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Shaivism

Shaivism (/ˈʃvɪzəm/; Sanskrit: शैवसम्प्रदायः, romanizedŚaivasampradāyaḥ) is one of the major Hindu traditions, which worships Shiva[1][2][3] as the Supreme Being. One of the largest Hindu denominations,[4][5] it incorporates many sub-traditions ranging from devotional dualistic theism such as Shaiva Siddhanta to yoga-orientated monistic non-theism such as Kashmiri Shaivism.[6][7][8] It considers both the Vedas and the Agama texts as important sources of theology.[9][10][11]

Shaivism
Shiva (above) is the primary deity of Shaivism. Ritual at Muni ki Reti, Rishikesh

Shaivism developed as an amalgam of pre-Vedic religions and traditions derived from the southern Tamil Shaiva Siddhanta traditions and philosophies, which were assimilated in the non-Vedic Shiva-tradition.[12] In the process of Sanskritisation and the formation of Hinduism, starting in the last centuries BCE, these pre-Vedic traditions became aligned with the Vedic deity Rudra and other Vedic deities, incorporating the non-Vedic Shiva-traditions into the Vedic-Brahmanical fold.[2][13]

Both devotional and monistic Shaivism became popular in the 1st millennium CE, rapidly becoming the dominant religious tradition of many Hindu kingdoms.[2] It arrived in Southeast Asia shortly thereafter, leading to the construction of thousands of Shaiva temples on the islands of Indonesia as well as Cambodia and Vietnam, co-evolving with Buddhism in these regions.[14][15]

Shaivite theology ranges from Shiva being the creator, preserver, and destroyer to being the same as the Atman (Self) within oneself and every living being. It is closely related to Shaktism, and some Shaivas worship in both Shiva and Shakti temples.[8] It is the Hindu tradition that most accepts ascetic life and emphasizes yoga, and like other Hindu traditions encourages an individual to discover and be one with Shiva within.[6][7][16] The followers of Shaivism are called "Shaivites" or "Saivas".

Etymology and nomenclature

Shiva (śiva, Sanskrit: शिव) literally means kind, friendly, gracious, or auspicious.[17][18] As a proper name, it means "The Auspicious One".[18]

The word Shiva is used as an adjective in the Rig Veda, as an epithet for several Rigvedic deities, including Rudra.[19] The term Shiva also connotes "liberation, final emancipation" and "the auspicious one", this adjective sense of usage is addressed to many deities in Vedic layers of literature.[20][21] The term evolved from the Vedic Rudra-Shiva to the noun Shiva in the Epics and the Puranas, as an auspicious deity who is the "creator, reproducer and dissolver".[20][22]

The Sanskrit word śaiva or shaiva means "relating to the god Shiva",[23] while the related beliefs, practices, history, literature and sub-traditions constitute Shaivism.[24]

Overview

The reverence for Shiva is one of the pan-Hindu traditions found widely across India predominantly in Southern India, Sri Lanka, and Nepal.[25][26] While Shiva is revered broadly, Hinduism itself is a complex religion and a way of life, with a diversity of ideas on spirituality and traditions. It has no ecclesiastical order, no unquestionable religious authorities, no governing body, no prophet(s) nor any binding holy book; Hindus can choose to be polytheistic, pantheistic, monotheistic, monistic, agnostic, atheistic, or humanist.[27][28][29]

Shaivism is a major tradition within Hinduism with a theology that is predominantly related to the Hindu god Shiva. Shaivism has many different sub-traditions with regional variations and differences in philosophy.[30] Shaivism has a vast literature with different philosophical schools ranging from nondualism, dualism, and mixed schools.[31]

Origins and history

 
The development of various schools of Shaivism from early worship of Rudra.[32]

The origins of Shaivism are unclear and a matter of debate among scholars, as it is an amalgam of pre-Vedic cults and traditions and Vedic culture.[33]

Indus Valley Civilisation

 
The "Pashupati" seal from the Indus Valley civilisation.

Some trace the origins to the Indus Valley civilization, which reached its peak around 2500–2000 BCE.[34][35] Archeological discoveries show seals that suggest a deity that somewhat appears like Shiva. Of these is the Pashupati seal, which early scholars interpreted as someone seated in a meditating yoga pose surrounded by animals, and with horns.[36] This "Pashupati" (Lord of Animals, Sanskrit paśupati)[37] seal has been interpreted by these scholars as a prototype of Shiva. Gavin Flood characterizes these views as "speculative", saying that it is not clear from the seal if the figure has three faces, or is seated in a yoga posture, or even that the shape is intended to represent a human figure.[35][38]

Other scholars state that the Indus Valley script remains undeciphered, and the interpretation of the Pashupati seal is uncertain. According to Srinivasan, the proposal that it is proto-Shiva may be a case of projecting "later practices into archeological findings".[39][40] Similarly, Asko Parpola states that other archaeological finds such as the early Elamite seals dated to 3000–2750 BCE show similar figures and these have been interpreted as "seated bull" and not a yogi, and the bull interpretation is likely more accurate.[35][41]

Vedic elements

The Rigveda (~1500–1200 BCE) has the earliest clear mention of Rudra in its hymns 2.33, 1.43 and 1.114. The text also includes a Satarudriya, an influential hymn with embedded hundred epithets for Rudra, that is cited in many medieval era Shaiva texts as well as recited in major Shiva temples of Hindus in contemporary times. Yet, the Vedic literature only present scriptural theology, but does not attest to the existence of Shaivism.[35]

The Shvetashvatara Upanishad, likely composed before the Bhagavad Gita about 4th century BCE contains the theistic foundations of Shaivism wrapped in a monistic structure. It contains the key terms and ideas of Shaivism, such as Shiva, Rudra, Maheswara, Guru, Bhakti, Yoga, Atman, Brahman and self-knowledge.[35][42]

Emergence of Shaivism

 
Kushan coin of Vima Kadphises (2nd century CE), with a possible Shiva, holding a trident, in ithyphallic state[note 1] and next to a bull, his mount, as in Shaivism.[43][44][45] The deity was described by the later Kushans in their coinage as "Oesho", a possible Zoroastrian deity.[44]

According to Gavin Flood, "the formation of Śaiva traditions as we understand them begins to occur during the period from 200 BC to 100 AD."[46] Shiva was originally probably not a Brahmanical god,[47][48] but eventually came to be incorporated into the Brahmanical fold.[48][49] The pre-Vedic Shiva acquired a growing prominence as its cult assimilated numerous "ruder faiths" and their mythologies,[50] and the Epics and Puranas preserve pre-Vedic myths and legends of these traditions assimilated by the Shiva-cult.[49] Shiva's growing prominence was facilitated by identification with a number of Vedic deities, such as Purusha, Rudra, Agni, Indra, Prajāpati, Vāyu, among others.[51] The followers of Shiva were gradually accepted into the Brahmanical fold, becoming allowed to recite some of the Vedic hymns.[52]

Patanjali's Mahābhāṣya, dated to the 2nd century BCE, mentions the term Shiva-bhagavata in section 5.2.76. Patanjali, while explaining Panini's rules of grammar, states that this term refers to a devotee clad in animal skins and carrying an ayah sulikah (iron spear, trident lance)[53] as an icon representing his god.[46][54][55] The Shvetashvatara Upanishad (late 1st mill. BCE) mentions terms such as Rudra, Shiva, and Maheshwaram,[56][57] but its interpretation as a theistic or monistic text of Shaivism is disputed.[58][59] In the early centuries of the common era is the first clear evidence of Pāśupata Shaivism.[2]

The Mahabharata mentions Shaiva ascetics, such as in chapters 4.13 and 13.140.[60] Other evidence that is possibly linked to the importance of Shaivism in ancient times are in epigraphy and numismatics, such as in the form of prominent Shiva-like reliefs on Kushan Empire era gold coins. However, this is controversial, as an alternate hypothesis for these reliefs is based on Zoroastrian Oesho. According to Flood, coins dated to the ancient Greek, Saka and Parthian kings who ruled parts of the Indian subcontinent after the arrival of Alexander the Great also show Shiva iconography, but this evidence is weak and subject to competing inferences.[46][61]

The inscriptions found in the Himalayan region, such as those in the Kathmandu valley of Nepal suggest that Shaivism (particularly Pashupata monism) was established in this region during the Mauryas and the Guptas reign of the Indian subcontinent, by the 5th century. These inscriptions have been dated by modern techniques to between 466 and 645 CE.[62]

Puranic Shaivism

During the Gupta Empire (c. 320–500 CE) the genre of Purana literature developed in India, and many of these Puranas contain extensive chapters on Shaivism – along with Vaishnavism, Shaktism, Smarta Traditions of Brahmins and other topics – suggesting the importance of Shaivism by then.[35][54] The most important Shaiva Puranas of this period include the Shiva Purana and the Linga Purana.[35][61]

Post-Gupta development

 
Shiva with Trisula, worshipped in Central Asia. Penjikent, Uzbekistan, 7th–8th century CE. Hermitage Museum.

Most of the Gupta kings, beginning with Chandragupta II (Vikramaditya) (375–413 CE) were known as Parama Bhagavatas or Bhagavata Vaishnavas and had been ardent promoters of Vaishnavism.[63][64] But following the Huna invasions, especially those of the Alchon Huns circa 500 CE, the Gupta Empire declined and fragmented, ultimately collapsing completely, with the effect of discrediting Vaishnavism, the religion it had been so ardently promoting.[65] The newly arising regional powers in central and northern India, such as the Aulikaras, the Maukharis, the Maitrakas, the Kalacuris or the Vardhanas preferred adopting Shaivism instead, giving a strong impetus to the development of the worship of Shiva.[65] Vaisnavism remained strong mainly in the territories which had not been affected by these events: South India and Kashmir.[65]

In the early 7th century, the Chinese Buddhist pilgrim Xuanzang (Huen Tsang) visited India and wrote a memoir in Chinese that mentions the prevalence of Shiva temples all over North Indian subcontinent, including in the Hindu Kush region such as Nuristan.[66][67] Between the 5th and 11th century CE, major Shaiva temples had been built in central, southern and eastern regions of the subcontinent, including those at Badami cave temples, Aihole, Elephanta Caves, Ellora Caves (Kailasha, cave 16), Khajuraho, Bhuvaneshwara, Chidambaram, Madurai, and Conjeevaram.[66]

Major scholars of competing Hindu traditions from the second half of the 1st millennium CE, such as Adi Shankara of Advaita Vedanta and Ramanuja of Vaishnavism, mention several Shaiva sects, particularly the four groups: Pashupata, Lakulisha, tantric Shaiva and Kapalika. The description is conflicting, with some texts stating the tantric, puranik and Vedic traditions of Shaivism to be hostile to each other while others suggest them to be amicable sub-traditions. Some texts state that Kapalikas reject the Vedas and are involved in extreme experimentation,[note 2] while others state the Shaiva sub-traditions revere the Vedas but are non-Puranik.[70]

South India

 
Gudimallam Lingam with Shiva standing on Apasmara, variously dated from the 2nd century BCE to the 7th century CE.

Shaivism was the predominant tradition in South India, co-existing with Buddhism and Jainism, before the Vaishnava Alvars launched the Bhakti movement in the 7th century, and influential Vedanta scholars such as Ramanuja developed a philosophical and organizational framework that helped Vaishnava expand. Though both traditions of Hinduism have ancient roots, given their mention in the epics such as the Mahabharata, Shaivism flourished in South India much earlier.[71]

The Mantramarga of Shaivism, according to Alexis Sanderson, provided a template for the later though independent and highly influential Pancaratrika treatises of Vaishnava. This is evidenced in Hindu texts such as the Isvarasamhita, Padmasamhita and Paramesvarasamhita.[71]

 
The 7th to 8th-century Shore Temple at Mahabalipuram is a UNESCO World Heritage site. It features thousands of Shaivism-related sculptures.[72]

Along with the Himalayan region stretching from Kashmir through Nepal, the Shaiva tradition in South India has been one of the largest sources of preserved Shaivism-related manuscripts from ancient and medieval India.[73] The region was also the source of Hindu arts, temple architecture, and merchants who helped spread Shaivism into southeast Asia in early 1st millennium CE.[74][75][76]

There are tens of thousands of Hindu temples where Shiva is either the primary deity or reverentially included in anthropomorphic or aniconic form (lingam, or svayambhu).[77][78] Numerous historic Shaiva temples have survived in Tamil Nadu, Kerala, parts of Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka.[79] Certain regions have a greater density of Shiva temples, such as in the Thanjavur region of Tamil Nadu, where numerous Shaiva temples were built during the Chola empire era, between 800 and 1200 CE.[citation needed] Gudimallam is the oldest known lingam and has been dated to between 3rd to 1st-century BCE. It is a carved five feet high stone lingam with an anthropomorphic image of Shiva on one side. This ancient lingam is in Chittoor district of Andhra Pradesh.[78][80][81]

Southeast Asia

 
An image collage of 1st millennium CE Shaivism icons and temples from Southeast Asia (top left): Shiva in yoga pose, Nandi, Prambanan temple, Yoni-Linga and Hindu temple layout.

Shaivism arrived in a major way in southeast Asia from south India, and to much lesser extent into China and Tibet from the Himalayan region. It co-developed with Buddhism in this region, in many cases.[82] For example, in the Caves of the Thousand Buddhas, a few caves include Shaivism ideas.[83][note 3] The epigraphical and cave arts evidence suggest that Shaiva Mahesvara and Mahayana Buddhism had arrived in Indo-China region in the Funan period, that is in the first half of the 1st millennium CE.[75][76] In Indonesia, temples at archaeological sites and numerous inscription evidence dated to the early period (400 to 700 CE), suggest that Shiva was the highest god. This co-existence of Shaivism and Buddhism in Java continued through about 1500 CE when both Hinduism and Buddhism were replaced with Islam,[85] and persists today in the province of Bali.[86]

The Shaivist and Buddhist traditions overlapped significantly in southeast Asia, particularly in Indonesia, Cambodia, and Vietnam between the 5th and the 15th century. Shaivism and Shiva held the paramount position in ancient Java, Sumatra, Bali, and neighboring islands, though the sub-tradition that developed creatively integrated more ancient beliefs that pre-existed.[87] In the centuries that followed, the merchants and monks who arrived in Southeast Asia, brought Shaivism, Vaishnavism and Buddhism, and these developed into a syncretic, mutually supporting form of traditions.[87][88]

Indonesia

In Balinese Hinduism, Dutch ethnographers further subdivided Siwa (shaivaites) Sampradaya" into five – Kemenuh, Keniten, Mas, Manuba and Petapan. This classification was to accommodate the observed marriage between higher caste Brahmana men with lower caste women.[89]

Beliefs and practices

Shaivism centers around Shiva, but it has many sub-traditions whose theological beliefs and practices vary significantly. They range from dualistic devotional theism to monistic meditative discovery of Shiva within oneself. Within each of these theologies, there are two sub-groups. One sub-group is called Vedic-Puranic, who use the terms such as "Shiva, Mahadeva, Maheshvara and others" synonymously, and they use iconography such as the Linga, Nandi, Trishula (trident), as well as anthropomorphic statues of Shiva in temples to help focus their practices.[90] Another sub-group is called esoteric, which fuses it with abstract Sivata (feminine energy) or Sivatva (neuter abstraction), wherein the theology integrates the goddess (Shakti) and the god (Shiva) with Tantra practices and Agama teachings. There is a considerable overlap between these Shaivas and the Shakta Hindus.[90]

Vedic, Puranik, and esoteric Shaivism

Scholars such as Alexis Sanderson discuss Shaivism in three categories: Vedic, Puranik and non-Puranik (esoteric, tantric).[91][92] They place Vedic and Puranik together given the significant overlap, while placing Non-Puranik esoteric sub-traditions as a separate category.[92]

