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Ficus religiosa

Ficus religiosa or sacred fig is a species of fig native to the Indian subcontinent[2] and Indochina[3] that belongs to Moraceae, the fig or mulberry family. It is also known as the bodhi tree,[4] pimple tree, peepul tree,[2] peepal tree, pipala tree, ashvattha tree (in India and Nepal), or Asathu (ඇසතු) in Sinhala [5] The sacred fig is considered to have a religious significance in three major religions that originated on the Indian subcontinent, Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism. Hindu and Jain ascetics consider the species to be sacred and often meditate under it. This is the tree species under which Gautama Buddha is believed to have attained enlightenment. The sacred fig is the state tree of the Indian states of Odisha,[6] Bihar and Haryana.

Sacred fig
The tree trunk and distinctive heart-shaped leaves
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Plantae
Clade: Tracheophytes
Clade: Angiosperms
Clade: Eudicots
Clade: Rosids
Order: Rosales
Family: Moraceae
Genus: Ficus
Subgenus: F. subg. Urostigma
Species:
F. religiosa
Binomial name
Ficus religiosa
L. 1753 not Forssk. 1775
Synonyms[1]
  • Ficus caudata Stokes
  • Ficus peepul Griff.
  • Ficus religiosa var. cordata Miq.
  • Ficus religiosa var. rhynchophylla Miq.
  • Ficus rhynchophylla Steud.
  • Ficus superstitiosa Link
  • Urostigma affine Miq.
  • Urostigma religiosum (L.) Gasp.

Description

 
Nature printed leaf, showing shape and venation

Ficus religiosa is a large dry season-deciduous or semi-evergreen tree up to 30 metres (98 ft) tall and with a trunk diameter of up to 3 metres (9.8 ft). The leaves are cordate in shape with a distinctive extended drip tip; they are 10–17 centimetres (3.9–6.7 in) long and 8–12 centimetres (3.1–4.7 in) broad, with a 6–10 centimetres (2.4–3.9 in) petiole. The fruits are small figs 1–1.5 centimetres (0.39–0.59 in) in diameter, green ripening to purple.[citation needed]

F. religiosa has a lifespan ranging between 900 and 1,500 years. The Jaya Sri Maha Bodhi tree in the city of Anuradhapura in Sri Lanka is estimated to be more than 2,250 years old.[citation needed]

Distribution

Ficus religiosa is native to most of the Indian subcontinentBangladesh, Bhutan, Nepal, Pakistan and India including the Assam region, Eastern Himalaya and the Nicobar Islands, as well as part of Indochina – the Andaman Islands, Thailand, Myanmar and Peninsular Malaysia. It has been widely introduced elsewhere, particularly in the rest of tropical Asia, but also in Iran, Florida and Venezuela.[7]

Ecology

 
Flooded Ficus religiosa trunk in the muddy water of the Mekong, in Laos.

Ficus religiosa suitably grows at altitudes ranging from 10 metres (33 ft) up to 1,520 metres (4,990 ft). Due to the climatic conditions which are prevalent throughout different heat zones, it can grow at latitudes ranging from 30°N to 5°S. It can tolerate air temperatures ranging between 0 to 35 °C (32 to 95 °F), beyond this upper limit its growth diminishes. It grows on a wide variety of soils but preferably needs deep, alluvial sandy loam with good drainage. It is also found on shallow soils including rock crevices.[citation needed]

Association

Ficus religiosa is associated with Blastophaga quadriceps, an agaonid wasp which acts as its pollinator as this wasp lays its eggs only on trees of this species.[citation needed]

Environment

Ficus religiosa is tolerant to various climate zones (Köppen climate classification categories of Af, Am, Aw/As, Cfa, Cwa and Csa) and various types of soils. In Paraguay the tree species occurs in forests at lower elevations, and in China the species has been reported growing at altitudes ranging from 400 to 700 metres (1,300 to 2,300 ft). In India, being a native species, it occurs both naturally in wild as well as cultivated up to altitudes of 1,520 metres (4,990 ft).[citation needed]

Climate

Ficus religiosa is tolerant to widely varying climatic conditions such as Tropical rainforest climate where the region receives more than 60 millimetres (6.0 cm) of precipitation per month, Tropical monsoon climate where average precipitation ranges from 60 millimetres (6.0 cm) in the driest month to 100 millimetres (10 cm), Tropical savanna climate with dry summer where average precipitation ranges from 60 millimetres (6.0 cm) per month in summers to 100 millimetres (10 cm) per month in winters, Warm temperate climate, wet all year where average temperature ranges from 0 to 10 °C (32 to 50 °F) and it is wet all year, as well as Warm temperate climate with dry summer where average temperature ranges from 0 to 10 °C (32 to 50 °F) and summers are dry.[citation needed]

Invasiveness

 
A young tree growing on a concrete wall in Delhi. It is tolerant to wide variety of soils, and hence it even thrives on concrete walls having little moisture.

