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Asura

April 21, 2023

This article is about Asura in Indian religions. For other uses, see Asura (disambiguation).

Asuras (Sanskrit: असुर) are a class of beings in Indic religions. They are described as power-seeking clans related to the more benevolent Devas (also known as Suras) in Hinduism. In its Buddhist context, the word is sometimes translated "titan", "demigod", or "antigod".[1]

Asuras depicted in the Samudra Manthana bas-relief from Angkor Wat

According to Hindu scriptures, the asuras are in constant battle with the devas.[2]:  2–6  Asuras are described in Indian texts as powerful superhuman demigods with good or bad qualities. In early Vedic literature, the good Asuras are called Adityas and are led by Varuna, while the malevolent ones are called Danavas and are led by Vritra.[2]:  4  In the earliest layer of Vedic texts Agni, Indra and other gods are also called Asuras, in the sense of their being "lords" of their respective domains, knowledge and abilities. In later Vedic and post-Vedic texts, the benevolent gods are called Devas, while malevolent Asuras compete against these Devas and are considered "enemy of the gods".[2]:  5–11, 22, 99–102 

Asuras are part of Hinduism along with Devas, Yakshas (nature spirits), Rakshasas (fierce man-eating beings or demons), Bhutas (ghosts) and many more. Asuras have been featured in many cosmological theories and legends in Hinduism and Buddhism.[3][4][5]

Etymology

Monier-Williams traces the etymological roots of Asura (असुर) to Asu (असु), which means life of the spiritual world or departed spirits.[6] In the oldest verses of the Samhita layer of Vedic texts, the Asuras are any spiritual, divine beings including those with good or bad intentions, and constructive or destructive inclinations or nature.[6] In later verses of the Samhita layer of Vedic texts, Monier Williams states the Asuras are "evil spirits, demons and opponents of the gods". The 5th century Buddhist philosopher, Buddhaghosa explains that their name derives from the myth of their defeat at the hands of the god Śakra. According to the story, the asura were dispossessed of their state in Trāyastriṃśa because they became drunk and were thrown down Mount Sumeru. After this incident, they vowed never to drink sura again. In some Buddhist literature, they are sometimes referred to as pūrvadeva (Pāli: pubbadeva), meaning "ancient gods."[7]

Asuras connote the chaos-creating evil, in Indo-Iranian (collectively, Aryan) mythology about the battle between good and evil.[6] Finnish Indologist, Asko Parpola, traces another possible etymological root of Asura to *asera- of Uralic languages, where it means "lord, prince".[8]

In Hindu literature

Rig Veda

Bhargava states the word, asura, including its variants, asurya and asura, occurs "88 times in the Rig Veda, 71 times in the singular number, 4 times in the dual, 10 times in the plural, and 3 times as the first member of a compound. In this, the feminine form, asuryaa, is included twice. The word, asurya, has been used 19 times as an abstract noun, while the abstract form asuratva occurs 24 times, 22 times in one hymn and twice each in two other hymns".[9]

Bhargava[9] gives a count of the word use for every Vedic deity: Asura is used as an adjective meaning "powerful" or "mighty". In the Rig Veda, two generous kings – as well as some priests – have been described as asuras. One hymn requests a son who is an asura. In nine hymns, Indra is described as asura. He is said to possess asurya 5 times, and once he is said to possess asuratva. Agni has total of 12 asura descriptions, Varuna has 10, Mitra has 8, and Rudra has 6.[9] Book 1 of the Rig Veda describes Savitr (Vedic solar deity) as an asura who is a "kind leader".[10]

हिरण्यहस्तो असुरः सुनीथः सुमृळीकः स्ववाँ यात्वर्वाङ् ।
अपसेधन्रक्षसो यातुधानानस्थाद्देवः प्रतिदोषं गृणानः ॥१०॥[11]

May he, gold-handed Asura, kind leader, come hither to us with his help and favour.
Driving off Raksasas and Yatudhanas, [he] the god is present, praised in hymns at evening.
– Translated by Ralph Griffith[10]

The golden-handed lord of good guidance, of good grace, of good help—let him drive in our direction.
Repelling demons and sorcerers, the god has taken his place facing evening, while being hymned.
– Translated by Stephanie W. Jamison, Joel P. Brereton[12]

— Rig Veda 1.35.10

Samaveda

In the Jaiminya (3.35.3), one of three recensions of the SamaVeda, the term 'Asura' is stated to be derived from 'rests' (√ram) in the vital airs (asu), i.e. 'Asu' + 'ram' = 'Asuram' (Asura); this is in reference to the mind being 'asura[-like]'.[13]

Mahabharata

According to the Bhagavad Gita (16.6-16.7), all beings in the universe have both the divine qualities (daivi sampad) and the demonic qualities (asuri sampad) within each.[14][15] The sixteenth chapter of the Bhagavad Gita states that pure god-like saints are rare and pure demon-like evil are rare among human beings, and the bulk of humanity is multi-charactered with a few or many faults.[14] According to Jeaneane Fowler, the Gita states that desires, aversions, greed, needs, emotions in various forms "are facets of ordinary lives", and it is only when they turn to lust, hate, cravings, arrogance, conceit, anger, harshness, hypocrisy, cruelty and such negativity- and destruction-inclined that natural human inclinations metamorphose into something demonic (Asura).[14][15]

Brahmanda Purana

 
The Mahadevi combatting the asura army (right), folio from the Devi Mahatmya

In the Brahmanda Purana, it is stated the term 'Asura' was used for the Daityas due to their rejection of Varuni (Goddess of Wine) after she emerged from the Ocean of Milk (i.e. 'a-sura', meaning 'those who do not have Sura', that is, 'wine' or more generally 'liquor').[16][17] However, in other legends, the Asuras accept Varuni (see Kurma).

