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Tiger

April 11, 2024

"Tigress" redirects here. For other uses, see Tiger (disambiguation) and Tigress (disambiguation).

The tiger (Panthera tigris) is the largest living cat species and a member of the genus Panthera. It has a powerful, muscular body with a large head and paws, a long tail, and distinctive black, mostly vertical stripes on orange fur. It was first scientifically described in 1758 and is traditionally classified into eight subspecies though some recognize only two subspecies, mainland Asian tigers and island tigers of the Sunda Islands.

Tiger
Temporal range: Early Pleistocene – Present
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A Bengal tigress in Kanha Tiger Reserve, India
CITES Appendix I (CITES)[1]
Scientific classification
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Mammalia
Order: Carnivora
Suborder: Feliformia
Family: Felidae
Subfamily: Pantherinae
Genus: Panthera
Species:
P. tigris
Binomial name
Panthera tigris
(Linnaeus, 1758)[2]
Subspecies
Tiger distribution as of 2022
Synonyms[3]

Throughout the tiger's range, it inhabits mainly forests, from coniferous and temperate broadleaf and mixed forests in the Russian Far East and Northeast China to tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests on the Indian subcontinent and Southeast Asia. The tiger is an apex predator and preys mainly on ungulates such as deer and wild boar, which it takes by ambush. It lives largely a solitary life and occupies home ranges, which it defends from individuals of the same sex. The range of a male tiger overlaps with that of multiple females with which he has reproductive claims to. Females give birth to usually two or three cubs that stay with their mother for about two years. When becoming independent, they leave their mother's home range and establish their own.

Since the early 20th century, tiger populations have lost at least 93% of their historic range and are locally extinct in West and Central Asia, in large areas of China and on the islands of Java and Bali. Today, the tiger’s range is severely fragmented. The species is listed as Endangered on the IUCN Red List, as its range is thought to have declined by 53% to 68% since the late 1990s. Major reasons for this decline are habitat destruction and habitat fragmentation due to deforestation, and poaching for meat and illegal trade of tiger body parts for medicinal purposes. Tigers are also victims of human–wildlife conflict, due to encroachment in countries with a high human population density. Tigers sometimes attack and even prey on people.

The tiger is among the most recognisable and popular of the world's charismatic megafauna. It has been kept in captivity since ancient times, and has been trained to perform in circuses and other entertainment shows. The species has been popular in the exotic pet trade. The tiger featured prominently in the ancient mythology and folklore of cultures throughout its historic range and has continued to appear in culture worldwide.

Etymology

The Old English tigras derives from Old French tigre, from Latin tigris. This was a borrowing of Classical Greek τίγρις 'tigris'.[4][5] The ultimate origin of the word is uncertain.[6] Ancient Greek geographer Strabo suggested an Armenian origin.[7] One popular idea, believed in the 16th and 17th centuries, is tiger was a transliteration of the Middle Persian tigr, meaning 'arrow', from which the name of the river Tigris may also have been derived. Thus, the animal and the river may have both been associated with speed. The connection between the two words is doubted in modern times, and they are likely to be Latin homonyms.[6]

Taxonomy

In 1758, Carl Linnaeus described the tiger in his work Systema Naturae and gave it the scientific name Felis tigris.[2] In 1929, the British taxonomist Reginald Innes Pocock subordinated the species under the genus Panthera using the scientific name Panthera tigris.[8][9]

Subspecies

Following Linnaeus's first descriptions of the species, several tiger zoological specimens were described and proposed as subspecies.[10] The validity of several tiger subspecies was questioned in 1999. Most putative subspecies described in the 19th and 20th centuries were distinguished on the basis of fur length and colouration, striping patterns and body size, hence characteristics that vary widely within populations. Morphologically, tigers from different regions vary little, and gene flow between populations in those regions is considered to have been possible during the Pleistocene. Therefore, it was proposed to recognize only two tiger subspecies as valid, namely P. t. tigris in mainland Asia, and P. t. sondaica in the Greater Sunda Islands. Mainland tigers are described as being larger in size with generally lighter fur and fewer stripes, while island tigers are smaller due to insular dwarfism, with darker coats and more numerous stripes.[11] The stripes of island tigers may break up into spotted patterns.[12]

This two-subspecies proposal was reaffirmed in 2015 by a comprehensive analysis of morphological, ecological and molecular traits of all putative tiger subspecies using a combined approach. The authors proposed recognition of only two subspecies, namely P. t. tigris comprising the Bengal, Malayan, Indochinese, South Chinese, Siberian and Caspian tiger populations of continental Asia, and P. t. sondaica comprising the Javan, Bali and Sumatran tiger populations of the Sunda Islands. The continental nominate subspecies P. t. tigris constitutes two clades: a northern clade composed of the Siberian and Caspian tiger populations, and a southern clade composed of all other mainland populations. The authors noted that this two-subspecies reclassification will impact tiger conservation management.[13] It would make captive breeding programs and future re-wilding of zoo-born tigers easier, as one tiger population could then be used to reinforce another. However, there is the risk that the loss of subspecies uniqueness could lead to less protection efforts for specific populations.[14]

In 2017, the Cat Classification Task Force of the IUCN Cat Specialist Group revised felid taxonomy in accordance with the two-subspecies proposal of the comprehensive 2015 study, and recognized the tiger populations in continental Asia as P. t. tigris, and those in the Sunda Islands as P. t. sondaica.[15] This two-subspecies view is still disputed by researchers, since the currently recognized six living subspecies can be distinguished genetically.[14] Results of a 2018 whole-genome sequencing of 32 samples support six monophyletic tiger clades corresponding with the six living proposed subspecies and indicate they descended from a common ancestor around 110,000 years ago.[16] Studies in 2021 and 2023 also affirmed the genetic distinctiveness and separation of these tigers.[17][18]

The following tables are based on the classification of the species Panthera tigris provided in Mammal Species of the World,[10] and also reflect the classification used by the Cat Classification Task Force in 2017:[15]

Panthera tigris tigris (Linnaeus, 1758)[2]
Populations Description Image
Bengal tiger This tiger inhabits the Indian subcontinent.[19] Linnaeus's scientific description of the tiger was based on descriptions by earlier naturalists such as Conrad Gessner and Ulisse Aldrovandi.[2] Bengal tiger skins in the collection of the Natural History Museum, London were described as bright orange-red with shorter fur and more spaced out stripes than northern-living tigers like the Siberian tiger.[9]  
†Caspian tiger formerly P. t. virgata (Illiger, 1815)[20] This population lived in west-central Asia, reach as far west as Turkey.[19] Illiger's description was not based on a particular specimen, but he only assumed that tigers in the Caspian area differ from those elsewhere.[20] It was later described having a bright rusty-red coat with thin and closely spaced brownish stripes,[21] and a broad occipital bone.[11] According to genetic analysis, it was closely related to the Siberian tiger.[22] It went extinct in the 1970s.[23]  
Siberian tiger formerly P. t. altaica (Temminck, 1844)[24] The cat is found in the Russian Far East, Northeast China and possibly North Korea.[19] Temminck's description was based on an unspecified number of tiger skins with long hairs and dense coats that were traded between Korea and Japan. He assumed they originated in the Altai Mountains.[24] The Siberian tiger was later described as having pale coats with few dark brown stripes.[25] The lighter colouration may be due to longer exposure to sunlight during the summer. A Siberian tiger's coat becomes darker after molting.[11] The skull is described as shorter and broader then southern-living tigers.[26]  
South China tiger formerly P. t. amoyensis (Hilzheimer, 1905)[27] This tiger historically lived in south-central China.[19] Hilzheimer's description was based on five tiger skulls purchased in Hankou, China. These skulls had shorter carnassials and molars than tigers from India with, a smaller cranium, orbits set closer together and larger postorbital processes. Skins of this tiger were described as being yellowish in colour with rhombus-like stripes.[27] It was noted to have a unique mtDNA haplotype.[15] This tiger may be extinct in wild as there has not been a confirmed sighting since the 1970s.[1]  
Indochinese tiger formerly P. t. corbetti Mazák, 1968[28] The tiger is found on the Indochinese Peninsula.[19] Mazák's description was based on 25 specimens in museum collections that were smaller than tigers from India and had smaller skulls.[28] It was also said to have a darker coat than the Bengal tiger with more stripes; the stripes being narrower and having less "double stripes".[29]  
Malayan tiger formerly P. t. jacksoni Luo et al., 2004[30] It was proposed as a distinct subspecies on the basis of mtDNA and micro-satellite sequences that differ from the Indochinese tiger.[30] In pelage colour or skull size, it does not differ significantly from Indochinese tigers.[29] There is no clear geographical barrier between tiger populations in northern Malaysia and southern Thailand.[1]  
Panthera tigris sondaica (Temminck, 1844)[15]
Populations Description Image
†Javan tiger formerly P. t. sondaica (Temminck, 1944)[24] Temminck based his description on an unspecified number of tiger skins with short and smooth hair.[24] Tigers from Java were small compared to tigers of the Asian mainland. The skull was relatively elongated and, compared to the Sumatran tiger, the stripes were longer, thinner and slightly greater in number.[29] The Javan tiger is thought to have gone extinct by the 1980s.[23] A hair found in 2019 on a fence in South Sukabumi, West Java, was found to be genetically similar to hairs of zoological specimens of the Javan tiger in 2022.[31]  
†Bali tiger formerly P. t. balica (Schwarz, 1912)[32] Schwarz based his description on a skin and a skull of an adult female tiger from Bali. He argued that its fur colour is brighter and its skull smaller than of tigers from Java.[32][33] A typical feature of Bali tiger skulls is the narrow occipital plane, which is similar to Javan tigers.[34] The tiger went extinct in the 1940s.[23]  
Sumatran tiger formerly P. t. sumatrae Pocock, 1929[35] Pocock described a dark skin of a tiger from Sumatra as the type specimen.[35] It has broader and smaller nasal region than other island tigers[26][29] with many thick stripes.[29] This tiger has particularly long hairs around the face.[19]  

Evolution

 
Two cladograms proposed for Panthera. The upper cladogram is based on two studies published in 2006 and 2009,[36][37] the lower one is based on studies published in 2010 and 2011.[38][39]

The tiger shares the genus Panthera with the lion, leopard, jaguar and snow leopard. Results of genetic analysis indicate that the tiger and snow leopard are sister species and about 2.88 million years ago, the tiger and the snow leopard lineages diverged from the other Panthera species.[36][40]

The fossil species Panthera palaeosinensis of early Pleistocene northern China was described as a possible tiger ancestor when it was discovered in 1924, but modern cladistics place it as basal to modern Panthera.[41][39] Panthera zdanskyi, which lived around the same time and place, was suggested to be a sister taxon of the modern tiger when it was examined in 2014.[39] However, as of 2023, at least two recent studies considered P. zdanskyi likely to be a synonym of P. palaeosinensis, noting that its proposed differences from that species fell within the range of individual variation.[42][43] The earliest appearance of the modern tiger species in the fossil record are jaw fragments from Lantion in China that are dated to the early Pleistocene.[39] Middle to late Pleistocene tiger fossils were found throughout China, Sumatra and Java. Prehistoric subspecies include Panthera tigris trinilensis and P. t. soloensis of Java and Sumatra, and P. t. acutidens of China; late Pleistocene and early Holocene fossils of tigers were also found in Borneo and Palawan, Philippines.[44]

Results of a phylogeographic study indicate that all living tigers had a common ancestor 108,000 to 72,000 years ago.[30] A 2022 paleogenomic study of a Pleistocene tiger basal to living tigers concluded that modern tiger populations spread across Asia no earlier than 94,000 years ago. There is evidence of interbreeding between the lineage of modern mainland tigers and these ancient tigers.[45] The potential tiger range during the late Pleistocene and Holocene was predicted applying ecological niche modelling based on more than 500 tiger locality records combined with bioclimatic data. The resulting model shows a contiguous tiger range at the Last Glacial Maximum, indicating gene flow between tiger populations in mainland Asia. The tiger populations on the Sunda Islands and mainland Asia were possibly separated during interglacial periods.[46]

The tiger's full genome sequence was published in 2013. It was found to have repeat compositions much as other cat genomes and "an appreciably conserved synteny".[47]

Hybrids

Further information: Felid hybrid and Panthera hybrid

Captive tigers were bred with lions to create hybrids called liger and tigon. The former born to a female tiger and male lion and the latter the result of a male tiger and female lion. They share physical and behavioural qualities of both parent species.[48] Because the lion sire passes on a growth-promoting gene, but the corresponding growth-inhibiting gene from the female tiger is absent, ligers grow far larger than either parent species. By contrast, the male tiger does not pass on a growth-promoting gene and the lioness passes on a growth inhibiting gene, hence tigons are around the same size as either species.[49] Breeding hybrids is now discouraged due to the emphasis on conservation.[48]

Characteristics

 
Siberian tiger in Aalborg Zoo, Denmark
 
Bengal tiger skeleton on display at the Museum of Osteology

The tiger is considered to be the largest living felid species.[12] However, there is some debate over averages compared to the lion. Since tiger populations vary greatly in size, the "average" size for a tiger may be less than a lion, while the biggest tigers are bigger than their lion counterparts.[44] The Siberian and Bengal tigers, along with the extinct Caspian are considered to be the largest of the species.[12] Bengal tigers average a total length of 3 m (9.8 ft), with males weighing 200–260 kg (440–570 lb) and females weighing 100–160 kg (220–350 lb).[50] Island tigers are the smallest, the Sumatran tigers have a total length of 2.2–2.5 m (7 ft 3 in – 8 ft 2 in) with a weight of 100–140 kg (220–310 lb) for males and 75–110 kg (165–243 lb) for females.[50] The extinct Bali tiger was even smaller.[12] It has been hypothesised that body sizes of different tiger populations may be correlated with climate and be explained by thermoregulation and Bergmann's rule.[12][11]

The tiger has a typical felid morphology. It has a muscular body with shortened legs, strong forelimbs, broad paws, a large head and a tail that is about half the length of the rest of its body.[12][51] There are five digits on the front feet and four on the back, all of which have retractable claws which are compact and curved. The ears are rounded, while the eyes have a round pupil.[12] The tiger's skull is large and robust, with a constricted front region, proportionally small, elliptical orbits, long nasal bones, and a lengthened cranium with a large sagittal crest.[52][12] It resembles a lion's skull; with the structure of the lower jaw and length of the nasals being the most reliable indicators for species identification.[52] The tiger has fairly robust teeth and its somewhat curved canines are the longest in the cat family at 6.4–7.6 cm (2.5–3.0 in).[12][53]

Coat

 
Tiger coat

A tiger's coat is generally coarse and relatively thin, though the Siberian tiger has a thick winter coat.[12][54] It has a mane-like heavy growth of fur around the neck and jaws and long whiskers, especially in males.[12] Its colouration is generally orange, but can vary from light yellow to dark red.[12][44][55] White fur covers the ventral surface, along with parts of the face.[12][56] It also has a prominent white spot on the back of their ears which are surrounded by black.[12] The tiger is marked with distinctive black or dark brown stripes; the patterns of which are unique in each individual.[12][57] The stripes are mostly vertical, but those on the limbs and forehead are horizonal. They are more concentrated towards the posterior and those on the trunk may or may not reach under the belly. The tips of stripes are generally sharp and some may split up or split and fuse again. Tail stripes are thick bands and a black tip marks the end.[58]

Stripes are likely advantageous for camouflage in vegetation with vertical patterns of light and shade, such as trees, reeds and tall grass.[57][59] This is supported by a 1987 Fourier analysis study which concluded that the spatial frequencies of tiger stripes line up with their environment.[60] The tiger is one of only a few striped cat species; it is not known why spotted patterns and rosettes are the more common camouflage pattern among felids.[61] The orange colour may also aid in concealment as the tiger's prey are dichromats, and thus may perceive the cat as green and blended in with the vegetation.[62] The white dots on the ear may play a role in communication.[12]

Colour variations

 
Pseudo-melanistic white tiger

The three colour variants nearly stripeless snow white, white and golden are now virtually non-existent in the wild due to the reduction of wild tiger populations, but continue in captive populations. The white tiger has a white background colour with sepia-brown stripes. The golden tiger is pale golden with reddish-brown stripes. The snow white tiger is a morph with extremely faint stripes and a pale reddish-brown ringed tail. White and golden morphs are the result of an autosomal recessive trait with a white locus and a wideband locus respectively. The snow white variation is caused by polygenes with both white and wideband loci.[63] The breeding of white tigers is controversial, as they have no use for conservation. Only 0.001% of wild tigers have the genes for this colour morph, and the overrepresentation of white tigers in captivity is the result of inbreeding. Hence their continued breeding will risk both inbreeding depression and loss of genetic variability in captive tigers.[64]

Pseudo-melanistic tigers with thick, merged stripes have been recorded in Simlipal National Park and three Indian zoos; population genetic analysis of Indian tiger samples revealed that this phenotype is caused by a mutation of a transmembrane aminopeptidase gene. Around 37% of the Simlipal tiger population has this feature, which has been linked to genetic isolation.[65]

Distribution and habitat

 
A tiger in the Sundarbans

The tiger historically ranged from eastern Turkey and northern Afghanistan to Indochina, and from southeastern Siberia to Sumatra, Java and Bali.[12] As of 2022, it inhabits less than 7% of its historical distribution, and has a scattered range that includes the Indian subcontinent, the Indochinese Peninsula, Sumatra, the Russian Far East and northeastern China.[1] As of 2020, India had the largest extent of global tiger habitat with 300,508 km2 (116,027 sq mi), followed by Russia with 195,819 km2 (75,606 sq mi).[66]