Unlike most epiphytic jungle figs, which ring the stems of dicotyledonous support trees from the outside, the epiphytic bushes of F. religiosa are not true stranglers. Their roots penetrate inside the stem of the support, eventually splitting it from within. Ficus religiosa has been listed as an "environmental weed" or "naturalised weed" by the Global Compendium of Weeds (Randall, 2012). It has been assigned an invasiveness high risk score of 7 in a risk assessment prepared for the species' invasiveness in Hawaii by PIER.[clarification needed] Such a high score predicts it will become a major pest in suitable climate zones. The major reasons for its invasive behaviour are its fast-growing nature, tolerance to various climate zones and soil types, reported lifespan of over 3,000 years, and its suffocating growth habit as it often begins life as an epiphyte.[citation needed]

In heritage

 
Painted goblet, with peepal leaf motif, from Mundigak (Afghanistan), period IV, c. 2700 BC. Musée Guimet.

The earliest known record of Ficus religiosa in human culture is the use of peepal leaf motifs in the pottery of the Helmand culture, found at Mundigak site, in Kandahar, Afghanistan, dating back to third millennium BCE.[8]

The peepal tree is considered sacred by the followers of Hinduism, Jainism and Buddhism. In the Bhagavad Gita, Krishna says, "I am the Peepal tree among the trees, Narada among the Deva Rishi (Divine sages), Bhrigu among the Saptha-Maharishis, Chitraratha among the Gandharvas, And sage Kapila among the Siddhas."[9] In India, the medal for the highest civilian award, Bharat Ratna, is modelled on the leaf of a Peepal tree.[10]

Buddhism

Gautama Buddha attained enlightenment (bodhi) while meditating underneath a Ficus religiosa. The site is in present-day Bodh Gaya in Bihar, India. The original tree was destroyed, and has been replaced several times. A branch of the original tree was rooted in Anuradhapura, Sri Lanka in 288 BCE and is known as Jaya Sri Maha Bodhi; it is the oldest living human-planted flowering plant (angiosperm) in the world.[11]

 
The Bodhi Tree at the Mahabodhi Temple was propagated from the Sri Maha Bodhi, which in turn was propagated from the original Bodhi Tree at this location.

In Theravada Buddhist Southeast Asia, the tree's massive trunk is often the site of Buddhist or animist shrines. Not all Ficus religiosa are ordinarily called a Bodhi Tree. A true Bodhi Tree is traditionally considered a tree that has as its parent another Bodhi Tree, and so on, until the first Bodhi Tree, which is the tree under which Gautama is said to have gained enlightenment.[12]

Hinduism

Sadhus (Hindu ascetics) meditate beneath sacred fig trees, and Hindus do pradakshina (circumambulation, or meditative pacing) around the sacred fig tree as a mark of worship. Usually seven pradakshinas are done around the tree in the morning time chanting "vriksha rajaya namah", meaning "salutation to the king of trees". It is claimed that the 27 stars (constellations) constituting 12 houses (rasis) and 9 planets are specifically represented precisely by 27 trees—one for each star. The Bodhi Tree is said to represent Pushya (Western star name γ, δ and θ Cancri in the Cancer constellation).[citation needed]

Plaksa is a possible Sanskrit term for Ficus religiosa. However, according to Macdonell and Keith (1912), it denotes the wavy-leaved fig tree (Ficus infectoria) instead. In Hindu texts, the Plaksa tree is associated with the source of the Sarasvati River. The Skanda Purana states that the Sarasvati originates from the water pot of Brahma flows from Plaksa on the Himalayas. According to Vamana Purana 32.1-4, the Sarasvati was rising from the Plaksa tree (Pipal tree).[13] Plaksa Pra-sravana denotes the place where the Sarasvati appears.[14] In the Rigveda Sutras, Plaksa Pra-sravana refers to the source of the Sarasvati.[15]

Cultivation

 
Ficus religiosa taken in early winter
 
Typical example of aerial roots

Ficus religiosa is grown by specialty tree plant nurseries for use as an ornamental tree, in gardens and parks in tropical and subtropical climates. Peepul trees are native to Indian subcontinent and thrive in hot, humid weather. They prefer full sunlight and can grow in all soil types, though loam is the best. When planting, use soil with a pH of 7 or below. While it is possible for the plant to grow indoors in a pot, it grows best outside. Young peepul needs proper nourishment. It requires full sunlight and proper watering. Sacred fig occurs naturally in submontane forest regions.[citation needed] As with many Ficus trees, these are well suited for Bonsai training.