Vishnu Purana

According to the Vishnu Purana, during the Samudra Manthana or the "churning of the ocean", the daityas came to be known as asuras because they rejected Varuni, the goddess of sura "wine", while the devas accepted her and came to be known as suras.[18]

Shiva Purana

Alain Daniélou states that Asuras were initially good, virtuous and powerful in Indian mythology. However, their nature gradually changed and they came to represent evil, vice and abuse of power. In Shiva Purana, they evolved into anti-gods and had to be destroyed because they threatened the gods.[18][19]

The asuras (anti-gods) were depicted to have become proud, vain, to have stopped performing sacrifices, to violate sacred laws, not visit holy places, not cleanse themselves from sin, to be envious of devas, torturous of living beings, creating confusion in everything and challenging the devas.[18][19]

Alain Daniélou states that the concept of asuras evolved with changing socio-political dynamics in ancient India. Asuras gradually assimilated the demons, spirits, and ghosts worshipped by the enemies of Vedic people, and this created the myths of the malevolent asuras and the rakshasa. The allusions to the disastrous wars between the asuras and the suras, found in the Puranas and the epics, may be the conflict faced by people and migrants into ancient India.[19]

Context

Scholars have disagreed on the nature and evolution of the Asura concept in ancient Indian literature. The most widely studied scholarly views on Asura concept are those of FBJ Kuiper, W Norman Brown, Haug, von Bradke, Otto, Benveniste, Konow, Rajwade, Dandekar, Darmesteter, Bhandarkar and Raja, Banerji-Sastri, Padmanabhayya, Skoeld, SC Roy, kumaraswamy, Shamasastry, Przyluski, Schroeder, Burrows, Hillebrandt, Taraporewala, Lommel, Fausboll, Segerstedt, Thieme, Gerschevitch, Boyce, Macdonnell, Hermann Oldenberg, Geldner, Venkatesvaran, and Jan Gonda.[2]:  1–37 

Kuiper calls Asuras a special group of gods in one of major Vedic theories of creation of the universe.[20] Their role changes only during and after the earth, sky and living beings have been created. The sky world becomes that of Devas, the underworld becomes that of Asuras. The god Indra is the embodiment of good and represents the Devas, while the dragon Vrtra is the embodiment of evil and an Asura.[20] During this battle between good and evil, creation and destruction, some powerful Asuras side with the good and are called Devas, other powerful Asuras side with the evil and thereafter called Asuras. This is the first major dualism to emerge in the nature of everything in the Universe.[20][2]:  1–2  Hale (1999), in his review,[2] states that Kuiper theory on Asura is plausible but weak because the Vedas never call Vrtra (the central character) an Asura as the texts describe many other powerful beings.[2]:  3  Secondly, Rig Veda never classifies Asura as "group of gods" states Hale, and this is a presumption of Kuiper.[2]:  3 

Many scholars describe Asuras to be "lords" with different specialized knowledge, magical powers and special abilities, which only later choose to deploy these for good, constructive reasons or for evil, destructive reasons. The former become known as Asura in the sense of Devas, the later as Asura in the sense of demons. Kuiper, Brown, Otto and others are in this school; however, none of them provide an explanation and how, when and why Asura came ultimately to mean demon.[2]:  2–4, 10  Asuras are non-believers of God and believe in their own powers.[21]

Ananda Coomaraswamy suggested that Devas and Asuras can be best understood as being similar in concept to the Twelve Olympians and the Titans of Greek mythology; both are powerful but have different orientations and inclinations, the Devas representing the powers of Light and the Asuras representing the powers of Darkness in Hindu mythology.[22][2]:  20  According to Coomaraswamy, "the Titan [Asura] is potentially an Angel [Deva], the Angel still by nature a Titan" in Hinduism.[23][24]

Indo-Aryan context

In the 19th century, Haug pioneered the idea that the term Asura is linguistically related to the Ahuras of Indo-Aryan people and pre-Zoroastrianism era. In both religions, Ahura of pre-Zoroastrianism (Asura of Indian religions), Vouruna (Varuna) and Daeva (Deva) are found, but their roles are on opposite sides.[2]:  3–8  That is, Ahura evolves to represent the good in pre-Zoroastrianism, while Asura evolves to represent the bad in Vedic religion, while Daeva evolves to represent the bad in pre-Zoroastrianism, while Deva evolves to represent the good in Vedic religion. This contrasting roles have led some scholars to deduce that there may have been wars in proto-Indo-European communities, and their gods and demons evolved to reflect their differences.[2]:  23–31  This idea was thoroughly researched and reviewed by Peter von Bradke in 1885.[25][2]:  5–8 

The relationship between ahuras / asuras and daevas / devas in Indo-Aryan times, was discussed at length by F.B.J. Kuiper.[26] This theory and other Avesta-related hypotheses developed over the 20th century, are all now questioned particularly for lack of archaeological evidence.[27][2]:  5–8, 12, 15, 18–19, 37  Asko Parpola has re-opened this debate by presenting archaeological and linguistic evidence, but notes that the links may go earlier to Uralic languages roots.[28]

Relation to Germanic deities

Main article: Æsir

Some scholars such as Asko Parpola suggest that the word Asura may be related to proto-Uralic and proto-Germanic history. The Aesir-Asura correspondence is the relation between Vedic Sanskrit Asura and Old Norse Æsir and Proto-Uralic *asera, all of which mean 'lord, powerful spirit, god'.[28][29] Parpola states that the correspondence extends beyond Asera-Asura, and extends to a host of parallels such as Inmar-Indra, Sampas-Stambha and many other elements of respective mythologies.[28]

