fbpx
Wikipedia

Jaguar

January 07, 2023

For the car manufacturer, see Jaguar Cars. For other uses, see Jaguar (disambiguation).

The jaguar (Panthera onca) is a large cat species and the only living member of the genus Panthera native to the Americas. With a body length of up to 1.85 m (6 ft 1 in) and a weight of up to 158 kg (348 lb), it is the largest cat species in the Americas and the third largest in the world. Its distinctively marked coat features pale yellow to tan colored fur covered by spots that transition to rosettes on the sides, although a melanistic black coat appears in some individuals. The jaguar's powerful bite allows it to pierce the carapaces of turtles and tortoises, and to employ an unusual killing method: it bites directly through the skull of mammalian prey between the ears to deliver a fatal blow to the brain.

Jaguar
Temporal range: 0.5–0 Ma
↓
Middle Pleistocene – Recent
CITES Appendix I (CITES)[1]
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Mammalia
Order: Carnivora
Suborder: Feliformia
Family: Felidae
Subfamily: Pantherinae
Genus: Panthera
Species:
P. onca
Binomial name
Panthera onca
  Current range

  Former range

Synonyms[2]
  • Felis augustus (Leidy, 1872)
  • Felis listai (Roth, 1899)
  • Felis onca Linnaeus, 1758
  • Felis onca subsp. boliviensis Nelson & Goldman, 1933
  • Felis onca subsp. coxi Nelson & Goldman, 1933
  • Felis onca subsp. ucayalae Nelson & Goldman, 1933
  • Felis veronis Hay, 1919
  • Iemish listai (Roth, 1899)
  • Panthera augusta (Leidy, 1872)
  • Panthera onca subsp. augusta (Leidy, 1872)
  • Uncia augusta (Leidy, 1872)

The modern jaguar's ancestors probably entered the Americas from Eurasia during the Early Pleistocene via the land bridge that once spanned the Bering Strait. Today, the jaguar's range extends from core Southwestern United States across Mexico and much of Central America, the Amazon rainforest and south to Paraguay and northern Argentina. It inhabits a variety of forested and open terrains, but its preferred habitat is tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forest, wetlands and wooded regions. It is adept at swimming and is largely a solitary, opportunistic, stalk-and-ambush apex predator. As a keystone species, it plays an important role in stabilizing ecosystems and in regulating prey populations.

The jaguar is threatened by habitat loss, habitat fragmentation, poaching for trade with its body parts and killings in human–wildlife conflict situations, particularly with ranchers in Central and South America. It has been listed as Near Threatened on the IUCN Red List since 2002. The wild population is thought to have declined since the late 1990s. Priority areas for jaguar conservation comprise 51 Jaguar Conservation Units (JCUs), defined as large areas inhabited by at least 50 breeding jaguars. The JCUs are located in 36 geographic regions ranging from Mexico to Argentina.

The jaguar has featured prominently in the mythology of indigenous peoples of the Americas, including those of the Aztec and Maya civilizations.

Etymology

The word "jaguar" is possibly derived from the Tupi-Guarani word yaguara meaning 'wild beast that overcomes its prey at a bound'.[3][4] In North America, the word is pronounced disyllabic /ˈdʒæɡwɑːr/, while in British English, it is pronounced with three syllables /ˈdʒæɡjuːər/.[5][6] Because that word also applies to other animals, indigenous peoples in Guyana call it jaguareté, with the added sufix eté, meaning "true beast".[7][8] "Onca" is derived from the Portuguese name onça for a spotted cat in Brazil that is larger than a lynx; cf. ounce.[9] The word "panther" is derived from classical Latin panthēra, itself from the ancient Greek πάνθηρ (pánthēr).[10]

Taxonomy and evolution

Taxonomy

In 1758, Carl Linnaeus described the jaguar in his work Systema Naturae and gave it the scientific name Felis onca.[11] In the 19th and 20th centuries, several jaguar type specimens formed the basis for descriptions of subspecies.[2] In 1939, Reginald Innes Pocock recognized eight subspecies based on the geographic origins and skull morphology of these specimens.[12] Pocock did not have access to sufficient zoological specimens to critically evaluate their subspecific status but expressed doubt about the status of several. Later consideration of his work suggested only three subspecies should be recognized. The description of P. o. palustris was based on a fossil skull.[4]

