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Chakra

Chakras (UK: /ˈʌkrəz/, US: /ˈɑːkrəz/ CHUK-rəz, CHAH-krəz;[2] Sanskrit: चक्र, romanizedcakra, lit.'wheel, circle'; Pali: cakka) are various focal points used in a variety of ancient meditation practices, collectively denominated as Tantra, or the esoteric or inner traditions of Hinduism.[3][4][5]

Sapta Chakra, an 1899 manuscript (above) illustrates the esoteric correspondence(s) between subtle energy and Tibetan psycho-physiology.[1]

The concept of the chakra arose in the early traditions of Hinduism.[6] Beliefs differ between the Indian religions, with many Buddhist texts consistently mentioning five chakras, while Hindu sources reference six or seven.[3][4][7] Early Sanskrit texts speak of them both as meditative visualizations combining flowers and mantras and as physical entities in the body.[7] Within Kundalini yoga, the techniques of breathing exercises, visualizations, mudras, bandhas, kriyas, and mantras are focused on manipulating the flow of subtle energy through chakras.[6][8]

The modern Western chakra system arose from multiple sources, starting in the 1880s, followed by Sir John Woodroffe's 1919 book The Serpent Power, and Charles W. Leadbeater's 1927 book The Chakras, which introduced the seven rainbow colours for the chakras. Psychological and other attributes, and a wide range of supposed correspondences with other systems such as alchemy, astrology, gemstones, homeopathy, Kabbalah and Tarot were added later.

Etymology

Lexically, chakra is the Indic reflex of an ancestral Indo-European form *kʷékʷlos, whence also "wheel" and "cycle" (Ancient Greek: κύκλος, romanizedkýklos).[9][3][4] It has both literal[10] and metaphorical uses, as in the "wheel of time" or "wheel of dharma", such as in Rigveda hymn verse 1.164.11,[11][12] pervasive in the earliest Vedic texts.

In Buddhism, especially in Theravada, the Pali noun cakka connotes "wheel".[13] Within the central "Tripitaka", the Buddha variously refers the "dhammacakka", or "wheel of dharma", connoting that this dharma, universal in its advocacy, should bear the marks characteristic of any temporal dispensation. The Buddha spoke of freedom from cycles in and of themselves, whether karmic, reincarnative, liberative, cognitive or emotional.[14]

In Jainism, the term chakra also means "wheel" and appears in various contexts in its ancient literature.[15] As in other Indian religions, chakra in esoteric theories in Jainism such as those by Buddhisagarsuri means a yogic energy center.[16]

Ancient history

The term chakra appears to first emerge within the Hindu Vedas, though not precisely in the sense of psychic energy centers, rather as chakravartin or the king who "turns the wheel of his empire" in all directions from a center, representing his influence and power.[17] The iconography popular in representing the Chakras, states the scholar David Gordon White, traces back to the five symbols of yajna, the Vedic fire altar: "square, circle, triangle, half moon and dumpling".[18]

The hymn 10.136 of the Rigveda mentions a renunciate yogi with a female named kunamnama. Literally, it means "she who is bent, coiled", representing both a minor goddess and one of many embedded enigmas and esoteric riddles within the Rigveda. Some scholars, such as D.G. White and Georg Feuerstein, have suggested that she may be a reference to kundalini shakti and a precursor to the terminology associated with the chakras in later tantric traditions.[19][20][21]

Breath channels (nāḍi) are mentioned in the classical Upanishads of Hinduism from the 1st millennium BCE,[22][23] but not psychic-energy chakra theories. Three classical Nadis are Ida, Pingala and Sushumna in which the central channel Sushumna is said to be foremost as per Kṣurikā-Upaniṣhad.[24] The latter, states David Gordon White, were introduced about 8th-century CE in Buddhist texts as hierarchies of inner energy centers, such as in the Hevajra Tantra and Caryāgiti.[22][25] These are called by various terms such as cakka, padma (lotus) or pitha (mound).[22] These medieval Buddhist texts mention only four chakras, while later Hindu texts such as the Kubjikāmata and Kaulajñānanirnaya expanded the list to many more.[22]

In contrast to White, according to Feuerstein, early Upanishads of Hinduism do mention chakras in the sense of "psychospiritual vortices", along with other terms found in tantra: prana or vayu (life energy) along with nadi (energy carrying arteries).[20] According to Gavin Flood, the ancient texts do not present chakra and kundalini-style yoga theories although these words appear in the earliest Vedic literature in many contexts. The chakra in the sense of four or more vital energy centers appear in the medieval era Hindu and Buddhist texts.[26][22]

Overview

 
An illustration of a Saiva Nath chakra system, folio 2 from the Nath Charit, 1823. Mehrangarh Museum Trust.

Chakra and divine energies

Shining, she holds
the noose made of the energy of will,
the hook which is energy of knowledge,
the bow and arrows made of energy of action.
Split into support and supported,
divided into eight, bearer of weapons,
arising from the chakra with eight points,
she has the ninefold chakra as a throne.

Yoginihrdaya 53–54
(Translator: Andre Padoux)[27]

The Chakras are part of esoteric ideas and concepts about physiology and psychic centers that emerged across Indian traditions.[22][28] The belief held that human life simultaneously exists in two parallel dimensions, one "physical body" (sthula sarira) and other "psychological, emotional, mind, non-physical" it is called the "subtle body" (sukshma sarira).[29][note 1] This subtle body is energy, while the physical body is mass. The psyche or mind plane corresponds to and interacts with the body plane, and the belief holds that the body and the mind mutually affect each other.[5] The subtle body consists of nadi (energy channels) connected by nodes of psychic energy called chakra.[3] The belief grew into extensive elaboration, with some suggesting 88,000 chakras throughout the subtle body. The number of major chakras varied between various traditions, but they typically ranged between four and seven.[3][4] Nyingmapa Vajrayana Buddhist teachings mention eight chakras and there is a complete yogic system for each of them.

The important chakras are stated in Hindu and Buddhist texts to be arranged in a column along the spinal cord, from its base to the top of the head, connected by vertical channels.[5][6] The tantric traditions sought to master them, awaken and energize them through various breathing exercises or with assistance of a teacher. These chakras were also symbolically mapped to specific human physiological capacity, seed syllables (bija), sounds, subtle elements (tanmatra), in some cases deities, colors and other motifs.[3][5][31]

Belief in the chakra system of Hinduism and Buddhism differs from the historic Chinese system of meridians in acupuncture.[6] Unlike the latter, the chakra relates to subtle body, wherein it has a position but no definite nervous node or precise physical connection. The tantric systems envision it as continually present, highly relevant and a means to psychic and emotional energy. It is useful in a type of yogic rituals and meditative discovery of radiant inner energy (prana flows) and mind-body connections.[6][32] The meditation is aided by extensive symbology, mantras, diagrams, models (deity and mandala). The practitioner proceeds step by step from perceptible models, to increasingly abstract models where deity and external mandala are abandoned, inner self and internal mandalas are awakened.[33][34]

These ideas are not unique to Hindu and Buddhist traditions. Similar and overlapping concepts emerged in other cultures in the East and the West, and these are variously called by other names such as subtle body, spirit body, esoteric anatomy, sidereal body and etheric body.[35][36][30] According to Geoffrey Samuel and Jay Johnston, professors of Religious studies known for their studies on Yoga and esoteric traditions:

Ideas and practices involving so-called 'subtle bodies' have existed for many centuries in many parts of the world. (...) Virtually all human cultures known to us have some kind of concept of mind, spirit or soul as distinct from the physical body, if only to explain experiences such as sleep and dreaming. (...) An important subset of subtle-body practices, found particularly in Indian and Tibetan Tantric traditions, and in similar Chinese practices, involves the idea of an internal 'subtle physiology' of the body (or rather of the body-mind complex) made up of channels through which substances of some kind flow, and points of intersection at which these channels come together. In the Indian tradition the channels are known as nadi and the points of intersection as cakra.