Characteristics

In the earliest Vedic literature, all supernatural beings are called Devas[6][30][31][32] and Asuras.[2]:  5–11, 22, 99–102  A much-studied hymn of the Rig Veda states Devav asura (Asuras who have become Devas), and contrasts it with Asura adevah (Asuras who are not Devas).[20][34] Each Asura and Deva emerges from the same father (Prajapati), share the same residence (Loka), eat together the same food and drinks (Soma), and have innate potential, knowledge and special powers in Hindu mythology; the only thing that distinguishes "Asura who become Deva" from "Asura who remain Asura" is intent, action and choices they make in their mythic lives.[24][35]

"Asuras who remain Asura" share the character of powerful beings obsessed with their craving for ill-gotten Soma, and for wealth, ego, anger, unprincipled nature, force, and violence.[36][37] Further, in Hindu mythology, when they lose, miss, or don't get what they want (because they were distracted by their cravings) the "Asuras who remain Asuras" question, challenge, and attack the "Asuras who became Devas" to loot or extract a portion of what the Devas have and the Asuras do not.[36][37]

The hostility between the two groups is the source of extensive legends, tales, and literature in Hinduism; however, many texts discuss their hostility in neutral terms – without explicit moral connotations or condemnation.[35] Some of these tales constitute the background of major Hindu Epics and annual festivals, such as the story of Asura Ravana and Deva Rama in the Ramayana, and the legend of Asura Hiranyakashipu and Deva Vishnu as Narasimha,[35] the latter celebrated with the Hindu spring festival of Holika and Holi.[38]

In Buddhist mythology, while all the gods of the Kāmadhātu are subject to passions to some degree, the asuras above all are addicted to them, especially wrath, pride, envy, insincerity, falseness, boasting, and bellicosity. The asuras are said to experience a much more pleasurable life than humans, but they are plagued by envy for the devas, whom they can see just as animals perceive humans.[citation needed]

Symbolism

Edelmann and other scholars state that the dualistic concept of Asura and Deva in Hinduism is a form of symbolism found throughout its ancient and medieval literature.[39][40] In the Upanishads, for example, Devas and Asuras go to Prajāpati to understand what is Self (Atman, soul) and how to realize it. The first answer that Prajāpati gives is simplistic, which the Asuras accept and leave with, but the Devas led by Indra do not accept and question because Indra finds that he hasn't grasped its full significance and the given answer has inconsistencies.[41] Edelmann states that this symbolism embedded in the Upanishads is a reminder that one must struggle with presented ideas, learning is a process, and Deva nature emerges with effort.[41] Similar dichotomies are present in the Puranas literature of Hinduism, where god Indra (a Deva) and the antigod Virocana (an Asura) question a sage for insights into the knowledge of the self.[41] Virocana leaves with the first given answer, believing now he can use the knowledge as a weapon. In contrast, Indra keeps pressing the sage, churning the ideas, and learning about means to inner happiness and power. Edelmann suggests that the Deva-Asura dichotomies in Hindu mythology may be seen as "narrative depictions of tendencies within our selves".[41]

The god (Deva) and antigod (Asura), states Edelmann, are also symbolically the contradictory forces that motivate each individual and people, and thus Deva-Asura dichotomy is a spiritual concept rather than mere genealogical category or species of being.[42] In the Bhāgavata Purana, saints and gods are born in families of Asuras, such as Mahabali and Prahlada, conveying the symbolism that motivations, beliefs and actions rather than one's birth and family circumstances define whether one is Deva-like or Asura-like.[42]

Asuri

Asuri is the feminine of an adjective from asura and in later texts means 'belonging to or having to do with demons and spirits'.[43] Asuri parallels Asura in being "powerful beings", and in early Vedic texts includes all goddesses.[44] The term Asuri also means a Rakshasi in Indian texts.[45][2]:  120–133 

The powers of an Asuri are projected into plants offering a remedy against leprosy.[46][47]

First, before all, the strong-winged Bird was born, thou wast the gall thereof.
Conquered in fight, the Asuri took then the shape and form of plants.
The Asuri made, first of all, this medicine for leprosy, this banisher of leprosy.
She banished leprosy, and gave one general colour to the skin.

— A charm against leprosy, Atharva Veda, Hymn 1.24, [48]

In Book 7, Asuri is a powerful female with the special knowledge of herbs, who uses that knowledge to seduce Deva Indra in Atharva Veda. A hymn invokes this special power in Asuri, and this hymn is stipulated for a woman as a charm to win over the lover she wants.[49]

I dig this Healing Herb that makes my lover look on me and weep,
That bids the parting friend return and kindly greets him as he comes.
This Herb wherewith the Asuri drew Indra downward from the Gods,
With this same Herb I draw thee close that I may be most dear to thee.

Thou art the peer of Soma, yea, thou art the equal of the Sun,
The peer of all the Gods art thou: therefore we call thee hitherward.
I am the speaker here, not thou: speak thou where the assembly meets.
Thou shalt be mine and only mine, and never mention other dames.

If thou art far away beyond the rivers, far away from men,
This Herb shall seem to bind thee fast and bring thee back my prisoner.

