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First Turkic Khaganate

June 02, 2023

The First Turkic Khaganate, also referred to as the First Turkic Empire,[11] the Turkic Khaganate or the Göktürk Khaganate, was a Turkic khaganate established by the Ashina clan of the Göktürks in medieval Inner Asia under the leadership of Bumin Qaghan (d. 552) and his brother Istämi. The First Turkic Khaganate succeeded the Rouran Khaganate as the hegemonic power of the Mongolian Plateau and rapidly expanded their territories in Central Asia, and became the first Central Asian transcontinental empire from Manchuria to the Black Sea.[5]: 49 [12]

First Turkic Khaganate
552–603
The First Turkic Khaganate at its greatest extent, in 576, with neighbouring contemporary polities.[2]
StatusKhaganate (Nomadic empire)
Capital
Common languages
Religion
Tengrism
Demonym(s)Türük
Türk
Qaghan 
• 552
Bumin Qaghan (first)
• 599–603
Tardu (last)
Yabgu 
• 552–575
Istämi (first)
• 575–599
Tardu (last)
Historical eraPost-classical
• Bumin Qaghan revolts against Rouran Khaganate
542
• Established
552
581
• Brief re-unification
603
• Division of Western and Eastern Turkic Khaganates
603
Area
557[9][10]6,000,000 km2 (2,300,000 sq mi)

Although the Göktürks spoke Old Turkic, the Khaganate's early official texts and coins were written in Sogdian.[6][13] It was the first Turkic state to use the name Türk politically.[14] Old Turkic script was invented at the first half of the 6th century.[15][16]

The Khaganate collapsed in 603, after a series of conflicts and civil wars which separated the polity into the Eastern Turkic Khaganate and Western Turkic Khaganate. The Tang Empire conquered the Eastern Turkic Khaganate in 630, and conquered the Western Turkic Khaganate in 657 in a series of military campaigns. The Second Turkic Khaganate emerged in 682 and lasted until 744 when it was overthrown by the Uyghur Khaganate.

First Khaganate

See also: Timeline of the Göktürks

The origins of the Turkic Khanate trace back to 546, when Bumin Qaghan made a preemptive strike against the Uyghur and Tiele groups planning a revolt against their overlords, the Rouran Khanate. For this service he expected to be rewarded with a Rouran princess, thus marrying into the royal family. However, the Rouran khagan, Yujiulü Anagui, sent an emissary to Bumin to rebuke him, saying, "You are my blacksmith slave. How dare you utter these words?" As Anagui's "blacksmith slave" (Chinese: 鍛奴; pinyin: duànnú) comment was recorded in Chinese chronicles, some claim that the Göktürks were indeed blacksmith servants for the Rouran elite,[17][18][19][20] and that "blacksmith slavery" may have indicated a form of vassalage within Rouran society.[21] According to Denis Sinor, this reference indicates that the Türks specialized in metallurgy, although it is unclear if they were miners or, indeed, blacksmiths.[22][23] Whatever the case, that the Turks were "slaves" need not be taken literally, but probably represented a form of vassalage, or even unequal alliance.[24]

 
Panel from the Tomb of Anjia, a Sogdian trader (right), who is shown welcoming a Turkic leader (left, with long hair combed in the back). 579 CE, Xi'an, China.[25][26]

A disappointed Bumin allied with the Western Wei against the Rouran, their common enemy. In 552, Bumin defeated Anagui and his forces north of Huaihuang (modern Zhangjiakou, Hebei).[27]

Having excelled both in battle and diplomacy, Bumin declared himself Illig Khagan of the new khanate at Otukan, but died only months later. His son, Muqan Qaghan, defeated the Hephthalite Empire,[28] Khitan and Kyrgyz.[29] Bumin's brother Istämi (d. 576) bore the title "Yabgu of the West" and collaborated with the Sassanid Empire of Iran to defeat and destroy the Hephthalites, who were allies of the Rouran. This war tightened the Ashina clan's grip on the Silk Road.

The appearance of the Pannonian Avars in the West has been interpreted as a nomadic faction fleeing the westward expansion of the Göktürks, although the specifics are a matter of irreconcilable debate given the lack of clear sources and chronology. Rene Grousset links the Avars with the downfall of the Hephthalites rather than the Rouran,[30] while Denis Sinor argues that Rouran-Avar identification is "repeated from article to article, from book to book with no shred of evidence to support it".[31]

Istämi's policy of western expansion brought the Göktürks into Europe.[32] In 576 the Göktürks crossed the Kerch Strait into the Crimea. Five years later they laid siege to Chersonesus; their cavalry kept roaming the steppes of Crimea until 590.[33] As for the southern borders, they were drawn south of the Amu Darya, bringing the Ashina into conflict with their former allies, the Sasanian Empire. Much of Bactria (including Balkh) remained a dependency of the Ashina until the end of the century.[33]

Relations with the Byzantine Empire

Main article: Foreign relations of the Byzantine Empire § Göktürk relations: 6th–7th centuries

The Göktürks played a major role with the Byzantine Empire's relationship with the Persian Sasanian Empire.[34] The first contact is believed to be 563 and relates to the incident in 558 where the slaves of the Turks (the Pannonian Avars) ran away during their war with the Hephthalites.[34][35]

The second contact occurred when Maniah, a Sogdian diplomat, convinced Istämi (known as Silziboulos in Greek writings[36]) of the Göktürks to send an embassy directly to the Byzantine Empire's capital Constantinople, which arrived in 568 and offered silk as a gift to emperor Justin II and where they discussed an alliance. In 569 an embassy led by Zemarchus occurred which was well received and likely solidified their alliance for war.[34][37]

Another set of embassies occurred in 575-576 led by Valentine which were received with hostility by Turxanthos due to alleged treachery.[35] They required the members of the Byzantine delegation at the funeral of Istämi to lacerate their faces to humiliate them.[38] The subsequent hostility shown by the new ruler Tardu[38][39] would be matched in Byzantine writings.[40] With the insults reflecting a breakdown of the alliance, the likely cause is that the anger was due to the Turks not having their expectations met from their agreements and realising they were being used when they no longer aligned with the current goals of the Byzantine Empire (who correspondingly lacked trust in the Turks as partners).[34]

Civil war

Main article: Göktürk civil war
Göktürk civil war
 
The khaganate in 552 after its division into Western Turkic Khaganate and Eastern Turkic Khaganate
 
Gokturk khaganates at their height, c. 600 AD:
  Western Gokturk: Lighter area is direct rule, darker areas show sphere of influence.[citation needed]
  Eastern Gokturk: Lighter area is direct rule, darker areas show sphere of influence.