By 2005, nine subspecies were considered to be valid taxa.[2]

Formerly recognized subspecies

Reginald Innes Pocock placed the jaguar in the genus Panthera and observed that it shares several morphological features with the leopard (P. pardus). He, therefore, concluded that they are most closely related to each other.[12] Results of morphological and genetic research indicate a clinal north–south variation between populations, but no evidence for subspecific differentiation.[20][21] DNA analysis of 84 jaguar samples from South America revealed that the gene flow between jaguar populations in Colombia was high in the past.[22] Since 2017, the jaguar is considered to be a monotypic taxon.[23]

Evolution

 
Fossil skull of P. o. augusta

The Panthera lineage is estimated to have genetically diverged from the common ancestor of the Felidae around 9.32 to 4.47 million years ago to 11.75 to 0.97 million years ago,[24][25][26] and the geographic origin of the genus is most likely northern Central Asia.[27] Some genetic analyses place the jaguar as a sister species to the lion with which it diverged 3.46 to 1.22 million years ago,[24][25] but other studies place the lion closer to the leopard.[28][29]

The lineage of the jaguar appears to have originated in Africa and spread to Eurasia 1.95–1.77 mya. The modern species may have descended from Panthera gombaszoegensis, which is thought to have entered the American continent via Beringia, the land bridge that once spanned the Bering Strait.[30][31] Fossils of modern jaguars have been found in North America dating to over 850,000 years ago.[4] Results of mitochondrial DNA analysis of 37 jaguars indicate that current populations evolved between 510,000 and 280,000 years ago in northern South America and subsequently recolonized North and Central America after the extinction of jaguars there during the Late Pleistocene.[20]

Two extinct subspecies of jaguar are recognized in the fossil record: the North American P. o. augusta and South American P. o. mesembrina.[32]

Phylogenetic relationships of the jaguar as derived through analysis of
nuclear DNA:[24]
Felidae

Felinae  

Pantherinae
Panthera

Lion (P. leo)  

Jaguar  

Leopard (P. pardus)  

Tiger (P. tigris)  

Snow leopard (P. uncia)  

Neofelis  

mitochondrial DNA:[26]
Felidae

Felinae  

Pantherinae
Panthera

Lion  

Leopard  

Snow leopard  

Jaguar  

Tiger  

Neofelis  

Description

 
Skull of a jaguar
 
Illustration of cheetah, leopard and jaguar
 
A black jaguar. Such melanistic jaguars as well as leopards are commonly called black panthers

The jaguar is a compact and well-muscled animal. It is the largest cat native to the Americas and the third largest in the world, exceeded in size only by the tiger and the lion.[4][33][34] It stands 68 to 75 cm (26.8 to 29.5 in) tall at the shoulders.[35] Its size and weight vary considerably: weights are normally in the range of 56–96 kg (123–212 lb). Exceptionally big males have been recorded to weigh as much as 158 kg (348 lb).[36][37] The smallest females weigh about 36 kg (79 lb). It is sexually dimorphic, with females typically being 10–20% smaller than males. The length from the nose to the base of the tail varies from 1.12 to 1.85 m (3 ft 8 in to 6 ft 1 in). The tail is 45 to 75 cm (18 to 30 in) long and the shortest of any big cat.[36] Its muscular legs are shorter than the legs of other Panthera species with similar body weight.[38]

Further variations in size have been observed across regions and habitats, with size tending to increase from north to south. Jaguars in the Chamela-Cuixmala Biosphere Reserve on the Pacific coast of central Mexico weighed around 50 kg (110 lb), which is about the size of a female cougar (Puma concolor).[39] Jaguars in Venezuela and Brazil are much larger, with average weights of about 95 kg (209 lb) in males and of about 56–78 kg (123–172 lb) in females.[4]