— A maiden's love-charm, Atharva Veda, Hymn 7.38, [49]

Similarly, in the Atharva Veda, all sorts of medical remedies and charms are projected as Asuri manifested in plants and animals.[2]:  120–133  Asuri Kalpa is an abhichara (craft) which contains various rites derived from special knowledge and magic of Asuri.[50][51]

Buddhism

 
Asura at Kofukuji, a Buddhist temple in Nara, Japan
Main article: Asura (Buddhism)

Asuras (Classical Tibetan: ལྷ་མིན, romanized: lha min; simplified Chinese: 阿修罗; traditional Chinese: 阿修羅; pinyin: āxiūluó; Japanese: 阿修羅, romanized: ashura, asura) are a type of supernatural being (anti-gods, demigods or non-god titans) in traditional Buddhist cosmology and a realm of rebirth based on one's karma in current or past lives.[52] They are described in Buddhist texts as creatures who live in lower levels of mount Sumeru, obsessed with sensuous aspects of existence, living with jealousy and endlessly engaged in wars against the creatures who are Devas (gods).[53] As Buddhism spread into East Asia and Southeast Asia, the Asura concept of Indian Buddhism expanded and integrated local pre-existing deities as a part of regional Buddhist pantheon.[53]

Asura realm

The asura realm is one of the realms, in which one can be reborn as a result of experiencing the fruits of wholesome karma while engaging in unwholesome karma. Generally, the desire realm is recognized as consisting of five realms and the realm of the asura tends to be included among the deva realms but the addition of the asuras in the six-world bhavacakra was created in Tibet at the authority of Je Tsongkhapa.

Deva-Asura War

The asuras were dispossessed of their state in Trāyastriṃśa because they became drunk and were thrown down Mount Sumeru by the bodhisatta, as mentioned in Jatakas. This led to ever lasting war between the Devas of Tavatimsa and Asuras, which still continues.

Asurendra

In Buddhism, the leaders of the asuras are called asurendra (Pāli: Asurinda, 阿修羅王; lit. "Asura-lord"). There are several of these, as the Asuras are broken into different tribes or factions.  In Pali texts, names that are found include Vepacitti, Rāhu (Verocana), Pahārāda, Sambara, Bali, Sucitti, and Namucī. According to the Lotus Sutra, the four leaders of the asura took refuge in the Buddha after hearing his sermon.

See also

References

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  2. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r Hale, Wash Edward (1999). Ásura in Early Vedic Religion. Motilal Barnarsidass. ISBN 978-8120800618.
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  10. ^ a b Mandala 1, Hymn 35 Ralph T Griffith, Wikisource
  11. ^ Rig Veda Sanskrit text, Wikisource
  12. ^ Stephanie Jamison (2015). The Rigveda – Earliest religious poetry of India. Oxford University Press. p. 142. ISBN 978-0190633394.
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  16. ^ G.V.Tagare. Brahmanda Purana - English Translation - Part 4 of 5. pp. 1063 (9.66-69).
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    The original Sanskrit text of hymns 8.25.4, 8.96.9 from the Rigveda is available on Wikisource.[33]
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External links

 
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Asuras.
  • The Basic Concept of Vedic Religion, FBJ Kuiper, History of Religions, Vol. 15, No. 2 (Nov., 1975), pages 107-120
  • The Creation Myth of the Rig Veda, W Norman Brown, Journal of the American Oriental Society, Vol. 62, No. 2 (Jun., 1942), pages 85–98
  • Asura Varuna, RN Dandekar, Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, Vol. 21, No. 3/4 (1939–40), pages 157-191
  • The Vedic Gods of Japan, S Kak (2004), (a discussion of Asuras in Japanese mythology)