The Turkic Khaganate split in two after the death of the fourth ruler, Taspar Qaghan, c. 583. He had willed the title of khagan to Muqan's son Apa Qaghan, but the high council appointed Ishbara Qaghan instead. Factions formed around both leaders. Before long, four rivals claimed the title. They were successfully played off against each other by the Sui and Tang dynasties.[citation needed]

The most serious contender was the western one, Istämi's son Tardu, a violent and ambitious man who had already declared himself independent from the Qaghan after his father's death. He now seized the title and led an army east to claim the seat of imperial power, Otukan.[citation needed]

In order to buttress his position, Ishbara of the Eastern Khaganate applied to Emperor Yang of Sui for protection. Tardu attacked Chang'an, the Sui capital, around 600, demanding Emperor Yangdi end his interference in the civil war. In retaliation, Sui diplomacy successfully incited a revolt of Tardu's Tiele vassals, which led to the end of Tardu's reign in 603. Among the dissident tribes were the Uyghurs and Xueyantuo.[citation needed]

Eastern Turkic Khaganate

Main article: Eastern Turkic Khaganate
Further information: Tang campaign against the Eastern Turks
 
Shoroon Bumbagar tomb mural, Göktürk, 7th century CE, Mongolia.[43][44][45][46]

The civil war left the empire divided into eastern and western parts. The eastern part, still ruled from Otukan, remained in the orbit of the Sui and retained the name Göktürk. The Shibi Khan (609–619) and Illig Qaghan (620–630) attacked the Central Plain at its weakest moment during the transition between the Sui and Tang. Shibi Khan's surprise attack against Yanmen Commandery during an imperial tour of the northern frontier almost captured Emperor Yang, but his ethnic Han wife Princess Yicheng—who had been well treated by Empress Xiao during an earlier visit—sent a warning ahead, allowing the emperor and empress time to flee to the commandery seat at present-day Daixian in Shanxi.[47] This was besieged by the Turkic army on September 11, 615,[48][49] but Sui reinforcements and a false report from Princess Yicheng to her husband about a northern attack on the khaganate caused him to lift the siege before its completion.[47]

In 626, Illig Qaghan took advantage of the Xuanwu Gate Incident and drove on to Chang'an. On September 23, 626,[48] Illig Qaghan and his iron cavalry reached the bank of the Wei River north of Bian Bridge (in present-day Xianyang, Shaanxi). On September 25, 626,[48]Tang Taizong allied with Iligh Khan and met with the khan on the border bridge, Tang Taizong accused Iligh Khan of crossing the border, the khan saw that Taizong was imposing, mistakenly thought that the reinforcements of the Tang Dynasty had arrived, plus two years ago, he had seen Li Shimin, who was still the crown prince at that time, in Binzhou（彬州）, and was asked to duel. The khan was afraid and agreed to retreat in an alliance, which is called the Weishui Alliance（渭水之盟）.or the Alliance of Bian Qiao (便橋會盟 / 便桥会盟).[50] On the third day after the meeting, the khan sent 3,000 horses and 10,000 sheep to the border to be prepared as compensation for the Tang dynasty, which Emperor Taizong did not accept, believing that this was too little. [51] All in all, 67 incursions into China proper were recorded.[33]

Before mid-October 627, heavy snows on the Mongolian-Manchurian grassland covered the ground to a depth of several feet, preventing the nomads' livestock from grazing and causing a massive die-off among the animals.[52] According to the New Book of Tang, in 628, Taizong mentioned that "There has been a frost in midsummer. The sun had risen from same place for five days. The moon had had the same light level for three days. The field was filled with red atmosphere (dust storm)."[53]

Illig Qaghan was brought down by a revolt of his Tiele vassal tribes (626–630), allied with Emperor Taizong of Tang. This tribal alliance figures in Chinese records as the Huihe (Uyghur).[54]

On March 27, 630,[48] a Tang army under the command of Li Jing defeated the Eastern Turkic Khaganate under the command of Illig Qaghan at the Battle of Yinshan (陰山之戰 / 阴山之战).[55][56][57] Illig Qaghan fled to Ishbara Shad, but on May 2, 630[58] Zhang Baoxiang's army advanced to Ishbara Shad's headquarters. Illig Qaghan was taken prisoner and sent to Chang'an.[57] The Eastern Turkic Khaganate collapsed and was incorporated into the Jimi system of Tang. Emperor Taizong said, "It's enough for me to compensate my dishonor at Wei River."[56]

Western Turkic Khaganate

Main article: Western Turkic Khaganate
Further information: Third Perso-Turkic War, Tang campaigns against the Western Turks, and Conquest of the Western Turks
 
The Western Turkic Khaganate
 
Western Turkic officers during an audience with king Varkhuman of Samarkand. 648-651 CE, Afrasiyab murals, Samarkand.[59][60]

The Western khagan Sheguy and Tong Yabghu Qaghan constructed an alliance with the Byzantine Empire against the Sasanian Empire and succeeded in restoring the southern borders along the Tarim and Amu Darya rivers. Their capital was Suyab in the Chu River valley, about 6 km south east of modern Tokmok. In 627 Tung Yabghu, assisted by the Khazars and Emperor Heraclius, launched a massive invasion of Transcaucasia which culminated in the taking of Derbent and Tbilisi (see the Third Perso-Turkic War for details). In April 630 Tung's deputy Böri Shad sent the Göktürk cavalry to invade Armenia, where his general Chorpan Tarkhan succeeded in routing a large Persian force. Tung Yabghu's murder in 630 forced the Göktürks to evacuate Transcaucasia.[citation needed]

Western Turkic Khaganate was modernized through an administrative reform of Ashina clan (reigned 634–639) and came to be known as the Onoq.[61] The name refers to the "ten arrows" that were granted by the khagan to ten leaders (shads) of its two constituent tribal confederations, the Duolu (five churs) and Nushibi (five irkins), whose lands were divided by the Chui River.[61] The division fostered the growth of separatist tendencies. Soon, chieftain Kubrat of the Dulo clan, whose relation ship with the Duolu is possible but not proven, seceded from the Khaganate. The Tang dynasty campaigned against the khaganate and its vassals, the oasis states of the Tarim Basin. The Tang campaign against Karakhoja in 640 led to the retreat of the Western Turks, who were defeated during the Tang campaigns against Karasahr in 644 and the Tang campaign against Kucha in 648,[62][63] leading to the 657 conquest of the Western Turks by the Tang general Su Dingfang.[64] Emperor Taizong of Tang was proclaimed Khagan of the Göktürks.