The jaguar's coat ranges from pale yellow to tan or reddish-yellow, with a whitish underside and covered in black spots. The spots and their shapes vary: on the sides, they become rosettes which may include one or several dots. The spots on the head and neck are generally solid, as are those on the tail where they may merge to form bands near the end and create a black tip. They are elongated on the middle of the back, often connecting to create a median stripe, and blotchy on the belly.[4] These patterns serve as camouflage in areas with dense vegetation and patchy shadows.[40] Jaguars living in forests are often darker and considerably smaller than those living in open areas, possibly due to the smaller numbers of large, herbivorous prey in forest areas.[41]

The jaguar closely resembles the leopard but is generally more robust, with stockier limbs and a more square head. The rosettes on a jaguar's coat are larger, darker, fewer in number and have thicker lines, with a small spot in the middle.[38] It has powerful jaws with the third-highest bite force of all felids, after the tiger and the lion.[42] It has an average bite force at the canine tip of 887.0 Newton and a bite force quotient at the canine tip of 118.6.[43] A 100 kg (220 lb) jaguar can bite with a force of 4.939 kN (1,110 lbf) with the canine teeth and 6.922 kN (1,556 lbf) at the carnassial notch.[44]

Color variation

Melanistic jaguars are also known as black panthers. The black morph is less common than the spotted one.[45] Black jaguars have been documented in Central and South America. Melanism in the jaguar is caused by deletions in the melanocortin 1 receptor gene and inherited through a dominant allele.[46]

In 2004, a camera trap in the Sierra Madre Occidental mountains photographed the first documented black jaguar in Northern Mexico.[47] Black jaguars were also photographed in Costa Rica's Alberto Manuel Brenes Biological Reserve, in the mountains of the Cordillera de Talamanca, in Barbilla National Park and in eastern Panama.[48][49][50][51]

Distribution and habitat

 
A female jaguar at Piquiri River, Mato Grosso state, Brazil
 
A jaguar in São Lourenço River
See also: North American jaguar and South American jaguar

In the 19th century, the jaguar was still sighted at the North Platte River in Colorado and coastal Louisiana.[52] In 1919, sightings of jaguars were reported in the Monterey, California region.[53] In 1999, its historic range at the turn of the 20th century was estimated at 19,000,000 km2 (7,300,000 sq mi), stretching from the southern United States through Central America to southern Argentina. By the turn of the 21st century, its global range had decreased to about 8,750,000 km2 (3,380,000 sq mi), with most declines in the southern United States, northern Mexico, northern Brazil, and southern Argentina.[54] Its present range extends from Mexico through Central America to South America comprising Belize, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, particularly on the Osa Peninsula, Panama, Colombia, Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname, French Guiana, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay and Argentina. It is considered to be locally extinct in El Salvador and Uruguay.[1]

Jaguars have been occasionally sighted in Arizona, New Mexico and Texas.[55][56] Between 2012 and 2015, a male vagrant jaguar was recorded in 23 locations in the Santa Rita Mountains.[57]

The jaguar prefers dense forest and typically inhabits dry deciduous forests, tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests, rainforests and cloud forests in Central and South America; open, seasonally flooded wetlands, dry grassland and historically also oak forests in the United States. It has been recorded at elevations up to 3,800 m (12,500 ft) but avoids montane forests. It favors riverine habitat and swamps with dense vegetation cover.[41] In the Mayan forests of Mexico and Guatemala, 11 GPS-collared jaguars preferred undisturbed dense habitat away from roads; females avoided even areas with low levels of human activity, whereas males appeared less disturbed by human population density.[58] A young male jaguar was also recorded in the semi-arid Sierra de San Carlos at a waterhole.[59]

Behavior and ecology

The jaguar is mostly active at night and during twilight.[60][61][62] However, jaguars living in densely forested regions of the Amazon Rainforest and the Pantanal are largely active by day, whereas jaguars in the Atlantic Forest are primarily active by night.[63] The activity pattern of the jaguar coincides with the activity of its main prey species.[64] Jaguars are good swimmers and play and hunt in the water, possibly more than tigers. They have been recorded moving between islands and the shore. Jaguars are also good at climbing trees but do so less often than cougars.[4]