In the Middle East, it is preferably planted as an avenue or road verge tree. In the Philippines and in Nicaragua the species is cultivated in parks and along roadsides and pavements, while in Paraguay it occurs in forests at lower elevations.[16]

In Thailand โพ or "Pho" trees grow everywhere, but in the Wats (temples) they are revered, and usually are several hundred years old, with trunks up to 20 feet (6.1 meters) wide. As with all sacred trees in Thailand, they have a saffron cloth wrapped around the base. A yearly ritual involving the Bo Trees at wats is the purchasing of "mai kam sii" ไม้คำ้ศริ, which are "supports" that look like crutches and are placed under the spreading branches as if holding them up. The purchase money helps fund the wat, a central part of Thai life.

Uses

Ficus religiosa is used in traditional medicine for about fifty types of disorders including asthma, diabetes, diarrhea, epilepsy, gastric problems, inflammatory disorders, infectious and sexual disorders.[17]

Farmers in North India also cultivate it for its fig fruit.[citation needed]

The trunk of this tree is used by farmers as a soil leveller. After seed harvesting, the rectangular trunk is connected to tractors and levels the soil.[18]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ The Plant List, Ficus religiosa L.
  2. ^ a b Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Peepul" . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 21 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 45.
  3. ^ "Ficus religiosa". Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN). Agricultural Research Service (ARS), United States Department of Agriculture (USDA). Retrieved 29 January 2017.
  4. ^ Oxford English Dictionary, Oxford University Press, 1971, p. 1014
  5. ^ . Flowers of India. Archived from the original on 14 February 2012. Retrieved 3 November 2011.
  6. ^ State symbols
  7. ^ "Ficus religiosa L." Plants of the World Online. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. Retrieved 19 March 2021.
  8. ^ Sher, S. and Hameed, A., Comparative Analysis of the Gandharan Floral Motifs from Butkara (I and III) and Takht-i-Bahi. Sindh Antiquities 2020 Vol-06, No 1, pp. 128–145.
  9. ^ "The Bhagavad Gita - Chapter 10 - The Yoga of Manifestation". santosha.com.
  10. ^ Ranjan, Amitav (4 February 2014). . The Indian Express. New Delhi. Archived from the original on 28 April 2014. Retrieved 13 February 2023.
  11. ^ "Rocky Mountain Tree-Ring Research, OLDLIST". Retrieved 3 July 2011.
  12. ^ Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Bo-Tree" . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 4 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 305.
  13. ^ D.S. Chauhan in Radhakrishna, B.P. and Merh, S.S. (editors): Vedic Sarasvati, 1999, p. 35–44
  14. ^ Pancavimsa Brahmana, Jaiminiya Upanisad Brahmana, Katyayana Srauta Sutra, Latyayana Srauta; Macdonell and Keith 1912
  15. ^ Asvalayana Srauta Sutra, Sankhayana Srauta Sutra; Macdonell and Keith 1912, II:55
  16. ^ "Ficus religiosa (sacred fig tree)". Invasive Species Compendium. CABI. Retrieved 23 July 2018.
  17. ^ Damanpreet Singh; Bikram Singh; Rajesh Kumar Goela (12 April 2011). "Journal of Ethnopharmacology : Traditional uses, phytochemistry and pharmacology of Ficus religiosa: A review". Journal of Ethnopharmacology. 134 (3): 565–583. doi:10.1016/j.jep.2011.01.046. PMID 21296646.
  18. ^ "Peepal Tree: Benefits And Uses of Peepal Tree » Trees Varieties". Trees Varieties. 2 November 2020. Retrieved 10 November 2020.