In 657, the Tang emperor could impose indirect rule along the Silk Road as far as modern-day Iran. He installed two khagans to rule the ten arrows (tribes) of Göktürks. Five arrows of Tulu (咄陆) were ruled by khagans bearing the title of Xingxiwang (興昔亡可汗) while five arrows of Nushipi (弩失畢可汗) were ruled by Jiwangjue (繼往絕可汗). Five Tulu corresponded to the area east of Lake Balkash while five arrows of Nushipi corresponded to the land east of the Aral Sea. Göktürks now carried Chinese titles and fought by their side in their wars. The era spanning from 657 to 699 in the steppes was characterized by numerous rulers – weak, divided, and engaged in constant petty wars under the Anxi Protectorate until the rise of Turgesh.

Genetics

A 2020 study analyzed genetic data from 7 early medieval Türk fossils from Eastern Turkic Khaganate burial sites in Mongolia.[65][66] The authors described the Türk samples as highly diverse, carrying on average 40% West Eurasian, and 60% East Eurasian ancestry. West Eurasian ancestry in the Türks combined Sarmatian-related and BMAC ancestry, while the East Eurasian ancestry was related to Ancient Northeast Asians. The authors also observed that West Eurasian ancestry in the Türks was largely inherited from male ancestors, which also corresponds with the marked increase of West Eurasian paternal haplogroups such as R and J during the Türkic period in Mongolia.[67] Admixture between East and West Eurasian ancestors of the Türkic samples was dated to 500 CE, or roughly 8 generations prior.[68]

The majority of the Türkic affiliated males carried the paternal haplogroups J2a and J1a, while one belonged to R1a-Z93. Two other males carried haplogroups C-F3830. The maternal haplogroups were identified as D4 and D2, B4, C4, H1 and U7.[69]

The genetic profile of the Turkic princess Ashina (551–582 CE), daughter of the third Khagan of the Göktürks Muqan Qaghan, was sequenced, and showed that she was genetically closely associated with the Ancient Northeast Asians (97.7% Northeast Asian ancestry, and only 2,7% West-Eurasian components). This supports the Northeast Asian origin of the Ashina tribe and the Göktürk Khanate.[70]


Gallery

See also

References

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  64. ^ Skaff 2009, p. 183.
  65. ^ Jeong, Choongwon (12 November 2020). "A Dynamic 6,000-Year Genetic History of Eurasia's Eastern Steppe". Cell. 183 (4): 890–904.e29. doi:10.1016/j.cell.2020.10.015. ISSN 0092-8674.
  66. ^ Jeong 2020: "Türk (550-750 CE). Göktürkic tribes of the Altai Mountains established a political structure across Eurasia beginning in 552 CE, with an empire that ruled over Mongolia from 581-742 CE (Golden, 1992). A brief period of disunion occurred between 659-682 CE, during which the Chinese Tang dynasty laid claim over Mongolia...We analyzed individuals from 5 Türk sites in this study: Nomgonii Khundii (NOM), Shoroon Bumbagar (Türkic mausoleum; TUM), Zaan-Khoshuu (ZAA), Uliastai River Lower Terrace (ULI), and Umuumur uul (UGU)."
  67. ^ Jeong 2020: "We observe a clear signal of male-biased WSH admixture among the EIA Sagly/Uyuk and during the Türkic period (i.e., more positive Z scores; Figure 5B), which also corresponds to the decline in the Y chromosome lineage Q1a and the concomitant rise of the western Eurasian lineages such as R and J (Figure S2A)."
  68. ^ Jeong 2020: "The admixture dates estimated for the ancient Türkic and Uyghur individuals in this study correspond to ca. 500 CE: 8 ± 2 generations before the Türkic individuals and 12 ± 2 generations before the Uyghur individuals (represented by ZAA001 and Olon Dov individuals)."
  69. ^ Jeong 2020: "Table S2, S2C_SexHaplogroups, Supplementary Materials GUID: E914F9CE-9ED4-4E0F-9172-5A54A08E9F6B
  70. ^ Yang, Xiaomin (2023). "Ancient Genome of Empress Ashina reveals the Northeast Asian origin of Göktürk Khanate". Journal of Systematics and Evolution. doi:10.1111/jse.12938. In the principal component analysis (PCA) (Figs. 1B, S3), the Ashina individual clustered with modern Tungusic and Mongolic speakers, ancient populations from Northeast Asia and eastern Mongolia Plateau, and especially with the Northeast Asian hunter‐gatherers previously referred to as "Ancient Northeast Asian" (ANA), that is, DevilsCave_N, Mongolia_N_North, Boisman_MN, AR_EN (Jeong et al., 2020; Ning et al., 2020; Wang et al., 2021), as well as post‐Iron Age Eastern Steppe nomadic people including Xianbei, Rouran, Khitan, and part of the Mongol population. The shared genetic similarity between Ashina and Northeast Eurasians, especially ANA, was also evident in outgroup‐f3 statistics (Fig. S5A).