Ecological role

 
Jaguar at Three Brothers River, Pantanal, Brazil

The adult jaguar is an apex predator, meaning it is at the top of the food chain and is not preyed upon in the wild. The jaguar has also been termed a keystone species, as it is assumed that it controls the population levels of prey such as herbivorous and seed-eating mammals and thus maintains the structural integrity of forest systems.[39][65][66] However, field work has shown this may be natural variability, and the population increases may not be sustained. Thus, the keystone predator hypothesis is not accepted by all scientists.[67]

The jaguar is sympatric with the cougar (Puma concolor). In central Mexico, both prey on white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus), which makes up 54% and 66% of jaguar and cougar's prey, respectively.[39] In northern Mexico, the jaguar and the cougar share the same habitat, and their diet overlaps dependent on prey availability. Jaguars seemed to prefer deer and calves. In Mexico and Central America, neither of the two cats are considered to be the dominant predator.[68] In South America, the jaguar is larger than the cougar and tends to take larger prey, usually over 22 kg (49 lb). The cougar's prey usually weighs between 2 and 22 kg (4 and 49 lb), which is thought to be the reason for its smaller size.[69] This situation may be advantageous to the cougar. Its broader prey niche, including its ability to take smaller prey, may give it an advantage over the jaguar in human-altered landscapes.[39]

Hunting and diet

 
The jaguar has a powerful bite that allows it to pierce the shells of armored prey.
 
Jaguars killing and feeding on a yacare caiman

The jaguar is an obligate carnivore and depends solely on flesh for its nutrient requirements. An analysis of 53 studies documenting the diet of the jaguar revealed that its prey ranges in weight from 1 to 130 kg (2.2 to 286.6 lb); it prefers prey weighing 45–85 kg (99–187 lb), with capybara (Hydrochoerus hydrochaeris) and giant anteater (Myrmecophaga tridactyla) being the most selected. When available, it also preys on marsh deer (Blastocerus dichotomus), southern tamandua (Tamandua tetradactyla), collared peccary (Dicotyles tajacu) and black agouti (Dasyprocta fuliginosa).[33] In floodplains, jaguars opportunistically take reptiles such as turtles and caimans. Consumption of reptiles appears to be more frequent in jaguars than in other big cats.[70] One remote population in the Brazilian Pantanal is recorded to primarily feed on aquatic reptiles and fish.[71] The jaguar also preys on livestock in cattle ranching areas where wild prey is scarce.[72][73] The daily food requirement of a captive jaguar weighing 34 kg (75 lb) was estimated at 1.4 kg (3.1 lb) of meat.[74]

The jaguar's bite force allows it to pierce the carapaces of the yellow-spotted Amazon river turtle (Podocnemis unifilis) and the yellow-footed tortoise (Chelonoidis denticulatus).[74][75] It employs an unusual killing method: it bites mammalian prey directly through the skull between the ears to deliver a fatal bite to the brain.[76] It kills capybara by piercing its canine teeth through the temporal bones of its skull, breaking its zygomatic arch and mandible and penetrating its brain, often through the ears.[77] It has been hypothesized to be an adaptation to "cracking open" turtle shells; armored reptiles may have formed an abundant prey base for the jaguar following the late Pleistocene extinctions.[74] However, this is disputed, as even in areas where jaguars prey on reptiles, they are still taken relatively infrequently compared to mammals in spite of their greater abundance.[70]

Between October 2001 and April 2004, 10 jaguars were monitored in the southern Pantanal. In the dry season from April to September, they killed prey at intervals ranging from one to seven days; and ranging from one to 16 days in the wet season from October to March.[78]

The jaguar uses a stalk-and-ambush strategy when hunting rather than chasing prey. The cat will slowly walk down forest paths, listening for and stalking prey before rushing or ambushing. The jaguar attacks from cover and usually from a target's blind spot with a quick pounce; the species' ambushing abilities are considered nearly peerless in the animal kingdom by both indigenous people and field researchers and are probably a product of its role as an apex predator in several different environments. The ambush may include leaping into water after prey, as a jaguar is quite capable of carrying a large kill while swimming; its strength is such that carcasses as large as a heifer can be hauled up a tree to avoid flood levels. After killing prey, the jaguar will drag the carcass to a thicket or other secluded spot. It begins eating at the neck and chest. The heart and lungs are consumed, followed by the shoulders.[79]

