon and often defeating demons 3 10 11 12 She is widely worshipped by the followers of the goddess centric sect Shaktism and has importance in other denominations like Shaivism and Vaishnavism 8 13 The most important texts of Shaktism Devi Mahatmya and Devi Bhagavata Purana revere Devi the Goddess as the primordial creator of the universe and the Brahman ultimate truth and reality 14 15 16 She is one of the five equivalent deities in Panchayatana puja of the Smarta tradition of Hinduism 17 18 Durga has a significant following all over India Bangladesh Nepal and many other countries She is mostly worshipped after spring and autumn harvests especially during the festivals of Durga Puja Durga Ashtami Vijayadashami Deepavali and Navaratri 19 20 Contents 1 Etymology and nomenclature 2 History and texts 2 1 Origins 3 Legends 4 Attributes and iconography 5 Worship and festivals 5 1 Durga puja 5 2 Dashain 5 3 Other cultures 6 Outside Hinduism 6 1 In Buddhism 6 2 In Jainism 6 3 In Sikhism 7 Outside the Indian subcontinent 8 Influence 9 Notes 10 References 10 1 Bibliography 11 External linksEtymology and nomenclature Durga idol of Durga Puja 2nd October 2022 The word Durga द र ग literally means impassable 5 19 invincible unassailable 21 It is related to the word Durg द र ग which means fortress something difficult to defeat or pass According to Monier Monier Williams Durga is derived from the roots dur difficult and gam pass go through 22 According to Alain Danielou Durga means beyond defeat 23 The word Durga and related terms appear in the Vedic literature such as in the Rigveda hymns 4 28 5 34 8 27 8 47 8 93 and 10 127 and in sections 10 1 and 12 4 of the Atharvaveda 22 24 note 1 A deity named Durge appears in section 10 1 7 of the Taittiriya Aranyaka 22 While the Vedic literature uses the word Durga the description therein lacks the legendary details about her that is found in later Hindu literature 26 Importantly it is concluded that the Vedic Texts concluded Durga alone to be the Supreme and the Absolute facet of Brahman citation needed as stated in the Devi Atharvashirsha 27 यस य परतर न स त स ष द र ग प रक र त त २४ She who is renowned by the name Durga is the being superior to whom no one exists Devi Atharvashirhsa Upanishad 24 Hence Durga alone is concluded to be the supreme deity of the Vedas in Shaktism The word is also found in ancient post Vedic Sanskrit texts such as in section 2 451 of the Mahabharata and section 4 27 16 of the Ramayana 22 These usages are in different contexts For example Durg is the name of an Asura who had become invincible to gods and Durga is the goddess who intervenes and slays him Durga and its derivatives are found in sections 4 1 99 and 6 3 63 of the Ashtadhyayi by Paṇini the ancient Sanskrit grammarian and in the commentary of Nirukta by Yaska 22 Durga as a demon slaying goddess was likely well established by the time the classic Hindu text called Devi Mahatmya was composed which scholars variously estimate to between 400 and 600 CE 28 29 30 The Devi Mahatmya and other mythologies describe the nature of demonic forces symbolised by Mahishasura as shape shifting and adapting in nature form and strategy to create difficulties and achieve their evil ends while Durga calmly understands and counters the evil in order to achieve her solemn goals 31 32 note 2 There are many epithets for Durga in Shaktism and her nine appellations are Navadurga Shailaputri Brahmacharini Chandraghanta Kushmanda Skandamata Katyayini Kalaratri Mahagauri and Siddhidatri A list of 108 names of the goddess is recited in order to worship her and is popularly known as the Ashtottarshat Namavali of Goddess Durga Other meanings may include the one who cannot be accessed easily 22 the undefeatable goddess 23 One famous shloka states the definition and origin of the term Durga Durge durgati nashini meaning Durga is the one who destroys all distress or one who eliminates suffering 34 History and textsEvidence of Durga like images can probably be traced back to the Indus Valley civilisation According to Asko Parpola a cylindrical seal from Kalibangan shows a Durga like goddess of war who is associated with the tiger 35 36 Reverence for Devi the feminine nature of God first appears in the 10th Maṇḍala of Rig Veda one of the scriptures of Hinduism This hymn is also called the Devi Suktam hymn abridged 37 38 I am the Queen the gatherer up of treasures most thoughtful first of those who merit worship Thus gods have established me in many places with many homes to enter and abide in Through me alone all eat the food that feeds them each man who sees breathes hears the word outspoken They know it not yet I reside in the essence of the Universe Hear one and all the truth as I declare it I verily myself announce and utter the word that gods and men alike shall welcome I make the man I love exceedingly mighty make him nourished a sage and one who knows Brahman I bend the bow for Rudra that his arrow may strike and slay the hater of devotion I rouse