External links

  • Turk Bitig

Bibliography

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June 02, 2023
first, turkic, khaganate, also, referred, first, turkic, empire, turkic, khaganate, göktürk, khaganate, turkic, khaganate, established, ashina, clan, göktürks, medieval, inner, asia, under, leadership, bumin, qaghan, brother, istämi, succeeded, rouran, khagana. The First Turkic Khaganate also referred to as the First Turkic Empire 11 the Turkic Khaganate or the Gokturk Khaganate was a Turkic khaganate established by the Ashina clan of the Gokturks in medieval Inner Asia under the leadership of Bumin Qaghan d 552 and his brother Istami The First Turkic Khaganate succeeded the Rouran Khaganate as the hegemonic power of the Mongolian Plateau and rapidly expanded their territories in Central Asia and became the first Central Asian transcontinental empire from Manchuria to the Black Sea 5 49 12 First Turkic Khaganate552 603Tamga of Ashina tribe 1 KyrgyzsCHAM PA576CHENLAFIRST TURKIC KHAGANATESASANIANEMPIREALCHONSCHALU KYASLATER GUPTASNORTH ZHOUNORTH QIZHANGZHUNGCHENBYZANTINEEMPIREAVARKHAGANATETUYUHUNKhitansPaleo SiberiansTungusGOGU RYEOTOCHA RIANS The First Turkic Khaganate at its greatest extent in 576 with neighbouring contemporary polities 2 StatusKhaganate Nomadic empire CapitalOtuken eastern Suyab western Common languagesOld Turkic official dynastic and common 3 4 5 37 Sogdian official diplomacy coinage 6 7 Ruanruan official 8 ReligionTengrismDemonym s TurukTurkQaghan 552Bumin Qaghan first 599 603Tardu last Yabgu 552 575Istami first 575 599Tardu last Historical eraPost classical Bumin Qaghan revolts against Rouran Khaganate542 Established552 Gokturk civil war581 Brief re unification603 Division of Western and Eastern Turkic Khaganates603Area557 9 10 6 000 000 km2 2 300 000 sq mi Preceded by Succeeded byRouran KhaganateHephthalite Empire Eastern Turkic KhaganateWestern Turkic KhaganateAlthough the Gokturks spoke Old Turkic the Khaganate s early official texts and coins were written in Sogdian 6 13 It was the first Turkic state to use the name Turk politically 14 Old Turkic script was invented at the first half of the 6th century 15 16 The Khaganate collapsed in 603 after a series of conflicts and civil wars which separated the polity into the Eastern Turkic Khaganate and Western Turkic Khaganate The Tang Empire conquered the Eastern Turkic Khaganate in 630 and conquered the Western Turkic Khaganate in 657 in a series of military campaigns The Second Turkic Khaganate emerged in 682 and lasted until 744 when it was overthrown by the Uyghur Khaganate Contents 1 First Khaganate 1 1 Relations with the Byzantine Empire 2 Civil war 2 1 Eastern Turkic Khaganate 2 2 Western Turkic Khaganate 3 Genetics 4 Gallery 5 See also 6 References 7 External links 8 BibliographyFirst Khaganate EditSee also Timeline of the Gokturks The origins of the Turkic Khanate trace back to 546 when Bumin Qaghan made a preemptive strike against the Uyghur and Tiele groups planning a revolt against their overlords the Rouran Khanate For this service he expected to be rewarded with a Rouran princess thus marrying into the royal family However the Rouran khagan Yujiulu Anagui sent an emissary to Bumin to rebuke him saying You are my blacksmith slave How dare you utter these words As Anagui s blacksmith slave Chinese 鍛奴 pinyin duannu comment was recorded in Chinese chronicles some claim that the Gokturks were indeed blacksmith servants for the Rouran elite 17 18 19 20 and that blacksmith slavery may have indicated a form of vassalage within Rouran society 21 According to Denis Sinor this reference indicates that the Turks specialized in metallurgy although it is unclear if they were miners or indeed blacksmiths 22 23 Whatever the case that the Turks were slaves need not be taken literally but probably represented a form of vassalage or even unequal alliance 24 Panel from the Tomb of Anjia a Sogdian trader right who is shown welcoming a Turkic leader left with long hair combed in the back 579 CE Xi an China 25 26 A disappointed Bumin allied with the Western Wei against the Rouran their common enemy In 552 Bumin defeated Anagui and his forces north of Huaihuang modern Zhangjiakou Hebei 27 Having excelled both in battle and diplomacy Bumin declared himself Illig Khagan of the new khanate at Otukan but died only months later His son Muqan Qaghan defeated the Hephthalite Empire 28 Khitan and Kyrgyz 29 Bumin s brother Istami d 576 bore the title Yabgu of the West and collaborated with the Sassanid Empire of Iran to defeat and destroy the Hephthalites who were allies of the Rouran This war tightened the Ashina clan s grip on the Silk Road The appearance of the Pannonian Avars in the West has been interpreted as a nomadic faction fleeing the westward expansion of the Gokturks although the specifics are a matter of irreconcilable debate given the lack of clear sources and chronology Rene Grousset links the Avars with the downfall of the Hephthalites rather than the Rouran 30 while Denis Sinor argues that Rouran Avar identification is repeated from article to article from book to book with no shred of evidence to support it 31 Istami s policy of western expansion brought the Gokturks into Europe 32 In 576 the Gokturks crossed the Kerch Strait into the Crimea Five years later they laid siege to Chersonesus their cavalry kept roaming the steppes of Crimea until 590 33 As for the southern borders they were drawn south of the Amu Darya bringing the Ashina into conflict with their former allies the Sasanian Empire Much of Bactria including Balkh remained a dependency of the Ashina until the end of the century 33 Relations with the Byzantine Empire Edit Main article Foreign relations of the Byzantine Empire Gokturk relations 6th 7th centuries The Gokturks played a major role with the Byzantine Empire s relationship with the Persian Sasanian Empire 34 The first contact is believed to be 563 and relates to the incident in 558 where the slaves of the Turks the Pannonian Avars ran away during their war with the Hephthalites 34 35 The second contact occurred when Maniah a Sogdian diplomat convinced Istami known as Silziboulos in