 
Two female Shaiva ascetics (18th century painting)
  • Vedic-Puranik. The majority within Shaivism follow the Vedic-Puranik traditions. They revere the Vedas, the Puranas and have beliefs that span dualistic theism style Shiva Bhakti (devotionalism) to monistic non-theism dedicated to yoga and meditative lifestyle sometimes with renouncing householder life for monastic pursuits of spirituality.[93] The Yoga practice is particularly pronounced in nondualistic Shaivism, with the practice refined into a methodology such as four-fold upaya: being pathless (anupaya, iccha-less, desire-less), being divine (sambhavopaya, jnana, knowledge-full), being energy (saktopaya, kriya, action-full) and being individual (anavopaya).[94][note 4]
  • Non-Puranik. These are esoteric, minority sub-traditions wherein devotees are initiated (dīkṣa) into a specific cult they prefer. Their goals vary, ranging from liberation in current life (mukti) to seeking pleasures in higher worlds (bhukti). Their means also vary, ranging from meditative atimarga or "outer higher path" versus those whose means are recitation-driven mantras. The atimarga sub-traditions include Pashupatas and Lakula. According to Sanderson, the Pashupatas[note 5] have the oldest heritage, likely from the 2nd century CE, as evidenced by ancient Hindu texts such as the Shanti Parva book of the Mahabharata epic.[91][92] The tantric sub-tradition in this category is traceable to post-8th to post-11th century depending on the region of Indian subcontinent, paralleling the development of Buddhist and Jain tantra traditions in this period.[95] Among these are the dualistic Shaiva Siddhanta and Bhairava Shaivas (non-Saiddhantika), based on whether they recognize any value in Vedic orthopraxy.[96] These sub-traditions cherish secrecy, special symbolic formulae, initiation by a teacher and the pursuit of siddhi (special powers). Some of these traditions also incorporate theistic ideas, elaborate geometric yantra with embedded spiritual meaning, mantras and rituals.[95][97][98]

Shaivism versus other Hindu traditions

Shaivism sub-traditions subscribe to various philosophies, are similar in some aspects and differ in others. These traditions compare with Vaishnavism, Shaktism and Smartism as follows:

Comparison of Shaivism with other traditions
Shaiva Traditions Vaishnava Traditions Shakta Traditions Smarta Traditions References
Scriptural authority Vedas, Upanishads and Agamas Vedas, Upanishads and Agamas Vedas and Upanishads Vedas and Upanishads [5][99]
Supreme deity god Shiva god Vishnu goddess Devi None (Considers Parabrahman to be so) [100][101]
Creator Shiva Vishnu Devi Brahman principle [100][102]
Avatar Minor Key concept Significant Minor [5][103][104]
Monastic life Recommends Accepts Accepts Recommends [5][105][106]
Rituals, Bhakti Affirms[107][108][109] Affirms Affirms Optional[110] [111]
Ahimsa and Vegetarianism Recommends,[107] Optional Affirms Optional Recommends, Optional [112][113]
Free will, Maya, Karma Affirms Affirms Affirms Affirms [100]
Metaphysics Brahman (Shiva), Atman (Self) Brahman (Vishnu), Atman Brahman (Devi), Atman Brahman, Atman [100]
Epistemology
(Pramana)
1. Perception
2. Inference
3. Reliable testimony
4. Self-evident[114]
1. Perception
2. Inference
3. Reliable testimony
1. Perception
2. Inference
3. Reliable testimony
1. Perception
2. Inference
3. Comparison and analogy
4. Postulation, derivation
5. Negative/cognitive proof
6. Reliable testimony
[115][116][117]
Philosophy Dvaita, qualified advaita, advaita Vishishtadvaita, Dvaita, qualified advaita, advaita Shakti-advaita Advaita, qualified advaita [118][119]
Salvation
(Soteriology)
Jivanmukta,
Charya-Kriyā-Yoga-Jnana[120]
Videhamukti, Yoga,
champions householder life
Bhakti, Tantra, Yoga Jivanmukta, Advaita, Yoga,
champions monastic life
[121][122]

Texts

Shaiva manuscripts that have survived
(post-8th century)

Nepal and Himalayan region = 140,000
South India = 8,600
Others (Devanagiri) = 2,000
Bali and SE Asia = Many

—Alexis Sanderson, The Saiva Literature[73][123]

Over its history, Shaivism has been nurtured by numerous texts ranging from scriptures to theological treatises. These include the Vedas and Upanishads, the Agamas, and the Bhasya. According to Gavin Flood – a professor at Oxford University specializing in Shaivism and phenomenology, Shaiva scholars developed a sophisticated theology, in its diverse traditions.[124] Among the notable and influential commentaries by dvaita (dualistic) theistic Shaivism scholars were the 8th century Sadyajoti, the 10th century Ramakantha, 11th century Bhojadeva.[124] The dualistic theology was challenged by the numerous scholars of advaita (nondualistic, monistic) Shaivism persuasion such as the 8th/9th century Vasugupta,[note 6] the 10th century Abhinavagupta and 11th century Kshemaraja, particularly the scholars of the Pratyabhijna, Spanda and Kashmiri Shaivism schools of theologians.[124][126][127]

Vedas and Principal Upanishads

The Vedas and Upanishads are shared scriptures of Hinduism, while the Agamas are sacred texts of specific sub-traditions.[10] The surviving Vedic literature can be traced to the 1st millennium BCE and earlier, while the surviving Agamas can be traced to 1st millennium of the common era.[10] The Vedic literature, in Shaivism, is primary and general, while Agamas are special treatise. In terms of philosophy and spiritual precepts, no Agama that goes against the Vedic literature, states Mariasusai Dhavamony, will be acceptable to the Shaivas.[10] According to David Smith, "a key feature of the Tamil Saiva Siddhanta, one might almost say its defining feature, is the claim that its source lies in the Vedas as well as the Agamas, in what it calls the Vedagamas".[9] This school's view can be summed as,

The Veda is the cow, the true Agama its milk.

— Umapati, Translated by David Smith[9]

The Śvetāśvatara Upanishad (400–200 BCE)[128] is the earliest textual exposition of a systematic philosophy of Shaivism.[note 7]

Shaiva minor Upanishads

Shaivism-inspired scholars authored 14 Shiva-focussed Upanishads that are called the Shaiva Upanishads.[129] These are considered part of 95 minor Upanishads in the Muktikā Upanishadic corpus of Hindu literature.[129][130] The earliest among these were likely composed in 1st millennium BCE, while the last ones in the late medieval era.[131]

The Shaiva Upanishads present diverse ideas, ranging from bhakti-style theistic dualism themes to a synthesis of Shaiva ideas with Advaitic (nondualism), Yoga, Vaishnava and Shakti themes.[132]

Shaivism Upanishads
Shaiva Upanishad Composition date Topics Reference
Kaivalya Upanishad 1st millennium BCE Shiva, Atman, Brahman, Sannyasa, Self-knowledge [133][134][135]
Atharvashiras Upanishad 1st millennium BCE Rudra, Atman, Brahman, Om, monism [136][137][138]
Atharvashikha Upanishad 1st millennium BCE Shiva, Om, Brahman, chanting, meditation [139]
Brihajjabala Upanishad Late medieval, post-12th century Shiva, sacred ash, prayer beads, Tripundra tilaka [140]
Kalagni Rudra Upanishad Unknown Meaning of Tripundra (three lines tilaka), Ritual Shaivism [141][142]
Dakshinamurti Upanishad Unknown Dakshinamurti as an aspect of Shiva, Atman, monism [143]
Sharabha Upanishad Unknown Shiva as Sharabha [144]
Akshamalika Upanishad Late medieval, post-12th century CE Rosary, japa, mantras, Om, Shiva, symbolism in Shaivism iconography [145]
Rudrahridaya Upanishad Unknown Rudra-Uma, Male-Female are inseparable, nondualism [146]
Bhasmajabala Upanishad Late medieval, post-12th century Shiva, sacred ash, body art, iconography, why rituals and Varanasi are important [147][148]
Rudrakshajabala Upanishad After the 10th century Shiva, Bhairava, Rudraksha beads and mantra recitation [129]
Ganapati Upanishad 16th or 17th century Ganesha, Shiva, Brahman, Atman, Om, Satcitananda [149]
Pancabrahma Upanishad About 7th century CE Shiva, Sadashiva, nondualism, So'ham, Atman, Brahman, self-knowledge [150][151]
Jabali Upanishad unknown Shiva, Pashupata theology, significance of ash and body art [152]

Shaiva Agamas

The Agama texts of Shaivism are another important foundation of Shaivism theology.[153] These texts include Shaiva cosmology, epistemology, philosophical doctrines, precepts on meditation and practices, four kinds of yoga, mantras, meanings and manuals for Shaiva temples, and other elements of practice.[154][155] These canonical texts exist in Sanskrit[154] and in south Indian languages such as Tamil.[156]

The Agamas present a diverse range of philosophies, ranging from theistic dualism to absolute monism.[157][158] In Shaivism, there are ten dualistic (dvaita) Agama texts, eighteen qualified monism-cum-dualism (bhedabheda) Agama texts and sixty four monism (advaita) Agama texts.[11] The Bhairava Shastras are monistic, while Shiva Shastras are dualistic.[107][159]

The Agama texts of Shaiva and Vaishnava schools are premised on existence of Atman (Self) and the existence of an Ultimate Reality (Brahman) which is considered identical to Shiva in Shaivism.[7] The texts differ in the relation between the two. Some assert the dualistic philosophy of the individual Self and Ultimate Reality being different, while others state a Oneness between the two.[7] Kashmir Shaiva Agamas posit absolute oneness, that is God (Shiva) is within man, God is within every being, God is present everywhere in the world including all non-living beings, and there is no spiritual difference between life, matter, man and God.[7] While Agamas present diverse theology, in terms of philosophy and spiritual precepts, no Agama that goes against the Vedic literature, states Dhavamony, has been acceptable to the Shaivas.[10]

Traditions

 
Kauai Hindu monastery in Kauai Island in Hawaii is the only Hindu Monastery(shaivaite) in the United States.

Shaivism is ancient, and over time it developed many sub-traditions. These broadly existed and are studied in three groups: theistic dualism, nontheistic monism, and those that combine features or practices of the two.[160][161] Sanderson presents the historic classification found in Indian texts,[162] namely Atimarga of the Shaiva monks and Mantramarga that was followed by both the renunciates (sannyasi) and householders (grihastha) in Shaivism.[163] Sub-traditions of Shaivas did not exclusively focus on Shiva, but others such as the Devi (goddess) Shaktism.[164]

Sannyasi Shaiva: Atimarga

The Atimarga branch of Shaivism emphasizes liberation (salvation) – or the end of all Dukkha – as the primary goal of spiritual pursuits.[165] It was the path for Shaiva ascetics, in contrast to Shaiva householders whose path was described as Mantramarga and who sought both salvation as well as the yogi-siddhi powers and pleasures in life.[166] The Atimarga revered the Vedic sources of Shaivism, and sometimes referred to in ancient Indian texts as Raudra (from Vedic Rudra).[167]

Pashupata Atimargi

 
Lakulisha at Sangameshvara Temple at Mahakuta, Karnataka (Chalukya, 7th century CE). His 5th–10th century ithyphallic statues[note 1] are also found in seated yogi position in Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh and elsewhere.[168]

Pashupata: (IAST: Pāśupatas) are the Shaivite sub-tradition with the oldest heritage, as evidenced by Indian texts dated to around the start of the common era.[91][92] It is a monist tradition, that considers Shiva to be within oneself, in every being and everything observed. The Pashupata path to liberation is one of asceticism that is traditionally restricted to Brahmin males.[169] Pashupata theology, according to Shiva Sutras, aims for a spiritual state of consciousness where the Pashupata yogi "abides in one's own unfettered nature", where the external rituals feel unnecessary, where every moment and every action becomes an internal vow, a spiritual ritual unto itself.[170]

The Pashupatas derive their Sanskrit name from two words: Pashu (beast) and Pati (lord), where the chaotic and ignorant state, one imprisoned by bondage and assumptions, is conceptualized as the beast,[171] and the Atman (Self, Shiva) that is present eternally everywhere as the Pati.[172] The tradition aims at realizing the state of being one with Shiva within and everywhere. It has extensive literature,[172][173] and a fivefold path of spiritual practice that starts with external practices, evolving into internal practices and ultimately meditative yoga, with the aim of overcoming all suffering (Dukkha) and reaching the state of bliss (Ananda).[174][175]

The tradition is attributed to a sage from Gujarat named Lakulisha (~2nd century CE).[176] He is the purported author of the Pashupata-sutra, a foundational text of this tradition. Other texts include the bhasya (commentary) on Pashupata-sutra by Kaudinya, the Gaṇakārikā, Pañchārtha bhāshyadipikā and Rāśikara-bhāshya.[165] The Pashupatha monastic path was available to anyone of any age, but it required renunciation from four Ashrama (stage) into the fifth stage of Siddha-Ashrama. The path started as a life near a Shiva temple and silent meditation, then a stage when the ascetic left the temple and did karma exchange (be cursed by others, but never curse back). He then moved to the third stage of life where he lived like a loner in a cave or abandoned places or Himalayan mountains, and towards the end of his life he moved to a cremation ground, surviving on little, peacefully awaiting his death.[165]

The Pashupatas have been particularly prominent in Gujarat, Rajasthan, Kashmir and Nepal. The community is found in many parts of the Indian subcontinent.[177] In the late medieval era, Pashupatas Shaiva ascetics became extinct.[171][178]

Lakula Atimargi

This second division of the Atimarga developed from the Pashupatas. Their fundamental text too was the Pashupata Sutras. They differed from Pashupata Atimargi in that they departed radically from the Vedic teachings, respected no Vedic or social customs. He would walk around, for example, almost naked, drank liquor in public, and used a human skull as his begging bowl for food.[179] The Lakula Shaiva ascetic recognized no act nor words as forbidden, he freely did whatever he felt like, much like the classical depiction of his deity Rudra in ancient Hindu texts. However, according to Alexis Sanderson, the Lakula ascetic was strictly celibate and did not engage in sex.[179]

Secondary literature, such as those written by Kashmiri Ksemaraja, suggest that the Lakula had their canons on theology, rituals and literature on pramanas (epistemology). However, their primary texts are believed to be lost, and have not survived into the modern era.[179]

Grihastha and Sannyasi Shaiva: Mantramarga

 
 
The horizontal three ash lines (Tripundra) with a red mark on forehead is a revered mark across Shaiva traditions symbolizing Om.[180][181]

"Mantramārga" (Sanskrit: मन्त्रमार्ग, "the path of mantras") has been the Shaiva tradition for both householders and monks.[163] It grew from the Atimarga tradition.[182] This tradition sought not just liberation from Dukkha (suffering, unsatisfactoriness), but special powers (siddhi) and pleasures (bhoga), both in this life and next.[183] The siddhi were particularly the pursuit of Mantramarga monks, and it is this sub-tradition that experimented with a great diversity of rites, deities, rituals, yogic techniques and mantras.[182] Both the Mantramarga and Atimarga are ancient traditions, more ancient than the date of their texts that have survived, according to Sanderson.[182] Mantramārga grew to become a dominant form of Shaivism in this period. It also spread outside of India into Southeast Asia's Khmer Empire, Java, Bali and Cham.[184][185]

The Mantramarga tradition created the Shaiva Agamas and Shaiva tantra (technique) texts. This literature presented new forms of ritual, yoga and mantra.[186] This literature was highly influential not just to Shaivism, but to all traditions of Hinduism, as well as to Buddhism and Jainism.[187] Mantramarga had both theistic and monistic themes, which co-evolved and influenced each other. The tantra texts reflect this, where the collection contains both dualistic and non-dualistic theologies. The theism in the tantra texts parallel those found in Vaishnavism and Shaktism.[188][189] Shaiva Siddhanta is a major subtradition that emphasized dualism during much of its history.[189]

Shaivism has had strong nondualistic (advaita) sub-traditions.[190][191] Its central premise has been that the Atman (Self) of every being is identical to Shiva, its various practices and pursuits directed at understanding and being one with the Shiva within. This monism is close but differs somewhat from the monism found in Advaita Vedanta of Adi Shankara. Unlike Shankara's Advaita, Shaivism monist schools consider Maya as Shakti, or energy and creative primordial power that explains and propels the existential diversity.[190]

Srikantha, influenced by Ramanuja, formulated Shaiva Vishishtadvaita.[192] In this theology, Atman (Self) is not identical with Brahman, but shares with the Supreme all its qualities. Appayya Dikshita (1520–1592), an Advaita scholar, proposed pure monism, and his ideas influenced Shaiva in the Karnataka region. His Shaiva Advaita doctrine is inscribed on the walls of Kalakanthesvara temple in Adaiyappalam (Tiruvannamalai district).[193][194]

Shaiva Siddhanta

 
Tirumular, the great Tamil Śaivasiddhānta poet and mystic saint (siddha).