The tiger mainly lives in forest habitats and is highly adaptable.[50] Records in Central Asia indicate that it occurred foremost in Tugay riverine forests and inhabited hilly and lowland forests in the Caucasus.[67] In the Amur-Ussuri region, it inhabits Korean pine and temperate broadleaf and mixed forests; riparian forests serve as dispersal corridors, providing food and water for both tiger and ungulates.[68] On the Indian subcontinent, it inhabits mainly tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests, moist evergreen forests, tropical dry forests, alluvial plains and the mangrove forests of the Sundarbans.[69] In the Eastern Himalayas, tigers were documented in temperate forest up to an elevation of 4,200 m (13,800 ft) in Bhutan, of 3,630 m (11,910 ft) in the Mishmi Hills, and of 3,139 m (10,299 ft) in Mêdog County, southeastern Tibet.[70][71][72] In Thailand, it lives in deciduous and evergreen forests.[73] In Sumatra, tigers range from lowland peat swamp forests to rugged montane forests.[74]

In northern Myanmar, the tiger population density in a sampled area of roughly 3,250 km2 (1,250 sq mi) in a mosaic of tropical broadleaf forest and grassland was estimated to be 0.21–0.44 tigers per 100 km2 (39 sq mi) as of 2009.[75] Tiger population density in dipterocarp and montane forests in northern Malaysia was estimated at 1.47–2.43 adult tigers per 100 km2 (39 sq mi) in Royal Belum State Park and 0.3–0.92 adult tigers per 100 km2 (39 sq mi) in Temengor Forest Reserve.[76] Camera trapping in the deciduous and subtropical pine forest of Jim Corbett National Park revealed a stable population density of 12–17 tigers per 100 km2 (39 sq mi) during 2010–2015 in an area of 521 km2 (201 sq mi).[77]

Behaviour and ecology

 
Tiger bathing

Camera trap data show that tigers in Chitwan National Park avoided locations frequented by people and were more active at night than by day.[78] In Sundarbans National Park, six radio-collared tigers were most active in the early morning with a peak around dawn and moved an average distance of 4.6 km (2.9 mi) per day.[79] A three-year long camera trap survey in Shuklaphanta National Park revealed that tigers were most active from dusk until midnight.[80] In northeastern China, tigers were crepuscular and active at night with activity peaking at dawn and at dusk; they exhibited a high temporal overlap with ungulate species.[81]

As with other felid species, tigers groom themselves, maintaining their coats by licking them and spreading oil from their sebaceous glands.[82] It will take to water, particularly on hot days. It is a powerful swimmer and easily transverses across rivers as wide as 8 km (5.0 mi).[57] Adults only occasionally climbs trees, but have been recorded climbing 10 m (33 ft) up a smooth pipal tree.[12] In general, tigers are less capable tree climbers than many other cats due to their size, but cubs under 16 months old may routinely do so.[83]

Social spacing

Adult tigers lead largely solitary lives. They establish and maintain home ranges or territories, the size of which mainly depends on prey abundance, geographic area and sex of the individual. Males and females defend their home ranges from those of the same sex.[12][57] Male home ranges overlap with those of up to five females.[84] Two females in the Sundarbans had home ranges of 10.6 and 14.1 km2 (4.1 and 5.4 sq mi).[85] In Panna Tiger Reserve, the home ranges of five reintroduced females varied from 53–67 km2 (20–26 sq mi) in winter to 55–60 km2 (21–23 sq mi) in summer and to 46–94 km2 (18–36 sq mi) during monsoon; three males had 84–147 km2 (32–57 sq mi) large home ranges in winter, 82–98 km2 (32–38 sq mi) in summer and 81–118 km2 (31–46 sq mi) during monsoon seasons.[86] The home range of a male tiger at an elevation of 1,200–4,300 m (3,900–14,100 ft) in Jigme Dorji National Park was estimated at 151.06 km2 (58.32 sq mi) and of a female at 90.34 km2 (34.88 sq mi); their home ranges overlapped entirely.[87] In Huai Kha Khaeng Wildlife Sanctuary, seven resident females had home ranges of 44.1–122.3 km2 (17.0–47.2 sq mi) and four resident males of 174.8–417.5 km2 (67.5–161.2 sq mi).[88] Four male problem tigers in Sumatra were translocated to national parks and needed 6–17 weeks to establish new home ranges of 37.5–188.1 km2 (14.5–72.6 sq mi).[89] In Sikhote-Alin Biosphere Reserve, five resident males had home ranges of 847–1,923 km2 (327–742 sq mi); the home ranges of 14 females were significantly smaller with 248–520 km2 (96–201 sq mi).[84] Ten solitary females in the same reserve had home ranges of 335.9–491.1 km2 (129.7–189.6 sq mi); when they had cubs of up to four months of age, their home ranges declined to 123.8–230.8 km2 (47.8–89.1 sq mi) and steadily grew to 298.2–508.4 km2 (115.1–196.3 sq mi) until the cubs were 13–18 months old.[90]

 
Tiger rubbing against tree to mark territory

The tiger is a long-ranging species, and individuals disperse over distances of up to 650 km (400 mi) to reach tiger populations in other areas.[91] Young tigresses establish their first home ranges close to their mother's. Males, however, migrate further than their female counterparts and set out at a younger age to mark out their own area.[92] Four radio-collared females in Chitwan dispersed between 0 and 43.2 km (0.0 and 26.8 mi), and 10 males between 9.5 and 65.7 km (5.9 and 40.8 mi).[93] A young male may have to live as a transient in another male's home range until he is older and strong enough to challenge the resident male. Young males thus have an annual mortality rate of up to 35%. By contrast, young female tigers die at a rate of only around 5%.[92] Tigers mark their home ranges by spraying urine on vegetation and rocks, clawing or scent rubbing trees, and marking trails with feces, anal gland secretions and ground scrapings.[57][94][95][96] Scent markings also allow an individual to pick up information on another's identity. A tigress in oestrus will signal her availability by scent marking more frequently and increasing her vocalisations. Unclaimed home ranges, particularly those that belonged to a decreased individual, can be taken over in days or weeks.[57]

Male tigers are generally less tolerant of other males within their home ranges than females are of other females. Disputes are usually solved by intimidation rather than outright violence. Once dominance has been established, a male may tolerate a subordinate within his range, as long as they do not live in too close quarters. The most serious disputes tend to occur between two males competing for a female in oestrus.[97] Though tigers mostly live alone, relationships between individuals can be complex. Tigers are particularly social at kills, and a male tiger will share a carcass with the females and cubs within this home range and unlike male lions, will allow them to feed on the kill before he is finished with it. Though the female and male act amicably, females are more tense towards each other at a kill.[98][99]

Communication

 
Tiger baring teeth as a sign of aggression
Captive tiger roaring

During friendly encounters and bonding, tigers rub against each others' bodies.[100] Facial expressions include the "defense threat", which involves a wrinkled face, bared teeth, pulled-back ears, and widened pupils.[100][12] Both males and females show a flehmen response, a characteristic grimace, when sniffing urine markings. Males also use the flehman to detect the markings made by tigresses in oestrus.[12] Tigers also use their tails to signal their mood. To show cordiality, the tail sticks up and sways slowly, while an apprehensive tiger lowers its tail or wags it side-to-side. When calm, the tail hangs low.[101]

Tigers are normally silent but can produce numerous vocalisations.[102][103] They roar to signal their presence to other individuals over long distances. This vocalisation is forced through an open mouth as it closes and can be heard 3 km (1.9 mi) away. A tiger may roar three or four times in a row, and others may respond in kind. Tigers also roar during mating, and a mother will roar to call her cubs to her. When tense, tigers will moan, a sound similar to a roar but softer and made when the mouth is at least partially closed. Moaning can be heard 400 m (1,300 ft) away.[12][104]

Aggressive encounters involve growling, snarling and hissing.[105] An explosive "coughing roar" or "coughing snarl" is emitted through an open mouth and exposed teeth.[12][105][106] Chuffing—soft, low-frequency snorting similar to purring in smaller cats—is heard in more friendly situations.[107] Mother tigers communicate with their cubs by grunting, while cubs call back with miaows.[108] A "woof" sound is produced when the animal is startled. It has also been recording emitting a deer-like "pok" sound for unknown reasons, but most often at kills.[109][110]

Hunting and diet

 
Tiger attacking a sambar deer in Ranthambore Tiger Reserve

The tiger is a carnivore and an apex predator feeding mainly on ungulates, with a particular preference for sambar deer, Manchurian wapiti, barasingha and wild boar. Tigers kill larger prey like gaur,[111] but opportunistically kill much smaller prey like monkeys, peafowl and other ground-based birds, porcupines and fish.[12][57] Tiger attacks on adult Asian elephants and Indian rhinoceros have also been reported.[112][113][114] More often, tigers take the more vulnerable small calves.[115] When in close proximity to humans, tigers sometimes prey on domestic livestock and dogs.[12] Tigers occasionally consume vegetation, fruit and minerals for dietary fibre.[116]

Tigers learn to hunt from their mothers, which is important but not necessary for their success.[117] Depending on the prey, a tiger typically kills weekly though mothers must kill more often.[50] They usually hunt alone, but families hunt together when cubs are old enough.[118] A tiger travels up to 19.3 km (12.0 mi) per day in search of prey, using vision and hearing to find a target.[119] It also waits at a watering hole for prey to come by, particularly during hot summer days.[120][121] It is an ambush predator and when approaching potential prey, the tiger crouches, with head lowered, and hides in foliage. It switches between creeping forward and staying still. Tigers have been recorded dozing off while in still mode, and can stay in the same spot for as long as a day waiting for prey and launches an attack, when the prey is close enough,[122] usually within 30 m (98 ft).[50] If the prey spots it before then, the cat does not pursue further.[120] Tigers can sprint 56 km/h (35 mph) and leap 10 m (33 ft);[123][124] they are not long distance runners and give up a chase if prey outpaces them over a certain distance.[120]

 
Two tigers working together to kill a wild boar in Kanha Tiger Reserve

The tiger attacks from behind or at the sides and tries to knock the target off balance. It latches onto prey with its forelimbs, twisting and turning during the struggle. The tiger generally applies a bite to the throat until its target dies of strangulation.[12][125][126] It has an average bite force at the canine tips of 1234.3 Newton.[127] Holding onto the throat puts the cat out of reach of the horns, antlers, tusks and hooves.[125][128] Tigers are adaptable killers and may use other methods, including ripping the throat or breaking the neck. Large prey may be disabled by a bite to the back of the hock, severing the tendon. Swipes from the large paws are capable of stunning or breaking the skull of a water buffalo.[129] They kill small prey with a bite to the back of the neck or skull.[130][50] Estimates of the success rate for hunting tigers ranges from a low 5% to a high of 50%. They are sometimes killed or injured by large or dangerous prey like gaur, buffalo and boar.[50]

The tiger typically moves its kill to a private, usually vegetated spot no further than 183 m (600 ft), though they have been recorded dragging it 549 m (1,801 ft). The tiger has the strength to drag the carcass of a fully grown buffalo for some distance, a feat three men struggle with. It rests for a while before eating and can consume as much as 50 kg (110 lb) of meat in one session, but feeds on a carcass for several days, leaving very little for scavengers.[131]

Enemies and competitors

 
An 1807 illustration of dholes attacking a tiger

Tigers may kill and even prey on other predators they coexist with.[132] In much of their range, tigers share habitat with leopards and dholes. They typically dominate both of them, though large packs of dholes can drive away a tiger,[133] or even kill it.[134] Tigers appear to inhabit the deep parts of a forest while these smaller predators are pushed closer to the fringes.[135] The three predators coexist by hunting different prey.[136] In one study, tigers were found to have killed prey that weighed an average of 91.5 kg (202 lb), in contrast to 37.6 kg (83 lb) for the leopard and 43.4 kg (96 lb) for the dhole.[137] Leopards can live successfully in tiger habitat when there is abundant food and vegetation cover, and there is no evidence of competitive exclusion.[136] Nevertheless, leopards avoid areas were tigers roam and are less common where tigers are numerous.[132][138][139]

Tigers tend to be wary of sloth bears, with their sharp claws, quickness and ability to stand on two legs. Tiger do sometimes prey on sloth bears by ambushing them when they are feeding at termite mounds.[140] Siberian tigers may attack, kill and prey on Ussuri brown and black bears.[12] In turn, some studies show that brown bears frequently track down tigers to usurp their kills, with occasional fatal outcomes for the tiger.[141][142][143]

Reproduction and life cycle

"Tiger cub" redirects here. For other uses, see Tiger Cub.
 
A tiger family in Kanha Tiger Reserve

The tiger mates all year round, but most cubs are born between March and June, with another peak in September.[144] A tigress is in oestrus for three to six days, inbetween three to nine week intervals.[12] A resident male mates with all the females within his home range, who signal their receptiveness by roaring and marking.[145][146] Younger, transient males are also attracted, leading to a fight in which the more dominant male drives the usurper off.[144][145] During courtship, the male is cautious with the female as he waits for her to show signs she is ready to mate. She signals to him by positioning herself in lordosis with their tail to the side. Copulation is generally 20 to 25 seconds long, with the male biting the female by the scruff of her neck. After it is finished, the male quickly pulls away as the female may turn and slap him.[145] Tiger pairs may stay together for up to four days and mate multiple times.[147] Gestation ranges from 93 to 114 days, with an average of 103 to 105 days.[144]

A tigress gives birth in a secluded location, be it in dense vegetation, in a cave or under a rocky shelter.[148] Litters consist of as many as seven cubs, but two or three are more typical.[144][148] Newborn cubs weigh 785–1,610 g (27.7–56.8 oz), and are blind and altricial.[148] The mother licks and cleans her cubs, suckles them and viscously defends them from any potential threat.[144] She will only leave them alone to hunt, and even then does not travel far.[149] When a mother suspects an area is no longer safe, she moves her cubs to a new spot, transporting them one by one by grabbing them by the scruff of the neck with her mouth. The mortality rate for tiger cubs can reach 50% during these early months, causes of death include predators like dholes, leopards and pythons.[150] Young are able to see in a week, can leave the denning site in two months and around the same time they start eating meat.[144][151]

 
A tigress with her cub at Buffalo Zoo

After around two months, the cubs are able to follow their mother. They still hide in vegetation when she goes hunting, and she will guide them to the kill. Cubs bond though play fighting and practice stalking. A hierarchy develops in the litter, with the biggest cub, often a male, being the most dominant and the first to eat its fill at a kill.[152] Around the age of six months, cubs are fully weaned and have more freedom to explore their environment. Between eight and ten months, they accompany their mother on hunts.[150] A cub can make a kill as early as 11 months, and reach independence around 18 to 24 months of age, males becoming independent earlier than females.[153] Radio-collared tigers in Chitwan started dispersing from their natal areas earliest at the age of 19 months.[93] Young females are sexual mature at three to four years, whereas males are at four to five years. Tigers may live up to 26 years.[12]

The male does not play a role in raising the young, but may encounter and interact with them. The resident male appears to visit the female-cub families within his home range. They socialise and even share kills.[154][155] One male was recorded looking after orphaned cubs whose mother had died.[156] By defending his home range, the male protects the females and cubs from other males.[157] When a new male takes over, dependent cubs are at risk of being killed, as the male would want to sire his own young with the females. Older female cubs are tolerated but males are treated as potential competitors.[158]

Threats

 
A hunting party poses with a killed Javan tiger in West Java, 1941

The tiger has been listed as Endangered on the IUCN Red List since 1986, as the global tiger population is thought to have continuously declined from an estimated population of 5,000–8,262 tigers in the late 1990s to 3,726–5,578 individuals estimated as of 2022.[1] During 2001–2020, landscapes where tigers live declined from 1,025,488 km2 (395,943 sq mi) to 911,901 km2 (352,087 sq mi).[66]Habitat destruction, habitat fragmentation and poaching for fur and body parts are the major threats, which contributed to the decrease of tiger populations in all range countries.[1]

Protected areas in central India are highly fragmented due to linear infrastructure like roads, railway lines, transmission lines, irrigation channels and mining activities in their vicinity.[159] In the Tanintharyi Region of southern Myanmar, deforestation coupled with mining activities and a high hunting pressure threatens the tiger population in the area.[160] In Thailand, nine of 15 protected areas hosting tigers are isolated and fragmented offering a low probability for dispersal between them; and four of these do not harbour tigers any more at least since 2013.[161] In Peninsular Malaysia, an area of 8,315.7 km2 (3,210.7 sq mi) tiger habitat was cleared during 1988–2012, most of it for industrial plantations.[162] Large-scale land acquisitions of about 23,000 km2 (8,900 sq mi) for commercial agriculture and timber extraction in Cambodia contributed to the fragmentation of potential tiger habitat, especially in the Eastern Plains.[163] In China, tigers became the target of large-scale 'anti-pest' campaigns in the early 1950s, where suitable habitats were fragmented following deforestation and resettlement of people to rural areas, who hunted tigers and prey species. Though tiger hunting was prohibited in 1977, the population continued to decline and is considered extinct in South China since 2001.[164][165]

 
A Sumatran tiger skin

Tiger populations in India have been targeted by poachers since the 1990s and were extirpated in two tiger reserves in 2005 and 2009.[166] Between March 2017 and January 2020, 630 activities of hunters using snares, drift nets, hunting platforms and hunting dogs were discovered in a reserve forest of about 1,000 km2 (390 sq mi) in southern Myanmar.[167]Nam Et-Phou Louey National Park was considered the last important site for the tiger in Laos, but it has not been recorded since there at least since 2013; this population likely fell victim to indiscriminate snaring.[168] Anti-poaching units in Sumatra’s Kerinci Seblat landscape removed 362 tiger snare traps and seized 91 tiger skins during 2005–2016; annual poaching rates increased with rising skin prices.[169] Poaching is also the main threat to the tiger population in far eastern Russia, where logging roads facilitate access for poachers and people harvesting forest products that are vital for prey species to survive in winter.[170]