and order battle for the people I created Earth and Heaven and reside as their Inner Controller On the world s summit I bring forth sky the Father my home is in the waters in the ocean as Mother Thence I pervade all existing creatures as their Inner Supreme Self and manifest them with my body I created all worlds at my will without any higher being and permeate and dwell within them The eternal and infinite consciousness is I it is my greatness dwelling in everything Devi Sukta Rigveda 10 125 3 10 125 8 37 38 39 Artwork depicting the Goddess Durga Slaying the Buffalo demon Mahishasura scene of Devi Mahatmya is found all over India Nepal and southeast Asia Clockwise from top 9th century Kashmir 13th century Karnataka 9th century Prambanan Indonesia 2nd century Uttar Pradesh Devi s epithets synonymous with Durga appear in Upanishadic literature such as Kali in verse 1 2 4 of the Mundaka Upanishad dated to about the 5th century BCE 40 This single mention describes Kali as terrible yet swift as thought very red and smoky coloured manifestation of the divine with a fire like flickering tongue before the text begins presenting its thesis that one must seek self knowledge and the knowledge of the eternal Brahman 41 Durga in her various forms appears as an independent deity in the Epics period of ancient India that is the centuries around the start of the common era 42 Both Yudhisthira and Arjuna characters of the Mahabharata invoke hymns to Durga 40 She appears in Harivamsa in the form of Vishnu s eulogy and in Pradyumna prayer 42 Various Puranas from the early to late 1st millennium CE dedicate chapters of inconsistent mythologies associated with Durga 40 Of these the Markandeya Purana and the Devi Bhagavata Purana are the most significant texts on Durga 43 44 The Devi Upanishad and other Shakta Upanishads mostly dated to have been composed in or after the 9th century present the philosophical and mystical speculations related to Durga as Devi and other epithets identifying her to be the same as the Brahman and Atman self soul 45 46 In the Narada Purana Durga is associated as a form of Lakshmi 47 In the Garuda Purana and the Vishnu Purana Lakshmi is considered Prakriti Mahalakshmi and is identified with three forms Sri Bhu and Durga 48 In Pancharatra texts such as the Lakshmi Tantra Lakshmi has Durga as one of her forms and acquires the name Durga after killing the demon Durgamasura 49 50 51 These texts identify Durga as Vishnu s maya 52 Origins The historian Ramaprasad Chanda stated in 1916 that Durga evolved over time in the Indian subcontinent A primitive form of Durga according to Chanda was the result of syncretism of a mountain goddess worshiped by the dwellers of the Himalaya and the Vindhyas a deity of the Abhiras conceptualised as a war goddess In the Virata Parvan stuti and Vaishnava texts the Goddess is called the Mahamaya or the Yoganidra of Vishnu These further points her Abhira or Gopa origins 53 Durga then transformed into Kali as the personification of the all destroying time while aspects of her emerged as the primordial energy Adya Sakti integrated into the samsara cycle of rebirths concept and this idea was built on the foundation of the Vedic religion mythology and philosophy 54 There are total of nine avatars of Goddess Durga in Hinduism Epigraphical evidence indicates that regardless of her origins Durga is an ancient goddess The 6th century CE inscriptions in early Siddhamatrika script such as at the Nagarjuni hill cave during the Maukhari era already mention the legend of her victory over Mahishasura buffalo hybrid demon 55 Legends Durga in Combat with the Bull Mahishasura 19th century painting The most popular legend associated with the goddess is of her killing of Mahishasura Mahishasura was a half buffalo demon who did severe penance in order to please Brahma the creator After several years Brahma pleased with his devotion appeared before him The demon opened his eyes and asked the god for immortality Brahma refused stating that all must die one day Mahishasura then thought for a while and asked a boon that only a woman could be able to kill him Brahma granted the boon and disappeared Mahishasura started to torture innocent people He captured Svarga and was not in any kind of fear as he thought women to be powerless and weak The devas were worried and they went to Trimurti The Trimurti combined their power and gave a physical form to the sum of their divine energy Adi Shakti a warrior woman with many arms Himavan the personification of the Himalayas gifted a lion as her mount Durga on her lion appeared before Mahishasura where the demon took on different forms and attacked the goddess Each time Durga would destroy his forms At last Durga slew Mahishasura with her trident when he was transforming as a buffalo demon 56 57 According to Vaishnava tradition Durga is among the various epithets and avatars of Yogamaya the personification of the illusory power of Vishnu Vishnu offers Durga the task of transferring