The Śaivasiddhānta ("the established doctrine of Shiva") is the earliest sampradaya (tradition, lineage) of Tantric Shaivism, dating from the 5th century.[189][195] The tradition emphasizes loving devotion to Shiva,[196] uses 5th to 9th-century Tamil hymns called Tirumurai. A key philosophical text of this sub-tradition was composed by 13th-century Meykandar.[197] This theology presents three universal realities: the pashu (individual Self), the pati (lord, Shiva), and the pasha (Self's bondage) through ignorance, karma and maya. The tradition teaches ethical living, service to the community and through one's work, loving worship, yoga practice and discipline, continuous learning and self-knowledge as means for liberating the individual Self from bondage.[197][198]

The tradition may have originated in Kashmir where it developed a sophisticated theology propagated by theologians Sadyojoti, Bhatta Nārāyanakantha and his son Bhatta Rāmakantha (c. 950–1000).[199] However, after the arrival of Islamic rulers in north India, it thrived in the south.[200] The philosophy of Shaiva Siddhanta, is particularly popular in south India, Sri Lanka, Malaysia and Singapore.[201]

The historic Shaiva Siddhanta literature is an enormous body of texts.[202] The tradition includes both Shiva and Shakti (goddess), but with a growing emphasis on metaphysical abstraction.[202] Unlike the experimenters of Atimarga tradition and other sub-traditions of Mantramarga, states Sanderson, the Shaiva Siddhanta tradition had no ritual offering or consumption of "alcoholic drinks, blood or meat". Their practices focussed on abstract ideas of spirituality,[202] worship and loving devotion to Shiva as SadaShiva, and taught the authority of the Vedas and Shaiva Agamas.[203][204] This tradition diversified in its ideas over time, with some of its scholars integrating a non-dualistic theology.[205]

Nayanars

 
Nayanars Shaiva poet-saints are credited with Bhakti movement in Shaivism. It included three women saints, such as the 6th-century Karaikkal Ammaiyar.[206]

By the 7th century, the Nayanars, a tradition of poet-saints in the bhakti tradition developed in ancient Tamil Nadu with a focus on Shiva, comparable to that of the Vaisnava Alvars.[207] The devotional Tamil poems of the Nayanars are divided into eleven collections together known as Tirumurai, along with a Tamil Purana called the Periya Puranam. The first seven collections are known as the Tevaram and are regarded by Tamils as equivalent to the Vedas.[208] They were composed in the 7th century by Sambandar, Appar, and Sundarar.[209]

Tirumular (also spelled Tirumūlār or Tirumūlar), the author of the Tirumantiram (also spelled Tirumandiram) is considered by Tattwananda to be the earliest exponent of Shaivism in Tamil areas.[210] Tirumular is dated as 7th or 8th century by Maurice Winternitz.[211] The Tirumantiram is a primary source for the system of Shaiva Siddhanta, being the tenth book of its canon.[212] The Tiruvacakam by Manikkavacagar is an important collection of hymns.[213]

Tantra Diksha traditions

The main element of all Shaiva Tantra is the practice of diksha, a ceremonial initiation in which divinely revealed mantras are given to the initiate by a Guru.[214]

A notable feature of some "left tantra" ascetics was their pursuit of siddhis (supernatural abilities) and bala (powers), such as averting danger (santih) and the ability to harm enemies (abhicarah).[215][216][217] Ganachakras, ritual feasts, would sometimes be held in cemeteries and cremation grounds and featured possession by powerful female deities called Yoginis.[214][218] The cult of Yoginis aimed to gain special powers through esoteric worship of the Shakti or the feminine aspects of the divine. The groups included sisterhoods that participated in the rites.[218]

Some traditions defined special powers differently. For example, the Kashmiri tantrics explain the powers as anima (awareness than one is present in everything), laghima (lightness, be free from presumed diversity or differences), mahima (heaviness, realize one's limit is beyond one's own consciousness), prapti (attain, be restful and at peace with one's own nature), prakamya (forebearance, grasp and accept cosmic diversity), vasita (control, realize that one always has power to do whatever one wants), isitva (self lordship, a yogi is always free).[219] More broadly, the tantric sub-traditions sought nondual knowledge and enlightening liberation by abandoning all rituals, and with the help of reasoning (yuktih), scriptures (sastras) and the initiating Guru.[220][217]

Kashmir Shaivism

 
A 3rd century Nandi statue from Kashmir.

Kashmir Shaivism is an influential tradition within Shaivism that emerged in Kashmir in the 1st millennium CE and thrived in early centuries of the 2nd millennium before the region was overwhelmed by the Islamic invasions from the Hindu Kush region.[221] The Kashmir Shaivism traditions became nearly extinct due to Islam except for their preservation by Kashmiri Pandits.[222][223]

Kashmir Shaivism has been a nondualistic school,[224][225] and is distinct from the dualistic Shaiva Siddhānta tradition that also existed in medieval Kashmir.[226][227][228] A notable philosophy of monistic Kashmiri Shaivism has been the Pratyabhijna ideas, particularly those by the 10th century scholar Utpaladeva and 11th century Abhinavagupta and Kshemaraja.[229][230] Their extensive texts established the Shaiva theology and philosophy in an advaita (monism) framework.[222][227] The Siva Sutras of 9th century Vasugupta and his ideas about Spanda have also been influential to this and other Shaiva sub-traditions, but it is probable that much older Shaiva texts once existed.[227][231]

A notable feature of Kashmir Shaivism was its openness and integration of ideas from Shaktism, Vaishnavism and Vajrayana Buddhism.[222] For example, one sub-tradition of Kashmir Shaivism adopts Goddess worship (Shaktism) by stating that the approach to god Shiva is through goddess Shakti. This tradition combined monistic ideas with tantric practices. Another idea of this school was Trika, or modal triads of Shakti and cosmology as developed by Somananda in the early 10th century.[222][228][232]

Nath

 
Goraknath founded the Nath Shaiva monastic movement.

Nath: a Shaiva subtradition that emerged from a much older Siddha tradition based on Yoga.[233] The Nath consider Shiva as "Adinatha" or the first guru, and it has been a small but notable and influential movement in India whose devotees were called "Yogi" or "Jogi", given their monastic unconventional ways and emphasis on Yoga.[234][235][236]

Nath theology integrated philosophy from Advaita Vedanta and Buddhism traditions. Their unconventional ways challenged all orthodox premises, exploring dark and shunned practices of society as a means to understanding theology and gaining inner powers. The tradition traces itself to 9th or 10th century Matsyendranath and to ideas and organization developed by Gorakshanath.[233] They combined both theistic practices such as worshipping goddesses and their historic Gurus in temples, as well monistic goals of achieving liberation or jivan-mukti while alive, by reaching the perfect (siddha) state of realizing oneness of self and everything with Shiva.[237][233]

They formed monastic organisations,[233] and some of them metamorphosed into warrior ascetics to resist persecution during the Islamic rule of the Indian subcontinent.[238][239][240]

Lingayatism

 
A necklace with pendant containing linga symbol of Shiva are worn by Lingayats.[241]

Lingayatism, also known as Veera Shaivism: is a distinct Shaivite religious tradition in India.[242][243][244] It was founded by the 12th-century philosopher and statesman Basava and spread by his followers, called Sharanas.[245]

Lingayatism emphasizes qualified monism and bhakti (loving devotion) to Shiva, with philosophical foundations similar to those of the 11th–12th-century South Indian philosopher Ramanuja.[242] Its worship is notable for the iconographic form of Ishtalinga, which the adherents wear.[246][247] Large communities of Lingayats are found in the south Indian state of Karnataka and nearby regions.[242][248][249] Lingayatism has its own theological literature with sophisticated theoretical sub-traditions.[250]

They were influential in the Hindu Vijayanagara Empire that reversed the territorial gains of Muslim rulers, after the invasions of the Deccan region first by Delhi Sultanate and later other Sultanates. Lingayats consider their scripture to be Basava Purana, which was completed in 1369 during the reign of Vijayanagara ruler Bukka Raya I.[251][252] Lingayat (Veerashaiva) thinkers rejected the custodial hold of Brahmins over the Vedas and the shastras, but they did not outright reject the Vedic knowledge.[253][254] The 13th-century Telugu Virashaiva poet Palkuriki Somanatha, the author of the scripture of Lingayatism, for example asserted, "Virashaivism fully conformed to the Vedas and the shastras."[253][254]

Demography

There are no census data available on demographic history or trends for the traditions within Hinduism.[255] Large Shaivite communities exist in the Southern Indian states of Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Telangana, Kerala and Andhra Pradesh as well as in Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh and Uttrakhand. Substantial communities are also found in Haryana, Maharashtra and central Uttar Pradesh.[256][257]

 
Shaivism and Buddhism have co-developed in many regions. Above a syncretic image of Yoni-Linga with four reliefs of the Buddha in a Vajrayana temple.

According to Galvin Flood, Shaivism and Shaktism traditions are difficult to separate, as many Shaiva Hindus revere the goddess Shakti regularly.[258] The denominations of Hinduism, states Julius Lipner, are unlike those found in major religions of the world, because Hindu denominations are fuzzy with individuals revering gods and goddesses polycentrically, with many Shaiva and Vaishnava adherents recognizing Sri (Lakshmi), Parvati, Saraswati and other aspects of the goddess Devi. Similarly, Shakta Hindus revere Shiva and goddesses such as Parvati, Durga, Radha, Sita and Saraswati important in Shaiva and Vaishnava traditions.[259]

Influence

Shiva is a pan-Hindu god and Shaivism ideas on Yoga and as the god of performance arts (Nataraja) have been influential on all traditions of Hinduism.

Shaivism was highly influential in southeast Asia from the late 6th century onwards, particularly the Khmer and Cham kingdoms of Indo-China, and across the major islands of Indonesia such as Sumatra, Java and Bali.[260] This influence on classical Cambodia, Vietnam and Thailand continued when Mahayana Buddhism arrived with the same Indians.[261][262]

In Shaivism of Indonesia, the popular name for Shiva has been Bhattara Guru, which is derived from Sanskrit Bhattaraka which means "noble lord".[263] He is conceptualized as a kind spiritual teacher, the first of all Gurus in Indonesian Hindu texts, mirroring the Dakshinamurti aspect of Shiva in the Indian subcontinent.[264] However, the Bhattara Guru has more aspects than the Indian Shiva, as the Indonesian Hindus blended their spirits and heroes with him. Bhattara Guru's wife in southeast Asia is the same Hindu deity Durga, who has been popular since ancient times, and she too has a complex character with benevolent and fierce manifestations, each visualized with different names such as Uma, Sri, Kali and others.[265][266] Shiva has been called Sadasiva, Paramasiva, Mahadeva in benevolent forms, and Kala, Bhairava, Mahakala in his fierce forms.[266] The Indonesian Hindu texts present the same philosophical diversity of Shaivism traditions found on the subcontinent. However, among the texts that have survived into the contemporary era, the more common are of those of Shaiva Siddhanta (locally also called Siwa Siddhanta, Sridanta).[267]

As Bhakti movement ideas spread in South India, Shaivite devotionalism became a potent movement in Karnataka and Tamil Nadu. Shaivism was adopted by several ruling Hindu dynasties as the state religion (though other Hindu traditions, Buddhism and Jainism continued in parallel), including the Chola and the Rajputs. A similar trend was witnessed in early medieval Indonesia with the Majapahit empire and pre-Islamic Malaya.[268][269] In the Himalayan Hindu kingdom of Nepal, Shaivism remained a popular form of Hinduism and co-evolved with Mahayana and Vajrayana Buddhism.

 
A seated Ardhanarishvara symbolically presenting the feminine Shakti as inseparable part of masculine Shiva.

Shaktism

The goddess tradition of Hinduism called Shaktism is closely related to Shaivism. In many regions of India, not only did the ideas of Shaivism influence the evolution of Shaktism, Shaivism itself got influenced by it and progressively subsumed the reverence for the divine feminine (Devi) as an equal and essential partner of divine masculine (Shiva).[270] The goddess Shakti in eastern states of India is considered the inseparable partner of god Shiva. According to Galvin Flood, the closeness between Shaivism and Shaktism traditions is such that these traditions of Hinduism are at times difficult to separate.[258] Some Shaiva worship in Shiva and Shakti temples.[8]

Smarta Tradition

Shiva is a part of the Smarta Tradition, sometimes referred to as Smartism, another tradition of Hinduism.[271] The Smarta Hindus are associated with the Advaita Vedanta theology, and their practices include an interim step that incorporates simultaneous reverence for five deities, which includes Shiva along with Vishnu, Surya, Devi and Ganesha. This is called the Panchayatana puja. The Smartas thus accept the primary deity of Shaivism as a means to their spiritual goals.[25]

Philosophically, the Smarta tradition emphasizes that all idols (murti) are icons of saguna Brahman, a means to realizing the abstract Ultimate Reality called nirguna Brahman. The five or six icons are seen by Smartas as multiple representations of the one Saguna Brahman (i.e., a personal God with form), rather than as distinct beings.[272][273] The ultimate goal in this practice is to transition past the use of icons, then follow a philosophical and meditative path to understanding the oneness of Atman (Self) and Brahman (metaphysical Ultimate Reality) – as "That art Thou".[271][274][275]

Panchayatana puja that incorporates Shiva became popular in medieval India and is attributed to 8th century Adi Shankara,[271][274] but archaeological evidence suggests that this practice long predates the birth of Adi Shankara. Many Panchayatana mandalas and temples have been uncovered that are from the Gupta Empire period, and one Panchayatana set from the village of Nand (about 24 kilometers from Ajmer) has been dated to belong to the Kushan Empire era (pre-300 CE).[276] According to James Harle, major Hindu temples from 1st millennium CE commonly embedded the pancayatana architecture, from Odisha to Karnataka to Kashmir. Large temples often present multiple deities in the same temple complex, while some explicitly include fusion deities such as Harihara (half Shiva, half Vishnu).[275]

Vaishnavism

 
 
Shaivism iconography in Cambodia, at Kbal Spean river site. As in India, the site also co-features Vaishnavism-related iconography.[277]

Vaishnava texts reverentially mention Shiva. For example, the Vishnu Purana primarily focuses on the theology of Hindu god Vishnu and his avatars such as Krishna, but it praises Brahma and Shiva and asserts that they are one with Vishnu.[278] The Vishnu Sahasranama in the Mahabharata list a thousand attributes and epithets of Vishnu. The list identifies Shiva with Vishnu.[279]

Reverential inclusion of Shaiva ideas and iconography are very common in major Vaishnava temples, such as Dakshinamurti symbolism of Shaiva thought is often enshrined on the southern wall of the main temple of major Vaishnava temples in peninsular India.[280] Harihara temples in and outside the Indian subcontinent have historically combined Shiva and Vishnu, such as at the Lingaraj Mahaprabhu temple in Bhubaneshwar, Odisha. According to Julius Lipner, Vaishnavism traditions such as Sri Vaishnavism embrace Shiva, Ganesha and others, not as distinct deities of polytheism, but as polymorphic manifestation of the same supreme divine principle, providing the devotee a polycentric access to the spiritual.[281]

Similarly, Shaiva traditions have reverentially embraced other gods and goddesses as manifestation of the same divine.[282] The Skanda Purana, for example in section 6.254.100 states, "He who is Shiva is Vishnu, he who is Vishnu is Sadashiva".[283]

Sauraism (Sun deity)

The sun god called Surya is an ancient deity of Hinduism, and several ancient Hindu kingdoms particularly in the northwest and eastern regions of the Indian subcontinent revered Surya. These devotees called Sauras once had a large corpus of theological texts, and Shaivism literature reverentially acknowledges these.[284] For example, the Shaiva text Srikanthiyasamhita mentions 85 Saura texts, almost all of which are believed to have been lost during the Islamic invasion and rule period, except for large excerpts found embedded in Shaiva manuscripts discovered in the Himalayan mountains. Shaivism incorporated Saura ideas, and the surviving Saura manuscripts such as Saurasamhita acknowledge the influence of Shaivism, according to Alexis Sanderson, assigning "itself to the canon of Shaiva text Vathula-Kalottara.[284]

Yoga movements

 
Many Shaiva temples present Shiva in yoga pose.

Yoga and meditation has been an integral part of Shaivism, and it has been a major innovator of techniques such as those of Hatha Yoga.[285][286][287] Many major Shiva temples and Shaiva tritha (pilgrimage) centers depict anthropomorphic iconography of Shiva as a giant statue wherein Shiva is a loner yogi meditating,[288] as do Shaiva texts.[289]

In several Shaiva traditions such as the Kashmir Shaivism, anyone who seeks personal understanding and spiritual growth has been called a Yogi. The Shiva Sutras (aphorisms) of Shaivism teach yoga in many forms. According to Mark Dyczkowski, yoga – which literally means "union" – to this tradition has meant the "realisation of our true inherent nature which is inherently greater than our thoughts can ever conceive", and that the goal of yoga is to be the "free, eternal, blissful, perfect, infinite spiritually conscious" one is.[290]

Many Yoga-emphasizing Shaiva traditions emerged in medieval India, who refined yoga methods such as by introducing Hatha Yoga techniques. One such movement had been the Nath Yogis, a Shaivism sub-tradition that integrated philosophy from Advaita Vedanta and Buddhism traditions. It was founded by Matsyendranath and further developed by Gorakshanath.[235][236][291] The texts of these Yoga emphasizing Hindu traditions present their ideas in Shaiva context.[note 8]

 
Dancing Shiva Nataraja at the 6th century Badami cave temples.