Body parts of 207 tigers were detected during 21 surveys in 1991–2014 in two wildlife markets in Myanmar catering to customers in Thailand and China.[171] During the years 2000–2022, at least 3,377 tigers were confiscated in 2,205 seizures in 28 countries; seizures encompassed 665 live and 654 dead individuals, 1,313 whole tiger skins and 16,214 body parts like bones, teeth, paws, claws, whiskers, and 1.1 t (1.1 long tons; 1.2 short tons) of meat; 759 seizures were reported in India encompassing body parts of 893 tigers, and 403 seizures in Thailand involved mostly captive-bred tigers.[172] Seizures in Nepal between January 2011 and December 2015 included 585 pieces of tiger body parts and two whole bodies in 19 districts.[173] Seizure data from India during 2001–2021 indicate that tiger skins were the most often traded body parts, followed by claws, bones and teeth; trafficking routes mainly passed through the states of Maharashtra, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Assam.[174] A total of 292 illegal tiger parts were confiscated at US ports of entry from personal baggage, air cargo and mail between 2003 and 2012.[175]

Demand for tiger parts for use in traditional Chinese medicine has also been cited as a major threat to tiger populations.[176] Interviews with local people in the Bangladeshi Sundarbans revealed that they kill tigers for local consumption and trade of skins, bones and meat, in retaliation for attacks by tigers, and for excitement.[177] Tiger body parts like skins, bones, teeth and hair are consumed locally by wealthy Bangladeshis and are illegally trafficked from Bangladesh to 15 countries including India, China, Malaysia, Korea, Vietnam, Cambodia, Japan and the United Kingdom via land borders, airports and seaports.[178] Tiger bone glue is the prevailing tiger product purchased for medicinal purposes in Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City.[179]

Local people killing tigers in retaliation for attacking and preying on livestock is a threat in several tiger range countries, as this consequence of human–wildlife conflict also contributes to the decline of the population.[180][181][182][183][184]

Conservation

Main article: Tiger conservation
Further information: 21st Century Tiger
Global wild tiger population
Country Year Estimate
  India 2022 3,167–3,682[185]
  Russia 2021 750[186]
  Indonesia 2016 400–600[187]
  Bangladesh 2014 300–500[1]
  Nepal 2022 316–355[188]
  Thailand 2023 189[189]
  Bhutan 2023 131[190]
  Malaysia 2022 <150[191]
  China 2018 55[192]
  Myanmar 2018 22[193]
Total 5,764–6,467

In 2010, representatives of all the tiger range countries—India, Nepal, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Myanmar, Russia, China, Thailand, Laos, Cambodia, Vietnam, Malaysia and Indonesia—met in St Petersburg and agreed to double their tiger populations. A decade later, South Asian countries and Russia saw improvements in tiger numbers while Southeast Asian countries had less success, with no record of the cats in Laos, Cambodia and Vietnam.[194]

Internationally, the tiger is protected under CITES Appendix I, banning trade of live tigers and their body parts.[1] In Russia, hunting of the tiger has been banned since 1952.[195] In Bhutan, it has been protected since 1969 and enlisted as totally protected since 1995.[196] Since 1972, it has been afforded the highest protection level under India’s Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972.[197] In Nepal and Bangladesh, it has been protected since 1973.[197][178] Since 1976, it has been listed as totally protected under Malaysia's Protection of Wild Life Act.[198] In China, the trade in tiger body parts was banned in 1993, which helped to reduce the use of tiger bones in traditional Chinese medicine.[199]

In 1973, the National Tiger Conservation Authority and Project Tiger were founded in India to gain public support for tiger conservation.[166] Since then, 53 tiger reserves covering an area of 75,796 km2 (29,265 sq mi) have been established in the country until 2022.[185] The country is considered to be the stronghold for the tiger, containing around 70% of the wild population.[194] Myanmar’s national tiger conservation strategy developed in 2003 comprises management tasks such as restoration of degraded habitats, increasing the extent of protected areas and wildlife corridors, protecting tiger prey species, thwarting of tiger killing and illegal trade of its body parts, and promoting public awareness through wildlife education programs.[200] Bhutan's first Tiger Action Plan implemented during 2006–2015 revolved around habitat conservation, human–wildlife conflict management, education and awareness; the second Action Plan aimed at increasing the country’s tiger population by 20% until 2023 compared to 2015.[196] In 2009, the Bangladesh Tiger Action Plan was initiated to stabilize the country's tiger population, maintain habitat and a sufficient prey base, improve law enforcement and cooperation between governmental agencies responsible for tiger conservation.[201] Since 2010, Nepal has established strong anti-poaching operations with increased cooperation and intelligence sharing between agencies like the Wildlife Crime Control Bureau and the Wildlife Crime Control. These policies have led to many years of "zero poaching" and the country's tiger population has doubled in a decade.[194]

Starting in 2010, Thailand launched the "Thailand Tiger Action Plan" to protect both tigers and their prey,[194] and enacted the Wildlife Preservation and Protection Act in 2019 to combat poaching and trading of parts.[202] The country has also implemented modern technology in monitoring and patrolling protected areas via the SMART Patrol System, including camera traps.[194][202] In 2010, Malayasia passed the Wildlife Conservation Act which increased punishments for wildlife-related crimes and the country has used its army and police for help in patrolling. Nearly all tiger habitat in the country would be managed as one unit under the Central Forest Spine initiative.[194]

In Russia, increases in patrol effort during 2011–2014 in four protected areas contributed to reducing poaching, stabilising the tiger population and improving protection of ungulate populations.[203] Anti-poaching patrols in the 1,200 km2 (460 sq mi) large core area of Taman Negara in Malaysia lead to a decrease of poaching frequency from 34 detected incidents in 2015–2016 to 20 incidents during 2018–2019; the arrest of seven poaching teams and removal of snares facilitated the survival of three resident female tigers and at least 11 cubs.[204]

In 1994, the Indonesian Sumatran Tiger Conservation Strategy made plans to protect tigers in Sumatra. The Sumatran Tiger Project (STP) was initiated in and around the Way Kambas National Park to ensure the long-term viability of wild Sumatran tigers and to accumulate data on tiger life-history characteristics vital for the management of wild populations.[205] By August 1999, the teams of the STP had evaluated 52 sites of potential tiger habitat in Lampung Province, of which only 15 these were intact enough to contain tigers.[206] In the framework of the STP a community-based conservation program was initiated to document the tiger-human dimension in the park to enable conservation authorities to resolve tiger-human conflicts based on a comprehensive database rather than anecdotes and opinions.[207]

The establishment and protection of wildlife corridors is also important for tiger conservation as they allow for connectivity between populations outside protected areas. Tigers were found to use at least nine corridors between protected areas in the Terai Arc Landscape and Sivalik Hills in both Nepal and India.[208] Corridors in forested areas with low human encroachment are highly suitable.[209][210] In West Sumatra, wild areas were found to have an Ecological Connectivity Index of 65%, and 12 tiger corridors were identified as high priority.[211] In 2019, China and Russia signed a memorandum of understanding for transboundary cooperation between two protected areas, Northeast China Tiger and Leopard National Park and Land of the Leopard National Park, that includes the creation of wildlife corridors and bilateral monitoring and patrolling along the Sino-Russian border.[212]

Relationship with humans

Hunting

Main article: Tiger hunting
 
Tiger hunting on elephant-back in India, 1808

A tiger hunt is painted on the Bhimbetka rock shelters in India and dated to 5,000–6,000 years ago. Thousands of years later, Emperor Samudragupta was depicted slaying tigers on coins. Tiger hunting became an established sport under the Mughal Empire in the 16th century. The cats were chased on horseback and killed with spears. Emperor Akbar participated in such activities and one of his hunts is the subject of a painting from the Akbarnama. Following Akbar, Emperor Jahangir will introduce firearms to tiger hunts and eventually, elephants would be ridden. The British East India Company would pay for bounties on tigers as early as 1757 and tiger hunting would continue under British Raj.[213] Tiger killings were particularly high in the 19th and early 20th centuries; as an estimated 80,000 cats were killed between 1875 and 1925.[214][215] King George V on his visit to colonial India in 1911 killed 39 tigers in a matter of 10 days.[216]

Attacks

Main article: Tiger attack
 
Tipu's Tiger, an automated toy of a tiger mauling a British man

Tigers are said to have directly killed more people than any other wild mammal.[217] In most areas, the big cats typically avoid humans, but attacks are a risk wherever people coexist with them.[218][219] Dangerous encounters are more likely to occur in edge habitats, between wild and agricultural areas.[218] Most attacks on humans are defensive, including protection of young. However, tigers do sometimes see people as prey.[219] Man-eating tigers tend to be old and disabled.[57] Tigers driven from their home ranges are also at risk of turning to man-eating.[220]

At the beginning of the 20th century, the Champawat Tiger was responsible for over 430 human deaths in Nepal and India before she was shot by famed hunter Jim Corbett.[221] Corbett recorded that the tigress suffered from broken teeth and thus unable to kill normal prey. Modern authors speculate that feeding on meagre human flesh forced the cat to kill more and more.[222] Tiger attacks were particularly high in Singapore during the mid-19th century, when plantations expanded into the animal's habitat.[223] The number of deaths ranged from 200 to 300 annually in the 1840s.[224]

Tiger attacks in the Sundarbans caused 1,396 human deaths in the period 1935–2006 according to official records of the Bangladesh Forest Department.[225] Victims of attacks are local villagers who enter the tiger's domain to collect resources like wood and honey. Fishermen have been particularly common targets. Methods to counter tiger attacks have included face-masks worn backwards, protective clothes, sticks and carefully stationed electric dummies.[226]

Captivity

 
Tiger at Big Cat Rescue in 2014
 
Publicity photo of animal trainer Gunther Gebel-Williams with several of his trained tigers, c. 1969

Tigers have been kept in captivity since ancient times. In ancient Rome, tigers were displayed in amphitheaters; they were slaughtered in venatio hunts and used for public executions of criminals. Mongol Emperor Kublai Khan is reported to have kept tigers in the 13th century. Starting in the Middle Ages, tigers were being kept in European menageries. In 1830, two tigers and a lion were accidentally put in the same exhibit at the Tower of London. This lead to a fight between them and, after they were separated, the lion died of its wounds.[227] Tigers and other exotic animals were mainly used for the entertainment of elites but from the 19th century onward, they were exhibited more to the public. Tigers were particularly big attractions, and their captive population soared.[228]

Tigers have played prominent roles in circuses and other live performances. Ringling Bros included many tiger tamers in the 20th century including Mabel Stark, who became a big draw and had a long career. She was well known for being able to control the tigers despite being a small woman; using "manly" tools like whips and guns. Another trainer was Clyde Beatty, who used chairs, whips and guns to provoke tigers and other beasts into acting fierce and allowed him to appear courageous. He would perform with as many as 40 tigers and lions in one act. From the 1960s onward, trainers like Gunther Gebel-Williams would use gentler methods to control their animals. Tiger trainer Sara Houckle was dubbed "the Tiger Whisperer", as she trained the cats to obey her by whispering to them.[229] Siegfried & Roy became famous for performing with white tigers in Las Vegas. The act ended in 2003 when a tiger named Mantacore attacked Roy during a performance.[230] The use of tigers and other animals in shows would eventually decline in many countries due to pressure from animal rights groups and greater desires from the public to see them in more natural settings. Several countries would restrict or ban such acts.[231] According to a 2009 analysis, tigers were the most traded circus animals.[232]

Tigers have become popular in the exotic pet trade, particularly in the United States.[233] The World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) estimated that in the US, 5,000 tigers were kept in captivity in 2020, with only 6% of them being in zoos and other facilities approved by the Association of Zoos and Aquariums. The WWF argues that private collectors are ill-equipped to provide proper care for tigers, which compromises their welfare. They can also threaten public safety by allowing people to interact with them.[234] The keeping of tigers and other big cats by private individuals was banned in the US in 2022 under the Big Cat Public Safety Act. Those who owned big cats at the time of the signing were expected to register with the United States Fish and Wildlife Service before 18 June 2023.[235] The WWF also estimated in 2020 that 7,000–8,000 tigers were held in "tiger farm" facilities in China and Southeast Asia. These tigers are bred to be used for traditional medicine and appear to pose a threat to wild populations by rising demand for tiger parts.[234]

Cultural significance

Main article: Cultural depictions of tigers
 
Tiger-shaped bronze from Zhou-era China, (c. 900 BC)

The tiger is among the most famous of charismatic megafauna. It has been labelled as "a rare combination of courage, ferocity and brilliant colour".[144] In a 2004 online poll conducted by cable television channel Animal Planet, involving more than 50,000 viewers from 73 countries, the tiger was voted the world's favourite animal with 21% of the vote, narrowly beating the dog.[236] Likewise, a 2018 study found the tiger to be the most popular wild animal based on surveys, as well as appearances on websites of major zoos and posters of some animated movies.[237]

While the lion represented royalty and power in Western culture, the tiger filled such a role in Asia. In ancient China, the tiger was seen as the "king of the forest" and symbolised the power of the emperor.[238] In Chinese astrology, the tiger is the third out of 12 symbols in the zodiac and controls the period of the day between 3 am and 5 am. The Year of the Tiger is thought to bring "dramatic and extreme events". The White Tiger is one of the Four Symbols of the Chinese constellations, representing the west along with the yin and the season of autumn. It is the counterpart to the Azure Dragon, which conversely symbolises the east, yang and springtime.[239] The tiger is one of the animals displayed on the Pashupati seal of the Indus Valley civilisation. The big cat was depicted on seals and coins during the Chola Dynasty of southern India, as it was the official emblem.[240]

 
The Hindu goddess Durga riding a tiger. Guler school, early 18th century

Tigers have had religious significance, even being worshiped. In Buddhism, the tiger, monkey and deer are Three Senseless Creatures, the tiger symbolising anger.[241] In Bhutan, the tiger is venerated as one of the four powerful animals called the "four dignities", and a tigress is believed to have carried Padmasambhava from Singye Dzong to the Paro Taktsang monastery in the late 8th century.[196] In Hinduism, the tiger is the vehicle of Durga, the goddess of feminine power and peace, whom the gods created to fight demons. Similarly, in the Greco-Roman world, the tiger was depicted being ridden by the god Dionysus. In Korean mythology, tigers are messengers of the Mountain Gods.[242] The Warli of western India worship the tiger-like god Waghoba. The Warli believe that shrines and sacrifices to the deity will lead to better coexistence with the local big cats, both tigers and leopards, and that Waghoba will protect them when they enter the forests.[243]

In both Chinese and Korean culture, tigers are seen as protectors against evil spirits, and their image was used to decorate homes and tombs.[238][244] In the folklore of Malaysia and Indonesia, "tiger shamans" heal the sick by invoking the big cat. People turning into tigers and the inverse has also been widespread, in particular weretigers are people who could change into tigers and back again. The Mnong people of Indochina believed that tigers could transform into humans.[245] Among some indigenous peoples of Siberia, it was believed that men would seduce women by transforming into tigers.[238]

 
Blake's original printing of The Tyger, 1794

The tiger's cultural reputation is generally that of a fierce and powerful animal. William Blake's 1794 poem "The Tyger" portrays the animal as the duality of beauty and ferocity. It is the sister poem to "The Lamb" in Blake's Songs of Innocence and of Experience and he ponders why God would create such different creatures. The tiger is featured in the medieval Chinese novel Water Margin, where the cat battles and is slain by the bandit Wu Song, while the tiger Shere Khan in Rudyard Kipling's 1894 The Jungle Book is the mortal enemy of the human protagonist Mowgli. The image of the friendly tame tiger has also existed in culture, notably Tigger, the Winnie-the-Pooh character and Tony the Tiger, the Kellogg's cereal mascot.[246]

See also

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Bibliography

  • Thapar, V. (2004). Tiger: The Ultimate Guide. New Delhi: CDS Books. ISBN 1-59315-024-5.
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  • Sludskii, A. A. (1992). "Tiger Panthera tigris Linnaeus, 1758". In Heptner, V. G.; Sludskii, A. A. (eds.). Mlekopitajuščie Sovetskogo Soiuza. Moskva: Vysšaia Škola [Mammals of the Soviet Union]. Vol. II, Part 2. Carnivora (Hyaenas and Cats) (Second ed.). Washington DC: Smithsonian Institution and the National Science Foundation. pp. 95–202. ISBN 978-90-04-08876-4.

External links

  •   Media related to Panthera tigris (category) at Wikimedia Commons
  •   Data related to Panthera tigris at Wikispecies
  •   Quotations related to Tigers at Wikiquote
  •   Tigers travel guide from Wikivoyage
  • "Tiger Panthera tigris". IUCN/SSC Cat Specialist Group.