April 21, 2023
asura, this, article, about, indian, religions, other, uses, disambiguation, sanskrit, अस, class, beings, indic, religions, they, described, power, seeking, clans, related, more, benevolent, devas, also, known, suras, hinduism, buddhist, context, word, sometim. This article is about Asura in Indian religions For other uses see Asura disambiguation Asuras Sanskrit अस र are a class of beings in Indic religions They are described as power seeking clans related to the more benevolent Devas also known as Suras in Hinduism In its Buddhist context the word is sometimes translated titan demigod or antigod 1 Asuras depicted in the Samudra Manthana bas relief from Angkor Wat According to Hindu scriptures the asuras are in constant battle with the devas 2 2 6 Asuras are described in Indian texts as powerful superhuman demigods with good or bad qualities In early Vedic literature the good Asuras are called Adityas and are led by Varuna while the malevolent ones are called Danavas and are led by Vritra 2 4 In the earliest layer of Vedic texts Agni Indra and other gods are also called Asuras in the sense of their being lords of their respective domains knowledge and abilities In later Vedic and post Vedic texts the benevolent gods are called Devas while malevolent Asuras compete against these Devas and are considered enemy of the gods 2 5 11 22 99 102 Asuras are part of Hinduism along with Devas Yakshas nature spirits Rakshasas fierce man eating beings or demons Bhutas ghosts and many more Asuras have been featured in many cosmological theories and legends in Hinduism and Buddhism 3 4 5 Contents 1 Etymology 2 In Hindu literature 2 1 Rig Veda 2 2 Samaveda 2 3 Mahabharata 2 4 Brahmanda Purana 2 5 Vishnu Purana 2 6 Shiva Purana 3 Context 3 1 Indo Aryan context 3 2 Relation to Germanic deities 4 Characteristics 5 Symbolism 6 Asuri 7 Buddhism 7 1 Asura realm 7 2 Deva Asura War 7 3 Asurendra 8 See also 9 References 10 External linksEtymology EditMonier Williams traces the etymological roots of Asura अस र to Asu अस which means life of the spiritual world or departed spirits 6 In the oldest verses of the Samhita layer of Vedic texts the Asuras are any spiritual divine beings including those with good or bad intentions and constructive or destructive inclinations or nature 6 In later verses of the Samhita layer of Vedic texts Monier Williams states the Asuras are evil spirits demons and opponents of the gods The 5th century Buddhist philosopher Buddhaghosa explains that their name derives from the myth of their defeat at the hands of the god Sakra According to the story the asura were dispossessed of their state in Trayastriṃsa because they became drunk and were thrown down Mount Sumeru After this incident they vowed never to drink sura again In some Buddhist literature they are sometimes referred to as purvadeva Pali pubbadeva meaning ancient gods 7 Asuras connote the chaos creating evil in Indo Iranian collectively Aryan mythology about the battle between good and evil 6 Finnish Indologist Asko Parpola traces another possible etymological root of Asura to asera of Uralic languages where it means lord prince 8 In Hindu literature EditRig Veda Edit Bhargava states the word asura including its variants asurya and asura occurs 88 times in the Rig Veda 71 times in the singular number 4 times in the dual 10 times in the plural and 3 times as the first member of a compound In this the feminine form asuryaa is included twice The word asurya has been used 19 times as an abstract noun while the abstract form asuratva occurs 24 times 22 times in one hymn and twice each in two other hymns 9 Bhargava 9 gives a count of the word use for every Vedic deity Asura is used as an adjective meaning powerful or mighty In the Rig Veda two generous kings as well as some priests have been described as asuras One hymn requests a son who is an asura In nine hymns Indra is described as asura He is said to possess asurya 5 times and once he is said to possess asuratva Agni has total of 12 asura descriptions Varuna has 10 Mitra has 8 and Rudra has 6 9 Book 1 of the Rig Veda describes Savitr Vedic solar deity as an asura who is a kind leader 10 ह रण यहस त अस र स न थ स म ळ क स वव य त वर व ङ अपस धन रक षस य त ध न नस थ द द व प रत द ष ग ण न १० 11 May he gold handed Asura kind leader come hither to us with his help and favour Driving off Raksasas and Yatudhanas he the god is present praised in hymns at evening Translated by Ralph Griffith 10 The golden handed lord of good guidance of good grace of good help let him drive in our direction Repelling demons and sorcerers the god has taken his place facing evening while being hymned Translated by Stephanie W Jamison Joel P Brereton 12 Rig Veda 1 35 10 Samaveda Edit In the Jaiminya 3 35 3 one of three recensions of the SamaVeda the term Asura is stated to be derived from rests ram in the vital airs asu i e Asu ram Asuram Asura this is in reference to the mind being asura like 13 Mahabharata Edit According to the Bhagavad Gita 16 6 16 7 all beings in the universe have both the divine qualities daivi sampad and the demonic qualities asuri sampad within each 14 15 The sixteenth chapter of the Bhagavad Gita states that pure god like saints are rare and pure demon like evil are rare among human beings and the bulk of humanity is multi charactered with a few or many faults 14 According to Jeaneane Fowler the Gita states that desires aversions greed needs emotions in various forms are facets of ordinary lives and it is only when they turn to lust hate cravings arrogance conceit anger harshness hypocrisy cruelty and such negativity and destruction inclined that natural human inclinations metamorphose into something demonic Asura 14 15 Brahmanda Purana Edit The Mahadevi combatting the asura army right folio from the Devi Mahatmya In the Brahmanda Purana it is stated the term Asura was used for the Daityas due to their rejection of Varuni Goddess of Wine after she emerged from the Ocean of Milk i e a sura meaning those who do not have Sura that is wine or more generally liquor 16 17 However in other legends the Asuras accept Varuni see Kurma Vishnu Purana Edit According to the Vishnu Purana during the Samudra Manthana or the churning of the ocean the daityas came to be known as asuras because they rejected Varuni the goddess of sura wine while the devas accepted her and came to be known as suras 18 Shiva Purana Edit Alain Danielou states that Asuras were initially good virtuous and powerful in Indian mythology However their nature gradually changed and they came to represent evil vice and abuse of power In Shiva Purana they evolved into anti gods