Hindu performance arts

Shiva is the lord of dance and dramatic arts in Hinduism.[293][294][295] This is celebrated in Shaiva temples as Nataraja, which typically shows Shiva dancing in one of the poses in the ancient Hindu text on performance arts called the Natya Shastra.[294][296][297]

Dancing Shiva as a metaphor for celebrating life and arts is very common in ancient and medieval Hindu temples. For example, it is found in Badami cave temples, Ellora Caves, Khajuraho, Chidambaram and others. The Shaiva link to the performance arts is celebrated in Indian classical dances such as Bharatanatyam and Chhau.[298][299][300]

Buddhism

Buddhism and Shaivism have interacted and influenced each other since ancient times, in both South Asia and Southeast Asia. Their Siddhas and esoteric traditions, in particular, have overlapped to an extent where Buddhists and Hindus would worship in the same temple such as in the Seto Machindranath. In southeast Asia, the two traditions were not presented in competitive or polemical terms, rather as two alternate paths that lead to the same goals of liberation, with theologians disagreeing which of these is faster and simpler.[301] Scholars disagree whether a syncretic tradition emerged from Buddhism and Shaivism, or it was a coalition with free borrowing of ideas, but they agree that the two traditions co-existed peacefully.[302]

The earliest evidence of a close relationship between Shaivism and Buddhism comes from the archaeological sites and damaged sculptures from the northwest Indian subcontinent, such as Gandhara. These are dated to about the 1st-century CE, with Shiva depicted in Buddhist arts.[303][note 9] The Buddhist Avalokiteshvara is linked to Shiva in many of these arts,[304] but in others Shiva is linked to Bodhisattva Maitreya with he shown as carrying his own water pot like Vedic priests.[303] According to Richard Blurton, the ancient works show that the Bodhisattva of Compassion in Buddhism has many features in common with Shiva in Shaivism.[304] The Shaiva Hindu and Buddhist syncretism continues in the contemporary era in the island of Bali, Indonesia.[305] In Central Asian Buddhism, and its historic arts, syncretism and a shared expression of Shaivism, Buddhism and Tantra themes has been common.[306]

The syncretism between Buddhism and Shaivism was particularly marked in southeast Asia, but this was not unique, rather it was a common phenomenon also observed in the eastern regions of the Indian subcontinent, the south and the Himalayan regions.[87] This tradition continues in predominantly Hindu Bali Indonesia in the modern era, where Buddha is considered the younger brother of Shiva.[87][note 10] In the pre-Islamic Java, Shaivism and Buddhism were considered very close and allied religions, though not identical religions.[308][note 11] This idea is also found in the sculptures and temples in the eastern states of India and the Himalayan region. For example, Hindu temples in these regions show Harihara (half Shiva, half Vishnu) flanked by a standing Buddha on its right and a standing Surya (Hindu Sun god) on left.[310][311]

On major festivals of Bali Hindus, such as the Nyepi – a "festival of silence", the observations are officiated by both Buddhist and Shaiva priests.[87][312][313]

Jainism

Jainism co-existed with Shaiva culture since ancient times, particularly in western and southern India where it received royal support from Hindu kings of Chaulukya, Ganga and Rashtrakuta dynasties.[314] In late 1st millennium CE, Jainism too developed a Shaiva-like tantric ritual culture with Mantra-goddesses.[314][315] These Jain rituals were aimed at mundane benefits using japas (mantra recitation) and making offerings into Homa fire.[314]

According to Alexis Sanderson, the link and development of Shaiva goddesses into Jaina goddess is more transparent than a similar connection between Shaivism and Buddhism.[316] The 11th-century Jain text ‘’Bhairavapadmavatikalpa’’, for example, equates Padmavati of Jainism with Tripura-bhairavi of Shaivism and Shaktism. Among the major goddesses of Jainism that are rooted in Hindu pantheon, particularly Shaiva, include Lakshmi and Vagishvari (Sarasvati) of the higher world in Jain cosmology, Vidyadevis of the middle world, and Yakshis such as Ambika, Cakreshvari, Padmavati and Jvalamalini of the lower world according to Jainism.[314]

Shaiva-Shakti iconography is found in major Jain temples. For example, the Osian temple of Jainism near Jodhpur features Chamunda, Durga, Sitala, and a naked Bhairava.[317] While Shaiva and Jain practices had considerable overlap, the interaction between the Jain community and Shaiva community differed on the acceptance of ritual animal sacrifices before goddesses. Jain remained strictly vegetarian and avoided animal sacrifice, while Shaiva accepted the practice.[318]

Temples and pilgrimage

 
 
 
Sivasagar
 
 
 
Varanasi
 
Badrinath
 
Puri
 
Khajuraho
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Bhairavanath
 
 
Taraknath
class=notpageimage|
Major Shaiva Hindu temple sites. Orange markers are UNESCO world heritage sites.

Shaiva Puranas, Agamas and other regional literature refer to temples by various terms such as Mandir, Shivayatana, Shivalaya, Shambhunatha, Jyotirlingam, Shristhala, Chattraka, Bhavaggana, Bhuvaneshvara, Goputika, Harayatana, Kailasha, Mahadevagriha, Saudhala and others.[319] In Southeast Asia Shaiva temples are called Candi (Java),[320] Pura (Bali),[321] and Wat (Cambodia and nearby regions).[322][323]

Many of the Shiva-related pilgrimage sites such as Varanasi, Amarnath, Kedarnath, Somnath, and others are broadly considered holy in Hinduism. They are called kṣétra (Sanskrit: क्षेत्र[324]). A kṣétra has many temples, including one or more major ones. These temples and its location attracts pilgrimage called tirtha (or tirthayatra).[325]

Many of the historic Puranas literature embed tourism guide to Shaivism-related pilgrimage centers and temples.[326] For example, the Skanda Purana deals primarily with Tirtha Mahatmyas (pilgrimage travel guides) to numerous geographical points,[326] but also includes a chapter stating that a temple and tirtha is ultimately a state of mind and virtuous everyday life.[327][328]

Major rivers of the Indian subcontinent and their confluence (sangam), natural springs, origin of Ganges River (and pancha-ganga), along with high mountains such as Kailasha with Mansovar Lake are particularly revered spots in Shaivism.[329][330] Twelve jyotirlinga sites across India have been particularly important pilgrimage sites in Shaivism representing the radiant light (jyoti) of infiniteness,[331][332][333] as per Śiva Mahāpurāṇa.[334] They are Somnatha, Mallikarjuna, Mahakaleshwar, Omkareshwar, Kedarnatha, Bhimashankar, Visheshvara, Trayambakesvara, Vaidyanatha, Nageshvara, Rameshvara and Grishneshwar.[330] Other texts mention five Kedras (Kedarnatha, Tunganatha, Rudranatha, Madhyamesvara and Kalpeshvara), five Badri (Badrinatha, Pandukeshvara, Sujnanien, Anni matha and Urghava), snow lingam of Amarnatha, flame of Jwalamukhi, all of the Narmada River, and others.[330] Kashi (Varanasi) is declared as particularly special in numerous Shaiva texts and Upanishads, as well as in the pan-Hindu Sannyasa Upanishads such as the Jabala Upanishad.[335][336]

The early Bhakti movement poets of Shaivism composed poems about pilgrimage and temples, using these sites as metaphors for internal spiritual journey.[337][338]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ a b The ithyphallic representation of the erect shape connotes the very opposite in this context.[339] It contextualize "seminal retention" and practice of celibacy[340] (illustration of Urdhva Retas),[341][342] and represents Lakulisha as "he stands for complete complete control of the senses, and for the supreme carnal renunciation".[339]
  2. ^ Kapalikas are alleged to smear their body with ashes from the cremation ground, revered the fierce Bhairava form of Shiva, engage in rituals with blood, meat, alcohol, and sexual fluids. However, states David Lorenzen, there is a paucity of primary sources on Kapalikas, and historical information about them is available from fictional works and other traditions who disparage them.[68][69]
  3. ^ The Dunhuang caves in north China built from the 4th century onwards are predominantly about the Buddha, but some caves show the meditating Buddha with Hindu deities such as Shiva, Vishnu, Ganesha and Indra.[84]
  4. ^ There is an overlap in this approach with those found in non-puranik tantric rituals.[94]
  5. ^ Pashupatas have both Vedic-Puranik and non-Puranik sub-traditions.[92]
  6. ^ Vasugupta is claimed by two Advaita (Monistic) Shaivism sub-traditions to be their spiritual founder.[125]
  7. ^ For Śvetāśvatara Upanishad as a systematic philosophy of Shaivism see: Chakravarti 1994, p. 9.
  8. ^ For example:

    [It will] be impossible to accomplish one's functions unless one is a master of oneself.
    Therefore strive for self-mastery, seeking to win the way upwards.
    To have self-mastery is to be a yogin (yogitvam). [v. 1–2]
    [...]
    Whatever reality he reaches through the Yoga whose sequence I have just explained,
    he realizes there a state of consciousness whose object is all that pervades.
    Leaving aside what remains outside he should use his vision to penetrate all [within].
    Then once he has transcended all lower realities, he should seek the Shiva level. [v. 51–53]
    [...]
    How can a person whose awareness is overwhelmed by sensual experience stabilize his mind?
    Answer: Shiva did not teach this discipline (sādhanam) for individuals who are not [already] disaffected. [v. 56–57]
    [...]

    — Bhatta Narayanakantha, Mrigendratantra (paraphrased), Transl: Alexis Sanderson[292]
  9. ^ Some images show proto-Vishnu images.[303]
  10. ^ Similarly, in Vaishnavism Hindu tradition, Buddha is considered one of the avatars of Vishnu.[307]
  11. ^ Medieval Hindu texts of Indonesia equate Buddha with Siwa (Shiva) and Janardana (Vishnu).[309]

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B. S. L. Hanumantha Rao, Religion in Andhra: A Survey of Religious Developments in Andhra from Early Times Upto A.D. 1325. Department of Archaeology and Museums, Government of A.P., 1993

External links

  • Encyclopædia Britannica, "Shaivism"
  • Saivism.Net
  • , scholarly studies in Shaivism