— Geoffrey Samuel and Jay Johnston, Religion and the Subtle Body in Asia and the West: Between Mind and Body[37]

Contrast with classical yoga

Chakra and related beliefs have been important to the esoteric traditions, but they are not directly related to mainstream yoga.[38] According to the Indologist Edwin Bryant and other scholars, the goals of classical yoga such as spiritual liberation (freedom, self-knowledge, moksha) is "attained entirely differently in classical yoga, and the cakra / nadi / kundalini physiology is completely peripheral to it."[39][40]

Classical traditions

 
In meditation, chakras are often visualised in different ways, such as a lotus flower, or a disc containing a particular deity.

The classical eastern traditions, particularly those that developed in India during the 1st millennium AD, primarily describe nadi and chakra in a "subtle body" context.[41] To them, they are in same dimension as of the psyche-mind reality that is invisible yet real. In the nadi and cakra flow the prana (breath, life energy).[41][42] The concept of "life energy" varies between the texts, ranging from simple inhalation-exhalation to far more complex association with breath-mind-emotions-sexual energy.[41] This prana or essence is what vanishes when a person dies, leaving a gross body. Some of this concept states this subtle body is what withdraws within, when one sleeps. All of it is believed to be reachable, awake-able and important for an individual's body-mind health, and how one relates to other people in one's life.[41] This subtle body network of nadi and chakra is, according to some later Indian theories and many new age speculations, closely associated with emotions.[41][43]

Hindu Tantra

Esoteric traditions in Hinduism mention numerous numbers and arrangements of chakras, of which a classical system of six-plus-one, the last being the Sahasrara, is most prevalent.[3][4][5] This seven-part system, central to the core texts of hatha yoga, is one among many systems found in Hindu tantric literature. Hindu Tantra associates six Yoginis with six places in the subtle body, corresponding to the six chakras of the six-plus-one system.[44]

Association of six Yoginis with chakra locations in the Rudrayamala Tantra[44]
Place in subtle body Yogini
1. Muladhara Dakini
2. Svadhisthana Rakini
3. Manipura Lakini
4. Anahata Kakini
5. Vishuddhi Shakini
6. Ajna Hakini

The Chakra methodology is extensively developed in the goddess tradition of Hinduism called Shaktism. It is an important concept along with yantras, mandalas and kundalini yoga in its practice. Chakra in Shakta tantrism means circle, an "energy center" within, as well as being a term for group rituals such as in chakra-puja (worship within a circle) which may or may not involve tantra practice.[45] The cakra-based system is a part of the meditative exercises that came to be known as yoga.[46]

Buddhist Tantra

 
A Tibetan illustration of the subtle body showing the central channel and two side channels as well as five chakras.
 
A Tibetan thangka with a diagram showing six chakras—a root chakra, a chakra at the sex organs, one at the navel, one at the heart, another at the throat and the last one located at the crown.[47]

The esoteric traditions in Buddhism generally teach four chakras.[3] In some early Buddhist sources, these chakras are identified as: manipura (navel), anahata (heart), vishuddha (throat) and ushnisha kamala (crown).[48] In one development within the Nyingma lineage of the Mantrayana of Tibetan Buddhism a popular conceptualization of chakras in increasing subtlety and increasing order is as follows: Nirmanakaya (gross self), Sambhogakaya (subtle self), Dharmakaya (causal self), and Mahasukhakaya (non-dual self), each vaguely and indirectly corresponding to the categories within the Shaiva Mantramarga universe, i.e., Svadhisthana, Anahata, Visuddha, Sahasrara, etc.[49] However, depending on the meditational tradition, these vary between three and six.[48] The chakras are considered psycho-spiritual constituents, each bearing meaningful correspondences to cosmic processes and their postulated Buddha counterpart.[50][48]

A system of five chakras is common among the Mother class of Tantras and these five chakras along with their correspondences are:[51]

Chakras clearly play a key role in Tibetan Buddhism, and are considered to be the pivotal providence of Tantric thinking. And, the precise use of the chakras across the gamut of tantric sadhanas gives little space to doubt the primary efficacy of Tibetan Buddhism as distinct religious agency, that being that precise revelation that, without Tantra there would be no Chakras, but more importantly, without Chakras, there is no Tibetan Buddhism. The highest practices in Tibetan Buddhism point to the ability to bring the subtle pranas of an entity into alignment with the central channel, and to thus penetrate the realisation of the ultimate unity, namely, the "organic harmony" of one's individual consciousness of Wisdom with the co-attainment of All-embracing Love, thus synthesizing a direct cognition of absolute Buddhahood.[52]

According to Samuel, the buddhist esoteric systems developed cakra and nadi as "central to their soteriological process".[53] The theories were sometimes, but not always, coupled with a unique system of physical exercises, called yantra yoga or 'phrul 'khor.

Chakras, according to the Bon tradition, enable the gestalt of experience, with each of the five major chakras, being psychologically linked with the five experiential qualities of unenlightened consciousness, the six realms of woe.[54]

The tsa lung practice embodied in the Trul khor lineage, unbaffles the primary channels, thus activating and circulating liberating prana. Yoga awakens the deep mind, thus bringing forth positive attributes, inherent gestalts, and virtuous qualities. In a computer analogy, the screen of one's consciousness is slated and an attribute-bearing file is called up that contains necessary positive or negative, supportive qualities.[54]

Tantric practice is said to eventually transform all experience into clear light. The practice aims to liberate from all negative conditioning, and the deep cognitive salvation of freedom from control and unity of perception and cognition.[54]

The seven chakra system

 
One widely popular schema of seven chakras is as follows, from bottom to top: 1. Muladhara 2. Svadhisthana 3. Manipura 4. Anahata 5. Vishuddhi 6. Ajna 7. Sahasrara.[4] The colours are modern.[55]

The more common and most studied chakra system incorporates six major chakras along with a seventh center generally not regarded as a chakra. These points are arranged vertically along the axial channel (sushumna nadi in Hindu texts, Avadhuti in some Buddhist texts).[56] According to Gavin Flood, this system of six chakras plus the sahasrara "center" at the crown first appears in the Kubjikāmata-tantra, an 11th-century Kaula work.[57]

It was this chakra system that was translated in the early 20th century by Sir John Woodroffe (also called Arthur Avalon) in the text The Serpent Power. Avalon translated the Hindu text Ṣaṭ-Cakra-Nirūpaṇa meaning the examination (nirūpaṇa) of the seven (ṣaṭ) chakras (cakra).[58]

The Chakras are traditionally considered meditation aids. The yogi progresses from lower chakras to the highest chakra blossoming in the crown of the head, internalizing the journey of spiritual ascent.[59] In both the Hindu kundalini and Buddhist candali traditions, the chakras are pierced by a dormant energy residing near or in the lowest chakra. In Hindu texts she is known as Kundalini, while in Buddhist texts she is called Candali or Tummo (Tibetan: gtum mo, "fierce one").[60]

Below are the common new age description of these six chakras and the seventh point known as sahasrara. This new age version incorporates the Newtonian colors of the rainbow not found in any ancient Indian system.[55]

Image of chakra Name Sanskrit
(Translation)
Location No. of
petals
Modern
colour
Seed
syllable
Description
 
Sahasrara सहस्रार
"Thousand-petaled"
Crown 1000 Multi or violet Highest spiritual centre, pure consciousness, containing neither object nor subject. When the feminine Kundalini Shakti rises to this point, it unites with the masculine Shiva, giving self-realization and samadhi.[4] In esoteric Buddhism, it is called Mahasukha, the petal lotus of "Great Bliss" corresponding to the fourth state of Four Noble Truths.[60]
 
Ajna or Agya आज्ञा
"Command"
Between
eyebrows
2 Indigo Guru chakra, or in New Age usage third-eye chakra, the subtle center of energy, where the tantra guru touches the seeker during the initiation ritual. He or she commands the awakened kundalini to pass through this centre.[4]
 