April 11, 2024
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Tigress redirects here For other uses see Tiger disambiguation and Tigress disambiguation The tiger Panthera tigris is the largest living cat species and a member of the genus Panthera It has a powerful muscular body with a large head and paws a long tail and distinctive black mostly vertical stripes on orange fur It was first scientifically described in 1758 and is traditionally classified into eight subspecies though some recognize only two subspecies mainland Asian tigers and island tigers of the Sunda Islands TigerTemporal range Early Pleistocene Present PreꞒ Ꞓ O S D C P T J K Pg N A Bengal tigress in Kanha Tiger Reserve IndiaConservation statusEndangered IUCN 3 1 1 CITES Appendix I CITES 1 Scientific classificationDomain EukaryotaKingdom AnimaliaPhylum ChordataClass MammaliaOrder CarnivoraSuborder FeliformiaFamily FelidaeSubfamily PantherinaeGenus PantheraSpecies P tigrisBinomial namePanthera tigris Linnaeus 1758 2 SubspeciesP t tigris P t sondaica P t acutidens P t soloensis P t trinilensisTiger distribution as of 2022Synonyms 3 Felis tigris Linnaeus 1758Tigris striatus Severtzov 1858Tigris regalis Gray 1867Throughout the tiger s range it inhabits mainly forests from coniferous and temperate broadleaf and mixed forests in the Russian Far East and Northeast China to tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests on the Indian subcontinent and Southeast Asia The tiger is an apex predator and preys mainly on ungulates such as deer and wild boar which it takes by ambush It lives largely a solitary life and occupies home ranges which it defends from individuals of the same sex The range of a male tiger overlaps with that of multiple females with which he has reproductive claims to Females give birth to usually two or three cubs that stay with their mother for about two years When becoming independent they leave their mother s home range and establish their own Since the early 20th century tiger populations have lost at least 93 of their historic range and are locally extinct in West and Central Asia in large areas of China and on the islands of Java and Bali Today the tiger s range is severely fragmented The species is listed as Endangered on the IUCN Red List as its range is thought to have declined by 53 to 68 since the late 1990s Major reasons for this decline are habitat destruction and habitat fragmentation due to deforestation and poaching for meat and illegal trade of tiger body parts for medicinal purposes Tigers are also victims of human wildlife conflict due to encroachment in countries with a high human population density Tigers sometimes attack and even prey on people The tiger is among the most recognisable and popular of the world s charismatic megafauna It has been kept in captivity since ancient times and has been trained to perform in circuses and other entertainment shows The species has been popular in the exotic pet trade The tiger featured prominently in the ancient mythology and folklore of cultures throughout its historic range and has continued to appear in culture worldwide Contents 1 Etymology 2 Taxonomy 2 1 Subspecies 2 2 Evolution 2 3 Hybrids 3 Characteristics 3 1 Coat 3 1 1 Colour variations 4 Distribution and habitat 5 Behaviour and ecology 5 1 Social spacing 5 2 Communication 5 3 Hunting and diet 5 4 Enemies and competitors 5 5 Reproduction and life cycle 6 Threats 7 Conservation 8 Relationship with humans 8 1 Hunting 8 2 Attacks 8 3 Captivity 8 4 Cultural significance 9 See also 10 References 10 1 Bibliography 11 External linksEtymologyThe Old English tigras derives from Old French tigre from Latin tigris This was a borrowing of Classical Greek tigris tigris 4 5 The ultimate origin of the word is uncertain 6 Ancient Greek geographer Strabo suggested an Armenian origin 7 One popular idea believed in the 16th and 17th centuries is tiger was a transliteration of the Middle Persian tigr meaning arrow from which the name of the river Tigris may also have been derived Thus the animal and the river may have both been associated with speed The connection between the two words is doubted in modern times and they are likely to be Latin homonyms 6 TaxonomyIn 1758 Carl Linnaeus described the tiger in his work Systema Naturae and gave it the scientific name Felis tigris 2 In 1929 the British taxonomist Reginald Innes Pocock subordinated the species under the genus Panthera using the scientific name Panthera tigris 8 9 Subspecies Following Linnaeus s first descriptions of the species several tiger zoological specimens were described and proposed as subspecies 10 The validity of several tiger subspecies was questioned in 1999 Most putative subspecies described in the 19th and 20th centuries were distinguished on the basis of fur length and colouration striping patterns and body size hence characteristics that vary widely within populations Morphologically tigers from different regions vary little and gene flow between populations in those regions is considered to have been possible during the Pleistocene Therefore it was proposed to recognize only two tiger subspecies as valid namely P t tigris in mainland Asia and P t sondaica in the Greater Sunda Islands Mainland tigers are described as being larger in size with generally lighter fur and fewer stripes while island tigers are smaller due to insular dwarfism with darker coats and more numerous stripes 11 The stripes of island tigers may break up into spotted patterns 12 This two subspecies proposal was reaffirmed in 2015 by a comprehensive analysis of morphological ecological and molecular traits of all putative tiger subspecies using a combined approach The authors proposed recognition of only two subspecies namely P t tigris comprising the Bengal Malayan Indochinese South Chinese Siberian and Caspian tiger populations of continental Asia and P t sondaica comprising the Javan Bali and Sumatran tiger populations of the Sunda Islands The continental nominate subspecies P t tigris constitutes two clades a northern clade composed of the Siberian and Caspian tiger populations and a southern clade composed of all other mainland populations The authors noted that this two subspecies reclassification will impact tiger conservation management 13 It would make captive breeding programs and future re wilding of zoo born tigers easier as one tiger population could then be used to reinforce another However there is the risk that the loss of subspecies uniqueness could lead to less protection efforts for specific populations 14 In 2017 the Cat Classification Task Force of the IUCN Cat Specialist Group revised felid taxonomy in accordance with the two subspecies proposal of the comprehensive 2015 study and recognized the tiger populations in continental Asia as P t tigris and those in the Sunda Islands as P t sondaica 15 This two subspecies view is still disputed by researchers since the currently recognized six living subspecies can be distinguished genetically 14 Results of a 2018 whole genome sequencing of 32 samples support six monophyletic tiger clades corresponding with the six living proposed subspecies and indicate they descended from a common ancestor around 110 000 years ago 16 Studies in 2021 and 2023 also affirmed the genetic distinctiveness and separation of these tigers 17 18 The following tables are based on the classification of the species Panthera tigris provided in Mammal Species of the World 10 and also reflect the classification used by the Cat Classification Task Force in 2017 15 Panthera tigris tigris Linnaeus 1758 2 Populations Description ImageBengal tiger This tiger inhabits the Indian subcontinent 19 Linnaeus s scientific description of the tiger was based on descriptions by earlier naturalists such as Conrad Gessner and Ulisse Aldrovandi 2 Bengal tiger skins in the collection of the Natural History Museum London were described as bright orange red with shorter fur and more spaced out stripes than northern living tigers like the Siberian tiger 9 nbsp Caspian tiger formerly P t virgata Illiger 1815 20 This population lived in west central Asia reach as far west as Turkey 19 Illiger s description was not based on a particular specimen but he only assumed that tigers in the Caspian area differ from those elsewhere 20 It was later described having a bright rusty red coat with thin and closely spaced brownish stripes 21 and a broad occipital bone 11 According to genetic analysis it was closely related to the Siberian tiger 22 It went extinct in the 1970s 23 nbsp Siberian tiger formerly P t altaica Temminck 1844 24 The cat is found in the Russian Far East Northeast China and possibly North Korea 19 Temminck s description was based on an unspecified number of tiger skins with long hairs and dense coats that were traded between Korea and Japan He assumed they originated in the Altai Mountains 24 The Siberian tiger was later described as having pale coats with few dark brown stripes 25 The lighter colouration may be due to longer exposure to sunlight during the summer A Siberian tiger s coat becomes darker after molting 11 The skull is described as shorter and broader then southern living tigers 26 nbsp South China tiger formerly P t amoyensis Hilzheimer 1905 27 This tiger historically lived in south central China 19 Hilzheimer s description was based on five tiger skulls purchased in Hankou China These skulls had shorter carnassials and molars than tigers from India with a smaller cranium orbits set closer together and larger postorbital processes Skins of this tiger were described as being yellowish in colour with rhombus like stripes 27 It was noted to have a unique mtDNA haplotype 15 This tiger may be extinct in wild as there has not been a confirmed sighting since the 1970s 1 nbsp Indochinese tiger formerly P t corbetti Mazak 1968 28 The tiger is found on the Indochinese Peninsula 19 Mazak s description was based on 25 specimens in museum collections that were smaller than tigers from India and had smaller skulls 28 It was also said to have a darker coat than the Bengal tiger with more stripes the stripes being narrower and having less double stripes 29 nbsp Malayan tiger formerly P t jacksoni Luo et al 2004 30 It was proposed as a distinct subspecies on the basis of mtDNA and micro satellite sequences that differ from the Indochinese tiger 30 In pelage colour or skull size it does not differ significantly from Indochinese tigers 29 There is no clear geographical barrier between tiger populations in northern Malaysia and southern Thailand 1 nbsp Panthera tigris sondaica Temminck 1844 15 Populations Description Image Javan tiger formerly P t sondaica Temminck 1944 24 Temminck based his description on an unspecified number of tiger skins with short and smooth hair 24 Tigers from Java were small compared to tigers of the Asian mainland The skull was relatively elongated and compared to the Sumatran tiger the stripes were longer thinner and slightly greater in number 29 The Javan tiger is thought to have gone extinct by the 1980s 23 A hair found in 2019 on a fence in South Sukabumi West Java was found to be genetically similar to hairs of zoological specimens of the Javan tiger in 2022 31 nbsp Bali tiger formerly P t balica Schwarz 1912 32 Schwarz based his description on a skin and a skull of an adult female tiger from Bali He argued that its fur colour is brighter and its skull smaller than of tigers from Java 32 33 A typical feature of Bali tiger skulls is the narrow occipital plane which is similar to Javan tigers 34 The tiger went extinct in the 1940s 23 nbsp Sumatran tiger formerly P t sumatrae Pocock 1929 35 Pocock described a dark skin of a tiger from Sumatra as the type specimen 35 It has broader and smaller nasal region than other island tigers 26 29 with many thick stripes 29 This tiger has particularly long hairs around the face 19 nbsp Evolution nbsp Two cladograms proposed for Panthera The upper cladogram is based on two studies published in 2006 and 2009 36 37 the lower one is based on studies published in 2010 and 2011 38 39 The tiger shares the genus Panthera with the lion leopard jaguar and snow leopard Results of genetic analysis indicate that the tiger and snow leopard are sister species and about 2 88 million years ago the tiger and the snow leopard lineages diverged from the other Panthera species 36 40 The fossil species Panthera palaeosinensis of early Pleistocene northern China was described as a possible tiger ancestor when it was discovered in 1924 but modern cladistics place it as basal to modern Panthera 41 39 Panthera zdanskyi which lived around the same time and place was suggested to be a sister taxon of the modern tiger when it was examined in 2014 39 However as of 2023 at least two recent studies considered P zdanskyi likely to be a synonym of P palaeosinensis noting that its proposed differences from that species fell within the range of individual variation 42 43 The earliest appearance of the modern tiger species in the fossil record are jaw fragments from Lantion in China that are dated to the early Pleistocene 39 Middle to late Pleistocene tiger fossils were found throughout China Sumatra and Java Prehistoric subspecies include Panthera tigris trinilensis and P t soloensis of Java and Sumatra and P t acutidens of China late Pleistocene and early Holocene fossils of tigers were also found in Borneo and Palawan Philippines 44 Results of a phylogeographic study indicate that all living tigers had a common ancestor 108 000 to 72 000 years ago 30 A 2022 paleogenomic study of a Pleistocene tiger basal to living tigers concluded that modern tiger populations spread across Asia no earlier than 94 000 years ago There is evidence of interbreeding between the lineage of modern mainland tigers and these ancient tigers 45 The potential tiger range during the late Pleistocene and Holocene was predicted applying ecological niche modelling based on more than 500 tiger locality records combined with bioclimatic data The resulting model shows a contiguous tiger range at the Last Glacial Maximum indicating gene flow between tiger populations in mainland Asia The tiger populations on the Sunda Islands and mainland Asia were possibly separated during interglacial periods 46 The tiger s full genome sequence was published in 2013 It was found to have repeat compositions much as other cat genomes and an appreciably conserved synteny 47 Hybrids Further information Felid hybrid and Panthera hybrid Captive tigers were bred with lions to create hybrids called liger and tigon The former born to a female tiger and male lion and the latter the result of a male tiger and female lion They share physical and behavioural qualities of both parent species 48 Because the lion sire passes on a growth promoting gene but the corresponding growth inhibiting gene from the female tiger is absent ligers grow far larger than either parent species By contrast the male tiger does not pass on a growth promoting gene and the lioness passes on a growth inhibiting gene hence tigons are around the same size as either species 49 Breeding hybrids is now discouraged due to the emphasis on conservation 48 Characteristics nbsp Siberian tiger in Aalborg Zoo Denmark nbsp Bengal tiger skeleton on display at the Museum of Osteology The tiger is considered to be the largest living felid species 12 However there is some debate over averages compared to the lion Since tiger populations vary greatly in size the average size for a tiger may be less than a lion while the biggest tigers are bigger than their lion counterparts 44 The Siberian and Bengal tigers along with the extinct Caspian are considered to be the largest of the species 12 Bengal tigers average a total length of 3 m 9 8 ft with males weighing 200 260 kg 440 570 lb and females weighing 100 160 kg 220 350 lb 50 Island tigers are the smallest the Sumatran tigers have a total length of 2 2 2 5 m 7 ft 3 in 8 ft 2 in with a weight of 100 140 kg 220 310 lb for males and 75 110 kg 165 243 lb for females 50 The extinct Bali tiger was even smaller 12 It has been hypothesised that body sizes of different tiger populations may be correlated with climate and be explained by thermoregulation and Bergmann s rule 12 11 The tiger has a typical felid morphology It has a muscular body with shortened legs strong forelimbs broad paws a large head and a tail that is about half the length of the rest of its body 12 51 There are five digits on the front feet and four on the back all of which have retractable claws which are compact and curved The ears are rounded while the eyes have a round pupil 12 The tiger s skull is large and robust with a constricted front region proportionally small elliptical orbits long nasal bones and a lengthened cranium with a large sagittal crest 52 12 It resembles a lion s skull with the structure of the lower jaw and length of the nasals being the most reliable indicators for species identification 52 The tiger has fairly robust teeth and its somewhat curved canines are the longest in the cat family at 6 4 7 6 cm 2 5 3 0 in 12 53 Coat nbsp Tiger coatA tiger s coat is generally coarse and relatively thin though the Siberian tiger has a thick winter coat 12 54 It has a mane like heavy growth of fur around the neck and jaws and long whiskers especially in males 12 Its colouration is generally orange but can vary from light yellow to dark red 12 44 55 White fur covers the ventral surface along with parts of the face 12 56 It also has a prominent white spot on the back of their ears which are surrounded by black 12 The tiger is marked with distinctive black or dark brown stripes the patterns of which are unique in each individual 12 57 The stripes are mostly vertical but those on the limbs and forehead are horizonal They are more concentrated towards the posterior and those on the trunk may or may not reach under the belly The tips of stripes are generally sharp and some may split up or split and fuse again Tail stripes are thick bands and a black tip marks the end 58 Stripes are likely advantageous for camouflage in vegetation with vertical patterns of light and shade such as trees reeds and tall grass 57 59 This is supported by a 1987 Fourier analysis study which concluded that the spatial frequencies of tiger stripes line up with their environment 60 The tiger is one of only a few striped cat species it is not known why spotted patterns and rosettes are the more common camouflage pattern among felids 61 The orange colour may also aid in concealment as the tiger s prey are dichromats and thus may perceive the cat as green and blended in with the vegetation 62 The white dots on the ear may play a role in communication 12 Colour variations nbsp Pseudo melanistic white tigerThe three colour variants nearly stripeless snow white white and golden are now virtually non existent in