the seventh child of Devaki into the womb of Rohini as well as being born on earth as the infant daughter of Yashoda and Nanda so that she could be swapped with Krishna When Kamsa attempted to slay her she manifested her true form of an eighteen armed goddess wearing a garland of lemons The goddess announced that Kamsa s slayer had already been born before vanishing 58 Durga is often conceptualised in this role as a sister of Vishnu 59 Attributes and iconography Left Durga as buffalo demon slayer from a 6th century Aihole Hindu temple Karnataka Right in Mahabalipuram Tamil Nadu Durga is a warrior goddess and she is depicted to express her martial skills Her iconography typically resonates with these attributes where she rides a lion or a tiger 2 has between eight and eighteen hands each holding a weapon to destroy and create 60 61 She is often shown in the midst of her war with Mahishasura the buffalo demon at the time she victoriously kills the demonic force Her icon shows her in action yet her face is calm and serene 62 63 In Hindu arts this tranquil attribute of Durga s face is traditionally derived from the belief that she is protective and violent not because of her hatred egotism or getting pleasure in violence but because she acts out of necessity for the love of the good for liberation of those who depend on her and a mark of the beginning of soul s journey to creative freedom 63 64 65 Durga killing Mahishasura in a Durga Puja celebration in Bengal Durga traditionally holds the weapons of various male gods of Hindu mythology which they give her to fight the evil forces because they feel that she is shakti energy power 66 These include the chakra conch bow arrow sword javelin trishula shield and a noose 67 These weapons are considered symbolic by Shakta Hindus representing self discipline selfless service to others self examination prayer devotion remembering her mantras cheerfulness and meditation Durga herself is viewed as the Self within and the divine mother of all creation 68 She has been revered by warriors blessing their new weapons 69 Durga iconography has been flexible in the Hindu traditions where for example some intellectuals place a pen or other writing implements in her hand since they consider their stylus as their weapon 69 Archeological discoveries suggest that these iconographic features of Durga became common throughout India by about the 4th century CE states David Kinsley a professor of religious studies specialising on Hindu goddesses 70 Durga iconography in some temples appears as part of Mahavidyas or Saptamatrkas seven mothers considered forms of Durga Her icons in major Hindu temples such as in Varanasi include relief artworks that show scenes from the Devi Mahatmya 71 In Vaishnavism Durga and her mount of a lion is considered one of the three aspects or forms of Goddess Lakshmi the other two being Sri and Bhu in place of Niladevi 72 According to professor Tracy Pintchman When the Lord Vishnu created the gunas of prakriti there arose Lakshmi in her three forms Sri Bhu and Durga Sri consisted of sattva Bhu as rajas and Durga as tamas 73 Durga appears in Hindu mythology in numerous forms and names but ultimately all these are different aspects and manifestations of one goddess She is imagined to be terrifying and destructive when she has to be but benevolent and nurturing when she needs to be 74 While anthropomorphic icons of her such as those showing her riding a lion and holding weapons are common the Hindu traditions use aniconic forms and geometric designs yantra to remember and revere what she symbolises 75 Worship and festivalsDurga is worshipped in Hindu temples across India and Nepal by Shakta Hindus Her temples worship and festivals are particularly popular in eastern and northeastern parts of Indian subcontinent during Durga puja Dashain and Navaratri 3 19 76 77 Durga puja Main article Durga Puja Durga festival images clockwise from top Durga Puja pandal with a Durga idol with 1 million hands standing on top a bull s head to symbolize her victory over Mahishasura in Kolkata Dancing on Vijaya Dashami women smearing each other with colour and family get together for Dashain in Nepal As per the Markandeya Purana Durga Puja can be performed either for 9 days or 4 days last four in sequence The four day long Durga Puja is a major annual festival in Bengal Odisha Assam Jharkhand and Bihar 3 19 It is scheduled per the Hindu luni solar calendar in the month of Ashvina 78 and typically falls in September or October Since it is celebrated during Sharad literally season of weeds it is called as Sharadiya Durga Puja or Akal Bodhan to differentiate it from the one celebrated originally in spring The festival is celebrated by communities by making special colourful images of Durga out of clay 79 recitations of Devi Mahatmya text 78 prayers and revelry for nine days after which it is taken out in procession with singing and dancing then immersed in water The Durga puja is an occasion of major private