Vishuddha विशुद्ध
"Purest"
Throat 16 Blue Ham
(space)
16 petals covered with the sixteen Sanskrit vowels. Associated with the element of space (akasha). The residing deity is Panchavaktra shiva, with 5 heads and 4 arms, and the Shakti is Shakini.[4]

In esoteric Buddhism, it is called Sambhoga and is generally considered to be the petal lotus of "Enjoyment" corresponding to the third state of Four Noble Truths.[60]

 
Anahata अनाहत
"Unstruck"
Heart 12 Green Yam
(air)
Within it is a yantra of two intersecting triangles, forming a hexagram, symbolising a union of the male and female, and the element of air (vayu). The presiding deity is Ishana Rudra Shiva, and the Shakti is Kakini.[4]

In esoteric Buddhism, this Chakra is called Dharma and is generally considered to be the petal lotus of "Essential nature" and corresponding to the second state of Four Noble Truths.[60]

 
Manipura मणिपूर
"Jewel city"
Navel 10 Yellow Ram
(fire)
For the Nath yogi meditation system, this is described as the Madhyama-Shakti or the intermediate stage of self-discovery.[59] This chakra is represented as a downward pointing triangle representing fire in the middle of a lotus with ten petals. The presiding deity is Braddha Rudra, with Lakini as the Shakti.[4]
 
Svadhishthana स्वाधिष्ठान
"Where the self
is established"
Root of
sexual organs
6 Orange Vam
(water)
Svadhisthana is represented with a lotus within which is a crescent moon symbolizing the water element. The presiding deity is Brahma, with the Shakti being Rakini (or Chakini).[4]

In esoteric Buddhism, it is called Nirmana, the petal lotus of "Creation" and corresponding to the first state of Four Noble Truths.[60]

 
Muladhara मूलाधार
"Root"
Base of
spine
4 Red Lam
(earth)
Dormant Kundalini is often said to be resting here, wrapped three and a half, or seven or twelve times. Sometimes she is wrapped around the black Svayambhu linga, the lowest of three obstructions to her full rising (also known as knots or granthis).[61] It is symbolised as a four-petaled lotus with a yellow square at its center representing the element of earth.[4]

The seed syllable is Lam for the earth element. All sounds, words and mantras in their dormant form rest in the muladhara chakra, where Ganesha resides,[62] while the Shakti is Dakini.[63] The associated animal is the elephant.[64]

Western chakra system

History

 
Chakra positions in supposed relation to nervous plexuses, from Charles W. Leadbeater's 1927 book The Chakras

Kurt Leland, for the Theosophical Society in America, concluded that the western chakra system was produced by an "unintentional collaboration" of many groups of people: esotericists and clairvoyants, often theosophical; Indologists; the scholar of myth, Joseph Campbell; the founders of the Esalen Institute and the psychological tradition of Carl Jung; the colour system of Charles W. Leadbeater's 1927 book The Chakras,[65] treated as traditional lore by some modern Indian yogis; and energy healers such as Barbara Brennan.[55][66] Leland states that far from being traditional, the two main elements of the modern system, the rainbow colours and the list of qualities, first appeared together only in 1977.[55]

The concept of a set of seven chakras came to the West in the 1880s; at that time each chakra was associated with a nerve plexus.[55] In 1918, Sir John Woodroffe, alias Arthur Avalon, translated two Indian texts, the Ṣaṭ-Cakra-Nirūpaṇa and the Pādukā-Pañcaka, and in his book The Serpent Power drew Western attention to the seven chakra theory.[67]

In the 1920s, each of the seven chakras was associated with an endocrine gland,[55] a tradition that has persisted.[68][69][70] More recently, the lower six chakras have been linked to both nerve plexuses and glands.[71] The seven rainbow colours were added by Leadbeater in 1927; a variant system in the 1930s proposed six colours plus white.[55] Leadbeater's theory was influenced by Johann Georg Gichtel's 1696 book Theosophia Practica, which mentioned inner "force centres".[72]

Psychological and other attributes such as layers of the aura, developmental stages, associated diseases, Aristotelian elements, emotions, and states of consciousness were added still later.[55] A wide range of supposed correspondences such as with alchemical metals, astrological signs and planets, foods, herbs, gemstones, homeopathic remedies, Kabbalistic spheres, musical notes, totem animals, and Tarot cards have also been proposed.[55]

New Age

In Anatomy of the Spirit (1996), Caroline Myss described the function of chakras as follows: "Every thought and experience you've ever had in your life gets filtered through these chakra databases. Each event is recorded into your cells...".[73] The chakras are described as being aligned in an ascending column from the base of the spine to the top of the head. New Age practices often associate each chakra with a certain colour. In various traditions, chakras are associated with multiple physiological functions, an aspect of consciousness, a classical element, and other distinguishing characteristics; these do not correspond to those used in ancient Indian systems. The chakras are visualised as lotuses or flowers with a different number of petals in every chakra.[55]

The chakras are thought to vitalise the physical body and to be associated with interactions of a physical, emotional and mental nature. They are considered loci of life energy or prana (which New Age belief equates with shakti, qi in Chinese, ki in Japanese, koach-ha-guf[74] in Hebrew, bios in Greek, and aether in both Greek and English), which is thought to flow among them along pathways called nadi. The function of the chakras is to spin and draw in this energy to keep the spiritual, mental, emotional and physical health of the body in balance.[75]

Rudolf Steiner considered the chakra system to be dynamic and evolving. He suggested that this system has become different for modern people than it was in ancient times and that it will, in turn, be radically different in future times.[76][77][78] Steiner described a sequence of development that begins with the upper chakras and moves down, rather than moving in the opposite direction. He gave suggestions on how to develop the chakras through disciplining thoughts, feelings, and will.[79] According to Florin Lowndes, a "spiritual student" can further develop and deepen or elevate thinking consciousness when taking the step from the "ancient path" of schooling to the "new path" represented by Steiner's The Philosophy of Freedom.[80]

Skeptical response

The not-for-profit Edinburgh Skeptics Society states that despite their popularity, "there has never been any evidence for these meridian lines or chakras". It adds that while practitioners sometimes cite "scientific evidence" for their claims, such evidence is often "incredibly shaky".[81]

See also

  • Aura
  • Dantian—energy centre in Chinese Taoist systems
  • Surya Namaskar—the Sun Salutation, in which each posture is sometimes associated with a chakra and a mantra

Notes

  1. ^ The roots to this belief are found in Samkhya and Vedanta which attempt to conceptualize the permanent soul and impermanent body as interacting in three overlapping states: the gross body (sthula sarira), the subtle body (sukshma sarira), and causal body (karana sarira). These ideas emerged to address questions relating to the nature of body and soul, how and why they interact while one is awake, one is asleep and over the conception-birth-growth-decay-death-rebirth cycle.[29][30]

