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Music psychology

February 15, 2024

Music psychology, or the psychology of music, may be regarded as a branch of both psychology and musicology. It aims to explain and understand musical behaviour and experience, including the processes through which music is perceived, created, responded to, and incorporated into everyday life.[1][2] Modern music psychology is primarily empirical; its knowledge tends to advance on the basis of interpretations of data collected by systematic observation of and interaction with human participants. Music psychology is a field of research with practical relevance for many areas, including music performance, composition, education, criticism, and therapy, as well as investigations of human attitude, skill, performance, intelligence, creativity, and social behavior.

Music psychology can shed light on non-psychological aspects of musicology and musical practice. For example, it contributes to music theory through investigations of the perception and computational modelling of musical structures such as melody, harmony, tonality, rhythm, meter, and form. Research in music history can benefit from systematic study of the history of musical syntax, or from psychological analyses of composers and compositions in relation to perceptual, affective, and social responses to their music.

History edit

Early history (pre-1850) edit

The study of sound and musical phenomena prior to the 19th century was focused primarily on the mathematical modelling of pitch and tone.[3] The earliest recorded experiments date from the 6th century BCE, most notably in the work of Pythagoras and his establishment of the simple string length ratios that formed the consonances of the octave. This view that sound and music could be understood from a purely physical standpoint was echoed by such theorists as Anaxagoras and Boethius. An important early dissenter was Aristoxenus, who foreshadowed modern music psychology in his view that music could only be understood through human perception and its relation to human memory. Despite his views, the majority of musical education through the Middle Ages and Renaissance remained rooted in the Pythagorean tradition, particularly through the quadrivium of astronomy, geometry, arithmetic, and music.[3]

Research by Vincenzo Galilei (father of Galileo) demonstrated that, when string length was held constant, varying its tension, thickness, or composition could alter perceived pitch. From this, he argued that simple ratios were not enough to account for musical phenomenon and that a perceptual approach was necessary. He also claimed that the differences between various tuning systems were not perceivable, thus the disputes were unnecessary. Study of topics including vibration, consonance, the harmonic series, and resonance were furthered through the scientific revolution, including work by Galileo, Kepler, Mersenne, and Descartes. This included further speculation concerning the nature of the sense organs and higher-order processes, particularly by Savart, Helmholtz, and Koenig.[3]

Rise of empirical study (1860–1960) edit

 
A brass, spherical Helmholtz resonator based on his original design, circa 1890–1900

The latter 19th century saw the development of modern music psychology alongside the emergence of a general empirical psychology, one which passed through similar stages of development. The first was structuralist psychology, led by Wilhelm Wundt, which sought to break down experience into its smallest definable parts. This expanded upon previous centuries of acoustic study, and included Helmholtz developing the resonator to isolate and understand pure and complex tones and their perception, the philosopher Carl Stumpf using church organs and his own musical experience to explore timbre and absolute pitch, and Wundt himself associating the experience of rhythm with kinesthetic tension and relaxation.[3]

As structuralism gave way to Gestalt psychology and behaviorism at the turn of the century, music psychology moved beyond the study of isolated tones and elements to the perception of their inter-relationships and human reactions to them, though work languished behind that of visual perception.[3] In Europe Géza Révész and Albert Wellek developed a more complex understanding of musical pitch, and in the US the focus shifted to that of music education and the training and development of musical skill. Carl Seashore led this work, producing his The Measurement of Musical Talents and The Psychology of Musical Talent. Seashore used bespoke equipment and standardized tests to measure how performance deviated from indicated markings and how musical aptitude differed between students.

In 1963 F. Chrysler was the first one to use the term "science of music" when he was working on his "year book for musical knowledge". European musicology was found in Greek. They were focused on the philosophy, and the concepts of any relations with music. Greek's several theories rose later to Arab and the Christians theories. Although their theories survived, they were also corrupted along the way, in the Middle Ages of Europe.[4]

Modern (1960–present) edit

Music psychology in the second half of the 20th century has expanded to cover a wide array of theoretical and applied areas. From the 1960s the field grew along with cognitive science, including such research areas as music perception (particularly of pitch, rhythm, harmony, and melody), musical development and aptitude, music performance, and affective responses to music.[3]

This period has also seen the founding of music psychology-specific journals, societies, conferences, research groups, centers, and degrees. This trend has brought research toward specific applications for music education, performance, and therapy.[5] While the techniques of cognitive psychology allowed for more objective examinations of musical behavior and experience, the theoretical and technological advancements of neuroscience have greatly shaped the direction of music psychology into the 21st century.[6]With the growth of music psychology throughout the 20th and 21st centuries, literature surrounding the field lacks proper forms of feedback. This is due in part to a lack of rigor within the testing process. More empirically robust studies would help to further the field. [7]

While the majority of music psychology research has focused on music in a Western context, the field has expanded along with ethnomusicology to examine how the perception and practice of music differs between cultures.[8][9] It has also emerged into the public sphere. In recent years several bestselling popular science books have helped bring the field into public discussion, notably Daniel Levitin's This Is Your Brain On Music (2006) and The World in Six Songs (2008), Oliver Sacks' Musicophilia (2007), and Gary Marcus' Guitar Zero (2012). In addition, the controversial "Mozart effect" sparked lengthy debate among researchers, educators, politicians, and the public regarding the relationship between classical music listening, education, and intelligence.[10]

Research areas edit

Perception and cognition edit

Much work within music psychology seeks to understand the cognitive processes that support musical behaviors, including perception, comprehension, memory, attention, and performance. Originally arising in fields of psychoacoustics and sensation, cognitive theories of how people understand music more recently encompass neuroscience, cognitive science, music theory, music therapy, computer science, psychology, philosophy, and linguistics.[11][12]

Affective response edit

Main article: Music and emotion

Music has been shown to consistently elicit emotional responses in its listeners, and this relationship between human affect and music has been studied in depth.[3] This includes isolating which specific features of a musical work or performance convey or elicit certain reactions, the nature of the reactions themselves, and how characteristics of the listener may determine which emotions are felt. The field draws upon and has significant implications for such areas as philosophy, musicology, and aesthetics, as well the acts of musical composition and performance. The implications for casual listeners are also great; research has shown that the pleasurable feelings associated with emotional music are the result of dopamine release in the striatum—the same anatomical areas that underpin the anticipatory and rewarding aspects of drug addiction.[13] According to research, listening to music has been found to affect the mood of an individual. The main factors in whether it will affect that individual positively or negatively are based on the musics tempo and style. In addition, listening to music also increases cognitive functions, creativity, and decreases feelings of fatigue. All of these factors lead to better workflow and a more optimal result in the activity done while listening to music. This leads to the conclusion that listening to music while performing an activity is an excellent way of increasing productivity and the overall experience.[14] It has been proposed that the ability to understand the emotional meaning of music might rely on the existence of a common neural system for processing the affective meaning of voices/vocalizations and musical sounds.[15][16] In addition to emotional responses, music has influenced the lifestyles of individuals and changed people's perceptions of what "sexy" is. Although music cannot resolve all human beings needs, it is heavily relied on to alter the feelings and emotions.

Neuropsychology edit

Main article: Cognitive neuroscience of music

A significant amount of research concerns brain-based mechanisms involved in the cognitive processes underlying music perception and performance. These behaviours include music listening, performing, composing, reading, writing, and ancillary activities. It also is increasingly concerned with the brain basis for musical aesthetics and musical emotion. Scientists working in this field may have training in cognitive neuroscience, neurology, neuroanatomy, psychology, music theory, computer science, and other allied fields, and use such techniques as functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS), magnetoencephalography (MEG), electroencephalography (EEG), and positron emission tomography (PET).