and public festivities in the eastern and northeastern states of India 3 80 81 The day of Durga s victory is celebrated as Vijayadashami Bijoya in Bengali Dashain Nepali or Dussehra in Hindi these words literally mean the victory on the Tenth day 82 This festival is an old tradition of Hinduism though it is unclear how and in which century the festival began Surviving manuscripts from the 14th century provide guidelines for Durga puja while historical records suggest royalty and wealthy families were sponsoring major Durga puja public festivities since at least the 16th century 80 The 11th or 12th century Jainism text Yasatilaka by Somadeva mentions a festival and annual dates dedicated to a warrior goddess celebrated by the king and his armed forces and the description mirrors attributes of a Durga puja 78 The prominence of Durga puja increased during the British Raj in Bengal 83 After the Hindu reformists identified Durga with India she became an icon for the Indian independence movement citation needed The city of Kolkata is famous for Durga puja 84 Dashain In Nepal the festival dedicated to Durga is called Dashain sometimes spelled as Dasain which literally means the ten 76 Dashain is the longest national holiday of Nepal and is a public holiday in Sikkim and Bhutan During Dashain Durga is worshipped in ten forms Shailaputri Brahmacharini Chandraghanta Kushmanda Skandamata Katyayani Kalaratri Mahagauri Mahakali and Durga with one form for each day in Nepal The festival includes animal sacrifice in some communities as well as the purchase of new clothes and gift giving Traditionally the festival is celebrated over 15 days the first nine day are spent by the faithful by remembering Durga and her ideas the tenth day marks Durga s victory over Mahisura and the last five days celebrate the victory of good over evil 76 During the first nine days nine aspects of Durga known as Navadurga are meditated upon one by one during the nine day festival by devout Hindus Durga is occasionally worshiped as celibate goddess but the Shaktism traditions includes the worship of Shiva along with Durga who consider her as his consort in addition to Lakshmi Saraswati Ganesha and Kartikeya who are considered to be Durga s children by Shaktas 85 86 Some Shaktas worship Durga s symbolism and presence as Mother Nature In South India especially Andhra Pradesh Dussera Navaratri is also celebrated and the goddess is dressed each day as a different Devi all considered equivalent but another aspect of Durga Other cultures In Bangladesh the four day long Sharadiya Durga Puja is the most important religious festival for the Hindus and celebrated across the country with Vijayadashami being a national holiday In Sri Lanka Durga in the form of Vaishnavi bearing Vishnu s iconographic symbolism is celebrated This tradition has been continued by Sri Lankan diaspora 87 Outside HinduismIn Buddhism The Buddhist goddess Palden Lhamo shares some attributes of Durga 88 According to scholars over its history Buddhist Tantric traditions have adopted several Hindu deities into its fold 89 90 91 The Tantric traditions of Buddhism included Durga and developed the idea further 92 In Japanese Buddhism she appears as Butsu mo sometimes called Koti sri 93 In Tibet the goddess Palden Lhamo is similar to the protective and fierce Durga 88 94 Several aspects of Tara are believed to have originated as a form of the goddess Durga including her fierce guardian form 95 In Jainism The Sacciya mata found in major medieval era Jain temples mirrors Durga and she has been identified by Jainism scholars to be the same or sharing a more ancient common lineage 96 In the Ellora Caves the Jain temples feature Durga with her lion mount However she is not shown as killing the buffalo demon in the Jain cave but she is presented as a peaceful deity 97 In Sikhism See also Chandi di Var Mural of Durga crushing Mahikasur from the Guru Ram Rai Udasin Akhara located in Dehradun Durga is exalted as the divine in Dasam Granth a sacred text of Sikhism that is traditionally attributed to Guru Gobind Singh 98 According to Eleanor Nesbitt this view has been challenged by Sikhs who consider Sikhism to be monotheistic who hold that a feminine form of the Supreme and a reverence for the Goddess is unmistakably of Hindu character 98 Outside the Indian subcontinent Goddess Durga in Southeast Asia from left 7th 8th century Cambodia 10 11th century Vietnam 8th 9th century Indonesia Archeological site excavations in Indonesia particularly on the island of Java have yielded numerous statues of Durga These have been dated to be from 6th century onwards 99 Of the numerous early to mid medieval era Hindu deity stone statues uncovered on Indonesian islands at least 135 statues are of Durga 100 In parts of Java she is known as Loro Jonggrang literally slender maiden 101 In Cambodia during its era of Hindu kings Durga was popular and numerous sculptures of her have been found However most differ from the Indian representation