and had to be destroyed because they threatened the gods 18 19 The asuras anti gods were depicted to have become proud vain to have stopped performing sacrifices to violate sacred laws not visit holy places not cleanse themselves from sin to be envious of devas torturous of living beings creating confusion in everything and challenging the devas 18 19 Alain Danielou states that the concept of asuras evolved with changing socio political dynamics in ancient India Asuras gradually assimilated the demons spirits and ghosts worshipped by the enemies of Vedic people and this created the myths of the malevolent asuras and the rakshasa The allusions to the disastrous wars between the asuras and the suras found in the Puranas and the epics may be the conflict faced by people and migrants into ancient India 19 Context EditScholars have disagreed on the nature and evolution of the Asura concept in ancient Indian literature The most widely studied scholarly views on Asura concept are those of FBJ Kuiper W Norman Brown Haug von Bradke Otto Benveniste Konow Rajwade Dandekar Darmesteter Bhandarkar and Raja Banerji Sastri Padmanabhayya Skoeld SC Roy kumaraswamy Shamasastry Przyluski Schroeder Burrows Hillebrandt Taraporewala Lommel Fausboll Segerstedt Thieme Gerschevitch Boyce Macdonnell Hermann Oldenberg Geldner Venkatesvaran and Jan Gonda 2 1 37 Kuiper calls Asuras a special group of gods in one of major Vedic theories of creation of the universe 20 Their role changes only during and after the earth sky and living beings have been created The sky world becomes that of Devas the underworld becomes that of Asuras The god Indra is the embodiment of good and represents the Devas while the dragon Vrtra is the embodiment of evil and an Asura 20 During this battle between good and evil creation and destruction some powerful Asuras side with the good and are called Devas other powerful Asuras side with the evil and thereafter called Asuras This is the first major dualism to emerge in the nature of everything in the Universe 20 2 1 2 Hale 1999 in his review 2 states that Kuiper theory on Asura is plausible but weak because the Vedas never call Vrtra the central character an Asura as the texts describe many other powerful beings 2 3 Secondly Rig Veda never classifies Asura as group of gods states Hale and this is a presumption of Kuiper 2 3 Many scholars describe Asuras to be lords with different specialized knowledge magical powers and special abilities which only later choose to deploy these for good constructive reasons or for evil destructive reasons The former become known as Asura in the sense of Devas the later as Asura in the sense of demons Kuiper Brown Otto and others are in this school however none of them provide an explanation and how when and why Asura came ultimately to mean demon 2 2 4 10 Asuras are non believers of God and believe in their own powers 21 Ananda Coomaraswamy suggested that Devas and Asuras can be best understood as being similar in concept to the Twelve Olympians and the Titans of Greek mythology both are powerful but have different orientations and inclinations the Devas representing the powers of Light and the Asuras representing the powers of Darkness in Hindu mythology 22 2 20 According to Coomaraswamy the Titan Asura is potentially an Angel Deva the Angel still by nature a Titan in Hinduism 23 24 Indo Aryan context Edit In the 19th century Haug pioneered the idea that the term Asura is linguistically related to the Ahuras of Indo Aryan people and pre Zoroastrianism era In both religions Ahura of pre Zoroastrianism Asura of Indian religions Vouruna Varuna and Daeva Deva are found but their roles are on opposite sides 2 3 8 That is Ahura evolves to represent the good in pre Zoroastrianism while Asura evolves to represent the bad in Vedic religion while Daeva evolves to represent the bad in pre Zoroastrianism while Deva evolves to represent the good in Vedic religion This contrasting roles have led some scholars to deduce that there may have been wars in proto Indo European communities and their gods and demons evolved to reflect their differences 2 23 31 This idea was thoroughly researched and reviewed by Peter von Bradke in 1885 25 2 5 8 The relationship between ahuras asuras and daevas devas in Indo Aryan times was discussed at length by F B J Kuiper 26 This theory and other Avesta related hypotheses developed over the 20th century are all now questioned particularly for lack of archaeological evidence 27 2 5 8 12 15 18 19 37 Asko Parpola has re opened this debate by presenting archaeological and linguistic evidence but notes that the links may go earlier to Uralic languages roots 28 Relation to Germanic deities Edit Main article AEsir Some scholars such as Asko Parpola suggest that the word Asura may be related to proto Uralic and proto Germanic history The Aesir Asura correspondence is the relation between Vedic Sanskrit Asura and Old Norse AEsir and Proto Uralic asera all of which mean lord powerful spirit god 28 29 Parpola states that the correspondence extends beyond Asera Asura and extends to a host of parallels such as Inmar Indra Sampas Stambha and many other elements of respective mythologies 28 Characteristics EditIn the earliest Vedic literature all supernatural beings are called Devas 6 30 31 32 and Asuras 2 5 11 22 99 102 A much studied hymn of the Rig Veda states Devav asura Asuras who have become Devas and contrasts it with Asura adevah Asuras who are not Devas 20 34 Each Asura and Deva emerges from the same father Prajapati share the same residence Loka eat together the same food and drinks Soma and have innate potential knowledge and special powers in Hindu mythology the only thing that distinguishes Asura who become Deva from Asura who remain Asura is intent action and choices they make in their mythic lives 24 35 Asuras who remain Asura share the character of powerful beings obsessed with their craving for ill gotten Soma and for wealth ego anger unprincipled nature force and violence 36 37 Further in Hindu mythology when they lose miss or don t get what they want because they were distracted by their cravings the Asuras who remain Asuras question challenge and attack the Asuras who became Devas to loot or extract a portion of what the Devas have and the Asuras do not 36 37 The hostility between the two groups is the source of extensive legends tales and literature in Hinduism however many texts discuss their hostility in neutral terms without explicit moral connotations or condemnation 35 Some of these tales constitute the background of major Hindu Epics and annual festivals such as the story of Asura