The cognitive process of performing music requires the interaction of neural mechanisms in both motor and auditory systems. Since every action expressed in a performance produces a sound that influences subsequent expression, this leads to impressive sensorimotor interplay.[17]

Processing pitch edit

 
The primary auditory cortex is one of the main areas associated with superior pitch resolution.

Perceived pitch typically depends on the fundamental frequency, though the dependence could be mediated solely by the presence of harmonics corresponding to that fundamental frequency. The perception of a pitch without the corresponding fundamental frequency in the physical stimulus is called the pitch of the missing fundamental.[18] Neurons lateral to A1 in marmoset monkeys were found to be sensitive specifically to the fundamental frequency of a complex tone,[19] suggesting that pitch constancy may be enabled by such a neural mechanism.

Pitch constancy refers to the ability to perceive pitch identity across changes in acoustical properties, such as loudness, temporal envelope, or timbre.[18] The importance of cortical regions lateral to A1 for pitch coding is also supported by studies of human cortical lesions and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) of the brain.[20][21][22] These data suggest a hierarchical system for pitch processing, with more abstract properties of sound stimulus processed further along the processing pathways.

Absolute pitch edit
Main article: Absolute pitch

Absolute pitch (AP) is the ability to identify the pitch of a musical tone or to produce a musical tone at a given pitch without the use of an external reference pitch.[23] Researchers estimate the occurrence of AP to be 1 in 10,000 people.[24] The extent to which this ability is innate or learned is debated, with evidence for both a genetic basis and for a "critical period" in which the ability can be learned, especially in conjunction with early musical training.[25][26]

Processing rhythm edit

Behavioural studies demonstrate that rhythm and pitch can be perceived separately,[27] but that they also interact[28][29][30] in creating a musical perception. Studies of auditory rhythm discrimination and reproduction in patients with brain injury have linked these functions to the auditory regions of the temporal lobe, but have shown no consistent localization or lateralization.[31][32][33] Neuropsychological and neuroimaging studies have shown that the motor regions of the brain contribute to both perception and production of rhythms.[34]

Even in studies where subjects only listen to rhythms, the basal ganglia, cerebellum, dorsal premotor cortex (dPMC) and supplementary motor area (SMA) are often implicated.[35][36][17] The analysis of rhythm may depend on interactions between the auditory and motor systems.

Neural correlates of musical training edit

Although auditory–motor interactions can be observed in people without formal musical training, musicians are an excellent population to study because of their long-established and rich associations between auditory and motor systems. Musicians have been shown to have anatomical adaptations that correlate with their training.[18] Some neuroimaging studies have observed that musicians show lower levels of activity in motor regions than non-musicians during the performance of simple motor tasks, which may suggest a more efficient pattern of neural recruitment.[37][38][39][40] Other studies have shown that early musical training may positively affect word reading, by promoting the specialization of an extra right-sided "note visual area" to process spatially relevant visual information (i.e., pentagram, bars, etc.)[41] This neuroplastic effect might help prevent surface dyslexia. Music learning also involves the formation of novel audio visuomotor associations, which results in the ability to detect an incorrect association between sounds and the corresponding musical gestures,[42][43] also allowing to learn how to play a musical instrument.[44]

Motor imagery edit

Previous neuroimaging studies have consistently reported activity in the SMA and premotor areas, as well as in auditory cortices, when non-musicians imagine hearing musical excerpts.[18] Recruitment of the SMA and premotor areas is also reported when musicians are asked to imagine performing.[40][45]

Psychoacoustics edit

Main article: Psychoacoustics
Further information: Hearing (sense) and Auditory illusion

Psychoacoustics is the scientific study of sound perception. More specifically, it is the branch of science studying the psychological and physiological responses associated with sound (including speech and music). Topics of study include perception of the pitch, timbre, loudness and duration of musical sounds and the relevance of such studies for music cognition or the perceived structure of music; and auditory illusions and how humans localize sound, which can have relevance for musical composition and the design of venues for music performance. Psychoacoustics is a branch of psychophysics.

Cognitive musicology edit

Main article: Cognitive musicology

Cognitive musicology is a branch of cognitive science concerned with computationally modeling musical knowledge with the goal of understanding both music and cognition.[46]

Cognitive musicology can be differentiated from the fields of music cognition and cognitive neuroscience of music by a difference in methodological emphasis. Cognitive musicology uses computer modeling to study music-related knowledge representation and has roots in artificial intelligence and cognitive science. The use of computer models provides an exacting, interactive medium in which to formulate and test theories.[28][29][47][48]

This interdisciplinary field investigates topics such as the parallels between language and music in the brain. Biologically inspired models of computation are often included in research, such as neural networks and evolutionary programs.[49] This field seeks to model how musical knowledge is represented, stored, perceived, performed, and generated. By using a well-structured computer environment, the systematic structures of these cognitive phenomena can be investigated.[50]

Evolutionary musicology edit

Main article: Evolutionary musicology

Evolutionary musicology concerns the "origin of music, the question of animal song, selection pressures underlying music evolution", and "music evolution and human evolution".[51] It seeks to understand music perception and activity in the context of evolutionary theory. Charles Darwin speculated that music may have held an adaptive advantage and functioned as a protolanguage,[52] a view which has spawned several competing theories of music evolution.[53][54][55] An alternate view sees music as a by-product of linguistic evolution; a type of "auditory cheesecake" that pleases the senses without providing any adaptive function.[56] This view has been directly countered by numerous music researchers.[57][58][59]

Cultural differences edit

Main article: Culture in music cognition
See also: Ethnomusicology

An individual's culture or ethnicity plays a role in their music cognition, including their preferences, emotional reaction, and musical memory. Musical preferences are biased toward culturally familiar musical traditions beginning in infancy, and adults' classification of the emotion of a musical piece depends on both culturally specific and universal structural features.[60][61][62][63] Additionally, individuals' musical memory abilities are greater for culturally familiar music than for culturally unfamiliar music.[64][65]

Applied research areas edit

Many areas of music psychology research focus on the application of music in everyday life as well as the practices and experiences of the amateur and professional musician. Each topic may utilize knowledge and techniques derived from one or more of the areas described above. Such areas include:

Music in society edit

Including:

Musical preference edit

Main article: Psychology of music preference

Consumers' choices in music have been studied as they relate to the Big Five personality traits: openness to experience, agreeableness, extraversion, neuroticism, and conscientiousness. In general, the plasticity traits (openness to experience and extraversion) affect music preference more than the stability traits (agreeableness, neuroticism, and conscientiousness).[66] Gender has been shown to influence preference, with men choosing music for primarily cognitive reasons and women for emotional reasons.[67] Relationships with music preference have also been found with mood[68] and nostalgic association.[69]

Background music edit

Main article: Background music

The study of background music focuses on the impact of music with non-musical tasks, including changes in behavior in the presence of different types, settings, or styles of music.[70] In laboratory settings, music can affect performance on cognitive tasks (memory, attention, and comprehension), both positively and negatively. Used extensively as an advertising aid, music may also affect marketing strategies, ad comprehension, and consumer choices. Background music can influence learning,[71][72] working memory and recall,[73][74] performance while working on tests,[75][76] and attention in cognitive monitoring tasks.[77][78] Background music can also be used as a way to relieve boredom, create positive moods, and maintain a private space.[79] Background music has been shown to put a restless mind at ease by presenting the listener with various melodies and tones.[79] It has been shown that listening to different types of music may modulate differently psychological mood and physiological responses associated with the induced emotions.[80] For example, listening to atonal music might result in reduced heart rate (fear bradycardia) and increased blood pressure (both diastolic and systolic), possibly reflecting an increase in alertness and attention, psychological tension, and anxiety.[81]

Music in marketing edit

Main article: Background music § Music in marketing

In both radio and television advertisements, music plays an integral role in content recall,[82][83][84] intentions to buy the product, and attitudes toward the advertisement and brand itself.[85][86][87] Music's effect on marketing has been studied in radio ads,[84][86][87] TV ads,[82][83][85] and physical retail settings.[88][89]

One of the most important aspects of an advertisement's music is the "musical fit", or the degree of congruity between cues in the ad and song content.[90] Advertisements and music can be congruous or incongruous for both lyrical and instrumental music. The timbre, tempo, lyrics, genre, mood, as well as any positive or negative associations elicited by certain music should fit the nature of the advertisement and product.[90]

Music and productivity edit

Main article: Background music § Effects on cognitive performance

Several studies have recognized that listening to music while working affects the productivity of people performing complex cognitive tasks.[91] One study suggested that listening to one's preferred genre of music can enhance productivity in the workplace,[92] though other research has found that listening to music while working can be a source of distraction, with loudness and lyrical content possibly playing a role.[93] Other factors proposed to affect the relationship between music listening and productivity include musical structure, task complexity, and degree of control over the choice and use of music.[94]

Music education edit

Main article: Music education
 
A primary focus of music psychology research concerns how best to teach music and the effects this has on childhood development.