Greek writings 36 of the Gokturks to send an embassy directly to the Byzantine Empire s capital Constantinople which arrived in 568 and offered silk as a gift to emperor Justin II and where they discussed an alliance In 569 an embassy led by Zemarchus occurred which was well received and likely solidified their alliance for war 34 37 Another set of embassies occurred in 575 576 led by Valentine which were received with hostility by Turxanthos due to alleged treachery 35 They required the members of the Byzantine delegation at the funeral of Istami to lacerate their faces to humiliate them 38 The subsequent hostility shown by the new ruler Tardu 38 39 would be matched in Byzantine writings 40 With the insults reflecting a breakdown of the alliance the likely cause is that the anger was due to the Turks not having their expectations met from their agreements and realising they were being used when they no longer aligned with the current goals of the Byzantine Empire who correspondingly lacked trust in the Turks as partners 34 Gokturk petroglyphs from Mongolia 6th to 8th century 41 Turkic horsemen with long hair on the tomb of a Sogdian trader the Miho funerary couch Circa 570 CE Northern Dynasties China 42 26 The Sogdian trader An Jia with a Turkic Chieftain in his yurt 579 CE Tomb of An Jia Xi an China The Sogdian trader An Jia right brokering an alliance with Turks left 579 CE Tomb of An Jia Xi an China Civil war EditMain article Gokturk civil war Gokturk civil war The khaganate in 552 after its division into Western Turkic Khaganate and Eastern Turkic Khaganate Gokturk khaganates at their height c 600 AD Western Gokturk Lighter area is direct rule darker areas show sphere of influence citation needed Eastern Gokturk Lighter area is direct rule darker areas show sphere of influence The Turkic Khaganate split in two after the death of the fourth ruler Taspar Qaghan c 583 He had willed the title of khagan to Muqan s son Apa Qaghan but the high council appointed Ishbara Qaghan instead Factions formed around both leaders Before long four rivals claimed the title They were successfully played off against each other by the Sui and Tang dynasties citation needed The most serious contender was the western one Istami s son Tardu a violent and ambitious man who had already declared himself independent from the Qaghan after his father s death He now seized the title and led an army east to claim the seat of imperial power Otukan citation needed In order to buttress his position Ishbara of the Eastern Khaganate applied to Emperor Yang of Sui for protection Tardu attacked Chang an the Sui capital around 600 demanding Emperor Yangdi end his interference in the civil war In retaliation Sui diplomacy successfully incited a revolt of Tardu s Tiele vassals which led to the end of Tardu s reign in 603 Among the dissident tribes were the Uyghurs and Xueyantuo citation needed Eastern Turkic Khaganate Edit Main article Eastern Turkic Khaganate Further information Tang campaign against the Eastern Turks Shoroon Bumbagar tomb mural Gokturk 7th century CE Mongolia 43 44 45 46 The civil war left the empire divided into eastern and western parts The eastern part still ruled from Otukan remained in the orbit of the Sui and retained the name Gokturk The Shibi Khan 609 619 and Illig Qaghan 620 630 attacked the Central Plain at its weakest moment during the transition between the Sui and Tang Shibi Khan s surprise attack against Yanmen Commandery during an imperial tour of the northern frontier almost captured Emperor Yang but his ethnic Han wife Princess Yicheng who had been well treated by Empress Xiao during an earlier visit sent a warning ahead allowing the emperor and empress time to flee to the commandery seat at present day Daixian in Shanxi 47 This was besieged by the Turkic army on September 11 615 48 49 but Sui reinforcements and a false report from Princess Yicheng to her husband about a northern attack on the khaganate caused him to lift the siege before its completion 47 In 626 Illig Qaghan took advantage of the Xuanwu Gate Incident and drove on to Chang an On September 23 626 48 Illig Qaghan and his iron cavalry reached the bank of the Wei River north of Bian Bridge in present day Xianyang Shaanxi On September 25 626 48 Tang Taizong allied with Iligh Khan and met with the khan on the border bridge Tang Taizong accused Iligh Khan of crossing the border the khan saw that Taizong was imposing mistakenly thought that the reinforcements of the Tang Dynasty had arrived plus two years ago he had seen Li Shimin who was still the crown prince at that time in Binzhou 彬州 and was asked to duel The khan was afraid and agreed to retreat in an alliance which is called the Weishui Alliance 渭水之盟 or the Alliance of Bian Qiao 便橋會盟 便桥会盟 50 On the third day after the meeting the khan sent 3 000 horses and 10 000 sheep to the border to be prepared as compensation for the Tang dynasty which Emperor Taizong did not accept believing that this was too little 51 All in all 67 incursions into China proper were recorded 33 Before mid October 627 heavy snows on the Mongolian Manchurian grassland covered the ground to a depth of several feet preventing the nomads livestock from grazing and causing a massive die off among the animals 52 According to the New Book of Tang in 628 Taizong mentioned that There has been a frost in midsummer The sun had risen from same place for five days The moon had had the same light level for three days The field was filled with red atmosphere dust storm 53 Illig Qaghan was brought down by a revolt of his Tiele vassal tribes 626 630 allied with Emperor Taizong of Tang This tribal alliance figures in Chinese records as the Huihe Uyghur 54 On March 27 630 48 a Tang army under the command of Li Jing defeated the Eastern Turkic Khaganate under the command of Illig Qaghan at the Battle of Yinshan 陰山之戰 阴山之战 55 56 57 Illig Qaghan fled to Ishbara Shad but on May 2 630 58 Zhang Baoxiang s army advanced to Ishbara Shad s headquarters Illig Qaghan was taken prisoner and sent to Chang an 57 The Eastern Turkic Khaganate collapsed and was incorporated into the Jimi system of Tang Emperor Taizong said It s enough