shaivism, sanskrit, वसम, रद, romanized, Śaivasampradāyaḥ, major, hindu, traditions, which, worships, shiva, supreme, being, largest, hindu, denominations, incorporates, many, traditions, ranging, from, devotional, dualistic, theism, such, shaiva, siddhanta, yo. Shaivism ˈ ʃ aɪ v ɪ z e m Sanskrit श वसम प रद य romanized Saivasampradayaḥ is one of the major Hindu traditions which worships Shiva 1 2 3 as the Supreme Being One of the largest Hindu denominations 4 5 it incorporates many sub traditions ranging from devotional dualistic theism such as Shaiva Siddhanta to yoga orientated monistic non theism such as Kashmiri Shaivism 6 7 8 It considers both the Vedas and the Agama texts as important sources of theology 9 10 11 ShaivismShiva above is the primary deity of Shaivism Ritual at Muni ki Reti RishikeshShaivism developed as an amalgam of pre Vedic religions and traditions derived from the southern Tamil Shaiva Siddhanta traditions and philosophies which were assimilated in the non Vedic Shiva tradition 12 In the process of Sanskritisation and the formation of Hinduism starting in the last centuries BCE these pre Vedic traditions became aligned with the Vedic deity Rudra and other Vedic deities incorporating the non Vedic Shiva traditions into the Vedic Brahmanical fold 2 13 Both devotional and monistic Shaivism became popular in the 1st millennium CE rapidly becoming the dominant religious tradition of many Hindu kingdoms 2 It arrived in Southeast Asia shortly thereafter leading to the construction of thousands of Shaiva temples on the islands of Indonesia as well as Cambodia and Vietnam co evolving with Buddhism in these regions 14 15 Shaivite theology ranges from Shiva being the creator preserver and destroyer to being the same as the Atman Self within oneself and every living being It is closely related to Shaktism and some Shaivas worship in both Shiva and Shakti temples 8 It is the Hindu tradition that most accepts ascetic life and emphasizes yoga and like other Hindu traditions encourages an individual to discover and be one with Shiva within 6 7 16 The followers of Shaivism are called Shaivites or Saivas Contents 1 Etymology and nomenclature 2 Overview 3 Origins and history 3 1 Indus Valley Civilisation 3 2 Vedic elements 3 3 Emergence of Shaivism 3 4 Puranic Shaivism 3 5 Post Gupta development 3 6 South India 3 7 Southeast Asia 3 7 1 Indonesia 4 Beliefs and practices 4 1 Vedic Puranik and esoteric Shaivism 4 2 Shaivism versus other Hindu traditions 5 Texts 5 1 Vedas and Principal Upanishads 5 2 Shaiva minor Upanishads 5 3 Shaiva Agamas 6 Traditions 6 1 Sannyasi Shaiva Atimarga 6 1 1 Pashupata Atimargi 6 1 2 Lakula Atimargi 6 2 Grihastha and Sannyasi Shaiva Mantramarga 6 2 1 Shaiva Siddhanta 6 2 2 Nayanars 6 2 3 Tantra Diksha traditions 6 2 4 Kashmir Shaivism 6 3 Nath 6 4 Lingayatism 7 Demography 8 Influence 8 1 Shaktism 8 2 Smarta Tradition 8 3 Vaishnavism 8 4 Sauraism Sun deity 8 5 Yoga movements 8 6 Hindu performance arts 8 7 Buddhism 8 8 Jainism 9 Temples and pilgrimage 10 See also 11 Notes 12 References 13 Sources 14 External linksEtymology and nomenclature EditShiva siva Sanskrit श व literally means kind friendly gracious or auspicious 17 18 As a proper name it means The Auspicious One 18 The word Shiva is used as an adjective in the Rig Veda as an epithet for several Rigvedic deities including Rudra 19 The term Shiva also connotes liberation final emancipation and the auspicious one this adjective sense of usage is addressed to many deities in Vedic layers of literature 20 21 The term evolved from the Vedic Rudra Shiva to the noun Shiva in the Epics and the Puranas as an auspicious deity who is the creator reproducer and dissolver 20 22 The Sanskrit word saiva or shaiva means relating to the god Shiva 23 while the related beliefs practices history literature and sub traditions constitute Shaivism 24 Overview EditThe reverence for Shiva is one of the pan Hindu traditions found widely across India predominantly in Southern India Sri Lanka and Nepal 25 26 While Shiva is revered broadly Hinduism itself is a complex religion and a way of life with a diversity of ideas on spirituality and traditions It has no ecclesiastical order no unquestionable religious authorities no governing body no prophet s nor any binding holy book Hindus can choose to be polytheistic pantheistic monotheistic monistic agnostic atheistic or humanist 27 28 29 Shaivism is a major tradition within Hinduism with a theology that is predominantly related to the Hindu god Shiva Shaivism has many different sub traditions with regional variations and differences in philosophy 30 Shaivism has a vast literature with different philosophical schools ranging from nondualism dualism and mixed schools 31 Origins and history EditSee also History of Shaivism The development of various schools of Shaivism from early worship of Rudra 32 The origins of Shaivism are unclear and a matter of debate among scholars as it is an amalgam of pre Vedic cults and traditions and Vedic culture 33 Indus Valley Civilisation Edit Main article Religion of the Indus Valley Civilization The Pashupati seal from the Indus Valley civilisation Some trace the origins to the Indus Valley civilization which reached its peak around 2500 2000 BCE 34 35 Archeological discoveries show seals that suggest a deity that somewhat appears like Shiva Of these is the Pashupati seal which early scholars interpreted as someone seated in a meditating yoga pose surrounded by animals and with horns 36 This Pashupati Lord of Animals Sanskrit pasupati 37 seal has been interpreted by these scholars as a prototype of Shiva Gavin Flood characterizes these views as speculative saying that it is not clear from the seal if the figure has three faces or is seated in a yoga posture or even that the shape is intended to represent a human figure 35 38 Other scholars state that the Indus Valley script remains undeciphered and the interpretation of the Pashupati seal is uncertain According to Srinivasan the proposal that it is proto Shiva may be a case of projecting later practices into archeological findings 39 40 Similarly Asko Parpola states that other archaeological finds such as the early Elamite seals dated to 3000 2750 BCE show similar figures and these have been interpreted as seated bull and not a yogi and the bull interpretation is likely more accurate 35 41 Vedic elements Edit The Rigveda 1500 1200 BCE has the earliest clear mention of Rudra in its hymns 2 33 1 43 and 1 114 The text also includes a Satarudriya an influential hymn with embedded hundred epithets for Rudra that is cited in many medieval era Shaiva texts as well as recited in major Shiva temples of Hindus in contemporary times Yet the Vedic literature only present scriptural theology but does not attest to the existence of Shaivism 35 The Shvetashvatara Upanishad likely composed before the Bhagavad Gita about 4th century BCE contains the theistic foundations of Shaivism wrapped in a monistic structure It contains the key terms and ideas of Shaivism such as Shiva Rudra Maheswara Guru Bhakti Yoga Atman Brahman and self knowledge 35 42 Emergence of Shaivism Edit See also Rudra and Shiva Kushan coin of Vima Kadphises 2nd century CE with a possible Shiva holding a trident in ithyphallic state note 1 and next to a bull his mount as in Shaivism 43 44 45 The deity was described by the later Kushans in their coinage as Oesho a possible Zoroastrian deity 44 According to Gavin Flood the formation of Saiva traditions as we understand them begins to occur during the period from 200 BC to 100 AD 46 Shiva was originally probably not a Brahmanical god 47 48 but eventually came to be incorporated into the Brahmanical fold 48 49 The pre Vedic Shiva acquired a growing prominence as its cult assimilated numerous ruder faiths and their mythologies 50 and the Epics and Puranas preserve pre Vedic myths and legends of these traditions assimilated by the Shiva cult 49 Shiva s growing prominence was facilitated by identification with a number of Vedic deities such as Purusha Rudra Agni Indra Prajapati Vayu among others 51 The followers of Shiva were gradually accepted into the Brahmanical fold becoming allowed to recite some of the Vedic hymns 52 Patanjali s Mahabhaṣya dated to the 2nd century BCE mentions the term Shiva bhagavata in section 5 2 76 Patanjali while explaining Panini s rules of grammar states that this term refers to a devotee clad in animal skins and carrying an ayah sulikah iron spear trident lance 53 as an icon representing his god 46 54 55 The Shvetashvatara Upanishad late 1st mill BCE mentions terms such as Rudra Shiva and Maheshwaram 56 57 but its interpretation as a theistic or monistic text of Shaivism is disputed 58 59 In the early centuries of the common era is the first clear evidence of Pasupata Shaivism 2 The Mahabharata mentions Shaiva ascetics such as in chapters 4 13 and 13 140 60 Other evidence that is possibly linked to the importance of Shaivism in ancient times are in epigraphy and numismatics such as in the form of prominent Shiva like reliefs on Kushan Empire era gold coins However this is controversial as an alternate hypothesis for these reliefs is based on Zoroastrian Oesho According to Flood coins dated to the ancient Greek Saka and Parthian kings who ruled parts of the Indian subcontinent after the arrival of Alexander the Great also show Shiva iconography but this evidence is weak and subject to competing inferences 46 61 The inscriptions found in the Himalayan region such as those in the Kathmandu valley of Nepal suggest that Shaivism particularly Pashupata monism was established in this region during the Mauryas and the Guptas reign of the Indian subcontinent by the 5th century These inscriptions have been dated by modern techniques to between 466 and 645 CE 62 Puranic Shaivism Edit During the Gupta Empire c 320 500 CE the genre of Purana literature developed in India and many of these Puranas contain extensive chapters on Shaivism along with Vaishnavism Shaktism Smarta Traditions of Brahmins and other topics suggesting the importance of Shaivism by then 35 54 The most important Shaiva Puranas of this period include the Shiva Purana and the Linga Purana 35 61 Post Gupta development Edit Shiva with Trisula worshipped in Central Asia Penjikent Uzbekistan 7th 8th century CE Hermitage Museum Most of the Gupta kings beginning with Chandragupta II Vikramaditya 375 413 CE were known as Parama Bhagavatas or Bhagavata Vaishnavas and had been ardent promoters of Vaishnavism 63 64 But following the Huna invasions especially those of the Alchon Huns circa 500 CE the Gupta Empire declined and fragmented ultimately collapsing completely with the effect of discrediting Vaishnavism the religion it had been so ardently promoting 65 The newly arising regional powers in central and northern India such as the Aulikaras the Maukharis the Maitrakas the Kalacuris or the Vardhanas preferred adopting Shaivism instead giving a strong impetus to the development of the worship of Shiva 65 Vaisnavism remained strong mainly in the territories which had not been affected by these events South India and Kashmir 65 In the early 7th century the Chinese Buddhist pilgrim Xuanzang Huen Tsang visited India and wrote a memoir in Chinese that mentions the prevalence of Shiva temples all over North Indian subcontinent including in the Hindu Kush region such as Nuristan 66 67 Between the 5th and 11th century CE major Shaiva temples had been built in central southern and eastern regions of the subcontinent including those at Badami cave temples Aihole Elephanta Caves Ellora Caves Kailasha cave 16 Khajuraho Bhuvaneshwara Chidambaram Madurai and Conjeevaram 66 Major scholars of competing Hindu traditions from the second half of the 1st millennium CE such as Adi Shankara of Advaita Vedanta and Ramanuja of Vaishnavism mention several Shaiva sects particularly the four groups Pashupata Lakulisha tantric Shaiva and Kapalika The description is conflicting with some texts stating the tantric puranik and Vedic traditions of Shaivism to be hostile to each other while others suggest them to be amicable sub traditions Some texts state that Kapalikas reject the Vedas and are involved in extreme experimentation note 2 while others state the Shaiva sub traditions revere the Vedas but are non Puranik 70 South India Edit Gudimallam Lingam with Shiva standing on Apasmara variously dated from the 2nd century BCE to the 7th century CE Shaivism was the predominant tradition in South India co existing with Buddhism and Jainism before the Vaishnava Alvars launched the Bhakti movement in the 7th century and influential Vedanta scholars such as Ramanuja developed a philosophical and organizational framework that helped Vaishnava expand Though both traditions of Hinduism have ancient roots given their mention in the epics such as the Mahabharata Shaivism flourished in South India much earlier 71 The Mantramarga of Shaivism according to Alexis Sanderson provided a template for the later though independent and highly influential Pancaratrika treatises of Vaishnava This is evidenced in Hindu texts such as the Isvarasamhita Padmasamhita and Paramesvarasamhita 71 The 7th to 8th century Shore Temple at Mahabalipuram is a UNESCO World Heritage site It features thousands of Shaivism related sculptures 72 Along with the Himalayan region stretching from Kashmir through Nepal the Shaiva tradition in South India has been one of the largest sources of preserved Shaivism related manuscripts from ancient and medieval India 73 The region was also the source of Hindu arts temple architecture and merchants who helped spread Shaivism into southeast Asia in early 1st millennium CE 74 75 76 There are tens of thousands of Hindu temples where Shiva is either the primary deity or reverentially included in anthropomorphic or aniconic form lingam or svayambhu 77 78 Numerous historic Shaiva temples have survived in Tamil Nadu Kerala parts of Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka 79 Certain regions have a greater density of Shiva temples such as in the Thanjavur region of Tamil Nadu where numerous Shaiva temples were built during the Chola empire era between 800 and 1200 CE citation needed Gudimallam is the oldest known lingam and has been dated to between 3rd to 1st century BCE It is a carved five feet high stone lingam with an anthropomorphic image of Shiva on one side This ancient lingam is in Chittoor district of Andhra Pradesh 78 80 81 Southeast Asia Edit An image collage of 1st millennium CE Shaivism icons and temples from Southeast Asia top left Shiva in yoga pose Nandi Prambanan temple Yoni Linga and Hindu temple layout Shaivism arrived in a major way in southeast Asia from south India and to much lesser extent into China and Tibet from the Himalayan region It co developed with Buddhism in this region in many cases 82 For example in the Caves of the Thousand Buddhas a few caves include Shaivism ideas 83 note 3 The epigraphical and cave arts evidence suggest that Shaiva Mahesvara and Mahayana Buddhism had arrived in Indo China region in the Funan period that is in the first half of the 1st millennium CE 75 76 In Indonesia temples at archaeological sites and numerous inscription evidence dated to the early period 400 to 700 CE suggest that Shiva was the highest god This co existence of Shaivism and Buddhism in Java continued through about 1500 CE when both Hinduism and Buddhism were replaced with Islam 85 and persists today in the province of Bali 86 The Shaivist and Buddhist traditions overlapped significantly in southeast Asia particularly in Indonesia Cambodia and Vietnam between the 5th and the 15th century Shaivism and Shiva held the paramount position in ancient Java Sumatra Bali and neighboring islands though the sub tradition that developed creatively integrated more ancient beliefs that pre existed 87 In the centuries that followed the merchants and monks who arrived in Southeast Asia brought Shaivism Vaishnavism and Buddhism and these developed into a syncretic mutually supporting form of traditions 87 88 Indonesia Edit In Balinese Hinduism Dutch ethnographers further subdivided Siwa shaivaites Sampradaya into five Kemenuh Keniten Mas Manuba and Petapan This classification was to accommodate the observed marriage between higher caste Brahmana men with lower caste women 89 Beliefs and practices EditShaivism centers around Shiva but it has many sub traditions whose theological beliefs and practices vary significantly They range from dualistic devotional theism to monistic meditative discovery of Shiva within oneself Within each of these theologies there are two sub groups One sub group is called Vedic Puranic who use the terms such as Shiva Mahadeva Maheshvara and others synonymously and they use iconography such as the Linga Nandi Trishula trident as well as anthropomorphic statues of Shiva in temples to help focus their practices 90 Another sub group is called esoteric which fuses it with abstract Sivata feminine energy or Sivatva neuter abstraction wherein the theology integrates the goddess Shakti and the god Shiva with Tantra practices and Agama teachings There is a considerable overlap between these Shaivas and the Shakta Hindus 90 Vedic Puranik and esoteric Shaivism Edit Scholars such as Alexis Sanderson discuss Shaivism in three categories Vedic Puranik and non Puranik esoteric tantric 91 92 They place Vedic and Puranik together given the significant overlap while placing Non Puranik esoteric sub traditions as a separate category 92 Two female Shaiva ascetics 18th century painting Vedic Puranik The majority within Shaivism follow the Vedic Puranik traditions They revere the Vedas the Puranas and have beliefs that span dualistic theism style Shiva Bhakti devotionalism to monistic non theism dedicated to yoga and meditative lifestyle sometimes with renouncing householder life for monastic pursuits of spirituality 93 The Yoga practice is particularly pronounced in nondualistic Shaivism with the practice refined into a methodology such as four fold upaya being pathless anupaya iccha less desire less being divine sambhavopaya jnana knowledge full being energy saktopaya kriya action full and being individual anavopaya 94 note 4 Non Puranik These are esoteric minority sub traditions wherein devotees are initiated dikṣa into a specific cult they prefer Their goals vary ranging from liberation in current life mukti to seeking pleasures in higher worlds bhukti Their means also vary ranging from meditative atimarga or outer higher path versus those whose means are recitation driven mantras The atimarga sub traditions include Pashupatas and Lakula According to Sanderson the Pashupatas note 5 have the oldest heritage likely from the 2nd century CE as evidenced by ancient Hindu texts such as the Shanti Parva book of the Mahabharata epic 91 92 The tantric sub tradition in this category is traceable to post 8th to post 11th century depending on the region of Indian subcontinent paralleling the