Including:

Musical aptitude edit

Musical aptitude refers to a person's innate ability to acquire skills and knowledge required for musical activity, and may influence the speed at which learning can take place and the level that may be achieved. Study in this area focuses on whether aptitude can be broken into subsets or represented as a single construct, whether aptitude can be measured prior to significant achievement, whether high aptitude can predict achievement, to what extent aptitude is inherited, and what implications questions of aptitude have on educational principles.[3]

It is an issue closely related to that of intelligence and IQ, and was pioneered by the work of Carl Seashore. While early tests of aptitude, such as Seashore's The Measurement of Musical Talent, sought to measure innate musical talent through discrimination tests of pitch, interval, rhythm, consonance, memory, etc., later research found these approaches to have little predictive power and to be influenced greatly by the test-taker's mood, motivation, confidence, fatigue, and boredom when taking the test.[3]

Music performance edit

See also: Performance science

Including:

Music and health edit

Health benefits edit

Scientific studies suggest that singing can have positive effects on people's health. A preliminary study based on self-reported data from a survey of students participating in choral singing found perceived benefits including increased lung capacity, improved mood, stress reduction, as well as perceived social and spiritual benefits.[96] However, one much older study of lung capacity compared those with professional vocal training to those without, and failed to back up the claims of increased lung capacity.[97] Singing may positively influence the immune system through the reduction of stress. One study found that both singing and listening to choral music reduces the level of stress hormones and increases immune function.[98]

A multinational collaboration to study the connection between singing and health was established in 2009, called Advancing Interdisciplinary Research in Singing (AIRS).[99] Singing provides physical, cognitive, and emotional benefits to participants. When they step on stage, many singers forget their worries and focus solely on the song. Singing is becoming a more widely known method of increasing an individual's overall health and wellness, in turn helping them to battle diseases such as cancer more effectively due to decreased stress, releasing of endorphins, and increased lung capacity.[100]

Effect on the brain edit

John Daniel Scott, among others, have cited that "people who sing are more likely to be happy". This is because "singing elevates the levels of neurotransmitters which are associated with pleasure and well being". Humans have a long prehistory of music, especially singing; it is speculated that music was even used as an early form of social bonding.[101] As stated by Savage et al. (2020), Songs were also used to identify a socio-cultural connection between individuals, as songs typically vary. If two people knew the same song, they likely had a connection from previous generations (7), because song is often more memorable. Savage et al. continues by presenting evidence that music or singing may have evolved in humans even before language. Furthermore, Levitin, in his This is Your Brain on Music, argues that "music may be the activity that prepared our pre-human ancestors for speech communication" and that "singing ... might have helped our species to refine motor skills, paving the way for the development of the exquisitely fine muscle control required for vocal ... speech" (260).[102] On the other hand, he cites Pinker, who "argued that language is an adaptation and music is its Spandrel ... an evolutionary accident piggybacking on language" (248).[102]

Studies have found evidence suggesting the mental, as well as physical, benefits of singing. When conducting a study with 21 members of a choir at three different points over one year, three themes suggested three areas of benefits; the social impact (connectedness with others), personal impact (positive emotions, self-perception, etc.), and functional outcomes (health benefits of being in the choir). Findings showed that a sense of well-being is associated with singing, by uplifting the mood of the participants and releasing endorphins in the brain. Many singers also reported that singing helped them regulate stress and relax, allowing them to deal better with their daily lives. From a social perspective, approval from the audience, and interaction with other choir members in a positive manner is also beneficial.

Singing is beneficial for pregnant mothers. By giving them another medium of communication with their newborns, mothers in one study reported feelings of love and affection when singing to their unborn children. They also reported feeling more relaxed than ever before during their stressful pregnancy. A song can have nostalgic significance by reminding a singer of the past, and momentarily transport them, allowing them to focus on singing and embrace the activity as an escape from their daily lives and problems.[103]

Effect on body edit

A recent study by Tenovus Cancer Care found that singing in a choir for just one hour boosts levels of immune proteins in cancer patients and has a positive overall effect on the health of patients. The study explores the possibility that singing could help put patients in the best mental and physical shape to receive the treatment they need, by reducing stress hormones, and increasing quantities of cytokines—proteins of the immune system that can increase the body's ability to fight disease. "Singing gives you physical benefits like breath control and muscle movement and enunciation, as well as the learning benefits of processing information" says a musical director and accompanist in the study. The enunciation and speech benefits tie into the language benefits detailed below.[104]

Some have advocated, as in a 2011 article in the Toronto Star, that everyone sing, even if they are not musically talented, because of its health benefits. Singing lowers blood pressure by releasing pent up emotions, boosting relaxation, and reminding them of happy times. It also allows singers to breathe more easily. Patients with lung disease and chronic pulmonary disease experience relief from their symptoms from singing just two times a week. In addition to breathing related illness, singing also has numerous benefits for stroke victims when it comes to relearning the ability to speak and communicate by singing their thoughts. Singing activates the right side of the brain when the left side cannot function (the left side is the area of the brain responsible for speech), so it is easy to see how singing can be an excellent alternative to speech while the victim heals.[105]

Physical benefits edit

1. Works the lungs, tones up the intercostals and diaphragm.

2. Improves sleep

3. Benefits cardio function by improving aerobic capacity

4. Relaxes overall muscle tension

5. Improves posture.

6. Opens up sinuses and respiratory tubes

7. With training, it could help decrease snoring

8. Releases endorphins

9. Boosts immune system

10. Helps improve physical balance in people affected by illnesses such as Parkinson's disease[106]

Other concepts edit

See also: Music therapy and Music and sleep

Including:

Journals edit

Music psychology journals include:

Music psychologists also publish in a wide range of mainstream musicology, computational musicology, music theory/analysis, psychology, music education, music therapy, music medicine, and systematic musicology journals. The latter include for example:

Societies edit

  • Asia-Pacific Society for the Cognitive Sciences of Music (APSCOM)
  • Australian Music & Psychology Society (AMPS)
  • Deutsche Gesellschaft für Musikpsychologie (DGM)
  • European Society for the Cognitive Sciences of Music (ESCOM)
  • Japanese Society for Music Perception and Cognition (JSMPC)
  • Society for Education, Music and Psychology Research (SEMPRE)
  • Society for Music Perception and Cognition (SMPC)

Centers of research and teaching edit

Australia:

Austria:

Belgium:

Canada:

Denmark:

Finland:

France:

Germany:

Iceland:

Ireland:

Italy:

Japan:

Korea:

Netherlands:

Norway:

Poland:

Singapore:

  • Music Cognition Group, Social and Cognitive Computing Department, Institute of High Performance Computing, A*STAR[143]

Spain:

Sweden:

United Kingdom:

United States:

See also edit

References edit

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Further reading edit

Encyclopedia entries edit

  • Palmer, Caroline & Melissa K. Jungers (2003): Music Cognition. In: Lynn Nadel: Encyclopedia of Cognitive Science, Vol. 3, London: Nature Publishing Group, pp. 155–158.
  • Deutsch, Diana (2013): Music. In Oxford Bibliographies in Music. Edited by Dunn, D.S. New York: Oxford University Press. 2013, Web Link
  • Thompson, William Forde (2014): "Music in the Social and Behavioral Sciences, An Encyclopedia". Sage Publications Inc., New York. ISBN 978-1-4522-8303-6

Introductory reading edit

  • Day, Kingsley (October 21, 2004). "Music and the Mind: Turning the Cognition Key". Observer online.
  • Jourdain, Robert (1997). Music, the Brain, and Ecstasy: How Music Captures Our Imagination. New York: William Morrow and Company. ISBN 0-688-14236-2.
  • Honing, Henkjan (2013). "Musical Cognition. A Science of Listening (2nd edition)." New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction Publishers. ISBN 978-1-4128-5292-0.
  • Levitin, D. J. (2006). New York: Dutton. ISBN 0-525-94969-0
  • Margulis, Elizabeth Hellmuth. (2018). The Psychology of Music: A Very Short Introduction. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-064015-6.
  • Margulis, Elizabeth Hellmuth. (2013). On Repeat: How Music Plays the Mind. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-999082-5.
  • Purwins; Hardoon (2009). (PDF). Connection Science. 21 (2–3): 85–88. doi:10.1080/09540090902734549. hdl:10230/43628. S2CID 9294128. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2020-06-26. Retrieved 2014-04-11.
  • Snyder, Bob (2000). "Music and Memory: an introduction" The MIT Press. ISBN 0-262-69237-6.
  • J.P.E. Harper-Scott and Jim Samson 'An Introduction to Music Studies', Chapter 4: John Rink,The Psychology of Music, (Cambridge University Press, 2009), pp. 60.
  • Deutsch, D. (2019). Musical Illusions and Phantom Words: How Music and Speech Unlock Mysteries of the Brain. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-020683-3. LCCN 2018051786.

Advanced reading edit

  • Deutsch, D. (Ed.) (1982). The Psychology of Music, 1st Edition. New York: Academic Press. ISBN 0-12-213562-8.
  • Deutsch, D. (Ed.) (1999). The Psychology of Music, 2nd Edition. San Diego: Academic Press. ISBN 0-12-213565-2.
  • Deutsch, D. (Ed.) (2013). The Psychology of Music, 3rd Edition. San Diego: Academic Press. ISBN 0-12-381460-X.
  • Dowling, W. Jay and Harwood, Dane L. (1986). Music Cognition. San Diego: Academic Press. ISBN 0-12-221430-7.
  • Hallam, Cross, & Thaut, (eds.) (2008). The Oxford Handbook of Music Psychology. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
  • Krumhansl, Carol L. (2001). Cognitive Foundations of Musical Pitch. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-514836-3.
  • Patel, Anirrudh D. (2010). Music, language, and the brain. New York: Oxford University Press.
  • Parncutt, R. (1989). Berlin: Springer.
  • Proverbio, A.M. (2019). Neuroscienze Cognitive della Musica: Il cervello musicale tra Arte e Scienza, Zanichelli, Bologna.
  • Sloboda, John A. (1985). The Musical Mind: The Cognitive Psychology of Music. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-852128-6.
  • Lerdahl, F. and Jackendoff, R. (21996) A Generative Theory of Tonal Music. The MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-262-62107-6.
  • Jackendoff, Ray (1987): Consciousness and the Computational Mind. Cambridge: MIT Press. Chapter 11: "Levels of Musical Structure", section 11.1: "What is Musical Cognition?"
  • Temperley, D. (2004). The Cognition of Basic Musical Structures. The MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-262-70105-1.
  • Thompson, W. F. (2009). Music, Thought, and Feeling: Understanding the Psychology of Music New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-537707-1.
  • Zbikowski, Lawrence M. (2004). Conceptualizing Music: Cognitive Structure, Theory, and Analysis. Oxford University Press, USA. ISBN 978-0-19-514023-1.
  • North, A.C. & Hargreaves, D.J. (2008). The Social and Applied Psychology of Music. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-856742-4.