References

  • Keith and Macdonell. 1912. Vedic Index of Names and Subjects.
  • Plaksa description

External links

  • Entry on Bodhi Tree in the Buddhist Dictionary of Pali Proper Names


ficus, religiosa, large, tree, bodh, gaya, india, bodhi, tree, sacred, species, native, indian, subcontinent, indochina, that, belongs, moraceae, mulberry, family, also, known, bodhi, tree, pimple, tree, peepul, tree, peepal, tree, pipala, tree, ashvattha, tre. For the large tree in Bodh Gaya India see Bodhi Tree Ficus religiosa or sacred fig is a species of fig native to the Indian subcontinent 2 and Indochina 3 that belongs to Moraceae the fig or mulberry family It is also known as the bodhi tree 4 pimple tree peepul tree 2 peepal tree pipala tree ashvattha tree in India and Nepal or Asathu ඇසත in Sinhala 5 The sacred fig is considered to have a religious significance in three major religions that originated on the Indian subcontinent Hinduism Buddhism and Jainism Hindu and Jain ascetics consider the species to be sacred and often meditate under it This is the tree species under which Gautama Buddha is believed to have attained enlightenment The sacred fig is the state tree of the Indian states of Odisha 6 Bihar and Haryana Sacred figThe tree trunk and distinctive heart shaped leavesScientific classificationKingdom PlantaeClade TracheophytesClade AngiospermsClade EudicotsClade RosidsOrder RosalesFamily MoraceaeGenus FicusSubgenus F subg UrostigmaSpecies F religiosaBinomial nameFicus religiosaL 1753 not Forssk 1775Synonyms 1 Ficus caudata Stokes Ficus peepul Griff Ficus religiosa var cordata Miq Ficus religiosa var rhynchophylla Miq Ficus rhynchophylla Steud Ficus superstitiosa Link Urostigma affine Miq Urostigma religiosum L Gasp Contents 1 Description 2 Distribution 3 Ecology 3 1 Association 3 2 Environment 3 3 Climate 3 4 Invasiveness 4 In heritage 4 1 Buddhism 4 2 Hinduism 5 Cultivation 6 Uses 7 See also 8 Notes 9 References 10 External linksDescription Edit Nature printed leaf showing shape and venation Ficus religiosa is a large dry season deciduous or semi evergreen tree up to 30 metres 98 ft tall and with a trunk diameter of up to 3 metres 9 8 ft The leaves are cordate in shape with a distinctive extended drip tip they are 10 17 centimetres 3 9 6 7 in long and 8 12 centimetres 3 1 4 7 in broad with a 6 10 centimetres 2 4 3 9 in petiole The fruits are small figs 1 1 5 centimetres 0 39 0 59 in in diameter green ripening to purple citation needed F religiosa has a lifespan ranging between 900 and 1 500 years The Jaya Sri Maha Bodhi tree in the city of Anuradhapura in Sri Lanka is estimated to be more than 2 250 years old citation needed Distribution EditFicus religiosa is native to most of the Indian subcontinent Bangladesh Bhutan Nepal Pakistan and India including the Assam region Eastern Himalaya and the Nicobar Islands as well as part of Indochina the Andaman Islands Thailand Myanmar and Peninsular Malaysia It has been widely introduced elsewhere particularly in the rest of tropical Asia but also in Iran Florida and Venezuela 7 Ecology Edit Flooded Ficus religiosa trunk in the muddy water of the Mekong in Laos Ficus religiosa suitably grows at altitudes ranging from 10 metres 33 ft up to 1 520 metres 4 990 ft Due to the climatic conditions which are prevalent throughout different heat zones it can grow at latitudes ranging from 30 N to 5 S It can tolerate air temperatures ranging between 0 to 35 C 32 to 95 F beyond this upper limit its growth diminishes It grows on a wide variety of soils but preferably needs deep alluvial sandy loam with good drainage It is also found on shallow soils including rock crevices citation needed Association Edit Ficus religiosa is associated with Blastophaga quadriceps an agaonid wasp which acts as its pollinator as this wasp lays its eggs only on trees of this species citation needed Environment Edit Ficus religiosa is tolerant to various climate zones Koppen climate classification categories of Af Am Aw As Cfa Cwa and Csa and various types of soils In Paraguay the tree species occurs in forests at lower elevations and in China the species has been reported growing at altitudes ranging from 400 to 700 metres 1 300 to 2 300 ft In India being a native species it occurs both naturally in wild as well as cultivated up to altitudes of 1 520 metres 4 990 ft citation needed Climate Edit Ficus religiosa is tolerant to widely varying climatic conditions such as Tropical rainforest climate where the region receives more than 60 millimetres 6 0 cm of