for me to compensate my dishonor at Wei River 56 Western Turkic Khaganate Edit Main article Western Turkic Khaganate Further information Third Perso Turkic War Tang campaigns against the Western Turks and Conquest of the Western Turks The Western Turkic Khaganate Western Turkic officers during an audience with king Varkhuman of Samarkand 648 651 CE Afrasiyab murals Samarkand 59 60 The Western khagan Sheguy and Tong Yabghu Qaghan constructed an alliance with the Byzantine Empire against the Sasanian Empire and succeeded in restoring the southern borders along the Tarim and Amu Darya rivers Their capital was Suyab in the Chu River valley about 6 km south east of modern Tokmok In 627 Tung Yabghu assisted by the Khazars and Emperor Heraclius launched a massive invasion of Transcaucasia which culminated in the taking of Derbent and Tbilisi see the Third Perso Turkic War for details In April 630 Tung s deputy Bori Shad sent the Gokturk cavalry to invade Armenia where his general Chorpan Tarkhan succeeded in routing a large Persian force Tung Yabghu s murder in 630 forced the Gokturks to evacuate Transcaucasia citation needed Western Turkic Khaganate was modernized through an administrative reform of Ashina clan reigned 634 639 and came to be known as the Onoq 61 The name refers to the ten arrows that were granted by the khagan to ten leaders shads of its two constituent tribal confederations the Duolu five churs and Nushibi five irkins whose lands were divided by the Chui River 61 The division fostered the growth of separatist tendencies Soon chieftain Kubrat of the Dulo clan whose relation ship with the Duolu is possible but not proven seceded from the Khaganate The Tang dynasty campaigned against the khaganate and its vassals the oasis states of the Tarim Basin The Tang campaign against Karakhoja in 640 led to the retreat of the Western Turks who were defeated during the Tang campaigns against Karasahr in 644 and the Tang campaign against Kucha in 648 62 63 leading to the 657 conquest of the Western Turks by the Tang general Su Dingfang 64 Emperor Taizong of Tang was proclaimed Khagan of the Gokturks In 657 the Tang emperor could impose indirect rule along the Silk Road as far as modern day Iran He installed two khagans to rule the ten arrows tribes of Gokturks Five arrows of Tulu 咄陆 were ruled by khagans bearing the title of Xingxiwang 興昔亡可汗 while five arrows of Nushipi 弩失畢可汗 were ruled by Jiwangjue 繼往絕可汗 Five Tulu corresponded to the area east of Lake Balkash while five arrows of Nushipi corresponded to the land east of the Aral Sea Gokturks now carried Chinese titles and fought by their side in their wars The era spanning from 657 to 699 in the steppes was characterized by numerous rulers weak divided and engaged in constant petty wars under the Anxi Protectorate until the rise of Turgesh Genetics EditA 2020 study analyzed genetic data from 7 early medieval Turk fossils from Eastern Turkic Khaganate burial sites in Mongolia 65 66 The authors described the Turk samples as highly diverse carrying on average 40 West Eurasian and 60 East Eurasian ancestry West Eurasian ancestry in the Turks combined Sarmatian related and BMAC ancestry while the East Eurasian ancestry was related to Ancient Northeast Asians The authors also observed that West Eurasian ancestry in the Turks was largely inherited from male ancestors which also corresponds with the marked increase of West Eurasian paternal haplogroups such as R and J during the Turkic period in Mongolia 67 Admixture between East and West Eurasian ancestors of the Turkic samples was dated to 500 CE or roughly 8 generations prior 68 The majority of the Turkic affiliated males carried the paternal haplogroups J2a and J1a while one belonged to R1a Z93 Two other males carried haplogroups C F3830 The maternal haplogroups were identified as D4 and D2 B4 C4 H1 and U7 69 The genetic profile of the Turkic princess Ashina 551 582 CE daughter of the third Khagan of the Gokturks Muqan Qaghan was sequenced and showed that she was genetically closely associated with the Ancient Northeast Asians 97 7 Northeast Asian ancestry and only 2 7 West Eurasian components This supports the Northeast Asian origin of the Ashina tribe and the Gokturk Khanate 70 Gallery Edit Statue of Niri Qaghan Xinjiang China Shahnameh illustration of Bahram Chobin fighting Bagha Qaghan Shahnameh illustration of Bahram Chobin and Bagha Qaghan fighting Ceramic figures of the Gokturks from the Tang Dynasty period Mongolia 7th century See also EditGokturk family tree Turks in the Tang military Horses in East Asian warfare Kangly Orkhon inscription Qaghans of the Turkic khaganates Timeline of the Turkic peoples 500 1300 AshideReferences Edit The tamga of the royal clan of the first Turkish empire was a neatly drawn lineal picture of an ibex Kljastornyj 1980 p 93 Haug Robert 27 June 2019 The Eastern Frontier Limits of Empire in Late Antique and Early Medieval Central Asia Bloomsbury Publishing p 65 ISBN 978 1 78831 722 1 The collapse of the Hephthalite domains made neighbours of the Turk Khaqanate and the Sasanian Empire both sharing a border that ran the length of the River Oxus Further Turkish expansion to the west and around the Caspian Sea saw them dominate the western steppes and its people and extend this frontier down to the Caucasus where they also shared a border with the Sasanians Khusrow is noted at the time for improving the fortifications on either side of the Caspian Bab al Abwab at Derbent and the Great Wall of Gorgan Sinor 1969 p 101 Peter Roudik 2007 The History of the Central Asian Republics p 24 a b Golden Peter B 2011 Central Asia in World History a b Roux 2000 p 79 Smirnova 1952 Vovin 2019 p 133 Turchin Peter Adams Jonathan M Hall Thomas D December 2006 East West Orientation of Historical Empires Journal of World Systems Research 12 2 222 ISSN 1076 156X Retrieved 16 September 2016 Taagepera Rein 1979 Size and Duration of Empires Growth Decline Curves 600 B C to 600 A D Social Science History 3 3 4 129 doi 10 2307 1170959 JSTOR 1170959 Luc Kwanten 1979 Imperial Nomads A History of Central Asia 500 1500 p 35 Tasagil Ahmet 2021 Turk Model Devleti Gok Turkler Bilge Kultur