development of Buddhist and Jain tantra traditions in this period 95 Among these are the dualistic Shaiva Siddhanta and Bhairava Shaivas non Saiddhantika based on whether they recognize any value in Vedic orthopraxy 96 These sub traditions cherish secrecy special symbolic formulae initiation by a teacher and the pursuit of siddhi special powers Some of these traditions also incorporate theistic ideas elaborate geometric yantra with embedded spiritual meaning mantras and rituals 95 97 98 Shaivism versus other Hindu traditions Edit Shaivism sub traditions subscribe to various philosophies are similar in some aspects and differ in others These traditions compare with Vaishnavism Shaktism and Smartism as follows Comparison of Shaivism with other traditions Shaiva Traditions Vaishnava Traditions Shakta Traditions Smarta Traditions ReferencesScriptural authority Vedas Upanishads and Agamas Vedas Upanishads and Agamas Vedas and Upanishads Vedas and Upanishads 5 99 Supreme deity god Shiva god Vishnu goddess Devi None Considers Parabrahman to be so 100 101 Creator Shiva Vishnu Devi Brahman principle 100 102 Avatar Minor Key concept Significant Minor 5 103 104 Monastic life Recommends Accepts Accepts Recommends 5 105 106 Rituals Bhakti Affirms 107 108 109 Affirms Affirms Optional 110 111 Ahimsa and Vegetarianism Recommends 107 Optional Affirms Optional Recommends Optional 112 113 Free will Maya Karma Affirms Affirms Affirms Affirms 100 Metaphysics Brahman Shiva Atman Self Brahman Vishnu Atman Brahman Devi Atman Brahman Atman 100 Epistemology Pramana 1 Perception2 Inference3 Reliable testimony4 Self evident 114 1 Perception2 Inference3 Reliable testimony 1 Perception2 Inference3 Reliable testimony 1 Perception2 Inference3 Comparison and analogy4 Postulation derivation5 Negative cognitive proof6 Reliable testimony 115 116 117 Philosophy Dvaita qualified advaita advaita Vishishtadvaita Dvaita qualified advaita advaita Shakti advaita Advaita qualified advaita 118 119 Salvation Soteriology Jivanmukta Charya Kriya Yoga Jnana 120 Videhamukti Yoga champions householder life Bhakti Tantra Yoga Jivanmukta Advaita Yoga champions monastic life 121 122 Texts EditShaiva manuscripts that have survived post 8th century Nepal and Himalayan region 140 000 South India 8 600 Others Devanagiri 2 000 Bali and SE Asia Many Alexis Sanderson The Saiva Literature 73 123 Over its history Shaivism has been nurtured by numerous texts ranging from scriptures to theological treatises These include the Vedas and Upanishads the Agamas and the Bhasya According to Gavin Flood a professor at Oxford University specializing in Shaivism and phenomenology Shaiva scholars developed a sophisticated theology in its diverse traditions 124 Among the notable and influential commentaries by dvaita dualistic theistic Shaivism scholars were the 8th century Sadyajoti the 10th century Ramakantha 11th century Bhojadeva 124 The dualistic theology was challenged by the numerous scholars of advaita nondualistic monistic Shaivism persuasion such as the 8th 9th century Vasugupta note 6 the 10th century Abhinavagupta and 11th century Kshemaraja particularly the scholars of the Pratyabhijna Spanda and Kashmiri Shaivism schools of theologians 124 126 127 Vedas and Principal Upanishads Edit The Vedas and Upanishads are shared scriptures of Hinduism while the Agamas are sacred texts of specific sub traditions 10 The surviving Vedic literature can be traced to the 1st millennium BCE and earlier while the surviving Agamas can be traced to 1st millennium of the common era 10 The Vedic literature in Shaivism is primary and general while Agamas are special treatise In terms of philosophy and spiritual precepts no Agama that goes against the Vedic literature states Mariasusai Dhavamony will be acceptable to the Shaivas 10 According to David Smith a key feature of the Tamil Saiva Siddhanta one might almost say its defining feature is the claim that its source lies in the Vedas as well as the Agamas in what it calls the Vedagamas 9 This school s view can be summed as The Veda is the cow the true Agama its milk Umapati Translated by David Smith 9 The Svetasvatara Upanishad 400 200 BCE 128 is the earliest textual exposition of a systematic philosophy of Shaivism note 7 Shaiva minor Upanishads Edit Shaivism inspired scholars authored 14 Shiva focussed Upanishads that are called the Shaiva Upanishads 129 These are considered part of 95 minor Upanishads in the Muktika Upanishadic corpus of Hindu literature 129 130 The earliest among these were likely composed in 1st millennium BCE while the last ones in the late medieval era 131 The Shaiva Upanishads present diverse ideas ranging from bhakti style theistic dualism themes to a synthesis of Shaiva ideas with Advaitic nondualism Yoga Vaishnava and Shakti themes 132 Shaivism Upanishads Shaiva Upanishad Composition date Topics ReferenceKaivalya Upanishad 1st millennium BCE Shiva Atman Brahman Sannyasa Self knowledge 133 134 135 Atharvashiras Upanishad 1st millennium BCE Rudra Atman Brahman Om monism 136 137 138 Atharvashikha Upanishad 1st millennium BCE Shiva Om Brahman chanting meditation 139 Brihajjabala Upanishad Late medieval post 12th century Shiva sacred ash prayer beads Tripundra tilaka 140 Kalagni Rudra Upanishad Unknown Meaning of Tripundra three lines tilaka Ritual Shaivism 141 142 Dakshinamurti Upanishad Unknown Dakshinamurti as an aspect of Shiva Atman monism 143 Sharabha Upanishad Unknown Shiva as Sharabha 144 Akshamalika Upanishad Late medieval post 12th century CE Rosary japa mantras Om Shiva symbolism in Shaivism iconography 145 Rudrahridaya Upanishad Unknown Rudra Uma Male Female are inseparable nondualism 146 Bhasmajabala Upanishad Late medieval post 12th century Shiva sacred ash body art iconography why rituals and Varanasi are important 147 148 Rudrakshajabala Upanishad After the 10th century Shiva Bhairava Rudraksha beads and mantra recitation 129 Ganapati Upanishad 16th or 17th century Ganesha Shiva Brahman Atman Om Satcitananda 149 Pancabrahma Upanishad About 7th century CE Shiva Sadashiva nondualism So ham Atman Brahman self knowledge 150 151 Jabali Upanishad unknown Shiva Pashupata theology significance of ash and body art 152 Shaiva Agamas Edit The Agama texts of Shaivism are another important foundation of Shaivism theology 153 These texts include Shaiva cosmology epistemology philosophical doctrines precepts on meditation and practices four kinds of yoga mantras meanings and manuals for Shaiva temples and other elements of practice 154 155 These canonical texts exist in Sanskrit 154 and in south Indian languages such as Tamil 156 The Agamas present a diverse range of philosophies ranging from theistic dualism to absolute monism 157 158 In Shaivism there are ten dualistic dvaita Agama texts eighteen qualified monism cum dualism bhedabheda Agama texts and sixty four monism advaita Agama texts 11 The Bhairava Shastras are monistic while Shiva Shastras are dualistic 107 159 The Agama texts of Shaiva and Vaishnava schools are premised on existence of Atman Self and the existence of an Ultimate Reality Brahman which is considered identical to Shiva in Shaivism 7 The texts differ in the relation between the two Some assert the dualistic philosophy of the individual Self and Ultimate Reality being different while others state a Oneness between the two 7 Kashmir Shaiva Agamas posit absolute oneness that is God Shiva is within man God is within every being God is present everywhere in the world including all non living beings and there is no spiritual difference between life matter man and God 7 While Agamas present diverse theology in terms of philosophy and spiritual precepts no Agama that goes against the Vedic literature states Dhavamony has been acceptable to the Shaivas 10 Traditions Edit Kauai Hindu monastery in Kauai Island in Hawaii is the only Hindu Monastery shaivaite in the United States Shaivism is ancient and over time it developed many sub traditions These broadly existed and are studied in three groups theistic dualism nontheistic monism and those that combine features or practices of the two 160 161 Sanderson presents the historic classification found in Indian texts 162 namely Atimarga of the Shaiva monks and Mantramarga that was followed by both the renunciates sannyasi and householders grihastha in Shaivism 163 Sub traditions of Shaivas did not exclusively focus on Shiva but others such as the Devi goddess Shaktism 164 Sannyasi Shaiva Atimarga Edit The Atimarga branch of Shaivism emphasizes liberation salvation or the end of all Dukkha as the primary goal of spiritual pursuits 165 It was the path for Shaiva ascetics in contrast to Shaiva householders whose path was described as Mantramarga and who sought both salvation as well as the yogi siddhi powers and pleasures in life 166 The Atimarga revered the Vedic sources of Shaivism and sometimes referred to in ancient Indian texts as Raudra from Vedic Rudra 167 Pashupata Atimargi Edit Lakulisha at Sangameshvara Temple at Mahakuta Karnataka Chalukya 7th century CE His 5th 10th century ithyphallic statues note 1 are also found in seated yogi position in Rajasthan Uttar Pradesh and elsewhere 168 Pashupata IAST Pasupatas are the Shaivite sub tradition with the oldest heritage as evidenced by Indian texts dated to around the start of the common era 91 92 It is a monist tradition that considers Shiva to be within oneself in every being and everything observed The Pashupata path to liberation is one of asceticism that is traditionally restricted to Brahmin males 169 Pashupata theology according to Shiva Sutras aims for a spiritual state of consciousness where the Pashupata yogi abides in one s own unfettered nature where the external rituals feel unnecessary where every moment and every action becomes an internal vow a spiritual ritual unto itself 170 The Pashupatas derive their Sanskrit name from two words Pashu beast and Pati lord where the chaotic and ignorant state one imprisoned by bondage and assumptions is conceptualized as the beast 171 and the Atman Self Shiva that is present eternally everywhere as the Pati 172 The tradition aims at realizing the state of being one with Shiva within and everywhere It has extensive literature 172 173 and a fivefold path of spiritual practice that starts with external practices evolving into internal practices and ultimately meditative yoga with the aim of overcoming all suffering Dukkha and reaching the state of bliss Ananda 174 175 The tradition is attributed to a sage from Gujarat named Lakulisha 2nd century CE 176 He is the purported author of the Pashupata sutra a foundational text of this tradition Other texts include the bhasya commentary on Pashupata sutra by Kaudinya the Gaṇakarika Panchartha bhashyadipika and Rasikara bhashya 165 The Pashupatha monastic path was available to anyone of any age but it required renunciation from four Ashrama stage into the fifth stage of Siddha Ashrama The path started as a life near a Shiva temple and silent meditation then a stage when the ascetic left the temple and did karma exchange be cursed by others but never curse back He then moved to the third stage of life where he lived like a loner in a cave or abandoned places or Himalayan mountains and towards the end of his life he moved to a cremation ground surviving on little peacefully awaiting his death 165 The Pashupatas have been particularly prominent in Gujarat Rajasthan Kashmir and Nepal The community is found in many parts of the Indian subcontinent 177 In the late medieval era Pashupatas Shaiva ascetics became extinct 171 178 Lakula Atimargi Edit This second division of the Atimarga developed from the Pashupatas Their fundamental text too was the Pashupata Sutras They differed from Pashupata Atimargi in that they departed radically from the Vedic teachings respected no Vedic or social customs He would walk around for example almost naked drank liquor in public and used a human skull as his begging bowl for food 179 The Lakula Shaiva ascetic recognized no act nor words as forbidden he freely did whatever he felt like much like the classical depiction of his deity Rudra in ancient Hindu texts However according to Alexis Sanderson the Lakula ascetic was strictly celibate and did not engage in sex 179 Secondary literature such as those written by Kashmiri Ksemaraja suggest that the Lakula had their canons on theology rituals and literature on pramanas epistemology However their primary texts are believed to be lost and have not survived into the modern era 179 Grihastha and Sannyasi Shaiva Mantramarga Edit The horizontal three ash lines Tripundra with a red mark on forehead is a revered mark across Shaiva traditions symbolizing Om 180 181 Mantramarga Sanskrit मन त रम र ग the path of mantras has been the Shaiva tradition for both householders and monks 163 It grew from the Atimarga tradition 182 This tradition sought not just liberation from Dukkha suffering unsatisfactoriness but special powers siddhi and pleasures bhoga both in this life and next 183 The siddhi were particularly the pursuit of Mantramarga monks and it is this sub tradition that experimented with a great diversity of rites deities rituals yogic techniques and mantras 182 Both the Mantramarga and Atimarga are ancient traditions more ancient than the date of their texts that have survived according to Sanderson 182 Mantramarga grew to become a dominant form of Shaivism in this period It also spread outside of India into Southeast Asia s Khmer Empire Java Bali and Cham 184 185 The Mantramarga tradition created the Shaiva Agamas and Shaiva tantra technique texts This literature presented new forms of ritual yoga and mantra 186 This literature was highly influential not just to Shaivism but to all traditions of Hinduism as well as to Buddhism and Jainism 187 Mantramarga had both theistic and monistic themes which co evolved and influenced each other The tantra texts reflect this where the collection contains both dualistic and non dualistic theologies The theism in the tantra texts parallel those found in Vaishnavism and Shaktism 188 189 Shaiva Siddhanta is a major subtradition that emphasized dualism during much of its history 189 Shaivism has had strong nondualistic advaita sub traditions 190 191 Its central premise has been that the Atman Self of every being is identical to Shiva its various practices and pursuits directed at understanding and being one with the Shiva within This monism is close but differs somewhat from the monism found in Advaita Vedanta of Adi Shankara Unlike Shankara s Advaita Shaivism monist schools consider Maya as Shakti or energy and creative primordial power that explains and propels the existential diversity 190 Srikantha influenced by Ramanuja formulated Shaiva Vishishtadvaita 192 In this theology Atman Self is not identical with Brahman but shares with the Supreme all its qualities Appayya Dikshita 1520 1592 an Advaita scholar proposed pure monism and his ideas influenced Shaiva in the Karnataka region His Shaiva Advaita doctrine is inscribed on the walls of Kalakanthesvara temple in Adaiyappalam Tiruvannamalai district 193 194 Shaiva Siddhanta Edit Tirumular the great Tamil Saivasiddhanta poet and mystic saint siddha The Saivasiddhanta the established doctrine of Shiva is the earliest sampradaya tradition lineage of Tantric Shaivism dating from the 5th century 189 195 The tradition emphasizes loving devotion to Shiva 196 uses 5th to 9th century Tamil hymns called Tirumurai A key philosophical text of this sub tradition was composed by 13th century Meykandar 197 This theology presents three universal realities the pashu individual Self the pati lord Shiva and the pasha Self s bondage through ignorance karma and maya The tradition teaches ethical living service to the community and through one s work loving worship yoga practice and discipline continuous learning and self knowledge as means for liberating the individual Self from bondage 197 198 The tradition may have originated in Kashmir where it developed a sophisticated theology propagated by theologians Sadyojoti Bhatta Narayanakantha and his son Bhatta Ramakantha c 950 1000 199 However after the arrival of Islamic rulers in north India it thrived in the south 200 The philosophy of Shaiva Siddhanta is particularly popular in south India Sri Lanka Malaysia and Singapore 201 The historic Shaiva Siddhanta literature is an enormous body of texts 202 The tradition includes both Shiva and Shakti goddess but with a growing emphasis on metaphysical abstraction 202 Unlike the experimenters of Atimarga tradition and other sub traditions of Mantramarga states Sanderson the Shaiva Siddhanta tradition had no ritual offering or consumption of alcoholic drinks blood or meat Their practices focussed on abstract ideas of spirituality 202 worship and loving devotion to Shiva as SadaShiva and taught the authority of the Vedas and Shaiva Agamas 203 204 This tradition diversified in its ideas over time with some of its scholars integrating a non dualistic theology 205 Nayanars Edit Nayanars Shaiva poet saints are credited with Bhakti movement in Shaivism It included three women saints such as the 6th century Karaikkal Ammaiyar 206 By the 7th century the Nayanars a tradition of poet saints in the bhakti tradition developed in ancient Tamil Nadu with a focus on Shiva comparable to that of the Vaisnava Alvars 207 The devotional Tamil poems of the Nayanars are divided into eleven collections together known as Tirumurai along with a Tamil Purana called the Periya Puranam The first seven collections are known as the Tevaram and are regarded by Tamils as equivalent to the Vedas 208 They were composed in the 7th century by Sambandar Appar and Sundarar 209 Tirumular also spelled Tirumular or Tirumular the author of the Tirumantiram also spelled Tirumandiram is considered by Tattwananda to be the earliest exponent of Shaivism in Tamil areas 210 Tirumular is dated as 7th or 8th century by Maurice Winternitz 211 The Tirumantiram is a primary source for the system of Shaiva Siddhanta being the tenth book of its canon 212 The Tiruvacakam by Manikkavacagar is an important collection of hymns 213 Tantra Diksha traditions Edit The main element of all Shaiva Tantra is the practice of diksha a ceremonial initiation in which divinely revealed mantras are given to the initiate by a Guru 214 A notable feature of some left tantra ascetics was their pursuit of siddhis supernatural abilities and bala powers such as averting danger santih and the ability to harm enemies abhicarah 215 216 217 Ganachakras ritual feasts would sometimes be held in cemeteries and cremation grounds and featured possession by powerful female deities called Yoginis 214 218 The cult of Yoginis aimed to gain special powers through esoteric worship of the Shakti or the feminine aspects of the divine The groups included sisterhoods that participated in the rites 218 Some traditions defined special powers differently For example the Kashmiri tantrics explain the powers