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Further reading

  • Apte, Vaman Shivram (1965). The Practical Sanskrit Dictionary (fourth revised & enlarged ed.). Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 81-208-0567-4.
  • Bucknell, Roderick; Stuart-Fox, Martin (1986). The Twilight Language: Explorations in Buddhist Meditation and Symbolism. London: Curzon Press. ISBN 0-312-82540-4.
  • Edgerton, Franklin (2004) [1953]. Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit Grammar and Dictionary (Reprint ed.). Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers. ISBN 81-208-0999-8. (Two volumes)
  • Flood, Gavin (1996). An Introduction to Hinduism. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-43878-0.
  • Chia, Mantak; Chia, Maneewan (1993). Awaken Healing Light of the Tao. Healing Tao Books.
  • Dale, Cyndi (2009). The Subtle Body: An Encyclopedia of Your Energetic Anatomy. Boulder, Colorado: Sounds True. ISBN 978-1-59179-671-8.
  • Monier-Williams, Monier. A Sanskrit-English Dictionary. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass.
  • Prabhananda, S. (2000). Studies on the Tantras (Second reprint ed.). Calcutta: The Ramakrishna Mission Institute of Culture. ISBN 81-85843-36-8.
  • Rinpoche, Tenzin Wangyal (2002). Healing with Form, Energy, and Light. Ithaca, New York: Snow Lion Publications. ISBN 1-55939-176-6.
  • Saraswati, Swami Sivananda (1953–2001). Kundalini Yoga. Tehri-Garhwal, India: Divine Life Society. foldout chart. ISBN 81-7052-052-5.
  • Tulku, Tarthang (2007). Tibetan Relaxation. The illustrated guide to Kum Nye massage and movement – A yoga from the Tibetan tradition. London: Dunkan Baird Publishers. ISBN 978-1-84483-404-4.
  • Woodroffe, John (1964) [1919]. The Serpent Power. Madras, India: Ganesh & Co. ISBN 0-486-23058-9.
  • Banerji, S. C. Tantra in Bengal. Second Revised and Enlarged Edition. (Manohar: Delhi, 1992) ISBN 81-85425-63-9
  • Saraswati, Swami Sivananda (1953–2001). Kundalini Yoga. Divine Life Society. ISBN 81-7052-052-5.
  • Goswami, Shyam Sundar. Layayoga: The Definitive Guide to the Chakras and Kundalini, Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1980.
  • Sharp, Michael (2005). Dossier of the Ascension: A Practical Guide to Chakra Activation and Kundalini Awakening (1st ed.). Avatar Publications. ISBN 0-9735379-3-0. Archived from the original on 21 December 2012.
  • Khalsa, Guru Dharam Singh; O'Keeffe, Darryl. The Kundalini Yoga Experience Simon & Schuster, 2002.
  • Judith, Anodea (1996). Eastern Body Western Mind: Psychology and the Chakra System As A Path to the Self. Berkeley, California, USA: Celestial Arts Publishing. ISBN 0-89087-815-3
  • Lowndes, Florin. 'Enlivening the Chakra of the Heart: The Fundamental Spiritual Exercises of Rudolf Steiner' ISBN 1-85584-053-7, first English edition 1998 from the original German edition of 1996, comparing 'traditional' chakra teaching, and that of C.W. Leadbeater, with that of Rudolf Steiner.