Sanat ISBN 9786059521598 Baratova 2005 West Barbara A 19 May 2010 Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Asia and Oceania Infobase Publishing p 829 ISBN 978 1 4381 1913 7 The first people to use the ethnonym Turk to refer to themselves were the Turuk people of the Gokturk Khanate in the mid sixth century Mouton 2002 Archivum Ottomanicum p 49 Sigfried J de Laet Joachim Herrmann 1996 History of Humanity From the seventh century B C to the seventh century A D p 478 馬長壽 突厥人和突厥汗國 上海人民出版社 1957 p 10 11 in Chinese 陳豐祥 余英時 中國通史 五南圖書出版股份有限公司 2002 ISBN 978 957 11 2881 8 p 155 in Chinese Gao Yang The Origin of the Turks and the Turkish Khanate X Turk Tarih Kongresi Ankara 22 26 Eylul 1986 Kongreye Sunulan Bildiriler V Cilt Turk Tarih Kurumu 1991 s 731 in English Burhan Oguz Turkiye halkinin kultur kokenleri Giris beslenme teknikleri Istanbul Matbaasi 1976 p 147 Demirci kole olmaktan kurtulup reisleri Bumin e in Turkish Larry W Moses Relations with the Inner Asian Barbarian ed John Curtis Perry Bardwell L Smith Essays on Tʻang society the interplay of social political and economic forces Brill Archive 1976 ISBN 978 90 04 04761 7 p 65 Slave probably meant vassalage to the Juan Juan Ruanruan or Rouran qaghan whom they the Turks served in battle by providing iron weapons and also marching with the qaghan s armies in English Denis Sinor Inner Asia history civilization languages a syllabus Routledge 1997 ISBN 978 0 7007 0380 7 p 26 Contacts had already begun in 545 A D between the so called blacksmith slave Turk and certain of the kingdoms of north China Denis Sinor ibid p 101 Beyond A na kui s disdainful reference to his blacksmith slaves there is ample evidence to show that the Turks were indeed specializing in metallurgy though it is difficult to establish whether they were miners or rather blacksmiths in English Nachaeva 2011 Baumer Christoph 18 April 2018 History of Central Asia The 4 volume set Bloomsbury Publishing p 228 ISBN 978 1 83860 868 2 a b Yatsenko Sergey A August 2009 Early Turks Male Costume in the Chinese Art Transoxiana 14 Linghu Defen et al Book of Zhou Vol 50 in Chinese Li Yanshou 李延寿 History of Northern Dynasties Vol 99 Sima Guang Zizhi Tongjian Vol 166 Grousset 1970 p 82 History and historiography of the Nomad Empires of Central Eurasia D Sinor Acta Orientalia Academiae Scientarum Hung 58 1 3 14 2005 Walter Pohl Die Awaren ein Steppenvolk im Mitteleuropa 567 822 n Chr C H Beck 2002 ISBN 978 3 406 48969 3 p 26 29 a b c Grousset 81 a b c d Qiang Li Kordosis Stefanos 2018 The Geopolitics on the Silk Road Resurveying the Relationship of the Western Turks with Byzantium through Their Diplomatic Communications Medieval Worlds medieval worlds Volume 8 2018 109 125 doi 10 1553 medievalworlds no8 2018s109 ISSN 2412 3196 a b Sinor Dennis 1996 The First Turk Empire 553 682 UNESCO pp 327 332 ISBN 978 92 3 103211 0 Retrieved 2022 01 23 Eliot C 1908 Turkey in Europe United Kingdom E Arnold Page 76 Whittow Mark 2018 04 26 Di Cosmo Nicola Maas Michael eds Byzantium s Eurasian Policy in the Age of the Turk Empire Empires and Exchanges in Eurasian Late Antiquity 1 ed Cambridge University Press pp 271 286 doi 10 1017 9781316146040 021 ISBN 978 1 316 14604 0 retrieved 2022 01 23 Mark Whittow directly suggests that this embassy reached an agreement for a joint attack on the Persians planned for 573 a b Menander Protector activeth century 1985 The history of Menander the Guardsman R C Blockley Liverpool Great Britain F Cairns pp 173 177 ISBN 0 905205 25 1 OCLC 14355502 Peter B Golden 2011 Central Asia in World History p 39 At a subsequent embassy Tardu yelled at Valentine in anger venting his rage saying Are you not those very Romans who use ten tongues and lie with all of them Maurice Strategikon ed Dennis and Gamillscheg 360 Maurice s Strategikon handbook of Byzantine military strategy Emperor of the East Maurice Orbicius George T Dennis Philadelphia 1984 p 116 ISBN 0 8122 7899 2 OCLC 9575024 They the Turks were superstitious treacherous foul faithless possessed by an insatiate desire for riches They scorn their oath do not observe agreements and are not satisfied by gifts Even before they accept the gift they are making plans for treachery and betrayal of their agreements They are clever at estimating suitable opportunities to do this and taking prompt advantage of them They prefer to prevail over their enemies not so much by force as by deceit surprise attacks and cutting off supplies a href Template Cite book html title Template Cite book cite book a CS1 maint others link ALTINKILIC Dr Arzu Emel 2020 Gokturk giyim kusaminin plastik sanatlarda degerlendirilmesi PDF Journal of Social and Humanities Sciences Research 1101 1110 Inagaki Hajime Galleries and Works of the MIHO MUSEUM Miho Museum p 121 panel 8 ALTINKILIC Dr Arzu Emel 2020 Gokturk giyim kusaminin plastik sanatlarda degerlendirilmesi PDF Journal of Social and Humanities Sciences Research 1101 1110 Narantsatsral D THE SILK ROAD CULTURE AND ANCIENT TURKISH WALL PAINTED TOMB PDF The Journal of International Civilization Studies Cosmo Nicola Di Maas Michael 26 April 2018 Empires and Exchanges in Eurasian Late Antiquity Rome China Iran and the Steppe ca 250 750 Cambridge University Press pp 350 354 ISBN 978 1 108 54810 6 Baumer Christoph 18 April 2018 History of Central Asia The 4 volume set Bloomsbury Publishing pp 185 186 ISBN 978 1 83860 868 2 a b Xiong 2006 pp 63 4 a b c d 武德九年 八月癸未 Academia Sinica Archived 2010 05 22 at the Wayback Machine in Chinese Sima Guang Zizhi Tongjian Vol 182 in Chinese 司 马光 1086 资治通鉴 卷第一百九十一 唐纪七 In 1086 the government of Emperor Shenzong of Song pp 资治通鉴 卷第一百九十一 唐纪七 上自出玄武门 与高士廉 房玄龄等立骑径诣渭水上 与颉利隔水而语 责以负约 突厥大惊 皆下马罗拜 俄而诸军继至 旌甲蔽野 颉利见执失思力不返 而上挺身轻出 军容甚盛 有惧色 上麾诸军使却而布陈 独留与颉利语 萧瑀以上轻敌 叩马固谏 上曰 吾筹之已熟 非卿所知 突厥所以敢倾国而来 直抵郊甸者 以我国内有难 朕新即位 谓我不能抗御故也 我若示之心弱 闭门拒守 虏必放兵大掠 不可复制 故朕轻骑独出 示若轻之 又震曜军容 使之必战 出虏不意 使之失图 虏入我地既深 必有惧心 故与战则克 与和则固矣 制服突厥 在此一举 卿第观之 刘 昫 945 旧唐书 本纪第二 Later Jin Shi Jingtang government pp 旧唐书 本纪第二 乙酉 又幸便桥 与颉利刑白马设盟 突厥引退 九月丙戌 颉利献马三千匹 羊万口 David Andrew Graff Medieval Chinese warfare 300 900 Routledge 2002 ISBN 978 0 415 23955 4 p 186 Ouyang Xiu New Book of Tang Vol 215 I in Chinese Liu 劉 Xu 昫 945 Old Book of Tang 