Social activity

 
Female (left) and male jaguar (right) at São Lourenço River

The jaguar is generally solitary except for females with cubs. In 1977, groups consisting of a male, female and cubs, and two females with two males were sighted several times in a study area in the Paraguay River valley.[80] In some areas, males may form paired coalitions which together mark, defend and invade territories, find and mate with the same females and search for and share prey.[81] A radio-collared female moved in a home range of 25–38 km2 (9.7–14.7 sq mi), which partly overlapped with another female. The home range of the male in this study area overlapped with several females.[80]

The jaguar uses scrape marks, urine, and feces to mark its territory.[82][83] The size of home ranges depends on the level of deforestation and human population density. The home ranges of females vary from 15.3 km2 (5.9 sq mi) in the Pantanal to 53.6 km2 (20.7 sq mi) in the Amazon to 233.5 km2 (90.2 sq mi) in the Atlantic Forest. Male jaguar home ranges vary from 25 km2 (9.7 sq mi) in the Pantanal to 180.3 km2 (69.6 sq mi) in the Amazon to 591.4 km2 (228.3 sq mi) in the Atlantic Forest and 807.4 km2 (311.7 sq mi) in the Cerrado.[84] Studies employing GPS telemetry in 2003 and 2004 found densities of only six to seven jaguars per 100 km2 in the Pantanal region, compared with 10 to 11 using traditional methods; this suggests the widely used sampling methods may inflate the actual numbers of individuals in a sampling area.[85] Fights between males occur but are rare, and avoidance behavior has been observed in the wild.[82] In one wetland population with degraded territorial boundaries and more social proximity, adults of the same sex are more tolerant of each other and engage in more friendly and co-operative interactions.[71]

Captive jaguar vocalizing while playing

The jaguar roars or grunts for long-distance communication;[4][74] intensive bouts of counter-calling between individuals have been observed in the wild.[74] This vocalization is described as "hoarse" with five or six guttural notes.[4] Chuffing is produced by individuals when greeting, during courting, or by a mother comforting her cubs. This sound is described as low intensity snorts, possibly intended to signal tranquility and passivity.[86][87] Cubs have been recorded bleating, gurgling and mewing.[4]

Reproduction and life cycle

 
Female jaguar picking up her cub

In captivity, the female jaguar is recorded to reach sexual maturity at the age of about 2.5 years. Estrus lasts 7–15 days with an estrus cycle of 41.8 to 52.6 days. During estrus, she exhibits increased restlessness with rolling and prolonged vocalizations.[88] She is an induced ovulator but can also ovulate spontaneously.[89]Gestation lasts 91 to 111 days.[90] The male is sexually mature at the age of three to four years.[91] His mean ejaculate volume is 8.6±1.3 ml.[92]Generation length of the jaguar is 9.8 years.[93]

In the Pantanal, breeding pairs were observed to stay together for up to five days. Females had one to two cubs.[94] The young are born with closed eyes but open them after two weeks. Cubs are weaned at the age of three months but remain in the birth den for six months before leaving to accompany their mother on hunts.[95] Jaguars remain with their mothers for up to two years. They appear to rarely live beyond 11 years, but captive individuals may live 22 years.[4]

In 2001, a male jaguar killed and partially consumed two cubs in Emas National Park. DNA paternity testing of blood samples revealed that the male was the father of the cubs.[96] Two more cases of infanticide were documented in the northern Pantanal in 2013.[97] To defend against infanticide, the female may hide her cubs and distract the male with courtship behavior.[98]