External links edit

  •   Media related to Music psychology at Wikimedia Commons

February 15, 2024
music, psychology, psychology, music, regarded, branch, both, psychology, musicology, aims, explain, understand, musical, behaviour, experience, including, processes, through, which, music, perceived, created, responded, incorporated, into, everyday, life, mod. Music psychology or the psychology of music may be regarded as a branch of both psychology and musicology It aims to explain and understand musical behaviour and experience including the processes through which music is perceived created responded to and incorporated into everyday life 1 2 Modern music psychology is primarily empirical its knowledge tends to advance on the basis of interpretations of data collected by systematic observation of and interaction with human participants Music psychology is a field of research with practical relevance for many areas including music performance composition education criticism and therapy as well as investigations of human attitude skill performance intelligence creativity and social behavior Music psychology can shed light on non psychological aspects of musicology and musical practice For example it contributes to music theory through investigations of the perception and computational modelling of musical structures such as melody harmony tonality rhythm meter and form Research in music history can benefit from systematic study of the history of musical syntax or from psychological analyses of composers and compositions in relation to perceptual affective and social responses to their music Contents 1 History 1 1 Early history pre 1850 1 2 Rise of empirical study 1860 1960 1 3 Modern 1960 present 2 Research areas 2 1 Perception and cognition 2 1 1 Affective response 2 2 Neuropsychology 2 2 1 Processing pitch 2 2 1 1 Absolute pitch 2 2 2 Processing rhythm 2 2 3 Neural correlates of musical training 2 2 4 Motor imagery 2 3 Psychoacoustics 2 4 Cognitive musicology 2 5 Evolutionary musicology 2 6 Cultural differences 3 Applied research areas 3 1 Music in society 3 1 1 Musical preference 3 1 2 Background music 3 1 3 Music in marketing 3 1 4 Music and productivity 3 2 Music education 3 2 1 Musical aptitude 3 3 Music performance 3 4 Music and health 3 4 1 Health benefits 3 4 1 1 Effect on the brain 3 4 1 2 Effect on body 3 4 1 3 Physical benefits 3 4 2 Other concepts 4 Journals 5 Societies 6 Centers of research and teaching 7 See also 8 References 9 Further reading 9 1 Encyclopedia entries 9 2 Introductory reading 9 3 Advanced reading 10 External linksHistory editEarly history pre 1850 edit The study of sound and musical phenomena prior to the 19th century was focused primarily on the mathematical modelling of pitch and tone 3 The earliest recorded experiments date from the 6th century BCE most notably in the work of Pythagoras and his establishment of the simple string length ratios that formed the consonances of the octave This view that sound and music could be understood from a purely physical standpoint was echoed by such theorists as Anaxagoras and Boethius An important early dissenter was Aristoxenus who foreshadowed modern music psychology in his view that music could only be understood through human perception and its relation to human memory Despite his views the majority of musical education through the Middle Ages and Renaissance remained rooted in the Pythagorean tradition particularly through the quadrivium of astronomy geometry arithmetic and music 3 Research by Vincenzo Galilei father of Galileo demonstrated that when string length was held constant varying its tension thickness or composition could alter perceived pitch From this he argued that simple ratios were not enough to account for musical phenomenon and that a perceptual approach was necessary He also claimed that the differences between various tuning systems were not perceivable thus the disputes were unnecessary Study of topics including vibration consonance the harmonic series and resonance were furthered through the scientific revolution including work by Galileo Kepler Mersenne and Descartes This included further speculation concerning the nature of the sense organs and higher order processes particularly by Savart Helmholtz and Koenig 3 Rise of empirical study 1860 1960 edit nbsp A brass spherical Helmholtz resonator based on his original design circa 1890 1900The latter 19th century saw the development of modern music psychology alongside the emergence of a general empirical psychology one which passed through similar stages of development The first was structuralist psychology led by Wilhelm Wundt which sought to break down experience into its smallest definable parts This expanded upon previous centuries of acoustic study and included Helmholtz developing the resonator to isolate and understand pure and complex tones and their perception the philosopher Carl Stumpf using church organs and his own musical experience to explore timbre and absolute pitch and Wundt himself associating the experience of rhythm with kinesthetic tension and relaxation 3 As structuralism gave way to Gestalt psychology and behaviorism at the turn of the century music psychology moved beyond the study of isolated tones and elements to the perception of their inter relationships and human reactions to them though work languished behind that of visual perception 3 In Europe Geza Revesz and Albert Wellek developed a more complex understanding of musical pitch and in the US the focus shifted to that of music education and the training and development of musical skill Carl Seashore led this work producing his The Measurement of Musical Talents and The Psychology of Musical Talent Seashore used bespoke equipment and standardized tests to measure how performance deviated from indicated markings and how musical aptitude differed between students In 1963 F Chrysler was the first one to use the term science of music when he was working on his year book for musical knowledge European musicology was found in Greek They were focused on the philosophy and the concepts of any relations with music Greek s several theories rose later to Arab and the Christians theories Although their theories survived they were also corrupted along the way in the Middle Ages of Europe 4 Modern 1960 present edit Music psychology in the second half of the 20th century has expanded to cover a wide array of theoretical and applied areas From the 1960s the field grew along with cognitive science including such research areas as music perception particularly of pitch rhythm harmony and melody musical development and aptitude music performance and affective responses to music 3 This period has also seen the founding of music psychology specific journals societies conferences research groups centers and degrees This trend has brought research toward specific applications for music education performance and therapy 5 While the techniques of cognitive psychology allowed for more objective examinations of musical behavior and experience the theoretical and technological advancements of neuroscience have greatly shaped the direction of music psychology into the 21st century 6 With the growth of music psychology throughout the 20th and 21st centuries literature surrounding the field lacks proper forms of feedback This is due in part to a lack of rigor within the testing process More empirically robust studies would help to further the field 7 While the majority of music psychology research has focused on music in a Western context the field has expanded along with ethnomusicology to examine how the perception and practice of music differs between cultures 8 9 It has also emerged into the public sphere In recent years several bestselling popular science books have helped bring the field into public discussion notably Daniel Levitin s This Is Your Brain On Music 2006 and The World in Six Songs 2008 Oliver Sacks Musicophilia 2007 and Gary Marcus Guitar Zero 2012 In addition the controversial Mozart effect sparked lengthy debate among researchers educators politicians and the public regarding the relationship between classical music listening education and intelligence 10 Research areas editPerception and cognition edit Much work within music psychology seeks to understand the cognitive processes that support musical behaviors including perception comprehension memory attention and performance Originally arising in fields of psychoacoustics and sensation cognitive theories of how people understand music more recently encompass neuroscience cognitive science music theory music therapy computer science psychology philosophy and linguistics 11 12 Affective response edit Main article Music and emotion Music has been shown to consistently elicit emotional responses in its listeners and this relationship between human affect and music has been studied in depth 3 This includes isolating which specific features of a musical work or performance convey or elicit certain reactions the nature of the reactions themselves and how characteristics of the listener may determine which emotions are felt The field draws upon and has significant implications for such areas as philosophy musicology and aesthetics as well the acts of musical composition and performance The implications for casual listeners are also great research has shown that the pleasurable feelings associated with emotional music are the result of dopamine release in the striatum the same anatomical areas that underpin the anticipatory and rewarding aspects of drug addiction 13 According to research listening to music has been found to affect the mood of an individual The main factors in whether it will affect that individual positively or negatively are based on the musics tempo and style In addition listening to music also increases cognitive functions creativity and decreases feelings of fatigue All of these factors lead to better workflow and a more optimal result in the activity done while listening to music This leads to the conclusion that listening to music while performing an activity is an excellent way of increasing productivity and the overall experience 14 It has been proposed that the ability to understand the emotional meaning of music might rely on the existence of a common neural system for processing the affective meaning of voices vocalizations and musical sounds 15 16 In addition to emotional responses music has influenced the lifestyles of individuals and changed people s perceptions of what sexy is Although music cannot resolve all human beings needs it is heavily relied on to alter the feelings and emotions Neuropsychology edit Main article Cognitive neuroscience of music A significant amount of research concerns brain based mechanisms involved in the