舊唐書 Vol 194 amp Vol 195 Old Book of Tang Vol 3 in Chinese a b Ouyang Xiu et al New Book of Tang Vol 93 in Chinese a b Sima Guang Zizhi Tongjian Vol 193 in Chinese 貞觀四年 三月庚辰 Baumer Christoph 18 April 2018 History of Central Asia The 4 volume set Bloomsbury Publishing p 243 ISBN 978 1 83860 868 2 Grenet Frantz 2004 Maracanda Samarkand une metropole pre mongole Annales Histoire Sciences Sociales 5 6 Fig B a b Gumilev 238 Grousset 1970 pp 99 100 Wechsler 1979 pp 225 228 Skaff 2009 p 183 Jeong Choongwon 12 November 2020 A Dynamic 6 000 Year Genetic History of Eurasia s Eastern Steppe Cell 183 4 890 904 e29 doi 10 1016 j cell 2020 10 015 ISSN 0092 8674 Jeong 2020 Turk 550 750 CE Gokturkic tribes of the Altai Mountains established a political structure across Eurasia beginning in 552 CE with an empire that ruled over Mongolia from 581 742 CE Golden 1992 A brief period of disunion occurred between 659 682 CE during which the Chinese Tang dynasty laid claim over Mongolia We analyzed individuals from 5 Turk sites in this study Nomgonii Khundii NOM Shoroon Bumbagar Turkic mausoleum TUM Zaan Khoshuu ZAA Uliastai River Lower Terrace ULI and Umuumur uul UGU Jeong 2020 We observe a clear signal of male biased WSH admixture among the EIA Sagly Uyuk and during the Turkic period i e more positive Z scores Figure 5B which also corresponds to the decline in the Y chromosome lineage Q1a and the concomitant rise of the western Eurasian lineages such as R and J Figure S2A Jeong 2020 The admixture dates estimated for the ancient Turkic and Uyghur individuals in this study correspond to ca 500 CE 8 2 generations before the Turkic individuals and 12 2 generations before the Uyghur individuals represented by ZAA001 and Olon Dov individuals Jeong 2020 Table S2 S2C SexHaplogroups Supplementary Materials GUID E914F9CE 9ED4 4E0F 9172 5A54A08E9F6B Yang Xiaomin 2023 Ancient Genome of Empress Ashina reveals the Northeast Asian origin of Gokturk Khanate Journal of Systematics and Evolution doi 10 1111 jse 12938 In the principal component analysis PCA Figs 1B S3 the Ashina individual clustered with modern Tungusic and Mongolic speakers ancient populations from Northeast Asia and eastern Mongolia Plateau and especially with the Northeast Asian hunter gatherers previously referred to as Ancient Northeast Asian ANA that is DevilsCave N Mongolia N North Boisman MN AR EN Jeong et al 2020 Ning et al 2020 Wang et al 2021 as well as post Iron Age Eastern Steppe nomadic people including Xianbei Rouran Khitan and part of the Mongol population The shared genetic similarity between Ashina and Northeast Eurasians especially ANA was also evident in outgroup f3 statistics Fig S5A External links EditTurk BitigBibliography EditAsimov M S 1998 History of civilizations of Central Asia Volume IV The age of achievement A D 750 to the end of the fifteenth century Part One The historical social and economic setting UNESCO Publishing Baratova Larissa 2005 Turko Sogdian Coinage Encyclopedia Iranica Barfield Thomas 1989 The Perilous Frontier Nomadic Empires and China Basil Blackwell Benson Linda 1998 China s last Nomads the history and culture of China s Kazaks M E Sharpe Bregel Yuri 2003 An Historical Atlas of Central Asia Brill Bosworth Clifford Edmund 2000 The Age of Achievement A D 750 to the End of the Fifteenth Century Vol 4 Part II The Achievements History of Civilizations of Central Asia UNESCO Publishing Bughra Imin 1983 The history of East Turkestan Istanbul Istanbul publications Drompp Michael Robert 2005 Tang China And The Collapse Of The Uighur Empire A Documentary History Brill Golden Peter B 2011 Central Asia in World History Oxford University Press Grousset Rene 1970 The empire of the steppes a history of central Asia Rutgers University Press ISBN 978 0 8135 1304 1 Haywood John 1998 Historical Atlas of the Medieval World AD 600 1492 Barnes amp Noble Latourette Kenneth Scott 1964 The Chinese their history and culture Volumes 1 2 Macmillan Mackerras Colin 1990 Chapter 12 The Uighurs in Sinor Denis ed The Cambridge History of Early Inner Asia Cambridge University Press pp 317 342 ISBN 0 521 24304 1 Millward James A 2007 Eurasian Crossroads A History of Xinjiang Columbia University Press Mackerras Colin The Uighur Empire According to the T ang Dynastic Histories A Study in Sino Uighur Relations 744 840 Publisher Australian National University Press 1972 226 pages ISBN 0 7081 0457 6 Nachaeva Ekaterina 2011 The Runaway Avars and Late Antique Diplomacy In Ralph W Mathisen Danuta Shanzer eds Romans Barbarians and the Transformation of the Roman World Cultural Interaction and the Creation of Identity in Late Antiquity Ashgate Roux Jean Paul 2000 Histoire des Turcs in French Fayard Sinor Denis 1969 Inner Asia History Civilization Languages Indiana University Press Sinor Denis 1990 The Cambridge History of Early Inner Asia Cambridge University Press ISBN 978 0 521 24304 9 Skaff Jonathan Karem 2009 Nicola Di Cosmo ed Military Culture in Imperial China Harvard University Press ISBN 978 0 674 03109 8 Smirnova 1952 TURKO SOGDIAN COINAGE Encyclopaedia Iranica issues of the khaqans ḵaqans of the Western Turkic khanate in Central Asia between the 6th and 8th centuries CE so called because the Turkic rulers issued them with Sogdian inscriptions Vovin A 2019 Groping in the Dark The First Attempt to Interpret the Bugut Brahmi Inscription Journal Asiatique 307 1 121 134 Wechsler Howard J 1979 T ai Tsung Reign 626 49 The Consolidator In Denis Twitchett John Fairbank eds The Cambridge History of China Volume 3 Sui and T ang China Part I Cambridge University Press ISBN 978 0 521 21446 9 Xiong Victor Cunrui 2006 Emperor Yang of the Sui Dynasty His Life Times and Legacy Albany State University of New York Press ISBN 9780791482681 Xiong Victor 2008 Historical Dictionary of Medieval China United States of America Scarecrow Press Inc ISBN 978 0810860537 Xue Zongzheng 薛宗正 1992 Turkic peoples 突厥史 Beijing 中国社会科学出版社 ISBN 978 7 5004 0432 3 OCLC 28622013 Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title First Turkic Khaganate amp oldid 1155341666, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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