Ravana and Deva Rama in the Ramayana and the legend of Asura Hiranyakashipu and Deva Vishnu as Narasimha 35 the latter celebrated with the Hindu spring festival of Holika and Holi 38 In Buddhist mythology while all the gods of the Kamadhatu are subject to passions to some degree the asuras above all are addicted to them especially wrath pride envy insincerity falseness boasting and bellicosity The asuras are said to experience a much more pleasurable life than humans but they are plagued by envy for the devas whom they can see just as animals perceive humans citation needed Symbolism EditEdelmann and other scholars state that the dualistic concept of Asura and Deva in Hinduism is a form of symbolism found throughout its ancient and medieval literature 39 40 In the Upanishads for example Devas and Asuras go to Prajapati to understand what is Self Atman soul and how to realize it The first answer that Prajapati gives is simplistic which the Asuras accept and leave with but the Devas led by Indra do not accept and question because Indra finds that he hasn t grasped its full significance and the given answer has inconsistencies 41 Edelmann states that this symbolism embedded in the Upanishads is a reminder that one must struggle with presented ideas learning is a process and Deva nature emerges with effort 41 Similar dichotomies are present in the Puranas literature of Hinduism where god Indra a Deva and the antigod Virocana an Asura question a sage for insights into the knowledge of the self 41 Virocana leaves with the first given answer believing now he can use the knowledge as a weapon In contrast Indra keeps pressing the sage churning the ideas and learning about means to inner happiness and power Edelmann suggests that the Deva Asura dichotomies in Hindu mythology may be seen as narrative depictions of tendencies within our selves 41 The god Deva and antigod Asura states Edelmann are also symbolically the contradictory forces that motivate each individual and people and thus Deva Asura dichotomy is a spiritual concept rather than mere genealogical category or species of being 42 In the Bhagavata Purana saints and gods are born in families of Asuras such as Mahabali and Prahlada conveying the symbolism that motivations beliefs and actions rather than one s birth and family circumstances define whether one is Deva like or Asura like 42 Asuri EditAsuri is the feminine of an adjective from asura and in later texts means belonging to or having to do with demons and spirits 43 Asuri parallels Asura in being powerful beings and in early Vedic texts includes all goddesses 44 The term Asuri also means a Rakshasi in Indian texts 45 2 120 133 The powers of an Asuri are projected into plants offering a remedy against leprosy 46 47 First before all the strong winged Bird was born thou wast the gall thereof Conquered in fight the Asuri took then the shape and form of plants The Asuri made first of all this medicine for leprosy this banisher of leprosy She banished leprosy and gave one general colour to the skin A charm against leprosy Atharva Veda Hymn 1 24 48 In Book 7 Asuri is a powerful female with the special knowledge of herbs who uses that knowledge to seduce Deva Indra in Atharva Veda A hymn invokes this special power in Asuri and this hymn is stipulated for a woman as a charm to win over the lover she wants 49 I dig this Healing Herb that makes my lover look on me and weep That bids the parting friend return and kindly greets him as he comes This Herb wherewith the Asuri drew Indra downward from the Gods With this same Herb I draw thee close that I may be most dear to thee Thou art the peer of Soma yea thou art the equal of the Sun The peer of all the Gods art thou therefore we call thee hitherward I am the speaker here not thou speak thou where the assembly meets Thou shalt be mine and only mine and never mention other dames If thou art far away beyond the rivers far away from men This Herb shall seem to bind thee fast and bring thee back my prisoner A maiden s love charm Atharva Veda Hymn 7 38 49 Similarly in the Atharva Veda all sorts of medical remedies and charms are projected as Asuri manifested in plants and animals 2 120 133 Asuri Kalpa is an abhichara craft which contains various rites derived from special knowledge and magic of Asuri 50 51 Buddhism Edit Asura at Kofukuji a Buddhist temple in Nara Japan Main article Asura Buddhism Asuras Classical Tibetan ལ མ ན romanized lha min simplified Chinese 阿修罗 traditional Chinese 阿修羅 pinyin axiuluo Japanese 阿修羅 romanized ashura asura are a type of supernatural being anti gods demigods or non god titans in traditional Buddhist cosmology and a realm of rebirth based on one s karma in current or past lives 52 They are described in Buddhist texts as creatures who live in lower levels of mount Sumeru obsessed with sensuous aspects of existence living with jealousy and endlessly engaged in wars against the creatures who are Devas gods 53 As Buddhism spread into East Asia and Southeast Asia the Asura concept of Indian Buddhism expanded and integrated local pre existing deities as a part of regional Buddhist pantheon 53 Asura realm Edit The asura realm is one of the realms in which one can be reborn as a result of experiencing the fruits of wholesome karma while engaging in unwholesome karma Generally the desire realm is recognized as consisting of five realms and the realm of the asura tends to be included among the deva realms but the addition of the asuras in the six world bhavacakra was created in Tibet at the authority of Je Tsongkhapa Deva Asura War Edit The asuras were dispossessed of their state in Trayastriṃsa because they became drunk and were thrown down Mount Sumeru by the bodhisatta as mentioned in Jatakas This led to ever lasting war between the Devas of Tavatimsa and Asuras which still continues Asurendra Edit In Buddhism the leaders of the asuras are called asurendra Pali Asurinda 阿修羅王 lit Asura lord There are several of these as the Asuras are broken into different tribes or factions In Pali texts names that are found include Vepacitti Rahu Verocana Paharada Sambara Bali Sucitti and Namuci According to the Lotus Sutra the four leaders of the asura took refuge in the Buddha after hearing his sermon See also EditAhura Ashur Aswang Sooranporu List of Asuras Daityas Danavas Kalakeyas NivatakavacasReferences Edit Robert Beer The Handbook of Tibetan Buddhist Symbols Serindia Publications 2003 ISBN 978 1 932 47603 3 page 246 a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r Hale Wash Edward 1999 Asura in Early Vedic Religion Motilal Barnarsidass ISBN 978 8120800618 Don Handelman 2013 One