the wild due to the reduction of wild tiger populations but continue in captive populations The white tiger has a white background colour with sepia brown stripes The golden tiger is pale golden with reddish brown stripes The snow white tiger is a morph with extremely faint stripes and a pale reddish brown ringed tail White and golden morphs are the result of an autosomal recessive trait with a white locus and a wideband locus respectively The snow white variation is caused by polygenes with both white and wideband loci 63 The breeding of white tigers is controversial as they have no use for conservation Only 0 001 of wild tigers have the genes for this colour morph and the overrepresentation of white tigers in captivity is the result of inbreeding Hence their continued breeding will risk both inbreeding depression and loss of genetic variability in captive tigers 64 Pseudo melanistic tigers with thick merged stripes have been recorded in Simlipal National Park and three Indian zoos population genetic analysis of Indian tiger samples revealed that this phenotype is caused by a mutation of a transmembrane aminopeptidase gene Around 37 of the Simlipal tiger population has this feature which has been linked to genetic isolation 65 Distribution and habitat nbsp A tiger in the SundarbansThe tiger historically ranged from eastern Turkey and northern Afghanistan to Indochina and from southeastern Siberia to Sumatra Java and Bali 12 As of 2022 it inhabits less than 7 of its historical distribution and has a scattered range that includes the Indian subcontinent the Indochinese Peninsula Sumatra the Russian Far East and northeastern China 1 As of 2020 India had the largest extent of global tiger habitat with 300 508 km2 116 027 sq mi followed by Russia with 195 819 km2 75 606 sq mi 66 The tiger mainly lives in forest habitats and is highly adaptable 50 Records in Central Asia indicate that it occurred foremost in Tugay riverine forests and inhabited hilly and lowland forests in the Caucasus 67 In the Amur Ussuri region it inhabits Korean pine and temperate broadleaf and mixed forests riparian forests serve as dispersal corridors providing food and water for both tiger and ungulates 68 On the Indian subcontinent it inhabits mainly tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests moist evergreen forests tropical dry forests alluvial plains and the mangrove forests of the Sundarbans 69 In the Eastern Himalayas tigers were documented in temperate forest up to an elevation of 4 200 m 13 800 ft in Bhutan of 3 630 m 11 910 ft in the Mishmi Hills and of 3 139 m 10 299 ft in Medog County southeastern Tibet 70 71 72 In Thailand it lives in deciduous and evergreen forests 73 In Sumatra tigers range from lowland peat swamp forests to rugged montane forests 74 In northern Myanmar the tiger population density in a sampled area of roughly 3 250 km2 1 250 sq mi in a mosaic of tropical broadleaf forest and grassland was estimated to be 0 21 0 44 tigers per 100 km2 39 sq mi as of 2009 75 Tiger population density in dipterocarp and montane forests in northern Malaysia was estimated at 1 47 2 43 adult tigers per 100 km2 39 sq mi in Royal Belum State Park and 0 3 0 92 adult tigers per 100 km2 39 sq mi in Temengor Forest Reserve 76 Camera trapping in the deciduous and subtropical pine forest of Jim Corbett National Park revealed a stable population density of 12 17 tigers per 100 km2 39 sq mi during 2010 2015 in an area of 521 km2 201 sq mi 77 Behaviour and ecology nbsp Tiger bathingCamera trap data show that tigers in Chitwan National Park avoided locations frequented by people and were more active at night than by day 78 In Sundarbans National Park six radio collared tigers were most active in the early morning with a peak around dawn and moved an average distance of 4 6 km 2 9 mi per day 79 A three year long camera trap survey in Shuklaphanta National Park revealed that tigers were most active from dusk until midnight 80 In northeastern China tigers were crepuscular and active at night with activity peaking at dawn and at dusk they exhibited a high temporal overlap with ungulate species 81 As with other felid species tigers groom themselves maintaining their coats by licking them and spreading oil from their sebaceous glands 82 It will take to water particularly on hot days It is a powerful swimmer and easily transverses across rivers as wide as 8 km 5 0 mi 57 Adults only occasionally climbs trees but have been recorded climbing 10 m 33 ft up a smooth pipal tree 12 In general tigers are less capable tree climbers than many other cats due to their size but cubs under 16 months old may routinely do so 83 Social spacing Adult tigers lead largely solitary lives They establish and maintain home ranges or territories the size of which mainly depends on prey abundance geographic area and sex of the individual Males and females defend their home ranges from those of the same sex 12 57 Male home ranges overlap with those of up to five females 84 Two females in the Sundarbans had home ranges of 10 6 and 14 1 km2 4 1 and 5 4 sq mi 85 In Panna Tiger Reserve the home ranges of five reintroduced females varied from 53 67 km2 20 26 sq mi in winter to 55 60 km2 21 23 sq mi in summer and to 46 94 km2 18 36 sq mi during monsoon three males had 84 147 km2 32 57 sq mi large home ranges in winter 82 98 km2 32 38 sq mi in summer and 81 118 km2 31 46 sq mi during monsoon seasons 86 The home range of a male tiger at an elevation of 1 200 4 300 m 3 900 14 100 ft in Jigme Dorji National Park was estimated at 151 06 km2 58 32 sq mi and of a female at 90 34 km2 34 88 sq mi their home ranges overlapped entirely 87 In Huai Kha Khaeng Wildlife Sanctuary seven resident females had home ranges of 44 1 122 3 km2 17 0 47 2 sq mi and four resident males of 174 8 417 5 km2 67 5 161 2 sq mi 88 Four male problem tigers in Sumatra were translocated to national parks and needed 6 17 weeks to establish new home ranges of 37 5 188 1 km2 14 5 72 6 sq mi 89 In Sikhote Alin Biosphere Reserve five resident males had home ranges of 847 1 923 km2 327 742 sq mi the home ranges of 14 females were significantly smaller with 248 520 km2 96 201 sq mi 84 Ten solitary females in the same reserve had home ranges of 335 9 491 1 km2 129 7 189 6 sq mi when they had cubs of up to four months of age their home ranges declined to 123 8 230 8 km2 47 8 89 1 sq mi and steadily grew to 298 2 508 4 km2 115 1 196 3 sq mi until the cubs were 13 18 months old 90 nbsp Tiger rubbing against tree to mark territory The tiger is a long ranging species and individuals disperse over distances of up to 650 km 400 mi to reach tiger populations in other areas 91 Young tigresses establish their first home ranges close to their mother s Males however migrate further than their female counterparts and set out at a younger age to mark out their own area 92 Four radio collared females in Chitwan dispersed between 0 and 43 2 km 0 0 and 26 8 mi and 10 males between 9 5 and 65 7 km 5 9 and 40 8 mi 93 A young male may have to live as a transient in another male s home range until he is older and strong enough to challenge the resident male Young males thus have an annual mortality rate of up to 35 By contrast young female tigers die at a rate of only around 5 92 Tigers mark their home ranges by spraying urine on vegetation and rocks clawing or scent rubbing trees and marking trails with feces anal gland secretions and ground scrapings 57 94 95 96 Scent markings also allow an individual to pick up information on another s identity A tigress in oestrus will signal her availability by scent marking more frequently and increasing her vocalisations Unclaimed home ranges particularly those that belonged to a decreased individual can be taken over in days or weeks 57 Male tigers are generally less tolerant of other males within their home ranges than females are of other females Disputes are usually solved by intimidation rather than outright violence Once dominance has been established a male may tolerate a subordinate within his range as long as they do not live in too close quarters The most serious disputes tend to occur between two males competing for a female in oestrus 97 Though tigers mostly live alone relationships between individuals can be complex Tigers are particularly social at kills and a male tiger will share a carcass with the females and cubs within this home range and unlike male lions will allow them to feed on the kill before he is finished with it Though the female and male act amicably females are more tense towards each other at a kill 98 99 Communication nbsp Tiger baring teeth as a sign of aggression source source source source source source source Captive tiger roaring During friendly encounters and bonding tigers rub against each others bodies 100 Facial expressions include the defense threat which involves a wrinkled face bared teeth pulled back ears and widened pupils 100 12 Both males and females show a flehmen response a characteristic grimace when sniffing urine markings Males also use the flehman to detect the markings made by tigresses in oestrus 12 Tigers also use their tails to signal their mood To show cordiality the tail sticks up and sways slowly while an apprehensive tiger lowers its tail or wags it side to side When calm the tail hangs low 101 Tigers are normally silent but can produce numerous vocalisations 102 103 They roar to signal their presence to other individuals over long distances This vocalisation is forced through an open mouth as it closes and can be heard 3 km 1 9 mi away A tiger may roar three or four times in a row and others may respond in kind Tigers also roar during mating and a mother will roar to call her cubs to her When tense tigers will moan a sound similar to a roar but softer and made when the mouth is at least partially closed Moaning can be heard 400 m 1 300 ft away 12 104 Aggressive encounters involve growling snarling and hissing 105 An explosive coughing roar or coughing snarl is emitted through an open mouth and exposed teeth 12 105 106 Chuffing soft low frequency snorting similar to purring in smaller cats is heard in more friendly situations 107 Mother tigers communicate with their cubs by grunting while cubs call back with miaows 108 A woof sound is produced when the animal is startled It has also been recording emitting a deer like pok sound for unknown reasons but most often at kills 109 110 Hunting and diet nbsp Tiger attacking a sambar deer in Ranthambore Tiger ReserveThe tiger is a carnivore and an apex predator feeding mainly on ungulates with a particular preference for sambar deer Manchurian wapiti barasingha and wild boar Tigers kill larger prey like gaur 111 but opportunistically kill much smaller prey like monkeys peafowl and other ground based birds porcupines and fish 12 57 Tiger attacks on adult Asian elephants and Indian rhinoceros have also been reported 112 113 114 More often tigers take the more vulnerable small calves 115 When in close proximity to humans tigers sometimes prey on domestic livestock and dogs 12 Tigers occasionally consume vegetation fruit and minerals for dietary fibre 116 Tigers learn to hunt from their mothers which is important but not necessary for their success 117 Depending on the prey a tiger typically kills weekly though mothers must kill more often 50 They usually hunt alone but families hunt together when cubs are old enough 118 A tiger travels up to 19 3 km 12 0 mi per day in search of prey using vision and hearing to find a target 119 It also waits at a watering hole for prey to come by particularly during hot summer days 120 121 It is an ambush predator and when approaching potential prey the tiger crouches with head lowered and hides in foliage It switches between creeping forward and staying still Tigers have been recorded dozing off while in still mode and can stay in the same spot for as long as a day waiting for prey and launches an attack when the prey is close enough 122 usually within 30 m 98 ft 50 If the prey spots it before then the cat does not pursue further 120 Tigers can sprint 56 km h 35 mph and leap 10 m 33 ft 123 124 they are not long distance runners and give up a chase if prey outpaces them over a certain distance 120 nbsp Two tigers working together to kill a wild boar in Kanha Tiger ReserveThe tiger attacks from behind or at the sides and tries to knock the target off balance It latches onto prey with its forelimbs twisting and turning during the struggle The tiger generally applies a bite to the throat until its target dies of strangulation 12 125 126 It has an average bite force at the canine tips of 1234 3 Newton 127 Holding onto the throat puts the cat out of reach of the horns antlers tusks and hooves 125 128 Tigers are adaptable killers and may use other methods including ripping the throat or breaking the neck Large prey may be disabled by a bite to the back of the hock severing the tendon Swipes from the large paws are capable of stunning or breaking the skull of a water buffalo 129 They kill small prey with a bite to the back of the neck or skull 130 50 Estimates of the success rate for hunting tigers ranges from a low 5 to a high of 50 They are sometimes killed or injured by large or dangerous prey like gaur buffalo and boar 50 The tiger typically moves its kill to a private usually vegetated spot no further than 183 m 600 ft though they have been recorded dragging it 549 m 1 801 ft The tiger has the strength to drag the carcass of a fully grown buffalo for some distance a feat three men struggle with It rests for a while before eating and can consume as much as 50 kg 110 lb of meat in one session but feeds on a carcass for several days leaving very little for scavengers 131 Enemies and competitors nbsp An 1807 illustration of dholes attacking a tigerTigers may kill and even prey on other predators they coexist with 132 In much of their range tigers share habitat with leopards and dholes They typically dominate both of them though large packs of dholes can drive away a tiger 133 or even kill it 134 Tigers appear to inhabit the deep parts of a forest while these smaller predators are pushed closer to the fringes 135 The three predators coexist by hunting different prey 136 In one study tigers were found to have killed prey that weighed an average of 91 5 kg 202 lb in contrast to 37 6 kg 83 lb for the leopard and 43 4 kg 96 lb for the dhole 137 Leopards can live successfully in tiger habitat when there is abundant food and vegetation cover and there is no evidence of competitive exclusion 136 Nevertheless leopards avoid areas were tigers roam and are less common where tigers are numerous 132 138 139 Tigers tend to be wary of sloth bears with their sharp claws quickness and ability to stand on two legs Tiger do sometimes prey on sloth bears by ambushing them when they are feeding at termite mounds 140 Siberian tigers may attack kill and prey on Ussuri brown and black bears 12 In turn some studies show that brown bears frequently track down tigers to usurp their kills with occasional fatal outcomes for the tiger 141 142 143 Reproduction and life cycle Tiger cub redirects here For other uses see Tiger Cub nbsp A tiger family in Kanha Tiger ReserveThe tiger mates all year round but most cubs are born between March and June with another peak in September 144 A tigress is in oestrus for three to six days inbetween three to nine week intervals 12 A resident male mates with all the females within his home range who signal their receptiveness by roaring and marking 145 146 Younger transient males are also attracted leading to a fight in which the more dominant male drives the usurper off 144 145 During courtship the male is cautious with the female as he waits for her to show signs she is ready to mate She signals to him by positioning herself in lordosis with their tail to the side Copulation is generally 20 to 25 seconds long with the male biting the female by the scruff of her neck After it is finished the male quickly pulls away as the female may turn and slap him 145 Tiger pairs may stay together for up to four days and mate multiple times 147 Gestation ranges from 93 to 114 days with an average of 103 to 105 days 144 A tigress gives birth in a secluded location be it in dense vegetation in a cave or under a rocky shelter 148 Litters consist of as many as seven cubs but two or three are more typical 144 148 Newborn cubs weigh 785 1 610 g 27 7 56 8 oz and are blind and altricial 148 The mother licks and cleans her cubs suckles them and viscously defends them from any potential threat 144 She will only leave them alone to hunt and even then does not travel far 149 When a mother suspects an area is no longer safe she moves her cubs to a new spot transporting them one by one by grabbing them by the scruff of the neck with her mouth The mortality rate for tiger cubs can reach 50 during these early months causes of death include predators like dholes leopards and pythons 150 Young are able to see in a week can leave the denning site in two months and around the same time they start eating meat 144 151 nbsp A tigress with her cub at Buffalo ZooAfter around two months the cubs are able to follow their mother They still hide in vegetation when she goes hunting and she will guide them to the kill Cubs bond though play fighting and practice stalking A hierarchy develops in the litter with the biggest cub often a male being the most dominant and the first to eat its fill at a kill 152 Around the age of six months cubs are fully weaned and have more freedom to explore their environment Between eight and ten months they accompany their mother on hunts 150 A cub can make a kill as early as 11 months and reach independence around 18 to 24 months of age males becoming independent earlier than females 153 Radio collared tigers in Chitwan started dispersing from their natal areas earliest at the age of 19 months 93 Young females are sexual mature at three to four years whereas males are at four to five years Tigers may live up to 26 years 12 The male does not play a role in raising the young but may encounter and interact with them The resident male appears to visit the female cub families within his home range They socialise and even share kills 154 155 One male was recorded looking after orphaned cubs whose mother had died 156 By defending his home range the male protects the females and cubs from other males 157 When a new male takes over dependent cubs are at risk of being killed as the male would want to sire his own young with the females Older female cubs are tolerated but males are treated as potential competitors 158 Threats nbsp A hunting party poses with a killed Javan tiger in West Java 1941The tiger has been listed as Endangered on the IUCN Red List since 1986 as the global tiger population is thought to have continuously declined from an