cognitive processes underlying music perception and performance These behaviours include music listening performing composing reading writing and ancillary activities It also is increasingly concerned with the brain basis for musical aesthetics and musical emotion Scientists working in this field may have training in cognitive neuroscience neurology neuroanatomy psychology music theory computer science and other allied fields and use such techniques as functional magnetic resonance imaging fMRI transcranial magnetic stimulation TMS magnetoencephalography MEG electroencephalography EEG and positron emission tomography PET The cognitive process of performing music requires the interaction of neural mechanisms in both motor and auditory systems Since every action expressed in a performance produces a sound that influences subsequent expression this leads to impressive sensorimotor interplay 17 Processing pitch edit nbsp The primary auditory cortex is one of the main areas associated with superior pitch resolution Perceived pitch typically depends on the fundamental frequency though the dependence could be mediated solely by the presence of harmonics corresponding to that fundamental frequency The perception of a pitch without the corresponding fundamental frequency in the physical stimulus is called the pitch of the missing fundamental 18 Neurons lateral to A1 in marmoset monkeys were found to be sensitive specifically to the fundamental frequency of a complex tone 19 suggesting that pitch constancy may be enabled by such a neural mechanism Pitch constancy refers to the ability to perceive pitch identity across changes in acoustical properties such as loudness temporal envelope or timbre 18 The importance of cortical regions lateral to A1 for pitch coding is also supported by studies of human cortical lesions and functional magnetic resonance imaging fMRI of the brain 20 21 22 These data suggest a hierarchical system for pitch processing with more abstract properties of sound stimulus processed further along the processing pathways Absolute pitch edit Main article Absolute pitch Absolute pitch AP is the ability to identify the pitch of a musical tone or to produce a musical tone at a given pitch without the use of an external reference pitch 23 Researchers estimate the occurrence of AP to be 1 in 10 000 people 24 The extent to which this ability is innate or learned is debated with evidence for both a genetic basis and for a critical period in which the ability can be learned especially in conjunction with early musical training 25 26 Processing rhythm edit Behavioural studies demonstrate that rhythm and pitch can be perceived separately 27 but that they also interact 28 29 30 in creating a musical perception Studies of auditory rhythm discrimination and reproduction in patients with brain injury have linked these functions to the auditory regions of the temporal lobe but have shown no consistent localization or lateralization 31 32 33 Neuropsychological and neuroimaging studies have shown that the motor regions of the brain contribute to both perception and production of rhythms 34 Even in studies where subjects only listen to rhythms the basal ganglia cerebellum dorsal premotor cortex dPMC and supplementary motor area SMA are often implicated 35 36 17 The analysis of rhythm may depend on interactions between the auditory and motor systems Neural correlates of musical training edit Although auditory motor interactions can be observed in people without formal musical training musicians are an excellent population to study because of their long established and rich associations between auditory and motor systems Musicians have been shown to have anatomical adaptations that correlate with their training 18 Some neuroimaging studies have observed that musicians show lower levels of activity in motor regions than non musicians during the performance of simple motor tasks which may suggest a more efficient pattern of neural recruitment 37 38 39 40 Other studies have shown that early musical training may positively affect word reading by promoting the specialization of an extra right sided note visual area to process spatially relevant visual information i e pentagram bars etc 41 This neuroplastic effect might help prevent surface dyslexia Music learning also involves the formation of novel audio visuomotor associations which results in the ability to detect an incorrect association between sounds and the corresponding musical gestures 42 43 also allowing to learn how to play a musical instrument 44 Motor imagery edit Previous neuroimaging studies have consistently reported activity in the SMA and premotor areas as well as in auditory cortices when non musicians imagine hearing musical excerpts 18 Recruitment of the SMA and premotor areas is also reported when musicians are asked to imagine performing 40 45 Psychoacoustics edit Main article Psychoacoustics Further information Hearing sense and Auditory illusion Psychoacoustics is the scientific study of sound perception More specifically it is the branch of science studying the psychological and physiological responses associated with sound including speech and music Topics of study include perception of the pitch timbre loudness and duration of musical sounds and the relevance of such studies for music cognition or the perceived structure of music and auditory illusions and how humans localize sound which can have relevance for musical composition and the design of venues for music performance Psychoacoustics is a branch of psychophysics Cognitive musicology edit Main article Cognitive musicology Cognitive musicology is a branch of cognitive science concerned with computationally modeling musical knowledge with the goal of understanding both music and cognition 46 Cognitive musicology can be differentiated from the fields of music cognition and cognitive neuroscience of music by a difference in methodological emphasis Cognitive musicology uses computer modeling to study music related knowledge representation and has roots in artificial intelligence and cognitive science The use of computer models provides an exacting interactive medium in which to formulate and test theories 28 29 47 48 This interdisciplinary field investigates topics such as the parallels between language and music in the brain Biologically inspired models of computation are often included in research such as neural networks and evolutionary programs 49 This field seeks to model how musical knowledge is represented stored perceived performed and generated By using a well structured computer environment the systematic structures of these cognitive phenomena can be investigated 50 Evolutionary musicology edit Main article Evolutionary musicology Evolutionary musicology concerns the origin of music the question of animal song selection pressures underlying music evolution and music evolution and human evolution 51 It seeks to understand music perception and activity in the context of evolutionary theory Charles Darwin speculated that music may have held an adaptive advantage and functioned as a protolanguage 52 a view which has spawned several competing theories of music evolution 53 54 55 An alternate view sees music as a by product of linguistic evolution a type of auditory cheesecake that pleases the senses without providing any adaptive function 56 This view has been directly countered by numerous music researchers 57 58 59 Cultural differences edit Main article Culture in music cognition See also Ethnomusicology An individual s culture or ethnicity plays a role in their music cognition including their preferences emotional reaction and musical memory Musical preferences are biased toward culturally familiar musical traditions beginning in infancy and adults classification of the emotion of a musical piece depends on both culturally specific and universal structural features 60 61 62 63 Additionally individuals musical memory abilities are greater for culturally familiar music than for culturally unfamiliar music 64 65 Applied research areas editThis section needs expansion You can help by adding to it April 2014 Many areas of music psychology research focus on the application of music in everyday life as well as the practices and experiences of the amateur and professional musician Each topic may utilize knowledge and techniques derived from one or more of the areas described above Such areas include Music in society edit Including everyday music listening musical rituals and gatherings e g religious festive sporting political etc the role of music in forming personal and group identities the relation between music and dancing social influences on musical preference peers family experts social background etc Musical preference edit Main article Psychology of music preference Consumers choices in music have been studied as they relate to the Big Five personality traits openness to experience agreeableness extraversion neuroticism and conscientiousness In general the plasticity traits openness to experience and extraversion affect music preference more than the stability traits agreeableness neuroticism and conscientiousness 66 Gender has been shown to influence preference with men choosing music for primarily cognitive reasons and women for emotional reasons 67 Relationships with music preference have also been found with mood 68 and nostalgic association 69 Background music edit Main article Background music The study of background music focuses on the impact of music with non musical tasks including changes in behavior in the presence of different types settings or styles of music 70 In laboratory settings music can affect performance on cognitive tasks memory attention and comprehension both positively and negatively Used extensively as an advertising aid music may also affect marketing strategies ad comprehension and consumer choices Background music can influence learning 71 72 working memory and recall 73 74 performance while working on tests 75 76 and attention in cognitive monitoring tasks 77 78 Background music can also be used as a way to relieve boredom create positive moods and maintain a private space 79 Background music has been shown to put a restless mind at ease by presenting the listener with various melodies and tones 79 It has been shown that listening to different types of music may modulate differently psychological mood and physiological responses associated with the induced emotions 80 For example listening to atonal music might result in reduced heart rate fear bradycardia and increased blood pressure both diastolic and systolic possibly reflecting an increase in alertness and attention psychological tension and anxiety 81 Music in marketing edit Main article Background music Music in marketing