in one detail The Cambodian Durga iconography shows her standing on top of the cut buffalo demon head 102 Durga statues have been discovered at stone temples and archaeological sites in Vietnam likely related to Champa or Cham dynasty era 103 104 InfluenceDurga as the mother goddess is the inspiration behind the song Vande Mataram written by Bankim Chandra Chatterjee during the Indian independence movement later the official national song of India Durga is present in Indian nationalism where Bharat Mata i e Mother India is viewed as a form of Durga This is completely secular and keeping in line with the ancient ideology of Durga as Mother and protector to Indians She is present in pop culture and blockbuster Bollywood movies like Jai Santoshi Maa The Indian Army uses Hindustani phrases like Durga Mata ki Jai and Kaali Mata ki Jai Any woman who takes up a cause to fight for goodness and justice is said to have the spirit of Durga in her 105 106 Notes It appears in Khila appendix supplementary text to Rigveda 10 127 4th Adhyaya per J Scheftelowitz 25 In the Shakta tradition of Hinduism many of the stories about obstacles and battles have been considered metaphors for the divine and demonic within each human being with liberation being the state of self understanding whereby a virtuous nature and society emerging victorious over the vicious 33 References Dharm News Article by Punjab Kesari Punjab Kesari in Hindi 9 April 2015 Archived from the original on 1 October 2022 Retrieved 28 April 2022 a b Robert S Ellwood amp Gregory D Alles 2007 p 126 a b c d e Wendy Doniger 1999 p 306 Singh Moirangthem Kirti 1998 Recent Researches in Oriental Indological Studies Including Meiteilogy Archived from the original on 19 August 2021 Retrieved 3 May 2021 a b Encyclopedia Britannica 2015 a b David R Kinsley 1989 pp 3 4 Charles Phillips Michael Kerrigan amp David Gould 2011 pp 93 94 a b Paul Reid Bowen 2012 pp 212 213 Laura Amazzone 2012 pp 3 5 David R Kinsley 1989 pp 3 5 Laura Amazzone 2011 pp 71 73 Donald J LaRocca 1996 pp 5 6 Lynn Foulston amp Stuart Abbott 2009 pp 9 17 June McDaniel 2004 pp 215 216 David Kinsley 1998 pp 101 102 Laura Amazzone 2012 p xi Flood 1996 pp 17 153 Panch Dev Puja Worship ABP in Hindi 17 November 2021 Archived from the original on 1 October 2022 Retrieved 17 July 2022 a b c d James G Lochtefeld 2002 p 208 Constance Jones amp James D Ryan 2006 pp 139 140 308 309 Laura Amazzone 2012 p xxii a b c d e f Monier Monier Williams 1899 Sanskrit English Dictionary with Etymology Oxford University Press page 487 a b Alain Danielou 1991 p 21 Maurice Bloomfield 1906 A Vedic concordance Series editor Charles Lanman Harvard University Press page 486 Example Sanskrit original अहन न न द र अदहदग न र न द प र दस य न मध य द न दभ क द र ग द र ण क रत व न य त प र सहस र शर व न बर ह त ३ Rigveda 4 28 8 Wikisource Archived 5 November 2018 at the Wayback Machine J Scheftelowitz 1906 Indische Forschungen Verlag von M amp H Marcus pp 112 line 13a Archived from the original on 17 February 2017 Retrieved 15 February 2017 David Kinsley 1998 pp 95 96 Devi Atharvashirsha Stotram in Sanskrit 11 February 2020 Archived from the original on 4 August 2022 Retrieved 4 August 2022 Cheever Mackenzie Brown 1998 p 77 note 28 Thomas B Coburn 1991 pp 13 Thomas B Coburn 2002 pp 1 7 Alain Danielou 1991 p 288 June McDaniel 2004 pp 215 219 June McDaniel 2004 pp 20 21 217 219 Chant these powerful Durga Mantras to turn your life around for good The Times of India 9 August 2019 Archived from the original on 11 November 2021 Retrieved 11 November 2021 Hiltebeitel Alf 1988 The Cult of Draupadi Volume 2 On Hindu Ritual and the Goddess University of Chicago Press p 386 ISBN 978 0 226 34048 7 Archived from the original on 23 July 2021 Retrieved 1 October 2020 Thapar Valmik 1997 Land of the Tiger A Natural History of the Indian Subcontinent University of California Press p 15 ISBN 978 0 520 21470 5 Archived from the original on 23 July 2021 Retrieved 1 October 2020 a b June McDaniel 2004 p 90 a b Cheever Mackenzie Brown 1998 p 26 The Rig Veda Mandala 10 Hymn 125 Archived 11 October 2016 at the Wayback Machine Ralph T H Griffith Translator for Sanskrit original see ऋग व द स क त १० १२५ Archived 11 October 2016 at the Wayback Machine a b c Rachel Fell McDermott 2001 pp 162 163 Mundaka Upanishad Robert Hume The Thirteen Principal Upanishads Oxford University Press pp 368 377 with verse 1 2 4 a b Rachel Fell McDermott 2001 p 162 Ludo Rocher 1986 pp 168 172 191 193 C Mackenzie Brown 1990 pp 44 45 129 247 248 with notes 57 60 Douglas Renfrew Brooks 1992 pp 76 80 June McDaniel 2004 pp 89 91 Chitralekha Singh Prem Nath 2001 Lakshmi Crest Publishing House p 20 ISBN 9788124201732 Archived from the original on 16 August 2021 Retrieved 16 November 2021 Tracy Pintchman 21 June 2001 Seeking Mahadevi Constructing the Identities of the Hindu Great Goddess SUNY Press p 82 ISBN 9780791450079 Archived from the original on 16 August 2021 Retrieved 16 November 2021 Gupta Sanjukta 2000 Laksmi Tantra