chakra, other, uses, disambiguation, confused, with, ɑː, chuk, rəz, chah, krəz, sanskrit, चक, romanized, cakra, wheel, circle, pali, cakka, various, focal, points, used, variety, ancient, meditation, practices, collectively, denominated, tantra, esoteric, inne. For other uses see Chakra disambiguation Not to be confused with Chakram Chakras UK ˈ tʃ ʌ k r e z US ˈ tʃ ɑː k r e z CHUK rez CHAH krez 2 Sanskrit चक र romanized cakra lit wheel circle Pali cakka are various focal points used in a variety of ancient meditation practices collectively denominated as Tantra or the esoteric or inner traditions of Hinduism 3 4 5 Sapta Chakra an 1899 manuscript above illustrates the esoteric correspondence s between subtle energy and Tibetan psycho physiology 1 This article contains Indic text Without proper rendering support you may see question marks or boxes misplaced vowels or missing conjuncts instead of Indic text The concept of the chakra arose in the early traditions of Hinduism 6 Beliefs differ between the Indian religions with many Buddhist texts consistently mentioning five chakras while Hindu sources reference six or seven 3 4 7 Early Sanskrit texts speak of them both as meditative visualizations combining flowers and mantras and as physical entities in the body 7 Within Kundalini yoga the techniques of breathing exercises visualizations mudras bandhas kriyas and mantras are focused on manipulating the flow of subtle energy through chakras 6 8 The modern Western chakra system arose from multiple sources starting in the 1880s followed by Sir John Woodroffe s 1919 book The Serpent Power and Charles W Leadbeater s 1927 book The Chakras which introduced the seven rainbow colours for the chakras Psychological and other attributes and a wide range of supposed correspondences with other systems such as alchemy astrology gemstones homeopathy Kabbalah and Tarot were added later Contents 1 Etymology 2 Ancient history 3 Overview 3 1 Contrast with classical yoga 4 Classical traditions 4 1 Hindu Tantra 4 2 Buddhist Tantra 5 The seven chakra system 6 Western chakra system 6 1 History 6 2 New Age 7 Skeptical response 8 See also 9 Notes 10 References 11 Further readingEtymology EditSee also Yantra and Mandala Lexically chakra is the Indic reflex of an ancestral Indo European form kʷekʷlos whence also wheel and cycle Ancient Greek kyklos romanized kyklos 9 3 4 It has both literal 10 and metaphorical uses as in the wheel of time or wheel of dharma such as in Rigveda hymn verse 1 164 11 11 12 pervasive in the earliest Vedic texts In Buddhism especially in Theravada the Pali noun cakka connotes wheel 13 Within the central Tripitaka the Buddha variously refers the dhammacakka or wheel of dharma connoting that this dharma universal in its advocacy should bear the marks characteristic of any temporal dispensation The Buddha spoke of freedom from cycles in and of themselves whether karmic reincarnative liberative cognitive or emotional 14 In Jainism the term chakra also means wheel and appears in various contexts in its ancient literature 15 As in other Indian religions chakra in esoteric theories in Jainism such as those by Buddhisagarsuri means a yogic energy center 16 Ancient history EditSee also Yoga and Nadi yoga The term chakra appears to first emerge within the Hindu Vedas though not precisely in the sense of psychic energy centers rather as chakravartin or the king who turns the wheel of his empire in all directions from a center representing his influence and power 17 The iconography popular in representing the Chakras states the scholar David Gordon White traces back to the five symbols of yajna the Vedic fire altar square circle triangle half moon and dumpling 18 The hymn 10 136 of the Rigveda mentions a renunciate yogi with a female named kunamnama Literally it means she who is bent coiled representing both a minor goddess and one of many embedded enigmas and esoteric riddles within the Rigveda Some scholars such as D G White and Georg Feuerstein have suggested that she may be a reference to kundalini shakti and a precursor to the terminology associated with the chakras in later tantric traditions 19 20 21 Breath channels naḍi are mentioned in the classical Upanishads of Hinduism from the 1st millennium BCE 22 23 but not psychic energy chakra theories Three classical Nadis are Ida Pingala and Sushumna in which the central channel Sushumna is said to be foremost as per Kṣurika Upaniṣhad 24 The latter states David Gordon White were introduced about 8th century CE in Buddhist texts as hierarchies of inner energy centers such as in the Hevajra Tantra and Caryagiti 22 25 These are called by various terms such as cakka padma lotus or pitha mound 22 These medieval Buddhist texts mention only four chakras while later Hindu texts such as the Kubjikamata and Kaulajnananirnaya expanded the list to many more 22 In contrast to White according to Feuerstein early Upanishads of Hinduism do mention chakras in the sense of psychospiritual vortices along with other terms found in tantra prana or vayu life energy along with nadi energy carrying arteries 20 According to Gavin Flood the ancient texts do not present chakra and kundalini style yoga theories although these words appear in the earliest Vedic literature in many contexts The chakra in the sense of four or more vital energy centers appear in the medieval era Hindu and Buddhist texts 26 22 Overview Edit An illustration of a Saiva Nath chakra system folio 2 from the Nath Charit 1823 Mehrangarh Museum Trust Chakra and divine energies Shining she holds the noose made of the energy of will the hook which is energy of knowledge the bow and arrows made of energy of action Split into support and supported divided into eight bearer of weapons arising from the chakra with eight points she has the ninefold chakra as a throne Yoginihrdaya 53 54 Translator Andre Padoux 27 The Chakras are part of esoteric ideas and concepts about physiology and psychic centers that emerged across Indian traditions 22 28 The belief held that human life simultaneously exists in two parallel dimensions one physical body sthula sarira and other psychological emotional mind non physical it is called the subtle body sukshma sarira 29 note 1 This subtle body is energy while the physical body is mass The psyche or mind plane corresponds to and interacts with the body plane and the belief holds that the body and the mind mutually affect each other 5 The subtle body consists of nadi energy channels connected by nodes of psychic energy called chakra 3 The belief grew into extensive elaboration with some suggesting 88 000 chakras throughout the subtle body The number of major chakras varied between various traditions but they typically ranged between four and seven 3 4 Nyingmapa Vajrayana Buddhist teachings mention eight chakras and there is a complete yogic system for each of them The important chakras are stated in Hindu and Buddhist texts to be arranged in a column along the spinal cord from its base to the top of the head connected by vertical channels 5 6 The tantric traditions sought to master them awaken and energize them through various breathing exercises or with assistance of a teacher These chakras were also symbolically mapped to specific human physiological capacity seed syllables bija sounds subtle elements tanmatra in some cases deities colors and other motifs 3 5 31 Belief in the chakra system of Hinduism and Buddhism differs from the historic Chinese system of meridians in acupuncture 6 Unlike the latter the chakra relates to subtle body wherein it has a position but no definite nervous node or precise physical connection The tantric systems envision it as continually present highly relevant and a means to psychic and emotional energy It is useful in a type of yogic rituals and meditative discovery of radiant inner energy prana flows and mind body connections 6 32 The meditation is aided by extensive symbology mantras diagrams models deity and mandala The practitioner proceeds step by step from perceptible models to increasingly abstract models where deity and external mandala are abandoned inner self and internal mandalas are awakened 33 34 These ideas are not unique to Hindu and Buddhist traditions Similar and overlapping concepts emerged in other cultures in the East and the West and these are variously called by other names such as subtle body spirit body esoteric anatomy sidereal body and etheric body 35 36 30 According to Geoffrey Samuel and Jay Johnston professors of Religious studies known for their studies on Yoga and esoteric traditions Ideas and practices involving so called subtle bodies have existed for many centuries in many parts of the world Virtually all human cultures known to us have some kind of concept of mind spirit or soul as distinct from the physical body if only to explain experiences such as sleep and dreaming An important subset of subtle body practices found particularly in Indian and Tibetan Tantric traditions and in similar Chinese practices involves the idea of an internal subtle physiology of the body or rather of the body mind complex made up of channels through which substances of some kind flow and points of intersection at which these channels come together In the Indian tradition the channels are known as nadi and the points of intersection as cakra Geoffrey Samuel and Jay Johnston Religion and the Subtle Body in Asia and the West Between Mind and Body 37 Contrast with classical yoga Edit Chakra and related beliefs have been important to the esoteric traditions but they are not directly related to mainstream yoga 38 According to the