as anima awareness than one is present in everything laghima lightness be free from presumed diversity or differences mahima heaviness realize one s limit is beyond one s own consciousness prapti attain be restful and at peace with one s own nature prakamya forebearance grasp and accept cosmic diversity vasita control realize that one always has power to do whatever one wants isitva self lordship a yogi is always free 219 More broadly the tantric sub traditions sought nondual knowledge and enlightening liberation by abandoning all rituals and with the help of reasoning yuktih scriptures sastras and the initiating Guru 220 217 Kashmir Shaivism Edit Main article Kashmir Shaivism A 3rd century Nandi statue from Kashmir Kashmir Shaivism is an influential tradition within Shaivism that emerged in Kashmir in the 1st millennium CE and thrived in early centuries of the 2nd millennium before the region was overwhelmed by the Islamic invasions from the Hindu Kush region 221 The Kashmir Shaivism traditions became nearly extinct due to Islam except for their preservation by Kashmiri Pandits 222 223 Kashmir Shaivism has been a nondualistic school 224 225 and is distinct from the dualistic Shaiva Siddhanta tradition that also existed in medieval Kashmir 226 227 228 A notable philosophy of monistic Kashmiri Shaivism has been the Pratyabhijna ideas particularly those by the 10th century scholar Utpaladeva and 11th century Abhinavagupta and Kshemaraja 229 230 Their extensive texts established the Shaiva theology and philosophy in an advaita monism framework 222 227 The Siva Sutras of 9th century Vasugupta and his ideas about Spanda have also been influential to this and other Shaiva sub traditions but it is probable that much older Shaiva texts once existed 227 231 A notable feature of Kashmir Shaivism was its openness and integration of ideas from Shaktism Vaishnavism and Vajrayana Buddhism 222 For example one sub tradition of Kashmir Shaivism adopts Goddess worship Shaktism by stating that the approach to god Shiva is through goddess Shakti This tradition combined monistic ideas with tantric practices Another idea of this school was Trika or modal triads of Shakti and cosmology as developed by Somananda in the early 10th century 222 228 232 Nath Edit Main article Nath Goraknath founded the Nath Shaiva monastic movement Nath a Shaiva subtradition that emerged from a much older Siddha tradition based on Yoga 233 The Nath consider Shiva as Adinatha or the first guru and it has been a small but notable and influential movement in India whose devotees were called Yogi or Jogi given their monastic unconventional ways and emphasis on Yoga 234 235 236 Nath theology integrated philosophy from Advaita Vedanta and Buddhism traditions Their unconventional ways challenged all orthodox premises exploring dark and shunned practices of society as a means to understanding theology and gaining inner powers The tradition traces itself to 9th or 10th century Matsyendranath and to ideas and organization developed by Gorakshanath 233 They combined both theistic practices such as worshipping goddesses and their historic Gurus in temples as well monistic goals of achieving liberation or jivan mukti while alive by reaching the perfect siddha state of realizing oneness of self and everything with Shiva 237 233 They formed monastic organisations 233 and some of them metamorphosed into warrior ascetics to resist persecution during the Islamic rule of the Indian subcontinent 238 239 240 Lingayatism Edit Main article Lingayatism A necklace with pendant containing linga symbol of Shiva are worn by Lingayats 241 Lingayatism also known as Veera Shaivism is a distinct Shaivite religious tradition in India 242 243 244 It was founded by the 12th century philosopher and statesman Basava and spread by his followers called Sharanas 245 Lingayatism emphasizes qualified monism and bhakti loving devotion to Shiva with philosophical foundations similar to those of the 11th 12th century South Indian philosopher Ramanuja 242 Its worship is notable for the iconographic form of Ishtalinga which the adherents wear 246 247 Large communities of Lingayats are found in the south Indian state of Karnataka and nearby regions 242 248 249 Lingayatism has its own theological literature with sophisticated theoretical sub traditions 250 They were influential in the Hindu Vijayanagara Empire that reversed the territorial gains of Muslim rulers after the invasions of the Deccan region first by Delhi Sultanate and later other Sultanates Lingayats consider their scripture to be Basava Purana which was completed in 1369 during the reign of Vijayanagara ruler Bukka Raya I 251 252 Lingayat Veerashaiva thinkers rejected the custodial hold of Brahmins over the Vedas and the shastras but they did not outright reject the Vedic knowledge 253 254 The 13th century Telugu Virashaiva poet Palkuriki Somanatha the author of the scripture of Lingayatism for example asserted Virashaivism fully conformed to the Vedas and the shastras 253 254 Demography EditThere are no census data available on demographic history or trends for the traditions within Hinduism 255 Large Shaivite communities exist in the Southern Indian states of Tamil Nadu Karnataka Telangana Kerala and Andhra Pradesh as well as in Jammu amp Kashmir Himachal Pradesh and Uttrakhand Substantial communities are also found in Haryana Maharashtra and central Uttar Pradesh 256 257 Shaivism and Buddhism have co developed in many regions Above a syncretic image of Yoni Linga with four reliefs of the Buddha in a Vajrayana temple According to Galvin Flood Shaivism and Shaktism traditions are difficult to separate as many Shaiva Hindus revere the goddess Shakti regularly 258 The denominations of Hinduism states Julius Lipner are unlike those found in major religions of the world because Hindu denominations are fuzzy with individuals revering gods and goddesses polycentrically with many Shaiva and Vaishnava adherents recognizing Sri Lakshmi Parvati Saraswati and other aspects of the goddess Devi Similarly Shakta Hindus revere Shiva and goddesses such as Parvati Durga Radha Sita and Saraswati important in Shaiva and Vaishnava traditions 259 Influence EditShiva is a pan Hindu god and Shaivism ideas on Yoga and as the god of performance arts Nataraja have been influential on all traditions of Hinduism Shaivism was highly influential in southeast Asia from the late 6th century onwards particularly the Khmer and Cham kingdoms of Indo China and across the major islands of Indonesia such as Sumatra Java and Bali 260 This influence on classical Cambodia Vietnam and Thailand continued when Mahayana Buddhism arrived with the same Indians 261 262 In Shaivism of Indonesia the popular name for Shiva has been Bhattara Guru which is derived from Sanskrit Bhattaraka which means noble lord 263 He is conceptualized as a kind spiritual teacher the first of all Gurus in Indonesian Hindu texts mirroring the Dakshinamurti aspect of Shiva in the Indian subcontinent 264 However the Bhattara Guru has more aspects than the Indian Shiva as the Indonesian Hindus blended their spirits and heroes with him Bhattara Guru s wife in southeast Asia is the same Hindu deity Durga who has been popular since ancient times and she too has a complex character with benevolent and fierce manifestations each visualized with different names such as Uma Sri Kali and others 265 266 Shiva has been called Sadasiva Paramasiva Mahadeva in benevolent forms and Kala Bhairava Mahakala in his fierce forms 266 The Indonesian Hindu texts present the same philosophical diversity of Shaivism traditions found on the subcontinent However among the texts that have survived into the contemporary era the more common are of those of Shaiva Siddhanta locally also called Siwa Siddhanta Sridanta 267 As Bhakti movement ideas spread in South India Shaivite devotionalism became a potent movement in Karnataka and Tamil Nadu Shaivism was adopted by several ruling Hindu dynasties as the state religion though other Hindu traditions Buddhism and Jainism continued in parallel including the Chola and the Rajputs A similar trend was witnessed in early medieval Indonesia with the Majapahit empire and pre Islamic Malaya 268 269 In the Himalayan Hindu kingdom of Nepal Shaivism remained a popular form of Hinduism and co evolved with Mahayana and Vajrayana Buddhism A seated Ardhanarishvara symbolically presenting the feminine Shakti as inseparable part of masculine Shiva Shaktism Edit The goddess tradition of Hinduism called Shaktism is closely related to Shaivism In many regions of India not only did the ideas of Shaivism influence the evolution of Shaktism Shaivism itself got influenced by it and progressively subsumed the reverence for the divine feminine Devi as an equal and essential partner of divine masculine Shiva 270 The goddess Shakti in eastern states of India is considered the inseparable partner of god Shiva According to Galvin Flood the closeness between Shaivism and Shaktism traditions is such that these traditions of Hinduism are at times difficult to separate 258 Some Shaiva worship in Shiva and Shakti temples 8 Smarta Tradition Edit Shiva is a part of the Smarta Tradition sometimes referred to as Smartism another tradition of Hinduism 271 The Smarta Hindus are associated with the Advaita Vedanta theology and their practices include an interim step that incorporates simultaneous reverence for five deities which includes Shiva along with Vishnu Surya Devi and Ganesha This is called the Panchayatana puja The Smartas thus accept the primary deity of Shaivism as a means to their spiritual goals 25 Philosophically the Smarta tradition emphasizes that all idols murti are icons of saguna Brahman a means to realizing the abstract Ultimate Reality called nirguna Brahman The five or six icons are seen by Smartas as multiple representations of the one Saguna Brahman i e a personal God with form rather than as distinct beings 272 273 The ultimate goal in this practice is to transition past the use of icons then follow a philosophical and meditative path to understanding the oneness of Atman Self and Brahman metaphysical Ultimate Reality as That art Thou 271 274 275 Panchayatana puja that incorporates Shiva became popular in medieval India and is attributed to 8th century Adi Shankara 271 274 but archaeological evidence suggests that this practice long predates the birth of Adi Shankara Many Panchayatana mandalas and temples have been uncovered that are from the Gupta Empire period and one Panchayatana set from the village of Nand about 24 kilometers from Ajmer has been dated to belong to the Kushan Empire era pre 300 CE 276 According to James Harle major Hindu temples from 1st millennium CE commonly embedded the pancayatana architecture from Odisha to Karnataka to Kashmir Large temples often present multiple deities in the same temple complex while some explicitly include fusion deities such as Harihara half Shiva half Vishnu 275 Vaishnavism Edit Shaivism iconography in Cambodia at Kbal Spean river site As in India the site also co features Vaishnavism related iconography 277 Vaishnava texts reverentially mention Shiva For example the Vishnu Purana primarily focuses on the theology of Hindu god Vishnu and his avatars such as Krishna but it praises Brahma and Shiva and asserts that they are one with Vishnu 278 The Vishnu Sahasranama in the Mahabharata list a thousand attributes and epithets of Vishnu The list identifies Shiva with Vishnu 279 Reverential inclusion of Shaiva ideas and iconography are very common in major Vaishnava temples such as Dakshinamurti symbolism of Shaiva thought is often enshrined on the southern wall of the main temple of major Vaishnava temples in peninsular India 280 Harihara temples in and outside the Indian subcontinent have historically combined Shiva and Vishnu such as at the Lingaraj Mahaprabhu temple in Bhubaneshwar Odisha According to Julius Lipner Vaishnavism traditions such as Sri Vaishnavism embrace Shiva Ganesha and others not as distinct deities of polytheism but as polymorphic manifestation of the same supreme divine principle providing the devotee a polycentric access to the spiritual 281 Similarly Shaiva traditions have reverentially embraced other gods and goddesses as manifestation of the same divine 282 The Skanda Purana for example in section 6 254 100 states He who is Shiva is Vishnu he who is Vishnu is Sadashiva 283 Sauraism Sun deity Edit The sun god called Surya is an ancient deity of Hinduism and several ancient Hindu kingdoms particularly in the northwest and eastern regions of the Indian subcontinent revered Surya These devotees called Sauras once had a large corpus of theological texts and Shaivism literature reverentially acknowledges these 284 For example the Shaiva text Srikanthiyasamhita mentions 85 Saura texts almost all of which are believed to have been lost during the Islamic invasion and rule period except for large excerpts found embedded in Shaiva manuscripts discovered in the Himalayan mountains Shaivism incorporated Saura ideas and the surviving Saura manuscripts such as Saurasamhita acknowledge the influence of Shaivism according to Alexis Sanderson assigning itself to the canon of Shaiva text Vathula Kalottara 284 Yoga movements Edit Many Shaiva temples present Shiva in yoga pose Yoga and meditation has been an integral part of Shaivism and it has been a major innovator of techniques such as those of Hatha Yoga 285 286 287 Many major Shiva temples and Shaiva tritha pilgrimage centers depict anthropomorphic iconography of Shiva as a giant statue wherein Shiva is a loner yogi meditating 288 as do Shaiva texts 289 In several Shaiva traditions such as the Kashmir Shaivism anyone who seeks personal understanding and spiritual growth has been called a Yogi The Shiva Sutras aphorisms of Shaivism teach yoga in many forms According to Mark Dyczkowski yoga which literally means union to this tradition has meant the realisation of our true inherent nature which is inherently greater than our thoughts can ever conceive and that the goal of yoga is to be the free eternal blissful perfect infinite spiritually conscious one is 290 Many Yoga emphasizing Shaiva traditions emerged in medieval India who refined yoga methods such as by introducing Hatha Yoga techniques One such movement had been the Nath Yogis a Shaivism sub tradition that integrated philosophy from Advaita Vedanta and Buddhism traditions It was founded by Matsyendranath and further developed by Gorakshanath 235 236 291 The texts of these Yoga emphasizing Hindu traditions present their ideas in Shaiva context note 8 Dancing Shiva Nataraja at the 6th century Badami cave temples Hindu performance arts Edit Shiva is the lord of dance and dramatic arts in Hinduism 293 294 295 This is celebrated in Shaiva temples as Nataraja which typically shows Shiva dancing in one of the poses in the ancient Hindu text on performance arts called the Natya Shastra 294 296 297 Dancing Shiva as a metaphor for celebrating life and arts is very common in ancient and medieval Hindu temples For example it is found in Badami cave temples Ellora Caves Khajuraho Chidambaram and others The Shaiva link to the performance arts is celebrated in Indian classical dances such as Bharatanatyam and Chhau 298 299 300 Buddhism Edit Buddhism and Shaivism have interacted and influenced each other since ancient times in both South Asia and Southeast Asia Their Siddhas and esoteric traditions in particular have overlapped to an extent where Buddhists and Hindus would worship in the same temple such as in the Seto Machindranath In southeast Asia the two traditions were not presented in competitive or polemical terms rather as two alternate paths that lead to the same goals of liberation with theologians disagreeing which of these is faster and simpler 301 Scholars disagree whether a syncretic tradition emerged from Buddhism and Shaivism or it was a coalition with free borrowing of ideas but they agree that the two traditions co existed peacefully 302 The earliest evidence of a close relationship between Shaivism and Buddhism comes from the archaeological sites and damaged sculptures from the northwest Indian subcontinent such as Gandhara These are dated to about the 1st century CE with Shiva depicted in Buddhist arts 303 note 9 The Buddhist Avalokiteshvara is linked to Shiva in many of these arts 304 but in others Shiva is linked to Bodhisattva Maitreya with he shown as carrying his own water pot like Vedic priests 303 According to Richard Blurton the ancient works show that the Bodhisattva of Compassion in Buddhism has many features in common with Shiva in Shaivism 304 The Shaiva Hindu and Buddhist syncretism continues in the contemporary era in the island of Bali Indonesia 305 In Central Asian Buddhism and its historic arts syncretism and a shared expression of Shaivism Buddhism and Tantra themes has been common 306 The syncretism between Buddhism and Shaivism was particularly marked in southeast Asia but this was not unique rather it was a common phenomenon also observed in the eastern regions of the Indian subcontinent the south and the Himalayan regions 87 This tradition continues in predominantly Hindu Bali Indonesia in the modern era where Buddha is considered the younger brother of Shiva 87 note 10 In the pre Islamic Java Shaivism and Buddhism were considered very close and allied religions though not identical religions 308 note 11 This idea is also found in the sculptures and temples in the eastern states of India and the Himalayan region For example Hindu temples in these regions show Harihara half Shiva half Vishnu flanked by a standing Buddha on its right and a standing Surya Hindu Sun god on left 310 311 On major festivals of Bali Hindus such as the Nyepi a festival of silence the observations are officiated by both Buddhist and Shaiva priests 87 312 313 Jainism Edit Jainism co existed with Shaiva culture since ancient times particularly in western and southern India where it received royal support from Hindu kings of Chaulukya Ganga and Rashtrakuta dynasties 314 In late 1st millennium CE Jainism too developed a Shaiva like tantric ritual culture with Mantra goddesses 314 315 These Jain rituals were aimed at mundane benefits using japas mantra recitation and making offerings into Homa fire 314 According to Alexis Sanderson the link and development of Shaiva goddesses into Jaina goddess is more transparent than a similar connection between Shaivism and Buddhism 316 The 11th century Jain text Bhairavapadmavatikalpa for example equates Padmavati of Jainism with Tripura bhairavi of Shaivism and Shaktism Among the major goddesses of Jainism that are rooted in Hindu pantheon particularly Shaiva include Lakshmi and Vagishvari Sarasvati of the higher world in Jain cosmology Vidyadevis of the middle world and Yakshis such as Ambika Cakreshvari Padmavati and Jvalamalini of the lower world according to Jainism 314 Shaiva Shakti iconography is found in major Jain