In both radio and television advertisements music plays an integral role in content recall 82 83 84 intentions to buy the product and attitudes toward the advertisement and brand itself 85 86 87 Music s effect on marketing has been studied in radio ads 84 86 87 TV ads 82 83 85 and physical retail settings 88 89 One of the most important aspects of an advertisement s music is the musical fit or the degree of congruity between cues in the ad and song content 90 Advertisements and music can be congruous or incongruous for both lyrical and instrumental music The timbre tempo lyrics genre mood as well as any positive or negative associations elicited by certain music should fit the nature of the advertisement and product 90 Music and productivity edit Main article Background music Effects on cognitive performance Several studies have recognized that listening to music while working affects the productivity of people performing complex cognitive tasks 91 One study suggested that listening to one s preferred genre of music can enhance productivity in the workplace 92 though other research has found that listening to music while working can be a source of distraction with loudness and lyrical content possibly playing a role 93 Other factors proposed to affect the relationship between music listening and productivity include musical structure task complexity and degree of control over the choice and use of music 94 Music education edit Main article Music education nbsp A primary focus of music psychology research concerns how best to teach music and the effects this has on childhood development Including optimizing music education development of musical behaviors and abilities throughout the lifespan the specific skills and processes involved in learning a musical instrument or singing activities and practices within a music school individual versus group learning of a musical instrument the effects of musical education on intelligence optimizing practiceMusical aptitude edit Musical aptitude refers to a person s innate ability to acquire skills and knowledge required for musical activity and may influence the speed at which learning can take place and the level that may be achieved Study in this area focuses on whether aptitude can be broken into subsets or represented as a single construct whether aptitude can be measured prior to significant achievement whether high aptitude can predict achievement to what extent aptitude is inherited and what implications questions of aptitude have on educational principles 3 It is an issue closely related to that of intelligence and IQ and was pioneered by the work of Carl Seashore While early tests of aptitude such as Seashore s The Measurement of Musical Talent sought to measure innate musical talent through discrimination tests of pitch interval rhythm consonance memory etc later research found these approaches to have little predictive power and to be influenced greatly by the test taker s mood motivation confidence fatigue and boredom when taking the test 3 Music performance edit See also Performance science Including the physiology of performance music reading and sight reading including eye movement performing from memory and music related memory acts of improvisation and composition flow experiences the interpersonal social aspects of group performance music performance quality evaluation by an audience or evaluator s e g audition or competition including the influence of musical and non musical factors audio engineering 95 Music and health edit Health benefits edit Scientific studies suggest that singing can have positive effects on people s health A preliminary study based on self reported data from a survey of students participating in choral singing found perceived benefits including increased lung capacity improved mood stress reduction as well as perceived social and spiritual benefits 96 However one much older study of lung capacity compared those with professional vocal training to those without and failed to back up the claims of increased lung capacity 97 Singing may positively influence the immune system through the reduction of stress One study found that both singing and listening to choral music reduces the level of stress hormones and increases immune function 98 A multinational collaboration to study the connection between singing and health was established in 2009 called Advancing Interdisciplinary Research in Singing AIRS 99 Singing provides physical cognitive and emotional benefits to participants When they step on stage many singers forget their worries and focus solely on the song Singing is becoming a more widely known method of increasing an individual s overall health and wellness in turn helping them to battle diseases such as cancer more effectively due to decreased stress releasing of endorphins and increased lung capacity 100 Effect on the brain edit John Daniel Scott among others have cited that people who sing are more likely to be happy This is because singing elevates the levels of neurotransmitters which are associated with pleasure and well being Humans have a long prehistory of music especially singing it is speculated that music was even used as an early form of social bonding 101 As stated by Savage et al 2020 Songs were also used to identify a socio cultural connection between individuals as songs typically vary If two people knew the same song they likely had a connection from previous generations 7 because song is often more memorable Savage et al continues by presenting evidence that music or singing may have evolved in humans even before language Furthermore Levitin in his This is Your Brain on Music argues that music may be the activity that prepared our pre human ancestors for speech communication and that singing might have helped our species to refine motor skills paving the way for the development of the exquisitely fine muscle control required for vocal speech 260 102 On the other hand he cites Pinker who argued that language is an adaptation and music is its Spandrel an evolutionary accident piggybacking on language 248 102 Studies have found evidence suggesting the mental as well as physical benefits of singing When conducting a study with 21 members of a choir at three different points over one year three themes suggested three areas of benefits the social impact connectedness with others personal impact positive emotions self perception etc and functional outcomes health benefits of being in the choir Findings showed that a sense of well being is associated with singing by uplifting the mood of the participants and releasing endorphins in the brain Many singers also reported that singing helped them regulate stress and relax allowing them to deal better with their daily lives From a social perspective approval from the audience and interaction with other choir members in a positive manner is also beneficial Singing is beneficial for pregnant mothers By giving them another medium of communication with their newborns mothers in one study reported feelings of love and affection when singing to their unborn children They also reported feeling more relaxed than ever before during their stressful pregnancy A song can have nostalgic significance by reminding a singer of the past and momentarily transport them allowing them to focus on singing and embrace the activity as an escape from their daily lives and problems 103 Effect on body edit A recent study by Tenovus Cancer Care found that singing in a choir for just one hour boosts levels of immune proteins in cancer patients and has a positive overall effect on the health of patients The study explores the possibility that singing could help put patients in the best mental and physical shape to receive the treatment they need by reducing stress hormones and increasing quantities of cytokines proteins of the immune system that can increase the body s ability to fight disease Singing gives you physical benefits like breath control and muscle movement and enunciation as well as the learning benefits of processing information says a musical director and accompanist in the study The enunciation and speech benefits tie into the language benefits detailed below 104 Some have advocated as in a 2011 article in the Toronto Star that everyone sing even if they are not musically talented because of its health benefits Singing lowers blood pressure by releasing pent up emotions boosting relaxation and reminding them of happy times It also allows singers to breathe more easily Patients with lung disease and chronic pulmonary disease experience relief from their symptoms from singing just two times a week In addition to breathing related illness singing also has numerous benefits for stroke victims when it comes to relearning the ability to speak and communicate by singing their thoughts Singing activates the right side of the brain when the left side cannot function the left side is the area of the brain responsible for speech so it is easy to see how singing can be an excellent alternative to speech while the victim heals 105 Physical benefits edit 1 Works the lungs tones up the intercostals and diaphragm 2 Improves sleep3 Benefits cardio function by improving aerobic capacity4 Relaxes overall muscle tension5 Improves posture 6 Opens up sinuses and respiratory tubes7 With training it could help decrease snoring8 Releases endorphins9 Boosts immune system10 Helps improve physical balance in people affected by illnesses such as Parkinson s disease 106 Other concepts edit See also Music therapy and Music and sleep Including the effectiveness of music in healthcare and therapeutic settings music specific disorders musicians physical and mental health and well being 107 music performance anxiety MPA or stage fright motivation burnout and depression among musicians noise induced hearing loss among musicians Sleep onset and maintenance insomniaJournals editMusic psychology journals include Music Perception Musicae Scientiae Psychology of Music Psychomusicology Music Mind and Brain Music amp Science Jahrbuch Musikpsychologie 108 Music psychologists also publish in a wide range of mainstream musicology computational musicology music theory analysis psychology music education music therapy music medicine and systematic musicology journals The latter include for example Acta Acustica United With Acustica Cognitive Systems Research Computer Music Journal Empirical Musicology Review Frontiers in Neuroscience Frontiers in Psychology Journal of the Audio Engineering Society Journal of New Music Research Journal of Mathematics and Music 109 Journal of the Acoustical Society of America Research Studies in Music EducationSocieties editAsia Pacific Society for the Cognitive Sciences of Music APSCOM Australian Music amp