precipitation per month Tropical monsoon climate where average precipitation ranges from 60 millimetres 6 0 cm in the driest month to 100 millimetres 10 cm Tropical savanna climate with dry summer where average precipitation ranges from 60 millimetres 6 0 cm per month in summers to 100 millimetres 10 cm per month in winters Warm temperate climate wet all year where average temperature ranges from 0 to 10 C 32 to 50 F and it is wet all year as well as Warm temperate climate with dry summer where average temperature ranges from 0 to 10 C 32 to 50 F and summers are dry citation needed Invasiveness Edit A young tree growing on a concrete wall in Delhi It is tolerant to wide variety of soils and hence it even thrives on concrete walls having little moisture Unlike most epiphytic jungle figs which ring the stems of dicotyledonous support trees from the outside the epiphytic bushes of F religiosa are not true stranglers Their roots penetrate inside the stem of the support eventually splitting it from within Ficus religiosa has been listed as an environmental weed or naturalised weed by the Global Compendium of Weeds Randall 2012 It has been assigned an invasiveness high risk score of 7 in a risk assessment prepared for the species invasiveness in Hawaii by PIER clarification needed Such a high score predicts it will become a major pest in suitable climate zones The major reasons for its invasive behaviour are its fast growing nature tolerance to various climate zones and soil types reported lifespan of over 3 000 years and its suffocating growth habit as it often begins life as an epiphyte citation needed In heritage Edit Painted goblet with peepal leaf motif from Mundigak Afghanistan period IV c 2700 BC Musee Guimet The earliest known record of Ficus religiosa in human culture is the use of peepal leaf motifs in the pottery of the Helmand culture found at Mundigak site in Kandahar Afghanistan dating back to third millennium BCE 8 The peepal tree is considered sacred by the followers of Hinduism Jainism and Buddhism In the Bhagavad Gita Krishna says I am the Peepal tree among the trees Narada among the Deva Rishi Divine sages Bhrigu among the Saptha Maharishis Chitraratha among the Gandharvas And sage Kapila among the Siddhas 9 In India the medal for the highest civilian award Bharat Ratna is modelled on the leaf of a Peepal tree 10 Buddhism Edit Main article Bodhi tree Gautama Buddha attained enlightenment bodhi while meditating underneath a Ficus religiosa The site is in present day Bodh Gaya in Bihar India The original tree was destroyed and has been replaced several times A branch of the original tree was rooted in Anuradhapura Sri Lanka in 288 BCE and is known as Jaya Sri Maha Bodhi it is the oldest living human planted flowering plant angiosperm in the world 11 The Bodhi Tree at the Mahabodhi Temple was propagated from the Sri Maha Bodhi which in turn was propagated from the original Bodhi Tree at this location In Theravada Buddhist Southeast Asia the tree s massive trunk is often the site of Buddhist or animist shrines Not all Ficus religiosa are ordinarily called a Bodhi Tree A true Bodhi Tree is traditionally considered a tree that has as its parent another Bodhi Tree and so on until the first Bodhi Tree which is the tree under which Gautama is said to have gained enlightenment 12 Hinduism Edit Sadhus Hindu ascetics meditate beneath sacred fig trees and Hindus do pradakshina circumambulation or meditative pacing around the sacred fig tree as a mark of worship Usually seven pradakshinas are done around the tree in the morning time chanting vriksha rajaya namah meaning salutation to the king of trees It is claimed that the 27 stars constellations constituting 12 houses rasis and 9 planets are specifically represented precisely by 27 trees one for each star The Bodhi Tree is said to represent Pushya Western star name g d and 8 Cancri in the Cancer constellation citation needed Plaksa is a possible Sanskrit term for Ficus religiosa However according to Macdonell and Keith 1912 it denotes the wavy leaved fig tree Ficus infectoria instead In Hindu texts the Plaksa tree is associated with the source of the Sarasvati River The Skanda Purana states that the Sarasvati originates from the water pot of Brahma flows from Plaksa on the Himalayas According to Vamana Purana 32 1 4 the Sarasvati was rising from the Plaksa tree Pipal tree 13 Plaksa Pra sravana denotes the place where the Sarasvati appears 14 In the Rigveda Sutras Plaksa Pra sravana refers to the source of the Sarasvati 