Indologist Edwin Bryant and other scholars the goals of classical yoga such as spiritual liberation freedom self knowledge moksha is attained entirely differently in classical yoga and the cakra nadi kundalini physiology is completely peripheral to it 39 40 Classical traditions Edit In meditation chakras are often visualised in different ways such as a lotus flower or a disc containing a particular deity The classical eastern traditions particularly those that developed in India during the 1st millennium AD primarily describe nadi and chakra in a subtle body context 41 To them they are in same dimension as of the psyche mind reality that is invisible yet real In the nadi and cakra flow the prana breath life energy 41 42 The concept of life energy varies between the texts ranging from simple inhalation exhalation to far more complex association with breath mind emotions sexual energy 41 This prana or essence is what vanishes when a person dies leaving a gross body Some of this concept states this subtle body is what withdraws within when one sleeps All of it is believed to be reachable awake able and important for an individual s body mind health and how one relates to other people in one s life 41 This subtle body network of nadi and chakra is according to some later Indian theories and many new age speculations closely associated with emotions 41 43 Hindu Tantra Edit Main article Kundalini energy Esoteric traditions in Hinduism mention numerous numbers and arrangements of chakras of which a classical system of six plus one the last being the Sahasrara is most prevalent 3 4 5 This seven part system central to the core texts of hatha yoga is one among many systems found in Hindu tantric literature Hindu Tantra associates six Yoginis with six places in the subtle body corresponding to the six chakras of the six plus one system 44 Association of six Yoginis with chakra locations in the Rudrayamala Tantra 44 Place in subtle body Yogini1 Muladhara Dakini2 Svadhisthana Rakini3 Manipura Lakini4 Anahata Kakini5 Vishuddhi Shakini6 Ajna HakiniThe Chakra methodology is extensively developed in the goddess tradition of Hinduism called Shaktism It is an important concept along with yantras mandalas and kundalini yoga in its practice Chakra in Shakta tantrism means circle an energy center within as well as being a term for group rituals such as in chakra puja worship within a circle which may or may not involve tantra practice 45 The cakra based system is a part of the meditative exercises that came to be known as yoga 46 Buddhist Tantra Edit Main article Vajrayana A Tibetan illustration of the subtle body showing the central channel and two side channels as well as five chakras A Tibetan thangka with a diagram showing six chakras a root chakra a chakra at the sex organs one at the navel one at the heart another at the throat and the last one located at the crown 47 The esoteric traditions in Buddhism generally teach four chakras 3 In some early Buddhist sources these chakras are identified as manipura navel anahata heart vishuddha throat and ushnisha kamala crown 48 In one development within the Nyingma lineage of the Mantrayana of Tibetan Buddhism a popular conceptualization of chakras in increasing subtlety and increasing order is as follows Nirmanakaya gross self Sambhogakaya subtle self Dharmakaya causal self and Mahasukhakaya non dual self each vaguely and indirectly corresponding to the categories within the Shaiva Mantramarga universe i e Svadhisthana Anahata Visuddha Sahasrara etc 49 However depending on the meditational tradition these vary between three and six 48 The chakras are considered psycho spiritual constituents each bearing meaningful correspondences to cosmic processes and their postulated Buddha counterpart 50 48 A system of five chakras is common among the Mother class of Tantras and these five chakras along with their correspondences are 51 Basal chakra Element Earth Buddha Amoghasiddhi Bija mantra LAM Abdominal chakra Element Water Buddha Ratnasambhava Bija mantra VAM Heart chakra Element Fire Buddha Akshobhya Bija mantra RAM Throat chakra Element Wind Buddha Amitabha Bija mantra YAM Crown chakra Element Space Buddha Vairochana Bija mantra KHAM Chakras clearly play a key role in Tibetan Buddhism and are considered to be the pivotal providence of Tantric thinking And the precise use of the chakras across the gamut of tantric sadhanas gives little space to doubt the primary efficacy of Tibetan Buddhism as distinct religious agency that being that precise revelation that without Tantra there would be no Chakras but more importantly without Chakras there is no Tibetan Buddhism The highest practices in Tibetan Buddhism point to the ability to bring the subtle pranas of an entity into alignment with the central channel and to thus penetrate the realisation of the ultimate unity namely the organic harmony of one s individual consciousness of Wisdom with the co attainment of All embracing Love thus synthesizing a direct cognition of absolute Buddhahood 52 According to Samuel the buddhist esoteric systems developed cakra and nadi as central to their soteriological process 53 The theories were sometimes but not always coupled with a unique system of physical exercises called yantra yoga or phrul khor Chakras according to the Bon tradition enable the gestalt of experience with each of the five major chakras being psychologically linked with the five experiential qualities of unenlightened consciousness the six realms of woe 54 The tsa lung practice embodied in the Trul khor lineage unbaffles the primary channels thus activating and circulating liberating prana Yoga awakens the deep mind thus bringing forth positive attributes inherent gestalts and virtuous qualities In a computer analogy the screen of one s consciousness is slated and an attribute bearing file is called up that contains necessary positive or negative supportive qualities 54 Tantric practice is said to eventually transform all experience into clear light The practice aims to liberate from all negative conditioning and the deep cognitive salvation of freedom from control and unity of perception and cognition 54 The seven chakra system Edit One widely popular schema of seven chakras is as follows from bottom to top 1 Muladhara 2 Svadhisthana 3 Manipura 4 Anahata 5 Vishuddhi 6 Ajna 7 Sahasrara 4 The colours are modern 55 The more common and most studied chakra system incorporates six major chakras along with a seventh center generally not regarded as a chakra These points are arranged vertically along the axial channel sushumna nadi in Hindu texts Avadhuti in some Buddhist texts 56 According to Gavin Flood this system of six chakras plus the sahasrara center at the crown first appears in the Kubjikamata tantra an 11th century Kaula work 57 It was this chakra system that was translated in the early 20th century by Sir John Woodroffe also called Arthur Avalon in the text The Serpent Power Avalon translated the Hindu text Ṣaṭ Cakra Nirupaṇa meaning the examination nirupaṇa of the seven ṣaṭ chakras cakra 58 The Chakras are traditionally considered meditation aids The yogi progresses from lower chakras to the highest chakra blossoming in the crown of the head internalizing the journey of spiritual ascent 59 In both the Hindu kundalini and Buddhist candali traditions the chakras are pierced by a dormant energy residing near or in the lowest chakra In Hindu texts she is known as Kundalini while in Buddhist texts she is called Candali or Tummo Tibetan gtum mo fierce one 60 Below are the common new age description of these six chakras and the seventh point known as sahasrara This new age version incorporates the Newtonian colors of the rainbow not found in any ancient Indian system 55 Image of chakra Name Sanskrit Translation Location No ofpetals Moderncolour Seedsyllable Description Sahasrara सहस र र Thousand petaled Crown 1000 Multi or violet Highest spiritual centre pure consciousness containing neither object nor subject When the feminine Kundalini Shakti rises to this point it unites with the masculine Shiva giving self realization and samadhi 4 In esoteric Buddhism it is called Mahasukha the petal lotus of Great Bliss corresponding to the fourth state of Four Noble Truths 60 Ajna or Agya आज ञ Command Betweeneyebrows 2 Indigo Guru chakra or in New Age usage third eye chakra the subtle center of energy where the tantra guru touches the seeker during the initiation ritual He or she commands the awakened kundalini to pass through this centre 4 Vishuddha व श द ध Purest Throat 16 Blue Ham space 16 petals covered with the sixteen Sanskrit vowels Associated with the element of space akasha The residing deity is Panchavaktra shiva with 5 heads and 4 arms and the Shakti is Shakini 4 In esoteric Buddhism it is called Sambhoga and is generally considered to be the petal lotus of Enjoyment corresponding to the third state of Four Noble Truths 60 Anahata अन हत Unstruck Heart 12 Green Yam air Within it is a yantra of two intersecting triangles forming a hexagram symbolising a union of the male and female and the element of air vayu The presiding deity is Ishana Rudra Shiva and the Shakti is Kakini 4 In esoteric Buddhism this Chakra is called Dharma and is generally considered to be the petal lotus of Essential nature and corresponding to the second state of Four Noble Truths 60 Manipura मण प र Jewel city Navel 10 Yellow Ram fire For the Nath yogi meditation system this is described as the Madhyama Shakti or the intermediate stage of self discovery 59 This chakra is represented as a downward pointing triangle representing