Psychology Society AMPS Deutsche Gesellschaft fur Musikpsychologie DGM European Society for the Cognitive Sciences of Music ESCOM Japanese Society for Music Perception and Cognition JSMPC Society for Education Music and Psychology Research SEMPRE Society for Music Perception and Cognition SMPC Centers of research and teaching editThis list is incomplete you can help by adding missing items October 2021 Australia Music Sound and Performance Lab Macquarie University 110 Music Mind and Wellbeing Initiative Melbourne University 111 Empirical Musicology Group University of New South Wales 112 ARC Centre of Excellence for the History of Emotion University of Western Australia 113 The MARCS Institute University of Western Sydney 114 Austria Centre for Systematic Musicology University of Graz 115 Cognitive Psychology Unit University of Klagenfurt 116 Wiener Klangstil University of Music and Performing Arts Vienna 117 Belgium Institute for Psychoacoustics and Electronic Music Ghent University 118 Canada Centre for Interdisciplinary Research in Music and Media and Technology McGill University 119 Music and Health Research Collaboratory University of Toronto 120 Music Cognition Lab Queen s University 121 Auditory Perception and Music Cognition Research and Training Laboratory University of Prince Edward Island 122 SMART Lab Toronto Metropolitan University 123 The Music Acoustics Perception and LEarning MAPLE Lab McMaster University 124 The Digital Music Lab DML McMaster University 125 McMaster Institute for Music and the Mind McMaster University 126 BRAMS International Laboratory for Brain Music and Sound Research University of Montreal and McGill University 127 Centre for Research on Brain Language and Music University of Montreal 128 Music and Neuroscience Lab University of Western Ontario 129 Denmark Center for Music in the Brain Aarhus University 130 Finland Centre of Excellence in Music Mind Body and Brain University of Jyvaskyla 131 France Auditory Cognition and Psychoacoustics team Claude Bernard University Lyon 1 132 University of Burgundy IRCAM Centre Pompidou 133 Germany University of Halle Wittenberg Institute for Systematic Musicology Universitat Hamburg 134 Institute of Music Physiology and Musicians Medicine Hochschule fur Musik Theater und Medien Hannover 135 Hanover Music Lab Hochschule fur Musik Theater und Medien Hannover 136 University of Cologne University of Oldenburg Hochschule fur Musik Wurzburg Technische Universitat ChemnitzIceland Centre for Music Research University of Iceland 137 Ireland University of LimerickItaly Bicocca ERP Lab University of Milano Bicocca 138 Japan Kyushu UniversityKorea Seoul National UniversityNetherlands Music Cognition Group University of Amsterdam 139 Norway Centre for Music and Health Norwegian Academy of Music 140 Poland Unit of Psychology of Music Fryderyk Chopin University of Music 141 Music Performance and Brain Lab University of Economics and Human Sciences in Warsaw 142 Singapore Music Cognition Group Social and Cognitive Computing Department Institute of High Performance Computing A STAR 143 Spain Music Technology Group Pompeu Fabra University 144 Sweden Speech Music and Hearing Royal Institute of Technology 145 Music Psychology Group Uppsala University 146 United Kingdom Centre for Music and Science Cambridge University 147 Music and the Human Sciences Group University of Edinburgh 148 Centre for Psychological Research Keele University 149 Music and Science Lab Durham University 150 Interdisciplinary Centre for Scientific Research in Music University of Leeds 151 Social and Applied Psychology Group University of Leicester 152 Music Mind and Brain Group Goldsmiths University College London 153 International Music Education Research Centre UCL Institute of Education University College London 154 Music Cognition Lab Queen Mary University of London 155 Faculty of Music University of Oxford 156 Applied Music Research Centre University of Roehampton 157 Centre for Performance Science Royal College of Music 158 Centre for Music Performance Research Royal Northern College of Music 159 Department of Music Sheffield University 160 United States Music and Neuroimaging Laboratory Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center and Harvard Medical School 161 Auditory Perception amp Action Lab University at Buffalo 162 Janata Lab University of California Davis 163 Systematic Musicology Lab University of California Los Angeles 164 Department of Psychology University of California San Diego 165 UCSB Music Cognition Lab University of California Santa Barbara 166 Music Dynamics Lab University of Connecticut 167 The Music Cognition Laboratory Cornell University 168 Music Cognition at Eastman School of Music University of Rochester 169 Center for Music Research Florida State University 170 Music Cognition and Computation Lab Louisiana State University 171 Language and Music Cognition Lab University of Maryland 172 Auditory Cognition and Development Lab University of Nevada Las Vegas 173 Auditory Neuroscience Laboratory Northwestern University 174 Music Theory and Cognition Program Northwestern University 175 Music Cognition Lab Princeton University 176 Cognitive and Systematic Musicology Laboratory Ohio State University 177 Music Learning Perception and Cognition Focus Group University of Oregon 178 Center for Computer Research in Music and Acoustics Stanford University 179 Dowling Laboratory University of Texas at Dallas 180 Institute for Music Research University of Texas at San Antonio 181 Laboratory for Music Cognition Culture amp Learning University of Washington 182 Music Imaging and Neural Dynamics MIND Laboratory Wesleyan University 183 Brain Research and Interdisciplinary Neurosciences Lab Western Michigan University 184 See also edit nbsp Music portalCognitive musicology Cognitive neuroscience of music Performance science Psychoacoustics Psychoanalysis and music Music and emotion Music specific disorders Music therapyReferences edit Tan Siu Lan Pfordresher Peter Harre Rom 2010 Psychology of Music From Sound to Significance New York Psychology Press p 2 ISBN 978 1 84169 868 7 Thompson William Forde 2009 Music Thought and Feeling Understanding the Psychology of Music 2nd Edition New York Oxford University Press p 320 ISBN 978 0 19 537707 1 a b c d e f g h i Deutsch Diana Gabrielsson Alf Sloboda John Cross Ian Drake Carolyn Parncutt Richard McAdams Stephen Clarke Eric F Trehub Sandra E O Neill Susan Hargreaves David Kemp Anthony North Adrian Zatorre Robert J 2001 Psychology of music Grove Music Online doi 10 1093 gmo 9781561592630 article 42574 ISBN 978 1 56159 263 0 Musicology Encyclopedia Britannica Retrieved 2019 03 29 Ockelford Adam 2009 Beyond music psychology In Hallam Susan Cross Ian Thaut Michael eds The Oxford Handbook 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edit Palmer Caroline amp Melissa K Jungers 2003 Music Cognition In Lynn Nadel Encyclopedia of Cognitive Science Vol 3 London Nature Publishing Group pp 155 158 Deutsch Diana 2013 Music In Oxford Bibliographies in Music Edited by Dunn D S New York Oxford University Press 2013 Web Link Thompson William Forde 2014 Music in the Social and Behavioral Sciences An Encyclopedia Sage Publications Inc New York ISBN 978 1 4522 8303 6Introductory reading edit Day Kingsley October 21 2004 Music and the Mind Turning the Cognition Key Observer online Jourdain Robert 1997 Music the Brain and Ecstasy How Music Captures Our Imagination New York William Morrow and Company ISBN 0 688 14236 2 Honing Henkjan 2013 Musical Cognition A Science of Listening 2nd edition New Brunswick N J Transaction Publishers ISBN 978 1 4128 5292 0 Levitin D J 2006 This Is Your Brain on Music The Science of a Human Obsession New York Dutton ISBN 0 525 94969 0 Margulis Elizabeth Hellmuth 2018 The Psychology of Music A Very Short Introduction New York NY Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 064015 6 Margulis Elizabeth Hellmuth 2013 On Repeat How Music Plays the Mind New York NY Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 999082 5 Purwins Hardoon 2009 Trends and Perspectives in Music Cognition Research and Technology PDF Connection Science 21 2 3 85 88 doi 10 1080 09540090902734549 hdl 10230 43628 S2CID 9294128 Archived from the original PDF on 2020 06 26 Retrieved 2014 04 11 Snyder Bob 2000 Music and Memory an introduction The MIT Press ISBN 0 262 69237 6 J P E Harper Scott and Jim Samson An Introduction to Music Studies Chapter 4 John Rink The Psychology of Music Cambridge University Press 2009 pp 60 Deutsch D 2019 Musical Illusions and Phantom Words How Music and Speech Unlock Mysteries of the Brain Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 020683 3 LCCN 2018051786 Advanced reading edit Deutsch D Ed 1982 The Psychology of Music 1st Edition New York Academic Press ISBN 0 12 213562 8 Deutsch D Ed 1999 The Psychology of Music 2nd Edition San Diego Academic Press ISBN 0 12 213565 2 Deutsch D Ed 2013 The Psychology of Music 3rd Edition San Diego Academic Press ISBN 0 12 381460 X Dowling W Jay and Harwood Dane L 1986 Music Cognition San Diego Academic Press ISBN 0 12 221430 7 Hallam Cross amp Thaut eds 2008 The Oxford Handbook of Music Psychology Oxford Oxford University Press Krumhansl Carol L 2001 Cognitive Foundations of Musical Pitch Oxford Oxford University Press ISBN 0 19 514836 3 Patel Anirrudh D 2010 Music language and the brain New York Oxford University Press Parncutt R 1989 Harmony A Psychoacoustical Approach Berlin Springer Proverbio A M 2019 Neuroscienze Cognitive della Musica Il cervello musicale tra Arte e Scienza Zanichelli Bologna Sloboda John A 1985 The Musical Mind The Cognitive Psychology of Music Oxford Oxford University Press ISBN 0 19 852128 6 Lerdahl F and Jackendoff R 21996 A Generative Theory of Tonal Music The MIT Press ISBN 978 0 262 62107 6 Jackendoff Ray 1987 Consciousness and the Computational Mind Cambridge MIT Press Chapter 11 Levels of Musical Structure section 11 1 What is Musical Cognition Temperley D 2004 The Cognition of Basic Musical Structures The MIT Press ISBN 978 0 262 70105 1 Thompson W F 2009 Music Thought and Feeling Understanding the Psychology of Music New York Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 537707 1 Zbikowski Lawrence M 2004 Conceptualizing Music Cognitive Structure Theory and Analysis Oxford University Press USA ISBN 978 0 19 514023 1 North A C amp Hargreaves D J 2008 The Social and Applied Psychology of Music Oxford Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 856742 4 External links edit nbsp Media related to Music psychology at Wikimedia Commons Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Music psychology amp oldid 1199663296, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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