15 Cultivation Edit Ficus religiosa taken in early winter Typical example of aerial roots Ficus religiosa is grown by specialty tree plant nurseries for use as an ornamental tree in gardens and parks in tropical and subtropical climates Peepul trees are native to Indian subcontinent and thrive in hot humid weather They prefer full sunlight and can grow in all soil types though loam is the best When planting use soil with a pH of 7 or below While it is possible for the plant to grow indoors in a pot it grows best outside Young peepul needs proper nourishment It requires full sunlight and proper watering Sacred fig occurs naturally in submontane forest regions citation needed As with many Ficus trees these are well suited for Bonsai training In the Middle East it is preferably planted as an avenue or road verge tree In the Philippines and in Nicaragua the species is cultivated in parks and along roadsides and pavements while in Paraguay it occurs in forests at lower elevations 16 In Thailand oph or Pho trees grow everywhere but in the Wats temples they are revered and usually are several hundred years old with trunks up to 20 feet 6 1 meters wide As with all sacred trees in Thailand they have a saffron cloth wrapped around the base A yearly ritual involving the Bo Trees at wats is the purchasing of mai kam sii imkhasri which are supports that look like crutches and are placed under the spreading branches as if holding them up The purchase money helps fund the wat a central part of Thai life Uses EditFicus religiosa is used in traditional medicine for about fifty types of disorders including asthma diabetes diarrhea epilepsy gastric problems inflammatory disorders infectious and sexual disorders 17 Farmers in North India also cultivate it for its fig fruit citation needed The trunk of this tree is used by farmers as a soil leveller After seed harvesting the rectangular trunk is connected to tractors and levels the soil 18 See also EditBodhi Tree Shitala Devi Ficus RuminalisNotes Edit The Plant List Ficus religiosa L a b Chisholm Hugh ed 1911 Peepul Encyclopaedia Britannica Vol 21 11th ed Cambridge University Press p 45 Ficus religiosa Germplasm Resources Information Network GRIN Agricultural Research Service ARS United States Department of Agriculture USDA Retrieved 29 January 2017 Oxford English Dictionary Oxford University Press 1971 p 1014 Ficus religiosa Peepal Flowers of India Archived from the original on 14 February 2012 Retrieved 3 November 2011 State symbols Ficus religiosa L Plants of the World Online Royal Botanic Gardens Kew Retrieved 19 March 2021 Sher S and Hameed A Comparative Analysis of the Gandharan Floral Motifs from Butkara I and III and Takht i Bahi Sindh Antiquities 2020 Vol 06 No 1 pp 128 145 The Bhagavad Gita Chapter 10 The Yoga of Manifestation santosha com Ranjan Amitav 4 February 2014 Sachin s Bharat Ratna today a medal from 2000 The Indian Express New Delhi Archived from the original on 28 April 2014 Retrieved 13 February 2023 Rocky Mountain Tree Ring Research OLDLIST Retrieved 3 July 2011 Chisholm Hugh ed 1911 Bo Tree Encyclopaedia Britannica Vol 4 11th ed Cambridge University Press p 305 D S Chauhan in Radhakrishna B P and Merh S S editors Vedic Sarasvati 1999 p 35 44 Pancavimsa Brahmana Jaiminiya Upanisad Brahmana Katyayana Srauta Sutra Latyayana Srauta Macdonell and Keith 1912 Asvalayana Srauta Sutra Sankhayana Srauta Sutra Macdonell and Keith 1912 II 55 Ficus religiosa sacred fig tree Invasive Species Compendium CABI Retrieved 23 July 2018 Damanpreet Singh Bikram Singh Rajesh Kumar Goela 12 April 2011 Journal of Ethnopharmacology Traditional uses phytochemistry and pharmacology of Ficus religiosa A review Journal of Ethnopharmacology 134 3 565 583 doi 10 1016 j jep 2011 01 046 PMID 21296646 Peepal Tree Benefits And Uses of Peepal Tree Trees Varieties Trees Varieties 2 November 2020 Retrieved 10 November 2020 References EditKeith and Macdonell 1912 Vedic Index of Names and Subjects Plaksa descriptionExternal links Edit Wikimedia Commons has media related to Ficus religiosa category Wikispecies has information related to Ficus religiosa Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica article Bo Tree Entry on Bodhi Tree in the Buddhist Dictionary of Pali Proper Names Peepul Encyclopedia Americana 1920 The Bodhi tree revealed by old picture Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Ficus religiosa amp oldid 1150120725, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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