Motilal Banarsidass Publishe ISBN 978 8120817357 S Rangachar 1991 Philosophy of Pancaratras Sridevi Prakashana p 94 Archived from the original on 1 October 2022 Retrieved 10 January 2022 Upendra Nath Dhal 1978 Goddess Laksmi Origin and Development Oriental Publishers amp Distributors p 195 Archived from the original on 30 September 2021 Retrieved 18 January 2022 Like the Devi Mahatmya the Laksmi Tantra describes the individual incarnations of Laksmi thus During the reign of Svayambhuva Manu for the destruction of the demon Mahisa Mahalakṣmi appeared Mahisamardini David Kinsley 1998 p 104 Aiyar Indira S 1997 Durga As Mahisasuramardini Gyan Publishing House 1997 p 217 ISBN 9788121205108 Archived from the original on 1 October 2022 Retrieved 2 January 2022 June McDaniel 2004 p 214 Richard Salomon 1998 Indian Epigraphy A Guide to the Study of Inscriptions in Sanskrit Prakrit and the Other Indo Aryan Languages Oxford University Press pp 200 201 ISBN 978 0 19 509984 3 Archived from the original on 17 April 2017 Retrieved 16 April 2017 Roa Subba April 1971 Tales of Durga Amar Chitra Katha Private Limited p 25 ISBN 81 89999 35 4 Kumar Anu 30 November 2012 Mahishasura The Buffalo Demon Hachette India ISBN 978 93 5009 538 6 Archived from the original on 16 August 2021 Retrieved 1 October 2020 Flueckiger Joyce Burkhalter 23 July 2013 When the World Becomes Female Guises of a South Indian Goddess Indiana University Press p 133 ISBN 978 0 253 00960 9 Archived from the original on 13 September 2022 Retrieved 13 September 2022 Verma Archana 18 January 2011 Performance and Culture Narrative Image and Enactment in India Cambridge Scholars Publishing p 48 ISBN 978 1 4438 2832 1 Archived from the original on 1 October 2022 Retrieved 1 October 2022 Laura Amazzone 2012 pp 4 5 Chitrita Banerji 2006 pp 3 5 Donald J LaRocca 1996 pp 5 7 a b Linda Johnsen 2002 The Living Goddess Reclaiming the Tradition of the Mother of the Universe Yes International Publishers pp 83 84 ISBN 978 0 936663 28 9 Archived from the original on 17 February 2017 Retrieved 15 February 2017 Laura Amazzone 2012 pp 4 9 14 17 Malcolm McLean 1998 pp 60 65 Alf Hiltebeitel Kathleen M Erndl 2000 Is the Goddess a Feminist The Politics of South Asian Goddesses New York University Press pp 157 158 ISBN 978 0 8147 3619 7 Archived from the original on 17 February 2017 Retrieved 15 February 2017 Charles Russell Coulter amp Patricia Turner 2013 p 158 Linda Johnsen 2002 The Living Goddess Reclaiming the Tradition of the Mother of the Universe Yes International Publishers pp 89 90 ISBN 978 0 936663 28 9 Archived from the original on 17 February 2017 Retrieved 15 February 2017 a b Alf Hiltebeitel Kathleen M Erndl 2000 Is the Goddess a Feminist The Politics of South Asian Goddesses New York University Press pp 15 16 ISBN 978 0 8147 3619 7 Archived from the original on 17 February 2017 Retrieved 15 February 2017 David Kinsley 1998 pp 95 105 David Kinsley 1997 pp 30 35 60 16 22 149 Isaeva 1993 p 252 Pintchman 2014 p 82 Patricia Monaghan 2011 pp 73 74 Patricia Monaghan 2011 pp 73 78 a b c J Gordon Melton 2011 Religious Celebrations An Encyclopedia of Holidays Festivals Solemn Observances and Spiritual Commemorations ABC CLIO pp 239 241 ISBN 978 1 59884 206 7 Archived from the original on 17 February 2017 Retrieved 15 February 2017 Durga Puja Hindu festival Encyclopedia Britannica 2015 Archived from the original on 30 October 2020 Retrieved 18 February 2017 a b c David Kinsley 1998 pp 106 108 David Kinsley 1997 pp 18 19 a b Rachel Fell McDermott 2001 pp 172 174 Lynn Foulston amp Stuart Abbott 2009 pp 162 169 Esposito John L Darrell J Fasching Todd Vernon Lewis 2007 Religion amp globalization world religions in historical perspective Oxford University Press p 341 ISBN 978 0 19 517695 7 Article on Durga Puja Archived from the original on 28 December 2015 Retrieved 11 October 2013 Durga puja আগমন র ড ক স জ উঠ ছ ত ল ত তম শহর এব র রক তম স র দ র গ ভ ইর ল ভ ড য The Bengali Chronicle in Bengali 6 August 2022 Archived from the original on 9 August 2022 Retrieved 9 August 2022 Bruce M Sullivan 2001 The A to Z of Hinduism Rowman amp Littlefield p 72 ISBN 9780810840706 Archived from the original on 15 April 2021 Retrieved 3 May 2021 Durga is usually regarded as a celibate goddess whose asceticism empowers her but she may also be regarded as the consort and Sakti of Siva depending on tradition David Kinsley 1998 p 95 Joanne Punzo Waghorne 2004 Diaspora of the Gods Modern Hindu Temples in an Urban Middle Class World Oxford University Press pp 222 224 ISBN 978 0 19 803557 2 Archived from the original on 17 February 2017 Retrieved 15 February 2017 a b Miranda Eberle Shaw 2006 Buddhist Goddesses of India Princeton University Press pp 240 241 ISBN 0 691 12758 1 Wayman Alex The Buddhist Tantras light on Indo Tibetan esotericism Routledge 2008 page 23 Williams Tribe and Wynne Buddhist Thought A Complete Introduction to the Indian Tradition chapter 7 Hajime Nakamura 1980 Indian Buddhism A Survey with Bibliographical Notes