fire in the middle of a lotus with ten petals The presiding deity is Braddha Rudra with Lakini as the Shakti 4 Svadhishthana स व ध ष ठ न Where the selfis established Root ofsexual organs 6 Orange Vam water Svadhisthana is represented with a lotus within which is a crescent moon symbolizing the water element The presiding deity is Brahma with the Shakti being Rakini or Chakini 4 In esoteric Buddhism it is called Nirmana the petal lotus of Creation and corresponding to the first state of Four Noble Truths 60 Muladhara म ल ध र Root Base ofspine 4 Red Lam earth Dormant Kundalini is often said to be resting here wrapped three and a half or seven or twelve times Sometimes she is wrapped around the black Svayambhu linga the lowest of three obstructions to her full rising also known as knots or granthis 61 It is symbolised as a four petaled lotus with a yellow square at its center representing the element of earth 4 The seed syllable is Lam for the earth element All sounds words and mantras in their dormant form rest in the muladhara chakra where Ganesha resides 62 while the Shakti is Dakini 63 The associated animal is the elephant 64 Western chakra system EditMain article Esotericism History Edit Chakra positions in supposed relation to nervous plexuses from Charles W Leadbeater s 1927 book The Chakras Kurt Leland for the Theosophical Society in America concluded that the western chakra system was produced by an unintentional collaboration of many groups of people esotericists and clairvoyants often theosophical Indologists the scholar of myth Joseph Campbell the founders of the Esalen Institute and the psychological tradition of Carl Jung the colour system of Charles W Leadbeater s 1927 book The Chakras 65 treated as traditional lore by some modern Indian yogis and energy healers such as Barbara Brennan 55 66 Leland states that far from being traditional the two main elements of the modern system the rainbow colours and the list of qualities first appeared together only in 1977 55 The concept of a set of seven chakras came to the West in the 1880s at that time each chakra was associated with a nerve plexus 55 In 1918 Sir John Woodroffe alias Arthur Avalon translated two Indian texts the Ṣaṭ Cakra Nirupaṇa and the Paduka Pancaka and in his book The Serpent Power drew Western attention to the seven chakra theory 67 In the 1920s each of the seven chakras was associated with an endocrine gland 55 a tradition that has persisted 68 69 70 More recently the lower six chakras have been linked to both nerve plexuses and glands 71 The seven rainbow colours were added by Leadbeater in 1927 a variant system in the 1930s proposed six colours plus white 55 Leadbeater s theory was influenced by Johann Georg Gichtel s 1696 book Theosophia Practica which mentioned inner force centres 72 Psychological and other attributes such as layers of the aura developmental stages associated diseases Aristotelian elements emotions and states of consciousness were added still later 55 A wide range of supposed correspondences such as with alchemical metals astrological signs and planets foods herbs gemstones homeopathic remedies Kabbalistic spheres musical notes totem animals and Tarot cards have also been proposed 55 New Age Edit Further information New Age In Anatomy of the Spirit 1996 Caroline Myss described the function of chakras as follows Every thought and experience you ve ever had in your life gets filtered through these chakra databases Each event is recorded into your cells 73 The chakras are described as being aligned in an ascending column from the base of the spine to the top of the head New Age practices often associate each chakra with a certain colour In various traditions chakras are associated with multiple physiological functions an aspect of consciousness a classical element and other distinguishing characteristics these do not correspond to those used in ancient Indian systems The chakras are visualised as lotuses or flowers with a different number of petals in every chakra 55 The chakras are thought to vitalise the physical body and to be associated with interactions of a physical emotional and mental nature They are considered loci of life energy or prana which New Age belief equates with shakti qi in Chinese kiin Japanese koach ha guf 74 in Hebrew biosin Greek and aetherin both Greek and English which is thought to flow among them along pathways called nadi The function of the chakras is to spin and draw in this energy to keep the spiritual mental emotional and physical health of the body in balance 75 Rudolf Steiner considered the chakra system to be dynamic and evolving He suggested that this system has become different for modern people than it was in ancient times and that it will in turn be radically different in future times 76 77 78 Steiner described a sequence of development that begins with the upper chakras and moves down rather than moving in the opposite direction He gave suggestions on how to develop the chakras through disciplining thoughts feelings and will 79 According to Florin Lowndes a spiritual student can further develop and deepen or elevate thinking consciousness when taking the step from the ancient path of schooling to the new path represented by Steiner s The Philosophy of Freedom 80 Skeptical response EditFurther information Scientific skepticism The not for profit Edinburgh Skeptics Society states that despite their popularity there has never been any evidence for these meridian lines or chakras It adds that while practitioners sometimes cite scientific evidence for their claims such evidence is often incredibly shaky 81 See also Edit Hinduism portalAura Dantian energy centre in Chinese Taoist systems Surya Namaskar the Sun Salutation in which each posture is sometimes associated with a chakra and a mantraNotes Edit The roots to this belief are found in Samkhya and Vedanta which attempt to conceptualize the permanent soul and impermanent body as interacting in three overlapping states the gross body sthula sarira the subtle body sukshma sarira and causal body karana sarira These ideas emerged to address questions relating to the nature of body and soul how and why they interact while one is awake one is asleep and over the conception birth growth decay death rebirth cycle 29 30 References Edit Sapta Chakra The British Library MS 24099 Wells John 2008 Longman Pronunciation Dictionary 3rd ed Pearson Longman ISBN 978 1 4058 8118 0 a b c d e f g h Chakra Religion Encyclopaedia Britannica a b c d e f g h i j k l m Grimes John A 1996 A Concise Dictionary of Indian Philosophy Sanskrit Terms Defined in English State University of New York Press pp 26 30 100 101 265 ISBN 978 0 7914 3067 5 a b c d e Lochtefeld James G 2002 The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism A M Rosen Publishing Group p 137 ISBN 978 0 8239 3179 8 a b c d e Jones Constance Ryan James D 2006 Encyclopedia of Hinduism Infobase Publishing p 102 ISBN 978 0 8160 7564 5 a b Heilijgers Seelen Dory 1992 The system of five cakras in Kubjikamatatantra 14 16 a study and annotated translation Thesis S l s n OCLC 905777672 Beer Robert 2003 The Handbook of Tibetan Buddhist Symbols Serindia Publications pp 242 243 ISBN 978 1 932476 03 3 Mallory J P Adams D Q 1997 Encyclopedia of Indo European culture 1 ed Routledge p 640 ISBN 978 1 884964 98 5 Staal Frits 2008 Discovering the Vedas Origins Mantras Rituals Insights Penguin Books p 34 ISBN 978 0 14 309986 4 Staal Frits 2008 Discovering the Vedas Origins Mantras Rituals Insights Penguin Books pp 333 335 ISBN 978 0 14 309986 4 ऋग व द स क त १ १६४ verse ११ Rigveda Wikisource Collins Steven 1998 Nirvana and Other Buddhist Felicities Cambridge University Press pp 473 474 ISBN 978 0 521 57054 1 Edgerton Franklin 1993 Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit Grammar and Dictionary Repr ed Delhi Motilal Banarsidass p 221 ISBN 81 208 0999 8 von Glasenapp Helmuth 1925 Jainism An Indian Religion of Salvation Motilal Banarsidass pp 280 283 427 428 476 477 ISBN 978 81 208 1376 2 White David Gordon 2001 Tantra in Practice Motilal Banarsidass pp 426 427 ISBN 978 81 208 1778 4 White David Gordon 2001 Tantra in Practice Motilal Banarsidass p 25 ISBN 978 81 208 1778 4 White David Gordon 2001 Tantra in Practice Motilal Banarsidass p 555 ISBN 978 81 208 1778 4 White David Gordon 2006 Kiss of the Yogini Tantric Sex in its South Asian Contexts University of Chicago Press pp 33 130 198 ISBN 978 0 226 02783 8 a b Feuerstein Georg 1998 Tantra Path of Ecstasy Shambhala Publications pp 15 17 ISBN 978 0 8348 2545 1 Flood Gavin D 1996 An Introduction to Hinduism Cambridge University Press pp 77 78 285 ISBN 978 0 521 43878 0 a b c d e f White David Gordon Yoga in Practice Princeton University Press 2012 pages 14 15 Trish O Sullivan 2010 Chakras In D A Leeming K Madden S Marlan eds Encyclopedia of Psychology and Religion Springer Science Business Media Ida Pingala Sushumna Nadis Scientific Monk Retrieved 28 August 2021 White David Gordon 2003 Kiss of the Yogini University of Chicago Press p 224 ISBN 0 226 89483 5 Flood Gavin D 1996 An Introduction to Hinduism Cambridge University Press pp 98 100 ISBN 978 0 521 43878 0 Padoux Andre 2013 The Heart of the Yogini The Yoginihrdaya a Sanskrit Tantric Treatise Oxford University Press p 44 ISBN 978 0 19 998233 2 Pradhan Basant 2014 Yoga and Mindfulness Based Cognitive Therapy A Clinical Guide Springer Verlag pp 154 155 ISBN 978 3 319 09105 1 a b Sharma Arvind 2006 A Primal Perspective on the Philosophy of Religion Springer Verlag pp 193 196 ISBN 978 1 4020 5014 5 a b Muller Friedrich Max 1899 The Six Systems of Indian