estimated population of 5 000 8 262 tigers in the late 1990s to 3 726 5 578 individuals estimated as of 2022 1 During 2001 2020 landscapes where tigers live declined from 1 025 488 km2 395 943 sq mi to 911 901 km2 352 087 sq mi 66 Habitat destruction habitat fragmentation and poaching for fur and body parts are the major threats which contributed to the decrease of tiger populations in all range countries 1 Protected areas in central India are highly fragmented due to linear infrastructure like roads railway lines transmission lines irrigation channels and mining activities in their vicinity 159 In the Tanintharyi Region of southern Myanmar deforestation coupled with mining activities and a high hunting pressure threatens the tiger population in the area 160 In Thailand nine of 15 protected areas hosting tigers are isolated and fragmented offering a low probability for dispersal between them and four of these do not harbour tigers any more at least since 2013 161 In Peninsular Malaysia an area of 8 315 7 km2 3 210 7 sq mi tiger habitat was cleared during 1988 2012 most of it for industrial plantations 162 Large scale land acquisitions of about 23 000 km2 8 900 sq mi for commercial agriculture and timber extraction in Cambodia contributed to the fragmentation of potential tiger habitat especially in the Eastern Plains 163 In China tigers became the target of large scale anti pest campaigns in the early 1950s where suitable habitats were fragmented following deforestation and resettlement of people to rural areas who hunted tigers and prey species Though tiger hunting was prohibited in 1977 the population continued to decline and is considered extinct in South China since 2001 164 165 nbsp A Sumatran tiger skinTiger populations in India have been targeted by poachers since the 1990s and were extirpated in two tiger reserves in 2005 and 2009 166 Between March 2017 and January 2020 630 activities of hunters using snares drift nets hunting platforms and hunting dogs were discovered in a reserve forest of about 1 000 km2 390 sq mi in southern Myanmar 167 Nam Et Phou Louey National Park was considered the last important site for the tiger in Laos but it has not been recorded since there at least since 2013 this population likely fell victim to indiscriminate snaring 168 Anti poaching units in Sumatra s Kerinci Seblat landscape removed 362 tiger snare traps and seized 91 tiger skins during 2005 2016 annual poaching rates increased with rising skin prices 169 Poaching is also the main threat to the tiger population in far eastern Russia where logging roads facilitate access for poachers and people harvesting forest products that are vital for prey species to survive in winter 170 Body parts of 207 tigers were detected during 21 surveys in 1991 2014 in two wildlife markets in Myanmar catering to customers in Thailand and China 171 During the years 2000 2022 at least 3 377 tigers were confiscated in 2 205 seizures in 28 countries seizures encompassed 665 live and 654 dead individuals 1 313 whole tiger skins and 16 214 body parts like bones teeth paws claws whiskers and 1 1 t 1 1 long tons 1 2 short tons of meat 759 seizures were reported in India encompassing body parts of 893 tigers and 403 seizures in Thailand involved mostly captive bred tigers 172 Seizures in Nepal between January 2011 and December 2015 included 585 pieces of tiger body parts and two whole bodies in 19 districts 173 Seizure data from India during 2001 2021 indicate that tiger skins were the most often traded body parts followed by claws bones and teeth trafficking routes mainly passed through the states of Maharashtra Karnataka Tamil Nadu and Assam 174 A total of 292 illegal tiger parts were confiscated at US ports of entry from personal baggage air cargo and mail between 2003 and 2012 175 Demand for tiger parts for use in traditional Chinese medicine has also been cited as a major threat to tiger populations 176 Interviews with local people in the Bangladeshi Sundarbans revealed that they kill tigers for local consumption and trade of skins bones and meat in retaliation for attacks by tigers and for excitement 177 Tiger body parts like skins bones teeth and hair are consumed locally by wealthy Bangladeshis and are illegally trafficked from Bangladesh to 15 countries including India China Malaysia Korea Vietnam Cambodia Japan and the United Kingdom via land borders airports and seaports 178 Tiger bone glue is the prevailing tiger product purchased for medicinal purposes in Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City 179 Local people killing tigers in retaliation for attacking and preying on livestock is a threat in several tiger range countries as this consequence of human wildlife conflict also contributes to the decline of the population 180 181 182 183 184 ConservationMain article Tiger conservation Further information 21st Century Tiger Global wild tiger population Country Year Estimate nbsp India 2022 3 167 3 682 185 nbsp Russia 2021 750 186 nbsp Indonesia 2016 400 600 187 nbsp Bangladesh 2014 300 500 1 nbsp Nepal 2022 316 355 188 nbsp Thailand 2023 189 189 nbsp Bhutan 2023 131 190 nbsp Malaysia 2022 lt 150 191 nbsp China 2018 55 192 nbsp Myanmar 2018 22 193 Total 5 764 6 467In 2010 representatives of all the tiger range countries India Nepal Bangladesh Bhutan Myanmar Russia China Thailand Laos Cambodia Vietnam Malaysia and Indonesia met in St Petersburg and agreed to double their tiger populations A decade later South Asian countries and Russia saw improvements in tiger numbers while Southeast Asian countries had less success with no record of the cats in Laos Cambodia and Vietnam 194 Internationally the tiger is protected under CITES Appendix I banning trade of live tigers and their body parts 1 In Russia hunting of the tiger has been banned since 1952 195 In Bhutan it has been protected since 1969 and enlisted as totally protected since 1995 196 Since 1972 it has been afforded the highest protection level under India s Wild Life Protection Act 1972 197 In Nepal and Bangladesh it has been protected since 1973 197 178 Since 1976 it has been listed as totally protected under Malaysia s Protection of Wild Life Act 198 In China the trade in tiger body parts was banned in 1993 which helped to reduce the use of tiger bones in traditional Chinese medicine 199 In 1973 the National Tiger Conservation Authority and Project Tiger were founded in India to gain public support for tiger conservation 166 Since then 53 tiger reserves covering an area of 75 796 km2 29 265 sq mi have been established in the country until 2022 185 The country is considered to be the stronghold for the tiger containing around 70 of the wild population 194 Myanmar s national tiger conservation strategy developed in 2003 comprises management tasks such as restoration of degraded habitats increasing the extent of protected areas and wildlife corridors protecting tiger prey species thwarting of tiger killing and illegal trade of its body parts and promoting public awareness through wildlife education programs 200 Bhutan s first Tiger Action Plan implemented during 2006 2015 revolved around habitat conservation human wildlife conflict management education and awareness the second Action Plan aimed at increasing the country s tiger population by 20 until 2023 compared to 2015 196 In 2009 the Bangladesh Tiger Action Plan was initiated to stabilize the country s tiger population maintain habitat and a sufficient prey base improve law enforcement and cooperation between governmental agencies responsible for tiger conservation 201 Since 2010 Nepal has established strong anti poaching operations with increased cooperation and intelligence sharing between agencies like the Wildlife Crime Control Bureau and the Wildlife Crime Control These policies have led to many years of zero poaching and the country s tiger population has doubled in a decade 194 Starting in 2010 Thailand launched the Thailand Tiger Action Plan to protect both tigers and their prey 194 and enacted the Wildlife Preservation and Protection Act in 2019 to combat poaching and trading of parts 202 The country has also implemented modern technology in monitoring and patrolling protected areas via the SMART Patrol System including camera traps 194 202 In 2010 Malayasia passed the Wildlife Conservation Act which increased punishments for wildlife related crimes and the country has used its army and police for help in patrolling Nearly all tiger habitat in the country would be managed as one unit under the Central Forest Spine initiative 194 In Russia increases in patrol effort during 2011 2014 in four protected areas contributed to reducing poaching stabilising the tiger population and improving protection of ungulate populations 203 Anti poaching patrols in the 1 200 km2 460 sq mi large core area of Taman Negara in Malaysia lead to a decrease of poaching frequency from 34 detected incidents in 2015 2016 to 20 incidents during 2018 2019 the arrest of seven poaching teams and removal of snares facilitated the survival of three resident female tigers and at least 11 cubs 204 In 1994 the Indonesian Sumatran Tiger Conservation Strategy made plans to protect tigers in Sumatra The Sumatran Tiger Project STP was initiated in and around the Way Kambas National Park to ensure the long term viability of wild Sumatran tigers and to accumulate data on tiger life history characteristics vital for the management of wild populations 205 By August 1999 the teams of the STP had evaluated 52 sites of potential tiger habitat in Lampung Province of which only 15 these were intact enough to contain tigers 206 In the framework of the STP a community based conservation program was initiated to document the tiger human dimension in the park to enable conservation authorities to resolve tiger human conflicts based on a comprehensive database rather than anecdotes and opinions 207 The establishment and protection of wildlife corridors is also important for tiger conservation as they allow for connectivity between populations outside protected areas Tigers were found to use at least nine corridors between protected areas in the Terai Arc Landscape and Sivalik Hills in both Nepal and India 208 Corridors in forested areas with low human encroachment are highly suitable 209 210 In West Sumatra wild areas were found to have an Ecological Connectivity Index of 65 and 12 tiger corridors were identified as high priority 211 In 2019 China and Russia signed a memorandum of understanding for transboundary cooperation between two protected areas Northeast China Tiger and Leopard National Park and Land of the Leopard National Park that includes the creation of wildlife corridors and bilateral monitoring and patrolling along the Sino Russian border 212 Relationship with humansHunting Main article Tiger hunting nbsp Tiger hunting on elephant back in India 1808A tiger hunt is painted on the Bhimbetka rock shelters in India and dated to 5 000 6 000 years ago Thousands of years later Emperor Samudragupta was depicted slaying tigers on coins Tiger hunting became an established sport under the Mughal Empire in the 16th century The cats were chased on horseback and killed with spears Emperor Akbar participated in such activities and one of his hunts is the subject of a painting from the Akbarnama Following Akbar Emperor Jahangir will introduce firearms to tiger hunts and eventually elephants would be ridden The British East India Company would pay for bounties on tigers as early as 1757 and tiger hunting would continue under British Raj 213 Tiger killings were particularly high in the 19th and early 20th centuries as an estimated 80 000 cats were killed between 1875 and 1925 214 215 King George V on his visit to colonial India in 1911 killed 39 tigers in a matter of 10 days 216 Attacks Main article Tiger attack nbsp Tipu s Tiger an automated toy of a tiger mauling a British manTigers are said to have directly killed more people than any other wild mammal 217 In most areas the big cats typically avoid humans but attacks are a risk wherever people coexist with them 218 219 Dangerous encounters are more likely to occur in edge habitats between wild and agricultural areas 218 Most attacks on humans are defensive including protection of young However tigers do sometimes see people as prey 219 Man eating tigers tend to be old and disabled 57 Tigers driven from their home ranges are also at risk of turning to man eating 220 At the beginning of the 20th century the Champawat Tiger was responsible for over 430 human deaths in Nepal and India before she was shot by famed hunter Jim Corbett 221 Corbett recorded that the tigress suffered from broken teeth and thus unable to kill normal prey Modern authors speculate that feeding on meagre human flesh forced the cat to kill more and more 222 Tiger attacks were particularly high in Singapore during the mid 19th century when plantations expanded into the animal s habitat 223 The number of deaths ranged from 200 to 300 annually in the 1840s 224 Tiger attacks in the Sundarbans caused 1 396 human deaths in the period 1935 2006 according to official records of the Bangladesh Forest Department 225 Victims of attacks are local villagers who enter the tiger s domain to collect resources like wood and honey Fishermen have been particularly common targets Methods to counter tiger attacks have included face masks worn backwards protective clothes sticks and carefully stationed electric dummies 226 Captivity nbsp Tiger at Big Cat Rescue in 2014 nbsp Publicity photo of animal trainer Gunther Gebel Williams with several of his trained tigers c 1969 Tigers have been kept in captivity since ancient times In ancient Rome tigers were displayed in amphitheaters they were slaughtered in venatio hunts and used for public executions of criminals Mongol Emperor Kublai Khan is reported to have kept tigers in the 13th century Starting in the Middle Ages tigers were being kept in European menageries In 1830 two tigers and a lion were accidentally put in the same exhibit at the Tower of London This lead to a fight between them and after they were separated the lion died of its wounds 227 Tigers and other exotic animals were mainly used for the entertainment of elites but from the 19th century onward they were exhibited more to the public Tigers were particularly big attractions and their captive population soared 228 Tigers have played prominent roles in circuses and other live performances Ringling Bros included many tiger tamers in the 20th century including Mabel Stark who became a big draw and had a long career She was well known for being able to control the tigers despite being a small woman using manly tools like whips and guns Another trainer was Clyde Beatty who used chairs whips and guns to provoke tigers and other beasts into acting fierce and allowed him to appear courageous He would perform with as many as 40 tigers and lions in one act From the 1960s onward trainers like Gunther Gebel Williams would use gentler methods to control their animals Tiger trainer Sara Houckle was dubbed the Tiger Whisperer as she trained the cats to obey her by whispering to them 229 Siegfried amp Roy became famous for performing with white tigers in Las Vegas The act ended in 2003 when a tiger named Mantacore attacked Roy during a performance 230 The use of tigers and other animals in shows would eventually decline in many countries due to pressure from animal rights groups and greater desires from the public to see them in more natural settings Several countries would restrict or ban such acts 231 According to a 2009 analysis tigers were the most traded circus animals 232 Tigers have become popular in the exotic pet trade particularly in the United States 233 The World Wide Fund for Nature WWF estimated that in the US 5 000 tigers were kept in captivity in 2020 with only 6 of them being in zoos and other facilities approved by the Association of Zoos and Aquariums The WWF argues that private collectors are ill equipped to provide proper care for tigers which compromises their welfare They can also threaten public safety by allowing people to interact with them 234 The keeping of tigers and other big cats by private individuals was banned in the US in 2022 under the Big Cat Public Safety Act Those who owned big cats at the time of the signing were expected to register with the United States Fish and Wildlife Service before 18 June 2023 235 The WWF also estimated in 2020 that 7 000 8 000 tigers were held in tiger farm facilities in China and Southeast Asia These tigers are bred to be used for traditional medicine and appear to pose a threat to wild populations by rising demand for tiger parts 234 Cultural significance Main article Cultural depictions of tigers nbsp Tiger shaped bronze from Zhou era China c 900 BC The tiger is among the most famous of charismatic megafauna It has been labelled as a rare combination of courage ferocity and brilliant colour 144 In a 2004 online poll conducted by cable television channel Animal Planet involving more than 50 000 viewers from 73 countries the tiger was voted the world s favourite animal with 21 of the vote narrowly beating the dog 236 Likewise a 2018 study found the tiger to be the most popular wild animal based on surveys as well as appearances on websites of major zoos and posters of some animated movies 237 While the lion represented royalty and power in Western culture the tiger filled such a role in Asia In ancient China the tiger was seen as the king of the forest and symbolised the power of the emperor 238 In Chinese astrology the tiger is the third out of 12 symbols in the zodiac and controls the period of the day between 3 am and 5 am The Year of the Tiger is thought to bring dramatic and extreme events The White Tiger is one of the Four Symbols of the Chinese constellations representing the west along with the yin and the season of autumn It is the counterpart to the Azure Dragon which conversely symbolises the east yang and springtime 239 The tiger is one of the animals displayed on the Pashupati seal of the Indus Valley civilisation The big cat was depicted on seals and coins during the Chola Dynasty of southern India as it was the official emblem 240 nbsp The Hindu goddess Durga riding a tiger Guler school early 18th centuryTigers have had religious significance even being worshiped In Buddhism the tiger monkey and deer are Three Senseless Creatures the tiger symbolising anger 241 In Bhutan the tiger is venerated as one of the four powerful animals called the four dignities and a tigress is believed to have carried Padmasambhava from Singye Dzong to the Paro Taktsang monastery in the late 8th century 196 In Hinduism the tiger is the vehicle of Durga the goddess of feminine power and peace whom the gods created to fight demons Similarly in the Greco Roman world the tiger