Motilal Banarsidass p 315 ISBN 978 81 208 0272 8 Archived from the original on 17 February 2017 Retrieved 15 February 2017 Shoko Watanabe 1955 On Durga and Tantric Buddhism Chizan Gakuho number 18 pp 36 44 Louis Frederic 1995 Buddhism Flammarion p 174 ISBN 978 2 08 013558 2 Archived from the original on 17 February 2017 Retrieved 15 February 2017 Bernard Faure 2009 The Power of Denial Buddhism Purity and Gender Princeton University Press p 127 ISBN 978 1400825615 Archived from the original on 7 December 2016 Retrieved 15 February 2017 Mallar Ghosh 1980 Development of Buddhist Iconography in Eastern India Munshiram Manoharlal p 17 ISBN 81 215 0208 X Lawrence A Babb 1998 Ascetics and kings in a Jain ritual culture Motilal Banarsidass pp 146 147 157 ISBN 978 81 208 1538 4 Archived from the original on 17 February 2017 Retrieved 15 February 2017 Lisa Owen 2012 Carving Devotion in the Jain Caves at Ellora BRILL Academic pp 111 112 ISBN 978 90 04 20630 4 Archived from the original on 17 February 2017 Retrieved 15 February 2017 a b Eleanor Nesbitt 2016 Sikhism A Very Short Introduction Oxford University Press pp 108 109 ISBN 978 0 19 106277 3 Archived from the original on 26 January 2021 Retrieved 11 October 2020 John N Miksic 2007 Icons of Art The Collections of the National Museum of Indonesia BAB Pub Indonesia pp 106 224 238 ISBN 978 979 8926 25 9 Archived from the original on 17 February 2017 Retrieved 15 February 2017 Ann R Kinney Marijke J Klokke Lydia Kieven 2003 Worshiping Siva and Buddha The Temple Art of East Java University of Hawaii Press pp 131 145 ISBN 978 0 8248 2779 3 Archived from the original on 25 November 2020 Retrieved 15 February 2017 Roy E Jordaan Koninklijk Instituut voor Taal Land en Volkenkunde Netherlands 1996 In praise of Prambanan Dutch essays on the Loro Jonggrang temple complex KITLV Press pp 147 149 ISBN 978 90 6718 105 1 Archived from the original on 17 February 2017 Retrieved 16 February 2017 Trudy Jacobsen 2008 Lost Goddesses The Denial of Female Power in Cambodian History Copenhagen Nordic Institute of Asian Studies Press pp 20 21 with figure 2 2 ISBN 978 87 7694 001 0 Archived from the original on 17 February 2017 Retrieved 15 February 2017 Heidi Tan 2008 Vietnam from myth to modernity Singapore Asian Civilisations Museum pp 56 62 63 ISBN 978 981 07 0012 6 Archived from the original on 17 February 2017 Retrieved 16 February 2017 Catherine Noppe Jean Francois Hubert 2003 Art of Vietnam Parkstone p 104 ISBN 978 1 85995 860 5 Archived from the original on 17 February 2017 Retrieved 16 February 2017 Sabyasachi Bhattacharya 2003 Vande Mataram the Biography of a Song Penguin pp 5 90 99 ISBN 978 0 14 303055 3 Archived from the original on 19 February 2017 Retrieved 18 February 2017 Sumathi Ramaswamy 2009 The Goddess and the Nation Mapping Mother India Duke University Press pp 106 108 ISBN 978 0 8223 9153 1 Bibliography Laura Amazzone 2012 Goddess Durga and Sacred Female Power University Press of America ISBN 978 0 7618 5314 5 Archived from the original on 17 March 2020 Retrieved 26 November 2015 Laura Amazzone 2011 Patricia Monaghan ed Goddesses in World Culture ABC CLIO ISBN 978 0 313 35465 6 Archived from the original on 17 February 2017 Retrieved 15 February 2017 Chitrita Banerji 2006 The Hour of the Goddess Memories of Women Food and Ritual in Bengal Penguin Books India ISBN 978 0 14 400142 2 Archived from the original on 17 February 2017 Retrieved 15 February 2017 Douglas Renfrew Brooks 1992 Auspicious Wisdom State University of New York Press ISBN 978 0 7914 1145 2 Archived from the original on 27 June 2014 Retrieved 15 February 2017 C Mackenzie Brown 1990 The Triumph of the Goddess The Canonical Models and Theological Visions of the Devi Bhagavata Purana State University of New York Press ISBN 978 0 7914 0364 8 Archived from the original on 26 December 2019 Retrieved 15 February 2017 Cheever Mackenzie Brown 1998 The Devi Gita The Song of the Goddess A Translation Annotation and Commentary State University of New York Press ISBN 978 0 7914 3939 5 Archived from the original on 24 December 2019 Retrieved 15 February 2017 Thomas B Coburn 1991 Encountering the Goddess A translation of the Devi Mahatmya and a Study of Its Interpretation State University of New York Press ISBN 978 0 7914 0446 1 Archived from the original on 5 February 2017 Retrieved 15 February 2017 Thomas B Coburn 2002 Devi Mahatmya The Crystallization of the Goddess Tradition South Asia Books ISBN 81 208 0557 7 Archived from the original on 9 December 2021 Retrieved 15 February 2017 Parthasarathy V R 2009 Devi Goddesses in Indian Art and Literature Bharatiya Kala Prakashan ISBN 978 8 1809 0203 1 Archived from the original on 1 October 2022 Retrieved 18 November 2020 Charles Russell Coulter Patricia Turner 2013 Encyclopedia of Ancient Deities Routledge ISBN 978 1 135 96397 2 Archived from the original on 26 October 2021 Retrieved 15 February 2017 Paul Reid Bowen 2012 Denise Cush Catherine Robinson Michael York eds Encyclopedia of Hinduism