God Two Goddesses Three Studies of South Indian Cosmology Brill Academic ISBN 978 9004256156 pages 23 29 Wendy Doniger 1988 Textual Sources for the Study of Hinduism Manchester University Press ISBN 978 0719018664 p 67 Robert E Buswell Jr Donald S Lopez Jr 2013 The Princeton Dictionary of Buddhism p 411 ISBN 978 1400848058 a href Template Cite book html title Template Cite book cite book a CS1 maint uses authors parameter link a b c d Monier Monier Williams A Sanskrit English Dictionary Etymologically and Philologically Arranged to cognate Indo European Languages Motilal Banarsidass page 121 Malalasekera G P 2007 Asura Dictionary of Pali Proper Names Motilal Banarsidass Publishers ISBN 978 81 208 3020 2 Asko Parpola 2015 The Roots of Hinduism The Early Aryans and the Indus Civilization Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0190226923 pages 114 116 a b c P L Bhargava Vedic Religion and Culture South Asia Books ISBN 978 8124600061 a b Mandala 1 Hymn 35 Ralph T Griffith Wikisource Rig Veda Sanskrit text Wikisource Stephanie Jamison 2015 The Rigveda Earliest religious poetry of India Oxford University Press p 142 ISBN 978 0190633394 Oertel Hanns 1896 The Jaiminiya or Talavakara Upaniṣad Brahmaṇa Journal of the American Oriental Society JSTOR pp 193 a b c Jeaneane D Fowler 2012 The Bhagavad Gita Sussex Academic Press ISBN 978 1845193461 pages 253 262 a b Christopher K Chapple 2010 The Bhagavad Gita Twenty fifth Anniversary Edition State University of New York Press ISBN 978 1438428420 pages 610 629 G V Tagare Brahmanda Purana English Translation Part 4 of 5 pp 1063 9 66 69 Sanskrit Dictionary for Spoken Sanskrit Sura spokensanskrit org Retrieved 2019 12 14 a b c Roshen Dalal 2011 Hinduism An Alphabetical Guide p 46 Penguin Books India ISBN 0143414216 1 a b c Alain Danielou 1991 The Myths and Gods of India The Classic Work on Hindu Polytheism from the Princeton Bollingen Series pp 141 142 Inner Traditions Bear amp Co ISBN 0892813547 a b c d FBJ Kuiper 1975 The Basic Concept of Vedic Religion History of Religion volume 15 pages 108 112 Bahadur Om Lata 1996 The book of Hindu festivals and ceremonies 3rd ed New Delhi UBS Publishers Distributors ltd p 168 ISBN 81 86112 23 5 Ananda Coomaraswamy 1935 Angel and Titan An Essay in Vedic Ontology Journal of the American Oriental Society volume 55 pages 373 374 Ananda Coomaraswamy 1935 Angel and Titan An Essay in Vedic Ontology Journal of the American Oriental Society volume 55 page 374 a b Nicholas Gier 1995 Hindu Titanism Philosophy East and West Volume 45 Number 1 pages 76 see also 73 96 P von Bradke 1885 Dyaus Asuras Ahura Mazda und die Asuras Max Niemeyer Reprinted as ISBN 978 1141632251 F B J Kuiper Ancient Indian Cosmogony Bombay 1983 ISBN 0706913701 Herrenschmidt Clarisse Kellens Jean 1993 Daiva Encyclopaedia Iranica Vol 6 Costa Mesa Mazda pp 599 602 a b c Asko Parpola 2015 The Roots of Hinduism The Early Aryans and the Indus Civilization Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0190226923 pages 66 67 82 109 Douglas Adams 1997 King in Encyclopedia of Indo European Culture Routledge ISBN 978 1884964985 page 330 Deva Encyclopaedia Britannica via britannica com Coulter Charles Russell Turner Patricia 4 July 2013 Encyclopedia of Ancient Deities p 147 ISBN 9781135963903 via Google Books Williams George 2008 A Handbook of Hindu Mythology Oxford University Press pp 90 112 ISBN 978 0195332612 ऋग व द मण डल ८ Rig Veda Rigveda hymns 8 25 4 8 96 9 via Wikisource see Hale 1999 2 1 2 Note that Hale translates this to Asuras without the Asura Devas in his book see page 3 for example The original Sanskrit text of hymns 8 25 4 8 96 9 from the Rigveda is available on Wikisource 33 a b c Bonnefoy Yves Doniger Wendy 1993 Asian Mythologies University of Chicago Press pp 52 53 ISBN 978 0226064567 a b Gier Nicholas 1995 Hindu titanism Philosophy East and West 45 1 76 80 doi 10 2307 1399510 JSTOR 1399510 a b Kramrisch Stella Burnier Raymond 1986 The Hindu Temple Vol 1 Motilal Banarsidass pp 75 78 ISBN 978 8120802230 Doniger Wendy ed 2000 Merriam Webster s Encyclopedia of World Religions Merriam Webster p 455 ISBN 978 0877790440 Jonathan Edelmann 2013 Hindu Theology as Churning the Latent Journal of the American Academy of Religion Volume 81 Issue 2 pages 427 466 Doris Srinivasan 1997 Many Heads Arms and Eyes Origin Meaning and Form of Multiplicity in Indian Art Brill Academic ISBN 978 9004107588 pages 130 131 a b c d Jonathan Edelmann 2013 Hindu Theology as Churning the Latent Journal of the American Academy of Religion Volume 81 Issue 2 pages 439 441 a b Jonathan Edelmann 2013 Hindu Theology as Churning the Latent Journal of the American Academy of Religion Volume 81 Issue 2 pages 440 442 American Oriental Society 1852 Proceedings American Oriental Society 1874 1893 p xv Coburn Thomas B 1988 Devi Mahatmya p 200 Motilal Banarsidass Publications ISBN 8120805577 Bodewitz H W 1990 The Jyotiṣṭoma Ritual Jaiminiya Brahmaṇa I 66 364 p 265 Volume 34 of Orientalia Rheno traiectina ISBN 9004091203 Shende N J 1967 Kavi and kavya in the Atharvaveda p 22 Issue 1 of Publications of the Centre of Advanced Study in Sanskrit Centre of Advanced Study in Sanskrit University of Poona Garg Gaṅga Ram 1992 Encyclopaedia of the Hindu World Ar Az p 751 Volume 3 of Encyclopaedia of the Hindu World Concept Publishing Company ISBN 8170223733 Hymns of the Atharva Veda Ralph T H Griffith Translator Luzac and Co London pages 28 29 a b Hymns of the Atharva Veda Ralph T H Griffith Translator Luzac and Co London page 344 Magoun Herbert William 1889 The Asuri Kalpa a witchcraft practice of the Atharva Veda Goudriaan Teun amp Gupta Sanjukta 1981 Hindu Tantric and Sakta Literature p 114 Otto Harrassowitz Verlag ISBN 3447020911 Norman C McClelland 2010 Encyclopedia of Reincarnation and Karma McFarland pp 32 34 136 ISBN 978 0 7864 5675 8 a b Robert E Buswell Jr Donald S Lopez Jr 2013 The Princeton Dictionary of Buddhism Princeton University Press p 76 ISBN 978 1 4008 4805 8 External links Edit Wikimedia Commons has media related to Asuras The Basic Concept of Vedic Religion FBJ Kuiper History of Religions Vol 15 No 2 Nov 1975 pages 107 120 The Creation Myth of the Rig Veda W Norman Brown Journal of the American Oriental Society Vol 62 No 2 Jun 1942 pages 85 98 Asura Varuna RN Dandekar Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute Vol 21 No 3 4 1939 40 pages 157 191 The Vedic Gods of Japan S Kak 2004 a discussion of Asuras in Japanese mythology Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Asura amp oldid 1149895138, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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