was depicted being ridden by the god Dionysus In Korean mythology tigers are messengers of the Mountain Gods 242 The Warli of western India worship the tiger like god Waghoba The Warli believe that shrines and sacrifices to the deity will lead to better coexistence with the local big cats both tigers and leopards and that Waghoba will protect them when they enter the forests 243 In both Chinese and Korean culture tigers are seen as protectors against evil spirits and their image was used to decorate homes and tombs 238 244 In the folklore of Malaysia and Indonesia tiger shamans heal the sick by invoking the big cat People turning into tigers and the inverse has also been widespread in particular weretigers are people who could change into tigers and back again The Mnong people of Indochina believed that tigers could transform into humans 245 Among some indigenous peoples of Siberia it was believed that men would seduce women by transforming into tigers 238 nbsp Blake s original printing of The Tyger 1794The tiger s cultural reputation is generally that of a fierce and powerful animal William Blake s 1794 poem The Tyger portrays the animal as the duality of beauty and ferocity It is the sister poem to The Lamb in Blake s Songs of Innocence and of Experience and he ponders why God would create such different creatures The tiger is featured in the medieval Chinese novel Water Margin where the cat battles and is slain by the bandit Wu Song while the tiger Shere Khan in Rudyard Kipling s 1894 The Jungle Book is the mortal enemy of the human protagonist Mowgli The image of the friendly tame tiger has also existed in culture notably Tigger the Winnie the Pooh character and Tony the Tiger the Kellogg s cereal mascot 246 See alsoList of largest cats San Francisco Zoo tiger attacks Tiger King a 2020 crime documentary series on the exotic pet trade Tiger TempleReferences a b c d e f g h i Goodrich J Wibisono H Miquelle D Lynam A J Sanderson E Chapman S Gray T N E Chanchani P amp Harihar A 2022 Panthera tigris IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2022 e T15955A214862019 doi 10 2305 IUCN UK 2022 1 RLTS T15955A214862019 en Retrieved 31 August 2022 a b c d Linnaeus C 1758 Felis tigris Caroli Linnaei Systema naturae per regna tria naturae secundum classes ordines genera species cum characteribus differentiis synonymis locis in Latin Vol Tomus I decima reformata ed Holmiae Laurentius Salvius p 41 Ellerman J R Morrison Scott T C S 1951 Panthera tigris Linnaeus 1758 Checklist of Palaearctic and Indian mammals 1758 to 1946 London British Museum p 318 Tiger Online Etymology Dictionary Retrieved 5 March 2024 Liddell H G amp Scott R 1940 tigris A Greek English Lexicon Revised and augmented ed Oxford Clarendon Press a b Thorley David 2017 Naming the tiger in the Early Modern world Renaissance Quarterly 70 3 977 1006 doi 10 1086 693884 JSTOR 26560471 S2CID 165388712 Train Giust 2017 Strabo and the history of Armenia In Dueck Daniela ed The Routledge Companion to Strabo Routledge p 97 ISBN 978 1 138 90433 0 Pocock R I 1929 Tigers Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society 33 3 505 541 a b Pocock R I 1939 Panthera tigris The Fauna of British India Including Ceylon and Burma Mammalia Volume 1 London T Taylor and Francis Ltd pp 197 210 a b Wozencraft W C 2005 Species Panthera tigris In Wilson D E Reeder D M eds Mammal Species of the World A Taxonomic and Geographic Reference 3rd ed Johns Hopkins University Press p 546 ISBN 978 0 8018 8221 0 OCLC 62265494 a b c d Kitchener A Tiger distribution phenotypic variation and conservation issues in Seidensticker Christie amp Jackson 1999 pp 19 39 a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac Mazak V 1981 Panthera tigris Mammalian Species 152 1 8 doi 10 2307 3504004 JSTOR 3504004 Wilting A Courtiol A Christiansen P Niedballa J Scharf A K Orlando L Balkenhol N Hofer H Kramer Schadt S Fickel J amp Kitchener A C 2015 Planning tiger recovery Understanding intraspecific variation for effective conservation Science Advances 11 5 e1400175 Bibcode 2015SciA 1E0175W doi 10 1126 sciadv 1400175 PMC 4640610 PMID 26601191 a b Kupferschmidt K 2015 Controversial study claims there are 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15583716 Wirdateti W Yulianto Y Raksasewu K amp Adriyanto B 2024 Is the Javan tiger Panthera tigris sondaica extant DNA analysis of a recent hair sample Oryx early view doi 10 1017 S0030605323001400 a b Schwarz E 1912 Notes on Malay tigers with description of a new form from Bali Annals and Magazine of Natural History Series 8 Volume 10 57 324 326 doi 10 1080 00222931208693243 Mazak V 2004 Der Tiger in German Westarp Wissenschaften Hohenwarsleben ISBN 978 3 89432 759 0 Mazak V Groves C P amp Van Bree P 1978 Skin and Skull of the Bali Tiger and a list of preserved specimens of Panthera tigris balica Schwarz 1912 Zeitschrift fur Saugetierkunde 43 2 108 113 a b Pocock R I 1929 Tigers Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society 33 505 541 a b Johnson W E Eizirik E Pecon Slattery J Murphy W J Antunes A Teeling E amp O Brien S J 2006 The Late Miocene radiation of modern Felidae A genetic assessment Science 311 5757 73 77 Bibcode 2006Sci 311 73J doi 10 1126 science 1122277 PMID 16400146 S2CID 41672825 Werdelin L Yamaguchi N Johnson W E amp O Brien S J 2010 Phylogeny and evolution of cats Felidae In Macdonald D W amp Loveridge A J eds Biology and Conservation of Wild Felids Oxford UK Oxford University Press pp 59 82 ISBN 978 0 19 923445 5 Archived from the original on 25 September 2018 Retrieved 21 October 2018 Davis B W Li G amp Murphy W J 2010 Supermatrix and species tree methods resolve phylogenetic relationships within the big cats Panthera Carnivora Felidae PDF Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 56 1 64 76 doi 10 1016 j ympev 2010 01 036 PMID 20138224 dead link a b c d Mazak J H Christiansen P amp Kitchener A C 2011 Oldest Known Pantherine Skull and Evolution of the Tiger PLOS ONE 6 10 e25483 Bibcode 2011PLoSO 625483M doi 10 1371 journal pone 0025483 PMC 3189913 PMID 22016768 Davis B W Li G amp Murphy W J 2010 Supermatrix and species tree methods resolve phylogenetic relationships within the big cats Panthera Carnivora Felidae Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 56 1 64 76 doi 10 1016 j ympev 2010 01 036 PMID 20138224 Tseng Z J Wang X Slater G J Takeuchi G T Li Q Liu J amp Xie G 2014 Himalayan fossils of the oldest known pantherine establish ancient origin of big cats Proceedings of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences 281 1774 20132686 doi 10 1098 rspb 2013 2686 PMC 3843846 PMID 24225466 Hemmer H 2023 The evolution of the palaeopantherine cats Palaeopanthera gen nov Blytheae Tseng et al 2014 and Palaeopanthera pamiri Ozansoy 1959 comb Nov Mammalia Carnivora Felidae Palaeobiodiversity and Palaeoenvironments 103 4 827 839 Bibcode 2023PdPe 103 827H doi 10 1007 s12549 023 00571 5 S2CID 257842190 Jiangzuo Q Wang Y Ge J Liu S Song Y Jin C Jiang H amp Liu J 2023 Discovery of jaguar from northeastern China middle Pleistocene reveals an intercontinental dispersal event Historical Biology 35 3 293 302 Bibcode 2023HBio 35 293J doi 10 1080 08912963 2022 2034808 S2CID 246693903 a b c Kitchener A Yamaguchi N What is a Tiger Biogeography Morphology and Taxonomy in Tilson amp Nyhus 2010 pp 53 84 Hu J Westbury M V Yuan J Wang C Xiao B Chen S Song S Wang L Lin H Lai X amp Sheng G 2022 An extinct and deeply divergent tiger lineage from northeastern China recognized through palaeogenomics Proceedings of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences 289 1979 doi 10 1098 rspb 2022 0617 PMC 9326283 PMID 35892215 Cooper D M Dugmore A J Gittings B M Scharf A K Wilting A amp Kitchener A C 2016 Predicted Pleistocene Holocene rangeshifts of the tiger Panthera tigris Diversity and Distributions 22 11 1 13 Bibcode 2016DivDi 22 1199C doi 10 1111 ddi 12484 Cho Y S Hu L Hou H Lee H Xu J Kwon S Oh S Kim H M Jho S Kim S Shin Y A Kim B C Kim H Kim C U Luo S J Johnson W E Koepfli K P Schmidt Kuntzel A Turner J A Marker L Harper C Miller S M Jacobs W Bertola L D Kim T H Lee S Zhou Q Jung H J Xu X amp Gadhvi P 2013 The tiger genome and comparative analysis with lion and snow leopard genomes Nature Communications 4 2433 Bibcode 2013NatCo 4 2433C doi 10 1038 ncomms3433 hdl 2263 32583 PMC 3778509 PMID 24045858 a b Actman Jani 24 February 2017 Cat Experts Ligers and Other Designer Hybrids Pointless and Unethical National Geographic com Archived from the original on 27 February 2017 Retrieved 27 August 2018 Genomic Imprinting Genetic Science Learning Center Utah org Retrieved 26 August 2018 a b c d e f g Sunquist M 2010 What is a Tiger Ecology and Behaviour in Tilson amp Nyhus 2010 pp 19 34 Sludskii 1992 p 98 a b Sludskii 1992 p 103 Thapar 2004 p 25 Sludskii 1992 p 99 Thapar 2004 p 28 Sludskii 1992 pp 100 102 a b c d e f g h Miquelle D Tiger in Macdonald 2001 pp 18 21harvnb error no target CITEREFMacdonald2001 help Sludskii 1992 pp 99 102 Caro T 2005 The adaptive significance of coloration in mammals BioScience 55 2 125 136 doi 10 1641 0006 3568 2005 055 0125 TASOCI 2 0 CO 2 Godfrey D Lythgoe J N amp Rumball D A 1987 Zebra stripes and tiger stripes the spatial frequency distribution of the pattern compared to that of the background is significant in display and crypsis Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 32 4 427 433 doi 10 1111 j 1095 8312 1987 tb00442 x Allen W L Cuthill I C Scott Samuel N E amp Baddeley R 2010 Why the leopard got its spots relating pattern development to ecology in felids Proceedings of the Royal Society B 278 1710 1373 1380 doi 10 1098 rspb 2010 1734 PMC 3061134 PMID 20961899 Fennell J G Talas L Baddeley R J Cuthill I C amp Scott Samuel N E 2019 Optimizing colour for camouflage and visibility using deep learning the effects of the environment and the observer s visual system Journal of the Royal Society Interface 16 154 20190183 doi 10 1098 rsif 2019 0183 PMC 6544896 PMID 31138092 Xu X Dong G X Schmidt Kuntzel A Zhang X L Zhuang Y Fang R Sun X Hu X S Zhang T Y Yang H D Zhang D L Marker L Jiang Z F Li R amp Luo S J 2017 The genetics of tiger pelage color variations PDF Cell Research 27 7 954 957 doi 10 1038 cr 2017 32 PMC 5518981 PMID 28281538 Xavier N 2010 A new conservation policy needed for reintroduction of Bengal tiger white PDF Current Science 99 7 894 895 Sagar V Kaelin C B Natesh M Reddy P A Mohapatra R K Chhattani H Thatte P Vaidyanathan S Biswas S Bhatt S amp Paul S 2021 High frequency of an otherwise rare phenotype in a small and isolated tiger population Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 118 39 e2025273118 Bibcode 2021PNAS 11825273S doi 10 1073 pnas 2025273118 PMC 8488692 PMID 34518374 a b Sanderson E W Miquelle D G Fisher K Harihar A Clark C Moy J Potapov P Robinson N Royte L Sampson D Sanderlin J Yackulic C B Belecky M Breitenmoser U Breitenmoser Wursten C Chanchani P Chapman S Deomurari A Duangchantrasiri S Facchini E Gray T N E Goodrich J Hunter L Linkie M Marthy W Rasphone A Roy S Sittibal D Tempa T Umponjan M amp Wood K 2023 Range wide trends in tiger conservation landscapes 2001 2020 Frontiers in Conservation Science 4 1191280 doi 10 3389 fcosc 2023 1191280 Sludskii 1992 pp 108 112 Miquelle D G Smirnov E N Merrill T W Myslenkov A E Quigley H Hornocker M G Schleyer B 1999 Hierarchical spatial analysis of Amur tiger relationships to habitat and prey in Seidensticker Christie amp Jackson 1999 pp 71 99 Wikramanayake E D Dinerstein E Robinson J G Karanth K U Rabinowitz A Olson D Mathew T Hedao P Connor M Hemley G Bolze D Where can tigers live in the future A framework for identifying high priority areas for the conservation of tigers in the wild in Seidensticker Christie amp Jackson 1999 pp 254 272 Jigme K amp Tharchen L 2012 Camera trap records of tigers at high altitudes in Bhutan Cat News 56 14 15 Adhikarimayum A S amp Gopi G V 2018 First photographic record of tiger presence at higher elevations of the Mishmi Hills in the Eastern Himalayan Biodiversity Hotspot Arunachal Pradesh India Journal of Threatened Taxa 10 13 12833 12836 doi 10 11609 jott 4381 10 13 12833 12836 Li X Y Hu W Q Wang H J amp Jiang X L 2023 Tiger reappearance in Medog highlights the conservation values of the region for this apex predator Zoological Research 44 4 747 749 doi 10 24272 j issn 2095 8137 2023 178 PMC 10415778 PMID 37464931 Simcharoen S Pattanavibool A Karanth K U Nichols J D amp Kumar N S 2007 How many tigers Panthera tigris are there in Huai Kha Khaeng Wildlife Sanctuary Thailand An estimate using photographic capture recapture sampling Oryx 41 4 447 453 doi 10 1017 S0030605307414107 Wibisono H T Linkie M Guillera Arroita G Smith J A Sunarto Pusarini W Asriadi Baroto P Brickle N Dinata Y Gemita E Gunaryadi D Haidir I A amp Herwansyah 2011 Population status of a cryptic top predator An island wide assessment of Tigers in Sumatran rainforests PLOS ONE 6 11 e25931 Bibcode 2011PLoSO 625931W doi 10 1371 journal pone 0025931 PMC 3206793 PMID 22087218 Lynam A J Rabinowitz A Myint T Maung M Latt K T amp Po S H T 2009 Estimating abundance with sparse data tigers in northern Myanmar Population Ecology 51 1 115 121 Bibcode 2009PopEc 51 115L doi 10 1007 s10144 008 0093 5 Rayan D M amp Linkie M 2015 Conserving tigers in Malaysia A science driven approach for eliciting conservation policy change Biological Conservation 184 18 26 Bibcode 2015BCons 184 18R doi 10 1016 j biocon 2014 12 024 Bisht S Banerjee S Qureshi Q amp Jhala Y 2019 Demography of a high density tiger population and its implications for tiger recovery Journal of Applied Ecology 56 7 1725 1740 Bibcode 2019JApEc 56 1725B doi 10 1111 1365 2664 13410 Carter N H Shrestha B K Karki J B Pradhan N M B amp Liu J 2012 Coexistence between wildlife and humans at fine spatial scales Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 109 38 15360 15365 Bibcode 2012PNAS 10915360C doi 10 1073 pnas 1210490109 PMC 3458348 PMID 22949642 Naha D Jhala Y V Qureshi Q Roy M Sankar K amp Gopal R 2016 Ranging activity and habitat use by tigers in the mangrove forests of the Sundarban PLOS ONE 11 4 e0152119 Bibcode 2016PLoSO 1152119N doi 10 1371 journal pone 0152119 PMC 4822765 PMID 27049644 Pokheral C P amp Wegge P 2019 Coexisting large carnivores spatial relationships of tigers and leopards and their prey in a prey rich area in lowland Nepal Ecoscience 26 1 1 9 Bibcode 2019Ecosc 26 1P doi 10 1080 11956860 2018 1491512 S2CID 92446020 Yang H Han S Xie B Mou P Kou X Wang T Ge J amp Feng L 2019 Do prey availability human disturbance and habitat structure drive the daily activity patterns of Amur tigers Panthera tigris altaica Journal of Zoology 307 2 131 140 doi 10 1111 jzo 12622 S2CID 92736301 Thapar 2004 p 27 Thapar 2004 pp 26 65 66 a b Goodrich J M Miquelle D G Smirnov E M Kerley L L Quigley H B amp Hornocker M G 2010 Spatial structure of Amur Siberian tigers Panthera tigris altaica on Sikhote Alin Biosphere Zapovednik Russia Journal of Mammalogy 91 3 737 748 doi 10 1644 09 mamm a 293 1 Barlow A C D Smith J L D Ahmad I U Hossain A N M Rahman M amp Howlader A 2011 Female tiger Panthera tigris home range size in the Bangladesh Sundarbans the value of this mangrove ecosystem for the species conservation Oryx 45 1 125 128 doi 10 1017 S0030605310001456 Sarkar M S Ramesh K Johnson J A Sen S Nigam P Gupta S K Murthy R S amp Saha G K 2016 Movement and home range characteristics of reintroduced tiger Panthera tigris population in Panna Tiger Reserve central India European Journal of Wildlife Research 62 5 537 547 doi 10 1007 s10344 016 1026 9 S2CID 254187854 Dendup P Lham C Wangchuk W amp Jamtsho Y 2023 Tiger abundance and ecology in Jigme Dorji National Park Bhutan Global Ecology and Conservation 42 e02378 doi 10 1016 j gecco 2023 e02378 Simcharoen A Savini T Gale G A Simcharoen S Duangchantrasiri S Pakpien S amp Smith J L D 2014 Female tiger Panthera tigris home range size and prey abundance important metrics for management Oryx 48 3 370 377 doi 10 1017 S0030605312001408 Priatna D Santosa Y Prasetyo L B amp Kartono A P 2012 Home range and movements of male translocated problem tigers in Sumatra PDF Asian Journal of Conserviation Biolology 1 1 20 30 Klevtcova A V Miquelle D G Seryodkin I V Bragina E V Soutyrina S V amp Goodrich J M 2021 The influence of reproductive status on home range size and spatial dynamics of female Amur tigers Mammal Research 66 83 94 doi 10 1007 s13364 020 00547 2 Joshi A Vaidyanathan S Mondol S Edgaonkar A Ramakrishnan U 2013 Connectivity of Tiger Panthera tigris Populations in the Human Influenced Forest Mosaic of Central India PLOS ONE 8 11 e77980 Bibcode 2013PLoSO 877980J doi 10 1371 journal pone 0077980 PMC 3819329 PMID 24223132 a b Thapar 2004 p 76 a b Smith J L D 1993 The role of dispersal in structuring the Chitwan tiger population Behaviour 124 3 165 195 doi 10 1163 156853993X00560 Burger B V Viviers M Z Bekker J P I Roux M Fish N Fourie W B Weibchen G 2008 Chemical characterization of territorial marking fluid of male Bengal tiger Panthera tigris Journal of Chemical Ecology 34 5 659 671 Bibcode 2008JCEco 34 659B doi 10 1007 s10886 008 9462 y hdl 10019 1 11220 PMID 18437496 S2CID 5558760 Smith J L D McDougal C Miquelle D 1989 Scent marking in free ranging tigers 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27 September 2014 Retrieved 3 June 2014 Tiger kills elephant at Eravikulam park The New Indian Express 2009 Archived from the original on 11 May 2016 Retrieved 3 June 2014 Tiger kills adult rhino in Dudhwa Tiger Reserve The Hindu 2013 Karanth K U amp Nichols J D 1998 Estimation of tiger densities in India using photographic captures and recaptures PDF Ecology 79 8 2852 2862 doi 10 1890 0012 9658 1998 079 2852 EOTDII 2 0 CO 2 JSTOR 176521 Perry R 1965 The World of the Tiger pp 133 134 ASIN B0007DU2IU Fabregas M C Fosgate G T Koehler G M 2015 Hunting performance of captive born South China tigers Panthera tigris amoyensis on free ranging prey and implications for their reintroduction Biological Conservation 192 57 64 Bibcode 2015BCons 192 57F doi 10 1016 j biocon 2015 09 007 hdl 2263 50208 Thapar 2004 pp 63 111 Schaller 1967 pp 284 285 a b c Schaller 1967 p 288 Thapar 2004 p 120 Thapar 2004 pp 119 120 122 Schaller 1967 p 287 Thapar 2004 p 23 a b Thapar 2004 p 121 Schaller 1967 p 295 Christiansen P 2007 Canine morphology in the larger Felidae implications for feeding ecology Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 91 4 573 592 doi 10 1111 j 1095 8312 2007 00819 x Schaller 1967 pp 295 296 Thapar 2004 p 125 Schaller 1967 p 289 Schaller 1967 pp 297 300 a b Schaller 1967 p 277 Srivathsa A Ramachandran V Saravanan P Sureshbabu A Ganguly D Ramakrishnan U 2023 Topcats and underdogs intraguild interactions among three apex carnivores across Asia s forestscapes Biological Reviews 98 6 2114 2135 doi 10 1111 brv 12998 PMID 37449566 S2CID 