Attacks on humans

Further information: Man-eater

The Spanish conquistadors feared the jaguar. According to Charles Darwin, the indigenous peoples of South America stated that people did not need to fear the jaguar as long as capybaras were abundant.[99] The first official record of a jaguar killing a human in Brazil dates to June 2008.[100] Two children were attacked by jaguars in Guyana.[101] The jaguar is the least likely of all big cats to kill and eat humans, and the majority of attacks come when it has been cornered or wounded.[102]

Threats

 
A South American jaguar killed by Theodore Roosevelt

The jaguar is threatened by loss and fragmentation of habitat, illegal killing in retaliation for livestock depredation and for illegal trade in jaguar body parts. It is listed as Near Threatened on the IUCN Red List since 2002, as the jaguar population has probably declined by 20–25% since the mid-1990s. Deforestation is a major threat to the jaguar across its range. Habitat loss was most rapid in drier regions such as the Argentine pampas, the arid grasslands of Mexico and the southwestern United States.[1]

In 2002, it was estimated that the range of the jaguar had declined to about 46% of its range in the early 20th century.[54] In 2018, it was estimated that its range had declined by 55% in the last century. The only remaining stronghold is the Amazon rainforest, a region that is rapidly being fragmented by deforestation.[103] Between 2000 and 2012, forest loss in the jaguar range amounted to 83.759 km2 (32.340 sq mi), with fragmentation increasing in particular in corridors between Jaguar Conservation Units (JCUs).[104] By 2014, direct linkages between two JCUs in Bolivia were lost, and two JCUs in northern Argentina became completely isolated due to deforestation.[105]

In Mexico, the jaguar is primarily threatened by poaching. Its habitat is fragmented in northern Mexico, in the Gulf of Mexico and the Yucatán Peninsula, caused by changes in land use, construction of roads and tourism infrastructure.[106] In Panama, 220 of 230 jaguars were killed in retaliation for predation on livestock between 1998 and 2014.[107] In Venezuela, the jaguar was extirpated in about 26% of its range in the country since 1940, mostly in dry savannas and unproductive scrubland in the northeastern region of Anzoátegui.[108] In Ecuador, the jaguar is threatened by reduced prey availability in areas where the expansion of the road network facilitated access of human hunters to forests.[109] In the Alto Paraná Atlantic forests, at least 117 jaguars were killed in Iguaçu National Park and the adjacent Misiones Province between 1995 and 2008.[110] Some Afro-Colombians in the Colombian Chocó Department hunt jaguars for consumption and sale of meat.[111] Between 2008 and 2012, at least 15 jaguars were killed by livestock farmers in central Belize.[112]

The international trade of jaguar skins boomed between the end of the Second World War and the early 1970s.[113] Significant declines occurred in the 1960s, as more than 15,000 jaguars were yearly killed for their skins in the Brazilian Amazon alone; the trade in jaguar skins decreased since 1973 when the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species was enacted.[114] Interview surveys with 533 people in the northwestern Bolivian Amazon revealed that local people killed jaguars out of fear, in retaliation, and for trade.[115] Between August 2016 and August 2019, jaguar skins and body parts were seen for sale in tourist markets in the Peruvian cities of Lima, Iquitos and Pucallpa.[116]Human-wildlife conflict, opportunistic hunting and hunting for trade in domestic markets are key drivers for killing jaguars in Belize and Guatemala.[117] Seizure reports indicate that at least 857 jaguars were involved in trade between 2012 and 2018, including 482 individuals in Bolivia alone; 31 jaguars were seized in China.[118] Between 2014 and early 2019, 760 jaguar fangs were seized that originated in Bolivia and were destined for China. Undercover investigations revealed that the smuggling of jaguar body parts is run by Chinese residents in Bolivia.[119]

Conservation

The jaguar is listed on CITES Appendix I, which means that all international commercial trade in jaguars or their body parts is prohibited. Hunting jaguars is prohibited in Argentina, Brazil, Colombia, French Guiana, Honduras, Nicaragua, Panama, Paraguay, Suriname, the United States, and Venezuela. Hunting jaguars is restricted in Guatemala and Peru.[1] In Ecuador, hunting jaguars is prohibited, and it is classified as threatened with extinction.[120] In Guyana, it is protected as an endangered species, and hunting it is illegal.[121]