temples For example the Osian temple of Jainism near Jodhpur features Chamunda Durga Sitala and a naked Bhairava 317 While Shaiva and Jain practices had considerable overlap the interaction between the Jain community and Shaiva community differed on the acceptance of ritual animal sacrifices before goddesses Jain remained strictly vegetarian and avoided animal sacrifice while Shaiva accepted the practice 318 Temples and pilgrimage Edit Somnath Srisailam Ujjain Omkareshwar Parli Deoghar Bhima Rameshwaram Dwaraka Jageshwar Kathmandu Aundha Triambak Kedarnath Ellora Sivasagar Varanasi Badrinath Puri Khajuraho Chidambaram Bhairavanath Taraknath Amarnath Chandranath Kailash Katas Raj Koneswaram Munneswaramclass notpageimage Major Shaiva Hindu temple sites Orange markers are UNESCO world heritage sites Shaiva Puranas Agamas and other regional literature refer to temples by various terms such as Mandir Shivayatana Shivalaya Shambhunatha Jyotirlingam Shristhala Chattraka Bhavaggana Bhuvaneshvara Goputika Harayatana Kailasha Mahadevagriha Saudhala and others 319 In Southeast Asia Shaiva temples are called Candi Java 320 Pura Bali 321 and Wat Cambodia and nearby regions 322 323 Many of the Shiva related pilgrimage sites such as Varanasi Amarnath Kedarnath Somnath and others are broadly considered holy in Hinduism They are called kṣetra Sanskrit क ष त र 324 A kṣetra has many temples including one or more major ones These temples and its location attracts pilgrimage called tirtha or tirthayatra 325 Many of the historic Puranas literature embed tourism guide to Shaivism related pilgrimage centers and temples 326 For example the Skanda Purana deals primarily with Tirtha Mahatmyas pilgrimage travel guides to numerous geographical points 326 but also includes a chapter stating that a temple and tirtha is ultimately a state of mind and virtuous everyday life 327 328 Major rivers of the Indian subcontinent and their confluence sangam natural springs origin of Ganges River and pancha ganga along with high mountains such as Kailasha with Mansovar Lake are particularly revered spots in Shaivism 329 330 Twelve jyotirlinga sites across India have been particularly important pilgrimage sites in Shaivism representing the radiant light jyoti of infiniteness 331 332 333 as per Siva Mahapuraṇa 334 They are Somnatha Mallikarjuna Mahakaleshwar Omkareshwar Kedarnatha Bhimashankar Visheshvara Trayambakesvara Vaidyanatha Nageshvara Rameshvara and Grishneshwar 330 Other texts mention five Kedras Kedarnatha Tunganatha Rudranatha Madhyamesvara and Kalpeshvara five Badri Badrinatha Pandukeshvara Sujnanien Anni matha and Urghava snow lingam of Amarnatha flame of Jwalamukhi all of the Narmada River and others 330 Kashi Varanasi is declared as particularly special in numerous Shaiva texts and Upanishads as well as in the pan Hindu Sannyasa Upanishads such as the Jabala Upanishad 335 336 The early Bhakti movement poets of Shaivism composed poems about pilgrimage and temples using these sites as metaphors for internal spiritual journey 337 338 See also EditChaturdasa Devata Hindu denominations History of Shaivism Jangam Lingayat Shaiva SiddhantaNotes Edit a b The ithyphallic representation of the erect shape connotes the very opposite in this context 339 It contextualize seminal retention and practice of celibacy 340 illustration of Urdhva Retas 341 342 and represents Lakulisha as he stands for complete complete control of the senses and for the supreme carnal renunciation 339 Kapalikas are alleged to smear their body with ashes from the cremation ground revered the fierce Bhairava form of Shiva engage in rituals with blood meat alcohol and sexual fluids However states David Lorenzen there is a paucity of primary sources on Kapalikas and historical information about them is available from fictional works and other traditions who disparage them 68 69 The Dunhuang caves in north China built from the 4th century onwards are predominantly about the Buddha but some caves show the meditating Buddha with Hindu deities such as Shiva Vishnu Ganesha and Indra 84 There is an overlap in this approach with those found in non puranik tantric rituals 94 Pashupatas have both Vedic Puranik and non Puranik sub traditions 92 Vasugupta is claimed by two Advaita Monistic Shaivism sub traditions to be their spiritual founder 125 For Svetasvatara Upanishad as a systematic philosophy of Shaivism see Chakravarti 1994 p 9 For example It will be impossible to accomplish one s functions unless one is a master of oneself Therefore strive for self mastery seeking to win the way upwards To have self mastery is to be a yogin yogitvam v 1 2 Whatever reality he reaches through the Yoga whose sequence I have just explained he realizes there a state of consciousness whose object is all that pervades Leaving aside what remains outside he should use his vision to penetrate all within Then once he has 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1981 ISBN 9004063706 Retrieved 22 May 2015 Fredrick Bunce 2010 Hindu deities demi gods godlings demons and heroes ISBN 9788124601457 page 983 Jan Peter Schouten 1995 Revolution of the Mystics On the Social Aspects of Virasaivism Motilal Banarsidass ISBN 978 8120812383 pages 2 3 David Levinson Karen Christensen 2002 Encyclopedia of Modern Asia Gale p 475 ISBN 978 0 684 80617 4 Archived from the original on 14 February 2017 Retrieved 11 March 2017 Quote The Lingayats are a Hindu sect concentrated in the state of Karnataka a southern provincial state of India which covers 191 773 square kilometers The Lingayats constitute around 20 percent of the total population in that state A K Ramanujan 1973 R Blake Michael 1992 pp 168 175 Edward P Rice 1982 A History of Kannada Literature Asian Educational Services pp 64 72 ISBN 978 81 206 0063 8 Archived from the original on 15 February 2017 Retrieved 11 March 2017 Bill Aitken 1999 Divining the Deccan Oxford University Press pp 109 110 213 215 ISBN 978 0 19 564711 2 Archived from the original on 15 February 2017 Retrieved 11 March 2017 a b Leela Prasad 2012 Poetics of Conduct Oral Narrative and Moral Being in a South Indian Town Columbia University Press ISBN 978 0231139212 page 104 a b Velcheru Narayana Rao amp Gene H Roghair 2014 p 7 The global religious landscape Hindus Pew Research 2012 Kashmir Shaivism From Kashmir to Tamil Nadu Such Forumotion 6 February 2013 Shaivism in Tamils Shaivam org a b Gavin Flood 2008 The Blackwell Companion to Hinduism John Wiley amp Sons p 200 ISBN 978 0 470 99868 7 Archived from the original on 23 December 2019 Retrieved 10 March 2017 Quote it is often impossible to meaningfully distinguish between Saiva and Sakta traditions Julius J Lipner 2009 Hindus Their Religious Beliefs and Practices 2nd Edition Routledge ISBN 978 0 415 45677 7 pages 40 41 302 315 371 375 Sanderson 2009 pp 44 45 with footnotes Chakravarti 1986 p 171 K R Subramanian 1 January 1989 Buddhist Remains in Andhra and the History of Andhra Between 225 amp 610 A D Asian Educational Services pp 140 ISBN 978 81 206 0444 5 Archived from the original on 15 March 2017 Retrieved 8 February 2016 R Ghose 1966 Saivism in Indonesia during the Hindu Javanese period The University of Hong Kong Press pages 16 123 494 495 550 552 R Ghose 1966 Saivism in Indonesia during the Hindu Javanese period The University of Hong Kong Press pages 130 131 550 552 Hariani Santiko 1997 The Goddess Durga in the East Javanese Period Archived 22 August 2018 at the Wayback Machine Asian Folklore Studies Vol 56 No 2 pp 209 226 a b R Ghose 1966 Saivism in Indonesia during the Hindu Javanese period The University of Hong Kong Press pages 15 17 R Ghose 1966 Saivism in Indonesia during the Hindu Javanese period The University of Hong Kong Press pages 155 157 462 463 Sastri K A Nilakanta A Historical Sketch of Saivism in Bhattacharyya 1956 Volume IV pages 63 78 For more on the subject of Shaivite influence on Indonesia one could read N J Krom Inleiding tot de Hindoe Javaansche Kunst Introduction to Hindu Javanese Art The Hague Martinus Nijhof 1923 Sanderson 2009 pp 45 52 with footnotes a b c Gudrun Buhnemann 2003 Mandalas and Yantras in the Hindu Traditions BRILL Academic p 60 ISBN 978 9004129023 Archived from the original on 5 February 2017 Retrieved 13 March 2017 Gavin D Flood 1996 An Introduction to Hinduism Cambridge University Press p 17 ISBN 978 0 521 43878 0 Diana L Eck 1998 Darsan Seeing the Divine Image in India Columbia University Press p 49 ISBN 978 0 231 11265 9 Archived from the original on 25 February 2020 Retrieved 13 March 2017 a b The Four Denominations of Hinduism Archived 28 March 2017 at the Wayback Machine Basics of Hinduism Kauai Hindu Monastery a b James C Harle 1994 The Art and Architecture of the Indian Subcontinent Yale University Press pp 140 142 191 201 203 ISBN 978 0 300 06217 5 Frederick Asher 1981 Joanna Gottfried Williams ed Kaladarsana American Studies in the Art of India BRILL Academic pp 1 4 ISBN 90 04 06498 2 Archived from the original on 5 February 2017 Retrieved 13 March 2017 Anupa Pande Parul Pandya Dhar 2004 Cultural Interface of India with Asia Religion Art and Architecture National Museum Institute pp 159 with note 13 ISBN 978 81 246 0262 1 Archived from the original on 27 March 2017 Retrieved 26 March 2017 Rocher 1986 p 246 248 with footnote 501 Lipner 2012 pp 319 320 Stella Kramrisch 1993 p 57 Lipner 2012 pp 312 313 315 317 374 375 Lipner 2012 pp 319 333 Kramrisch 1994a p 438 a b Sanderson 2009 pp 53 58 with footnotes Mikel Burley 2000 Haṭha Yoga Its Context Theory and Practice Motilal Banarsidass pp 6 12 59 ISBN 978 81 208 1706 7 Alexis Sanderson 1999 YOGA IN SAIVISM Archived 19 October 2016 at the Wayback Machine Oxford University pages 1 7 Paul E Muller Ortega 2008 Knut A Jacobsen ed Theory and Practice of Yoga Essays in Honour of Gerald James Larson Motilal Banarsidass pp 181 192 ISBN 978 81 208 3232 9 Archived from the original on 2 April 2017 Retrieved 2 April 2017 Lise McKean 1996 Divine Enterprise Gurus and the Hindu Nationalist Movement University of Chicago Press pp 161 163 ISBN 978 0 226 56009 0 Archived from the original on 15 March 2017 Retrieved 14 March 2017 Indira Viswanathan Peterson 2014 pp 96 97 Vasugupta amp Mark Dyczkowski Translator 1992 pp 7 8 sfn error no target CITEREFVasuguptaMark Dyczkowski Translator 1992 help Nath Sampradaya Archived 17 May 2017 at the Wayback Machine James Mallinson 2011 Brill Encyclopedia of Hinduism Vol 3 Brill Academic pp 407 428 Alexis Sanderson 1999 Yoga in Saivism The Yoga Section of the Mṛgendratantra University of Oxford pages 4 22 25 Saroj Panthey 1987 Iconography of Siva in Pahaṛi Paintings Mittal Publications pp 59 60 88 ISBN 978 81 7099 016 1 Archived from the original on 5 February 2017 Retrieved 14 March 2017 a b T A Gopinatha Rao 1997 Elements of Hindu Iconography Motilal Banarsidass pp 223 229 237 ISBN 978 81 208 0877 5 Archived from the original on 15 March 2017 Retrieved 14 March 2017 Shiva as Lord of the Dance Nataraja Chola period c 10th 11th century Archived 15 February 2017 at the Wayback Machine The Art Institute of Chicago United States T A Gopinatha Rao 1997 Elements of Hindu Iconography Motilal Banarsidass pp 236 238 247 258 ISBN 978 81 208 0877 5 Archived from the original on 15 March 2017 Retrieved 14 March 2017 Gomathi Narayanan 1986 SHIVA NATARAJA AS A SYMBOL OF PARADOX Archived 28 September 2018 at the Wayback Machine Journal of South Asian Literature Vol 21 No 2 page 215 Anna Libera Dallapiccola 2007 Indian Art in Detail Harvard University Press p 28 ISBN 978 0 674 02691 9 Archived from the original on 15 March 2017 Retrieved 14 March 2017 David Smith 2003 The Dance of Siva Religion Art and Poetry in South India Cambridge University Press pp 1 2 ISBN 978 0 521 52865 8 Archived from the original on 15 March 2017 Retrieved 14 March 2017 Frank Burch Brown 2014 The Oxford Handbook of Religion and the Arts Oxford University Press pp 489 490 ISBN 978 0 19 517667 4 Archived from the original on 15 March 2017 Retrieved 14 March 2017 Anita M Leopold Jeppe Sinding Jensen 2005 Syncretism in Religion A Reader Routledge p 303 ISBN 978 0 415 97361 8 Archived from the original on 20 March 2017 Retrieved 19 March 2017 Nicholas Tarling 1999 The Cambridge History of Southeast Asia Cambridge University Press pp 328 329 ISBN 978 0 521 66369 4 Archived from the original on 20 March 2017 Retrieved 19 March 2017 a b c T Richard Blurton 1993 Hindu Art Harvard University Press pp 84 85 191 ISBN 978 0 674 39189 5 Archived from the original on 30 June 2016 Retrieved 25 March 2017 a b T Richard Blurton 1993 Hindu Art Harvard University Press pp 29 30 84 85 ISBN 978 0 674 39189 5 Archived from the original on 30 June 2016 Retrieved 25 March 2017 Peter Harvey 1990 An Introduction to Buddhism Teachings History and Practices Cambridge University Press pp 143 144 ISBN 978 0 521 31333 9 John Kieschnick Meir Shahar 2013 India in the Chinese Imagination Myth Religion and Thought University of Pennsylvania Press pp 79 80 ISBN 978 0 8122 4560 8 Archived from the original on 29 March 2017 Retrieved 29 March 2017 James Lochtefeld 2002 The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism Vol 1 amp 2 Rosen Publishing p 128 ISBN 0 8239 2287 1 R Ghose 1966 Saivism in Indonesia during the Hindu Javanese period The University of Hong Kong Press pages 160 165 J L Moens Het Buddhisme Java en Sumatra in Zijn laatste boeiperiods T B G pp 522 539 550 OCLC 10404094 Quote He Janardana is the excellent Dewa in the form of Buddha the Kula Bhairava R Ghose 1966 Saivism in Indonesia during the Hindu Javanese period The University of Hong Kong Press pages 94 96 253 Rk Sahu 2011 Iconography of Surya in the Temple Art of Odisha Archived 10 October 2016 at the Wayback Machine Orissa Review Volume 11 page 31 Christiaan Hooykaas 1974 Cosmogony and creation in Balinese tradition Vol Bibliotheca Indonesica Volumes 9 10 Koninklijk Instituut voor Taal Land en Volkenkunde pp 1 3 Archived from the original on 28 March 2017 Retrieved 28 March 2017 Jacob Ensink 1978 Siva Buddhism in Java and Bali Buddhism in Ceylon and studies on religious syncretism in Buddhist countries Vol 133 Vandenhoeck amp Ruprecht pages 146 177 a b c d Sanderson 2009 p 243 Gray 2016 p 17 Sanderson 2009 pp 243 244 Sanderson 2009 pp 245 246 Sanderson 2009 pp 245 249 Monier Monier Williams Sanskrit English Dictionary with Etymology Oxford University Press Edi Sedyawati Hariani Santiko Hasan Djafar et al 2013 Candi Indonesia Seri Jawa Indonesian English Direktorat Jenderal Kebudayaan pp 4 15 ISBN 978 602 17669 3 4 Archived from the original on 14 March 2017 Retrieved 13 March 2017 Fredrik Barth 1993 Balinese Worlds University of Chicago Press pp 31 36 ISBN 978 0 226 03834 6 Archived from the original on 14 March 2017 Retrieved 13 March 2017 Roshen Dalal 2010 The Religions of India A Concise Guide to Nine Major Faiths Penguin Books p 24 ISBN 978 0 14 341517 6 Archived from the original on 18 April 2017 Retrieved 13 March 2017 Jack M Clontz 2016 Khon Mask Thailand Heritage MOCA Bangkok p 222 ISBN 978 1 78301 872 7 Archived from the original on 14 March 2017 Retrieved 13 March 2017 Monier Williams Sanskrit English Dictionary क ष त र Archived 12 September 2016 at the Wayback Machine sacred spot place of pilgrimage Knut A Jacobsen 2012 Pilgrimage in the Hindu Tradition Salvific Space Routledge ISBN 978 0415590389 a b Ariel Glucklich 2008 p 146 Quote The earliest promotional works aimed at tourists from that era were called mahatmyas Geoffrey Waring Maw 1997 Pilgrims in Hindu Holy Land Sacred Shrines of the Indian Himalayas Sessions Book Trust p 7 ISBN 978 1 85072 190 1 Archived from the original on 16 February 2017 Retrieved 29 March 2017 Sanjukta Dasgupta Chinmoy Guha 2013 Tagore at Home in the World SAGE Publications p 76 ISBN 978 81 321 1149 8 Archived from the original on 30 March 2017 Retrieved 29 March 2017 Diana L Eck 1998 Darsan Seeing the Divine Image in India 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3 4 19 50 doi 10 2307 3518337 JSTOR 3518337 Oberlies T 1998 Die Religion des Rgveda Vienna Parmeshwaranand S 2004 Encyclopaedia of the Saivism Sarup amp Sons ISBN 978 81 7625 427 4 Pathak V S 1960 History of Saiva Cults in Northern India from Inscriptions 700 A D to 1200 A D Motilal Banarsidass Indira Viswanathan Peterson 2014 Poems to Siva The Hymns of the Tamil Saints Princeton University Press ISBN 978 1 4008 6006 7 A K Ramanujan 1973 Speaking of Siva Penguin ISBN 978 0 14 044270 0 Velcheru Narayana Rao Gene H Roghair 2014 Siva s Warriors The Basava Purana of Palkuriki Somanatha Princeton University Press ISBN 978 1 4008 6090 6 Rocher Ludo 1986 The Puranas Otto Harrassowitz Verlag ISBN 978 3447025225 Samuel Geoffrey 2008 The Origins of Yoga and Tantra Cambridge University Press ISBN 978 0 521 69534 3 Sanderson Alexis 2009 The Saiva Age The Rise and Dominance of Saivism during the Early Medieval Period In Shingo Einoo ed Genesis and Development of Tantrism Tokyo Institute of Oriental Culture Sanderson Alexis 1988 Saivism and the Tantric Traditions In S Sutherland et al eds The World s Religions Routledge Sanderson Alexis 1995 Meaning of a Tantric Ritual In AM Blondeau K Schipper eds Essais sur le Rituel Louvain Peeters Alexis Sanderson 2004 The Saiva Religion among the Khmers Part I Bulletin de l Ecole Francaise d Extreme Orient 90 91 349 462 JSTOR 43732654 Alexis Sanderson 2010 Dominic Goodall amp Andre Padoux ed Melanges tantriques a la memoire d Helene Brunner Tantric Studies in Memory of Helene Brunner Institut Francais de Pondichery ISBN 978 2855396668 Hilko Wiardo Schomerus 2000 Saiva Siddhanta An Indian School of Mystical Thought Presented as a System and Documented from the Original Tamil Sources Motilal Banarsidass ISBN 978 81 208 1569 8 Sharma Ram Karan 1988 Elements of Poetry in the Mahabharata Delhi Motilal Banarsidass ISBN 978 81 208 0544 6 Second edition Tattwananda Swami 1984 Vaisnava Sects Saiva Sects Mother Worship First Revised ed Calcutta Firma KLM Private Ltd Vasugupta 1992 The Aphorisms of Siva The Siva Sutra with Bhaskara s Commentary the Varttika Mark Dyczkowski translator State University of New York Press ISBN 978 0 7914 1264 0 Kramrisch Stella 1994a The Presence of Siva Princeton New Jersey Princeton University Press ISBN 978 0691019307 Winternitz Maurice 1972 History of Indian Literature New Delhi Oriental Books Reprint Corporation Second revised reprint edition Two volumes First published 1927 by the University of Calcutta B S L Hanumantha Rao Religion in Andhra A Survey of Religious Developments in Andhra from Early Times Upto A D 1325 Department of Archaeology and Museums Government of A P 1993External links Edit Wikimedia Commons has media related to Shaivism Encyclopaedia Britannica Shaivism Saivism Net Alexis sanderson Publications scholarly studies in Shaivism Portals Hinduism India Religion Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Shaivism amp oldid 1132360012, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, 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