Routledge ISBN 978 1 135 18979 2 Archived from the original on 24 December 2016 Retrieved 15 February 2017 Alain Danielou 1991 The Myths and Gods of India The Classic Work on Hindu Polytheism from the Princeton Bollingen Series Inner Traditions Bear amp Co ISBN 978 0 89281 354 4 Wendy Doniger 1999 Merriam Webster s Encyclopedia of World Religions Merriam Webster ISBN 978 0 87779 044 0 Robert S Ellwood Gregory D Alles 2007 The Encyclopedia of World Religions Infobase Publishing ISBN 978 1 4381 1038 7 Archived from the original on 17 February 2017 Retrieved 15 February 2017 Lynn Foulston Stuart Abbott 2009 Hindu Goddesses Beliefs and Practices Sussex Academic Press ISBN 978 1 902210 43 8 Constance Jones James D Ryan 2006 Encyclopedia of Hinduism Infobase Publishing ISBN 978 0 8160 7564 5 Archived from the original on 23 March 2017 Retrieved 15 February 2017 David R Kinsley 1989 The Goddesses Mirror Visions of the Divine from East and West State University of New York Press ISBN 978 0 88706 835 5 Archived from the original on 17 February 2017 Retrieved 15 February 2017 David Kinsley 1998 First published 1986 Hindu Goddesses Visions of the Divine Feminine in the Hindu Religious Tradition Motilal Banarsidass Publications ISBN 978 81 208 0394 7 Archived from the original on 28 October 2020 Retrieved 26 November 2015 David Kinsley 1997 Tantric Visions of the Divine Feminine The Ten Mahavidyas University of California Press ISBN 978 0 520 91772 9 Donald J LaRocca 1996 The Gods of War Sacred Imagery and the Decoration of Arms and Armor Metropolitan Museum of Art ISBN 978 0 87099 779 2 James G Lochtefeld 2002 The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism A M The Rosen Publishing Group ISBN 978 0 8239 3179 8 June McDaniel 2004 Offering Flowers Feeding Skulls Popular Goddess Worship in West Bengal Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 534713 5 Archived from the original on 4 January 2017 Retrieved 26 November 2015 Rachel Fell McDermott 2001 Mother of My Heart Daughter of My Dreams Kali and Uma in the Devotional Poetry of Bengal Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 803071 3 Archived from the original on 17 February 2017 Retrieved 15 February 2017 Flood Gavin 1996 An Introduction to Hinduism Cambridge Cambridge University Press ISBN 0 521 43878 0 Malcolm McLean 1998 Devoted to the Goddess The Life and Work of Ramprasad State University of New York Press ISBN 978 0 7914 3689 9 Archived from the original on 17 February 2017 Retrieved 15 February 2017 Patricia Monaghan 2011 Goddesses in World Culture ABC CLIO ISBN 978 0 313 35465 6 Archived from the original on 17 February 2017 Retrieved 15 February 2017 Sree Padma 2014 Inventing and Reinventing the Goddess Contemporary Iterations of Hindu Deities on the Move Lexington Books ISBN 978 0 7391 9002 9 Archived from the original on 16 August 2021 Retrieved 15 February 2017 Charles Phillips Michael Kerrigan David Gould 2011 Ancient India s Myths and Beliefs The Rosen Publishing Group ISBN 978 1 4488 5990 0 Archived from the original on 17 February 2017 Retrieved 15 February 2017 Ludo Rocher 1986 The Puranas Otto Harrassowitz Verlag ISBN 978 3447025225 Sen Ramprasad 1720 1781 Grace and Mercy in Her Wild Hair Selected Poems to the Mother Goddess Hohm Press ISBN 0 934252 94 7 Hillary Rodrigues 2003 Ritual Worship of the Great Goddess The Liturgy of the Durga Puja with Interpretations SUNY Press ISBN 978 0 7914 8844 7 Archived from the original on 8 November 2020 Retrieved 15 February 2017 Brown C Mackenzie 1990 The Triumph of the Goddess The Canonical Models and Theological Visions of the Devi Bhagavata Purana SUNY Press ISBN 9780791403648 Archived from the original on 26 December 2019 Retrieved 15 February 2017 Durga Hindu mythology Encyclopedia Britannica 19 February 2015 Archived from the original on 7 May 2017 Retrieved 15 February 2017 Isaeva N V 1993 Shankara and Indian Philosophy SUNY Press ISBN 978 0791412817 archived from the original on 14 January 2020 retrieved 18 October 2020 Pintchman Tracy 2014 Seeking Mahadevi Constructing the Identities of the Hindu Great Goddess SUNY Press ISBN 978 0791490495 archived from the original on 19 August 2020 retrieved 18 October 2020 Chiulli M C Kalavati 2007 Hairakhandi Mantra amp Bhajans J Amba Edizioni publishing house ISBN 978 8886340465 archived from the original on 26 January 2021 retrieved 18 October 2020External links Hinduism portal Religion portal Media related to Durga at Wikimedia Commons Quotations related to Durga at Wikiquote Durga Battling the Buffalo Demon Iconography Carlos Museum Emory University Devi Durga Arthur M Sackler Gallery and Freer Gallery of Art Smithsonian Institution Overview Of World Religions Devotion to Durga Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Durga amp oldid 1151019686, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

article

, read, download, free, free download, mp3, video, mp4, 3gp, jpg, jpeg, gif, png, picture, music, song, movie, book, game, games.