Philosophy Longmans pp 227 236 393 395 Klostermaier Klaus K 2010 A Survey of Hinduism Third ed State University of New York Press pp 238 243 ISBN 978 0 7914 8011 3 Harvey Peter 2013 An Introduction to Buddhism Teachings History and Practices 2nd Edition Cambridge University Press pp 190 191 353 357 ISBN 978 0 521 85942 4 Mayer E A Saper C B 2000 The Biological Basis for Mind Body Interactions Elsevier pp 514 516 ISBN 978 0 08 086247 7 Wilke Annette Moebus Oliver 2011 Sound and Communication An Aesthetic Cultural History of Sanskrit Hinduism Walter de Gruyter pp 735 740 ISBN 978 3 11 024003 0 Johnston Jay 2010 Elizabeth Burns Coleman and Kevin White ed Medicine Religion and the Body Brill pp 69 75 ISBN 978 90 04 17970 7 Gottler Christine Neuber Wolfgang 2008 Spirits Unseen The Representation of Subtle Bodies in Early Modern European Culture Brill Publishers pp 55 58 294 300 ISBN 978 90 04 16396 6 Samuel Geoffrey Johnston Jay 2013 Religion and the Subtle Body in Asia and the West Between Mind and Body Routledge pp 1 5 ISBN 978 1 136 76640 4 Ferretti Andrea 11 June 2021 The Chakras A Beginner s Guide to Understanding the 7 Chakras Yoga Journal Retrieved 10 February 2022 Bryant Edwin Francis 2009 The Yoga sutras of Patanjali a new edition translation and commentary with insights from the traditional commentators North Point Press pp 358 364 229 233 ISBN 978 0 86547 736 0 Syman Stefanie 2010 The Subtle Body The Story of Yoga in America Farrar Straus and Giroux pp 72 74 ISBN 978 1 4299 3307 0 a b c d e Samuel Geoffrey Johnston Jay 2013 Religion and the Subtle Body in Asia and the West Between Mind and Body Routledge pp 5 8 38 45 187 190 ISBN 978 1 136 76640 4 Snodgrass Adrian 1992 The Symbolism of the Stupa Motilal Banarsidass pp 317 319 ISBN 978 81 208 0781 5 Johari Harish 2000 Chakras Energy Centers of Transformation Inner Traditions pp 21 36 ISBN 978 1 59477 909 1 a b White David Gordon 2003 Kiss of the Yogini Chicago University of Chicago Press pp 221 229 ISBN 0 226 89483 5 McDaniel June 2004 Offering Flowers Feeding Skulls Popular Goddess Worship in West Bengal Oxford University Press pp 96 97 101 123 ISBN 978 0 19 534713 5 Pott Philipp H 2013 Yoga and Yantra Their Interrelation and Their Significance for Indian Archaeology Springer Verlag pp 8 12 ISBN 978 94 017 5868 0 Huntington John C Bangdel Dina 2003 The Circle of Bliss Buddhist Meditational Art Serindia Publications pp 232 233 ISBN 978 1932476019 a b c Olson Carl 2009 Historical Dictionary of Buddhism Scarecrow Press p 78 ISBN 978 0 8108 6317 0 Samuel Geoffrey Johnston Jay 2013 Religion and the Subtle Body in Asia and the West Between Mind and Body Routledge p 40 Table 2 1 ISBN 978 1 136 76640 4 Mackenzie Rory 2007 New Buddhist Movements in Thailand Towards an Understanding of Wat Phra Dhammakaya and Santi Asoke Routledge pp 108 109 ISBN 978 1 134 13262 1 John C Huntington Dina Bangdel The Circle of Bliss Buddhist Meditational Art Serindia Publications Inc 2003 p 231 Gyatso Geshe Kelsang 2014 Clear Light of Bliss Tantric Meditation Manual Cumbria England Tharpa Publications Channels Winds and Drops ISBN 978 1 910368 03 9 OCLC 904051195 The ten doors are located along the central channel as follows the point between the eyebrows the apex of the cranium near the back of the throat between the two breasts the navel channel wheel Samuel Geoffrey Johnston Jay 2013 Religion and the Subtle Body in Asia and the West Between Mind and Body Routledge p 38 ISBN 978 1 136 76640 4 a b c Rinpoche Tenzin Wangyal 2002 Mark Dahlby ed Healing with Form Energy and Light The Five Elements in Tibetan Shamanism Tantra and Dzogchen Ithaca NY Snow Lion pp 84 85 ISBN 1 55939 176 6 a b c d e f g h i j Leland Kurt 2017 The Rainbow Body How the Western Chakra System Came to Be Quest Magazine Theosophical Society in America 105 2 Spring 2017 25 29 Samuel Geoffrey Johnston Jay 2013 Religion and the Subtle Body in Asia and the West Between Mind and Body Routledge pp 39 42 ISBN 978 1 136 76640 4 Flood Gavin 2006 The Tantric Body The Secret Tradition of Hindu Religion I B Tauris p 157 ISBN 978 1845110123 White David Gordon 2003 Kiss of the Yogini Chicago University of Chicago Press p 221 ISBN 0 226 89483 5 a b Banerjea Akshaya Kumar 1983 Philosophy of Gorakhnath with Goraksha Vacana Sangraha Motilal Banarsidass pp 175 184 ISBN 978 81 208 0534 7 a b c d e Samuel Geoffrey Johnston Jay 2013 Religion and the Subtle Body in Asia and the West Between Mind and Body Routledge pp 40 42 ISBN 978 1 136 76640 4 Brown C Mackenzie 1998 The Devi Gita the Song of the Goddess a translation annotation and commentary Albany N Y State university of New York press p 195 ISBN 978 0 7914 3940 1 Tigunait Rajmani 1999 Tantra Unveiled Seducing the Forces of Matter amp Spirit Himalayan Institute Press p 87 ISBN 9780893891589 Mumford John 1988 Ecstasy Through Tantra Third ed Llewellyn Worldwide p 72 ISBN 0 87542 494 5 Mindell Arnold Sternback Scott Sisa Goodman Becky 1984 Dreambody the body s role in revealing the self Taylor amp Francis p 38 ISBN 0 7102 0250 4 Leadbeater Charles Webster 1972 1927 The Chakras Theosophical Publishing House ISBN 978 0 8356 0422 2 Leland Kurt 2016 Rainbow body a history of the western chakra system from Blavatsky to Brennan Lake Worth Florida Ibis Press ISBN 978 0 89254 219 2 OCLC 945949596 Woodroffe Sir John 2000 The Serpent Power Dover Publications pp 317ff ISBN 978 0486230580 Gardiner Philip Osborn Gary 2006 The Shining Ones the world s most powerful secret society revealed Revised and updated ed London Watkins pp 44 45 ISBN 1 84293 150 4 Judith Anodea 1999 Wheels of Life A User s Guide to the Chakra System p 20 ISBN 9780875423203 John Van Auken Mysticism Interpretating the Revelation Edgarcayce org Archived from the original on 26 May 2012 Retrieved 5 March 2015 Sturgess Stephen 1997 The Yoga Book a practical guide to self realization Rockport Massachusetts Element Books pp 19 21 ISBN 1 85230 972 5 Archeosophical Society founded by Tommaso Palamidessi www archeosofica org Archived from the original on 4 March 2012 Myss Library Chakras Myss Retrieved 5 March 2015 Blavatsky Helena 1892 Theosophical Glossary Krotona Neff Dio Urmilla 1985 The Great Chakra Controversy Yoga Journal November December 1985 42 45 50 53 GA010 Chapter I The Astral Centers Fremont Michigan Retrieved 5 March 2015 Contents GA 10 Initiation and Its Results 1909 Rudolf Steiner Archive GA010 Initiation and Its Results Fremont Michigan Retrieved 5 March 2015 Rudolf Steiner How to Know Higher Worlds Lowndes Florin 2000 Enlivening the Chakra of the Heart The Fundamental Spiritual Exercises of Rudolf Steiner 2nd ed London Sophia Books ISBN 1 85584 053 7 Chakras Edinburgh Skeptics Society 17 January 2019 Retrieved 9 February 2021 Further reading EditApte Vaman Shivram 1965 The Practical Sanskrit Dictionary fourth revised amp enlarged ed Delhi Motilal Banarsidass ISBN 81 208 0567 4 Bucknell Roderick Stuart Fox Martin 1986 The Twilight Language Explorations in Buddhist Meditation and Symbolism London Curzon Press ISBN 0 312 82540 4 Edgerton Franklin 2004 1953 Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit Grammar and Dictionary Reprint ed Delhi Motilal Banarsidass Publishers ISBN 81 208 0999 8 Two volumes Flood Gavin 1996 An Introduction to Hinduism Cambridge Cambridge University Press ISBN 0 521 43878 0 Chia Mantak Chia Maneewan 1993 Awaken Healing Light of the Tao Healing Tao Books Dale Cyndi 2009 The Subtle Body An Encyclopedia of Your Energetic Anatomy Boulder Colorado Sounds True ISBN 978 1 59179 671 8 Monier Williams Monier A Sanskrit English Dictionary Delhi Motilal Banarsidass Prabhananda S 2000 Studies on the Tantras Second reprint ed Calcutta The Ramakrishna Mission Institute of Culture ISBN 81 85843 36 8 Rinpoche Tenzin Wangyal 2002 Healing with Form Energy and Light Ithaca New York Snow Lion Publications ISBN 1 55939 176 6 Saraswati Swami Sivananda 1953 2001 Kundalini Yoga Tehri Garhwal India Divine Life Society foldout chart ISBN 81 7052 052 5 Tulku Tarthang 2007 Tibetan Relaxation The illustrated guide to Kum Nye massage and movement A yoga from the Tibetan tradition London Dunkan Baird Publishers ISBN 978 1 84483 404 4 Woodroffe John 1964 1919 The Serpent Power Madras India Ganesh amp Co ISBN 0 486 23058 9 Banerji S C Tantra in Bengal Second Revised and Enlarged Edition Manohar Delhi 1992 ISBN 81 85425 63 9 Saraswati Swami Sivananda 1953 2001 Kundalini Yoga Divine Life Society ISBN 81 7052 052 5 Goswami Shyam Sundar Layayoga The Definitive Guide to the Chakras and Kundalini Routledge amp Kegan Paul 1980 Sharp Michael 2005 Dossier of the Ascension A Practical Guide to Chakra Activation and Kundalini Awakening 1st ed Avatar Publications ISBN 0 9735379 3 0 Archived from the original on 21 December 2012 Khalsa Guru Dharam Singh O Keeffe Darryl The Kundalini Yoga Experience Simon amp Schuster 2002 Judith Anodea 1996 Eastern Body Western Mind Psychology and the Chakra System As A Path to the Self Berkeley California USA Celestial Arts Publishing ISBN 0 89087 815 3 Lowndes Florin Enlivening the Chakra of the Heart The Fundamental Spiritual Exercises of Rudolf Steiner ISBN 1 85584 053 7 first English edition 1998 from the original German edition of 1996 comparing traditional chakra teaching and that of C W Leadbeater with that of Rudolf Steiner Wikiquote has quotations related to Chakra Look up Chakra in Wiktionary the free dictionary Wikimedia Commons has media related to Chakras Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Chakra amp oldid 1128381951, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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