259903849 Thapar 2004 p 136 Thinley P Rajaratnam R Lassoie J P Morreale S J Curtis P D Vernes K Leki Leki Phuntsho S Dorji T amp Dorji P 2018 The ecological benefit of tigers Panthera tigris to farmers in reducing crop and livestock losses in the eastern Himalayas Implications for conservation of large apex predators Biological Conservation 219 119 125 doi 10 1016 j biocon 2018 08 007 a b Karanth K U amp Sunquist M E 2000 Behavioural correlates of predation by tiger Panthera tigris leopard Panthera pardus and dhole Cuon alpinus in Nagarahole India Journal of Zoology 250 2 255 265 doi 10 1111 j 1469 7998 2000 tb01076 x Karanth K U amp Sunquist M E 1995 Prey selection by tiger leopard and dhole in Tropical Forests Journal of Animal Ecology 64 4 439 450 Bibcode 1995JAnEc 64 439K doi 10 2307 5647 JSTOR 5647 Seidensticker J 1976 On the ecological separation between tigers and leopards PDF Biotropica 8 4 225 234 Bibcode 1976Biotr 8 225S doi 10 2307 2989714 JSTOR 2989714 Harihar A Pandav B Goyal S P 2011 Responses of leopard Panthera pardus to the recovery of a tiger Panthera tigris population Journal of Applied Ecology 48 3 806 814 Bibcode 2011JApEc 48 806H doi 10 1111 j 1365 2664 2011 01981 x Mills 2004 p 27 Brown Bear predation of Amur Tiger 1973 account International Wildlife Magazine 20 October 2009 Goodrich J M Kerley L L Smirnov E N Miquelle D G McDonald L Quigley H B Hornocker M G amp McDonald T 2008 Survival rates and causes of mortality of Amur tigers on and near the Sikhote Alin Biosphere Zapovednik Journal of Zoology 276 4 323 doi 10 1111 j 1469 7998 2008 00458 x Seryodkin I V 2007 Rol burogo medvedya v ekosistemah Dalnego Vostoka Rossii The role of the brown bear in the ecosystems of the Russian Far East In Dvoretsky A N A V Ivashov A V Koshelev A I Novitsky R A Serebryakov V V eds Bioraznoobrazie i rol zhivotnyh v ekosistemah Materialy IV Mezhdunarodnoj nauchnoj konferencii Biodiversity and the role of animals in ecosystems Proceedings of the IV International Scientific Conference in Russian Dnepropetrovsk National University of Dnepropetrovsk pp 502 503 Archived from the original on 17 August 2011 Retrieved 15 July 2015 a b c d e f g Sankhala K S 1967 Breeding behaviour of the tiger Panthera tigris in Rajasthan International Zoo Yearbook 7 1 133 147 doi 10 1111 j 1748 1090 1967 tb00354 x a b c Mills 2004 p 42 Thapar 2004 p 145 Thapar 2004 p 148 a b c Thapar 2004 p 45 Mills 2004 p 50 a b Thapar 2004 p 51 Mills 2004 p 50 51 Mills 2004 pp 61 66 67 Schaller 1967 pp 270 276 Mills 2004 pp 59 89 Thapar 2004 pp 55 56 Pandey G 2011 India male tiger plays doting dad to orphaned cubs BBC News Retrieved 14 February 2024 Mills 2004 pp 59 Thapar 2004 pp 66 67 Schoen J M Neelakantan A Cushman S A Dutta T Habib B Jhala Y V Mondal I Ramakrishnan U Reddy P A Saini S amp Sharma S 2022 Synthesizing habitat connectivity analyses of a globally important human dominated tiger conservation landscape Conservation Biology 36 4 e13909 Bibcode 2022ConBi 36E3909S doi 10 1111 cobi 13909 PMC 9545158 PMID 35288989 Aung S S Shwe N M Frechette J Grindley M amp Connette G 2017 Surveys in southern Myanmar indicate global importance for tigers and biodiversity Oryx 51 1 13 doi 10 1017 S0030605316001393 Suttidate N Steinmetz R Lynam A J Sukmasuang R Ngoprasert D Chutipong W Bateman B L Jenks K E Baker Whatton M Kitamura S amp Ziolkowska E 2021 Habitat connectivity for endangered Indochinese tigers in Thailand Global Ecology and Conservation 29 e01718 doi 10 1016 j gecco 2021 e01718 Shevade V S Potapov P V Harris N L amp Loboda T V 2017 Expansion of industrial plantations continues to threaten Malayan tiger habitat Remote Sensing 9 7 747 Bibcode 2017RemS 9 747S doi 10 3390 rs9070747 hdl 1903 31503 Debonne N van Vliet J amp Verburg P 2019 Future governance options for large scale land acquisition in Cambodia impacts on tree cover and tiger landscapes Environmental Science amp Policy 94 9 19 Bibcode 2019ESPol 94 9D doi 10 1016 j envsci 2018 12 031 hdl 1871 1 1dced676 560b 46fb a7c5 e0c888c5cff1 Tilson R Defu H Muntifering J amp Nyhus P J 2004 Dramatic decline of wild South China tigers Panthera tigris amoyensis field survey of priority tiger reserves Oryx 38 1 40 47 doi 10 1017 S0030605304000079 Nyhus P 2008 Panthera tigris ssp amoyensis IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2008 e T15965A5334628 doi 10 2305 IUCN UK 2008 RLTS T15965A5334628 en a b Jhala Y Gopal R Mathur V Ghosh P Negi H S Narain S Yadav S P Malik A Garawad R amp Qureshi Q 2021 Recovery of tigers in India Critical introspection and potential lessons People and Nature 3 2 281 293 Bibcode 2021PeoNa 3 281J doi 10 1002 pan3 10177 Shwe N M Grainger M Ngoprasert D Aung S S Grindley M amp Savini T 2023 Anthropogenic pressure on large carnivores and their prey in the highly threatened forests of Tanintharyi southern Myanmar Oryx 57 2 262 271 doi 10 1017 S0030605321001654 hdl 11250 3040580 Rasphone A Kery M Kamler J F amp Macdonald D W 2019 Documenting the demise of tiger and leopard and the status of other carnivores and prey in Lao PDR s most prized protected area Nam Et Phou Louey Global Ecology and Conservation 20 e00766 doi 10 1016 j gecco 2019 e00766 Linkie M Martyr D Harihar A Mardiah S Hodgetts T Risdianto D Subchaan M amp Macdonald D 2018 Asia s economic growth and its impact on Indonesia s tigers Biological Conservation 219 105 109 Bibcode 2018BCons 219 105L doi 10 1016 j biocon 2018 01 011 Slaght J C Milakovsky B Maksimova D A Zaitsev V A Seryodkin I Panichev A amp Miquelle D 2017 Anthropogenic influences on the distribution of a Vulnerable coniferous forest specialist habitat selection by the Siberian musk deer Moschus moschiferus Oryx 53 1 174 180 doi 10 1017 S0030605316001617 Nijman V amp Shepherd C R 2015 Trade in tigers and other wild cats in Mong La and Tachilek Myanmar A tale of two border towns Biological Conservation 182 1 7 Bibcode 2015BCons 182 1N doi 10 1016 j biocon 2014 10 031 Wong R amp Krishnasamy K 2022 Skin and Bones Tiger Trafficking Analysis from January 2000 June 2022 PDF Petaling Jaya Selangor Malaysia TRAFFIC Southeast Asia Regional Office Paudel P K Acharya K P Baral H S Heinen J T amp Jnawali S R 2020 Trends patterns and networks of illicit wildlife trade in Nepal A national synthesis Conservation Science and Practice 2 9 e247 Bibcode 2020ConSP 2E 247P doi 10 1111 csp2 247 Nittu G Shameer T T Nishanthini N K amp Sanil R 2023 The tide of tiger poaching in India is rising An investigation of the intertwined facts with a focus on conservation GeoJournal 88 1 753 766 doi 10 1007 s10708 022 10633 4 PMC 9005341 PMID 35431409 Khanwilkar S Sosnowski M amp Guynup S 2022 Patterns of illegal and legal tiger parts entering the United States over a decade 2003 2012 Conservation Science and Practice 4 3 e622 Bibcode 2022ConSP 4E 622K doi 10 1111 csp2 622 Van Uhm D P 2016 The Illegal Wildlife Trade Inside the World of Poachers Smugglers and Traders Studies of Organized Crime New York Springer Saif S Rahman H T amp MacMillan D C 2018 Who is killing the tiger Panthera tigris and why Oryx 52 1 46 54 doi 10 1017 S0030605316000491 a b Uddin N Enoch S Harihar A Pickles R S amp Hughes A C 2023 Tigers at a crossroads Shedding light on the role of Bangladesh in the illegal trade of this iconic big cat Conservation Science and Practice 5 7 e12952 Bibcode 2023ConSP 5E2952U doi 10 1111 csp2 12952 Davis E O Willemsen M Dang V O Connor D amp Glikman J A 2020 An updated analysis of the consumption of tiger products in urban Vietnam Global Ecology and Conservation 22 e00960 doi 10 1016 j gecco 2020 e00960 Singh R Nigam P Qureshi Q Sankar K Krausman P R Goyal S P amp Nicholoson K L 2015 Characterizing human tiger conflict in and around Ranthambhore Tiger Reserve western India European Journal of Wildlife Research 61 2 255 261 doi 10 1007 s10344 014 0895 z Chowdhurym A N Mondal R Brahma A amp Biswas M K 2016 Ecopsychosocial aspects of human tiger conflict An ethnographic study of tiger widows of Sundarban Delta India Environmental Health Insights 10 1 29 doi 10 4137 EHI S24 inactive 10 April 2024 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a CS1 maint DOI inactive as of April 2024 link Dhungana R Savini T Karki J B Dhakal M Lamichhane B R amp Bumrungsri S 2018 Living with tigers Panthera tigris Patterns correlates and contexts of human tiger conflict in Chitwan National Park Nepal Oryx 52 1 55 65 doi 10 1017 S0030605316001587 hdl 1887 57668 Lubis M I Pusparini W Prabowo S A Marthy W Tarmizi Andayani N amp Linkie M 2020 Unraveling the complexity of human tiger conflicts in the Leuser Ecosystem Sumatra Animal Conservation 23 6 741 749 Bibcode 2020AnCon 23 741L doi 10 1111 acv 12591 Neo W H Y Lubis M I amp Lee J S H 2023 Settlements and plantations are sites of human tiger interactions in Riau Indonesia Oryx 57 4 476 480 doi 10 1017 S0030605322000667 hdl 10356 165557 a b Qureshi Q Jhala Y V Yadav S P amp Mallick A 2023 Status of tigers co predators and prey in India 2022 PDF New Delhi Dehradun National Tiger Conservation Authority amp Wildlife Institute of India Tiger population by country Sumatran Tiger DNPWC amp DFSC 2022 Status of Tigers and Prey in Nepal 2022 PDF Report Kathmandu Nepal Department of National Parks and Wildlife Conservation amp Department of Forests and Soil Conservation Ministry of Forests and Environment Thailand s Wild Tigers Have Doubled Since 2014 Bhutan s roaring success in tiger conservation steals the spotlight numbers register a huge jump South Asia News www wionews com Retrieved 7 August 2023 Status Of Malayan Tigers Qi J Gu J Ning Y Miquelle D G Holyoak M Wen D Liang X Liu S Roberts N Yang E Lang J Wang F Li C Liang Z Liu P Ren Y Zhou S Zhang M Ma J Chang J amp Jiang G 2021 Integrated assessments call for establishing a sustainable meta population of Amur tigers in Northeast Asia Biological Conservation 261 12 109250 Bibcode 2021BCons 26109250Q doi 10 1016 j biocon 2021 109250 PR Announcement of Minimum Tiger number in Myanmar WWF 2019 Retrieved 8 April 2022 a b c d e f Global Tiger Recovery Program 2023 34 Report Global Tiger Forum and the Global Tiger Initiative Council 29 July 2023 Sludskii 1992 p 202 a b c Tandin T Penjor U Tempa T Dhendup P Dorji S Wangdi S amp Moktan V 2018 Tiger Action Plan for Bhutan 2018 2023 A landscape approach to tiger conservation Report Thimphu Bhutan Nature Conservation Division Department of Forests and Park Services Ministry of Agriculture and Forests doi 10 13140 RG 2 2 14890 70089 a b Aryal R S 2004 CITES Implementation in Nepal and India Law Policy and Practice Kathmandu Bhrikuti Aademic Publications ISBN 99933 673 4 6 Malaysian Conservation Alliance for Tigers 2006 The Malayan Tiger Conservation Programme PDF Report Kuala Lumpur Department of Wildlife and National Parks Peninsular Malaysia Yeh E T 2012 Transnational environmentalism and entanglements of sovereignty The Tiger Campaign across the Himalayas Political Geography 31 7 408 418 doi 10 1016 j polgeo 2012 06 003 Lynam A J Khaing S T amp Zaw K M 2006 Developing a national tiger action plan for the Union of Myanmar Environmental Management 37 1 30 39 Bibcode 2006EnMan 37 30L doi 10 1007 s00267 004 0273 9 PMID 16362487 Hossain A N M Lynam A J Ngoprasert D Barlow A Barlow C G amp Savini T 2018 Identifying landscape factors affecting tiger decline in the Bangladesh Sundarbans Global Ecology and Conservation 13 e00382 doi 10 1016 j gecco 2018 e00382 a b The future of Panthera tigris in Thailand and globally iucn org 2 August 2022 Archived from the original on 11 November 2023 Retrieved 8 April 2024 Hotte M H Kolodin I A Bereznuk S L Slaght J C Kerley L L Soutyrina S V Salkina G P Zaumyslova O Y Stokes E J amp Miquelle D G 2016 Indicators of success for smart law enforcement in protected areas A case study for Russian Amur tiger Panthera tigris altaica reserves Integrative Zoology 11 1 2 15 doi 10 1111 1749 4877 12168 PMID 26458501 Lam W Y Phung C C Mat Z A Jamaluddin H Sivayogam C P Zainal Abidin F A Sulaiman A Cheok M K Y Osama N A W Sabaan S Abu Hashim A K Booton M D Harihar A Clements G R amp Pickles R S A 2023 Using a crime prevention framework to evaluate tiger counter poaching in a Southeast Asian rainforest Frontiers in Conservation Science 4 1213552 doi 10 3389 fcosc 2023 1213552 Franklin N Bastoni Sriyanto Siswomartono D Manansang J and R Tilson Last of the Indonesian tigers a cause for optimism in Seidensticker Christie amp Jackson 1999 pp 130 147 Tilson R 1999 Sumatran Tiger Project Report No 17 amp 18 July December 1999 Grant number 1998 0093 059 Indonesian Sumatran Tiger Steering Committee Jakarta Nyhus P Sumianto and R Tilson The tiger human dimension in southeast Sumatra in Seidensticker Christie amp Jackson 1999 pp 144 145 Bhatt T R Castley J G Sims Castley R Baral H S Chauvenet A L M 2023 Connecting tiger Panthera tigris populations in Nepal Identification of corridors among tiger bearing protected areas Ecology and Evolution 13 5 e10140 Bibcode 2023EcoEv 1310140B doi 10 1002 ece3 10140 PMC 10227491 PMID 37261321 Harihar A Pandav B Ghosh Harihar M amp Goodrich J 2020 Demographic and ecological correlates of a recovering tiger Panthera tigris population Lessons learnt from 13 years of monitoring Biological Conservation 252 108848 Bibcode 2020BCons 25208848H doi 10 1016 j biocon 2020 108848 Rahaman M H Masroor M Sajjad H amp Saha T K 2024 Assessment of habitat suitability and potential corridors for Bengal Tiger Panthera tigris tigris in Valmiki Tiger Reserve India using MaxEnt model and Least Cost modeling approach Environmental Modeling amp Assessment Bibcode 2024EMdAs tmp 19R doi 10 1007 s10666 024 09966 w a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a CS1 maint bibcode link Rahman H Hidayat R H Nofrizal A Y Wilastra I Nasution A F R 2023 Priority corridor zone for human tiger conflict mitigation A landscape connectivity approach in West Sumatra region Indonesia Journal for Nature Conservation 76 126501 Bibcode 2023JNatC 7626501R doi 10 1016 j jnc 2023 126501 Paudyal B N 2023 Evaluation of the project on transboundary cooperation on the conservation of Amur tigers Amur leopards and Snow leopards in North East Asia PDF Report Bangkok Thailand United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific Thapar 2004 pp 186 193 Kothari A S Chhapgar B S Chhapgar B F eds 2005 The Manpoora Tiger about a Tiger Hunt in Rajpootanah The Treasures of Indian Wildlife Mumbai Bombay Natural History Society pp 22 27 ISBN 0195677285 Thapar 2004 p 193 Lodh S 2020 Portrayal of Hunting in Environmental History of India Altralang Journal 2 02 199 doi 10 52919 altralang v2i02 84 S2CID 238134573 Novak R M amp Walker E P 1999 Panthera tigris tiger Walker s Mammals of the World 6th ed Baltimore Johns Hopkins University Press pp 825 828 ISBN 978 0 8018 5789 8 a b Nyhus P J Tilson R Panthera tigris vs Homo sapiens Conflict coexistence or extinction in Tilson amp Nyhus 2010 pp 125 142 a b Goodrich J M 2010 Human tiger conflict A review and call for comprehensive plans Integrative Zoology 5 4 300 312 doi 10 1111 j 1749 4877 2010 00218 x PMID 21392348 Mills 2004 pp 108 110 Thapar 2004 p 276 Green 2006 pp 73 74 Powell M A 2016 People in peril environments at risk coolies tigers and colonial Singapore s ecology of poverty Environment and History 22 3 455 482 doi 10 3197 096734016X14661540219393 hdl 10356 88201 JSTOR 24810674 Thapar 2004 p 274 Barlow A C Ahmad I amp Smith J L 2013 Profiling tigers Panthera tigris to formulate management responses to human killing in the Bangladesh Sundarbans Wildlife Biology in Practice 9 2 30 39 doi 10 2461 wbp 2013 9 6 inactive 11 April 2024 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a CS1 maint DOI inactive as of April 2024 link Mills 2004 pp 111 113 Thapar 2004 pp 173 179 180 Green 2006 pp 126 130 Thapar 2004 pp 202 204 Green 2006 p 140 Thapar 2004 pp 204 205 Iossa G Soulsbury C D Harris S 2009 Are wild animals suited to a travelling circus life Animal Welfare 18 2 129 140 doi 10 1017 S0962728600000270 S2CID 32259865 Thapar 2004 p 214 a b Henry L 2020 5 Things Tiger King Doesn t Explain About Captive Tiger Worldwildlife org Retrieved 19 February 2024 June 18 Deadline for Compliance With Big Cat Public Safety Act fws gov 2023 Retrieved 20 February 2024 Endangered tiger earns its stripes as the world s most popular beast The Independent 6 December 2004 Archived from the original on 20 January 2008 Retrieved 7 March 2009 Albert C Luque G M Courchamp F 2018 The twenty most charismatic species PLOS ONE 13 7 e0199149 Bibcode 2018PLoSO 1399149A doi 10 1371 journal pone 0199149 PMC 6037359 PMID 29985962 a b c Werness H B 2007 The Continuum Encyclopedia of Animal Symbolism in World Art Continuum International Publishing Group pp 402 404 ISBN 978 0826419132 Green 2006 pp 39 46 Thapar 2004 pp 156 164 Cooper J C 1992 Symbolic and Mythological Animals London Aquarian Press p 227 ISBN 978 1 85538 118 6 Green 2006 pp 60 86 88 96 Nair R Dhee Patli O Surve N Andheria A Linnell J D C amp Athreya V 2021 Sharing spaces and entanglements with big cats the Warli and their Waghoba in Maharashtra India Frontiers in Conservation Science 2 doi 10 3389 fcosc 2021 683356 hdl 11250 2990288 Green 2006 p 96 Thapar 2004 p 152 Green 2006 pp 72 73 78 125 127 147 148 Bibliography Thapar V 2004 Tiger The Ultimate Guide New Delhi CDS Books ISBN 1 59315 024 5 Green S 2006 Tiger London Reaktion Books ISBN 978 1 86189 276 8 MacDonald D ed 2001 The Encyclopedia of Mammals Second ed Oxford Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 7607 1969 5 Tilson R Nyhus P J eds 2010 Tigers of the World The Science Politics and Conservation ofPanthera tigris Second ed London Academic Press ISBN 978 0 08 094751 8 Mills S 2004 Tiger Richmond Hill Firefly Books ISBN 1 55297 949 0 Schaller G B 1967 The Deer and the Tiger A Study of Wildlife in India Chicago University of Chicago Press ISBN 0 226 73631 8 Seidensticker J Christie S Jackson P eds 1999 Riding the Tiger Tiger Conservation in Human Dominated Landscapes Cambridge Cambridge University Press ISBN 978 0521648356 Sludskii A A 1992 Tiger Panthera tigris Linnaeus 1758 In Heptner V G Sludskii A A eds Mlekopitajuscie Sovetskogo Soiuza Moskva Vyssaia Skola Mammals of the Soviet Union Vol II Part 2 Carnivora Hyaenas and Cats Second ed Washington DC Smithsonian Institution and the National Science Foundation pp 95 202 ISBN 978 90 04 08876 4 External links nbsp Media related to Panthera tigris category at Wikimedia Commons nbsp Data related to Panthera tigris at Wikispecies nbsp Quotations related to Tigers at Wikiquote nbsp Tigers travel guide from Wikivoyage Tiger Panthera tigris IUCN SSC Cat Specialist Group Portals nbsp Cats nbsp Mammals nbsp Animals nbsp Biology nbsp Asia Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Tiger amp oldid 1218382940, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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