 
El Jefe, a jaguar in Arizona

In 1986, the Cockscomb Basin Wildlife Sanctuary was established in Belize as the world's first protected area for jaguar conservation.[122]

Jaguar Conservation Units

In 1999, field scientists from 18 jaguar range countries determined the most important areas for long-term jaguar conservation based on the status of jaguar population units, stability of prey base and quality of habitat. These areas, called "Jaguar Conservation Units" (JCUs), are large enough for at least 50 breeding individuals and range in size from 566 to 67,598 km2 (219 to 26,100 sq mi); 51 JCUs were designated in 36 geographic regions including:[54]

Optimal routes of travel between core jaguar population units were identified across its range in 2010 to implement wildlife corridors that connect JCUs. These corridors represent areas with the shortest distance between jaguar breeding populations, require the least possible energy input of dispersing individuals and pose a low mortality risk. They cover an area of 2,600,000 km2 (1,000,000 sq mi) and range in length from 3 to 1,102 km (1.9 to 684.8 mi) in Mexico and Central America and from 489.14 to 1,607 km (303.94 to 998.54 mi) in South America.[123] Cooperation with local landowners and municipal, state, or federal agencies is essential to maintain connected populations and prevent fragmentation in both JCUs and corridors.[124] Seven of 13 corridors in Mexico are functioning with a width of at least 14.25 km (8.85 mi) and a length of no more than 320 km (200 mi). The other corridors may hamper passage, as they are narrower and longer.[125]

In August 2012, the United States Fish and Wildlife Service set aside 3,392.20 km2 (838,232 acres) in Arizona and New Mexico for the protection of the jaguar.[126] The Jaguar Recovery Plan was published in April 2019, in which Interstate 10 is considered to form the northern boundary of the Jaguar Recovery Unit in Arizona and New Mexico.[127]

In Mexico, a national conservation strategy was developed from 2005 on and published in 2016.[106] The Mexican jaguar population increased from an estimated 4,000 individuals in 2010 to about 4,800 individuals in 2018. This increase is seen as a positive effect of conservation measures that were implemented in cooperation with governmental and non-governmental institutions and landowners.[128]

An evaluation of JCUs from Mexico to Argentina revealed that they overlap with high-quality habitats of about 1,500 mammals to varying degrees. Since co-occurring mammals benefit from the JCU approach, the jaguar has been called an umbrella species.[129] Central American JCUs overlap with the habitat of 187 of 304 regional endemic amphibian and reptile species, of which 19 amphibians occur only in the jaguar range.[130]

Approaches

 
A jaguar in Belize

In setting up protected reserves, efforts generally also have to be focused on the surrounding areas, as jaguars are unlikely to confine themselves to the bounds of a reservation, especially if the population is increasing in size. Human attitudes in the areas surrounding reserves and laws and regulations to prevent poaching are essential to make conservation areas effective.[131]

To estimate population sizes within specific areas and to keep track of individual jaguars, camera trapping and wildlife tracking telemetry are widely used, and feces are sought out with the help of detection dogs to study jaguar health and diet.[85][132]

Current conservation efforts often focus on educating ranch owners and promoting ecotourism.[133] Ecotourism setups are being used to generate public interest in charismatic animals such as the jaguar while at the same time generating revenue that can be used in conservation efforts. A key concern in jaguar ecotourism is the considerable habitat space the species requires. If ecotourism is used to aid in jaguar conservation, some considerations need to be made as to how existing ecosystems will be kept intact, or how new ecosystems will be put into place that are large enough to support a growing jaguar population.[134]

In culture and mythology

 
Jaguar warrior in the Aztec culture
 
Moche jaguar figurine dating to 300 CE, at the Larco Museum in Lima, Peru
Further information: Jaguars in Mesoamerican cultures

In the pre-Columbian Americas, the jaguar was a symbol of power and strength. In the Andes, a jaguar cult disseminated by the early Chavín culture became accepted over most of today's Peru by 900 BC.[135] The later Moche culture in northern Peru used the jaguar as a symbol of power in many of their ceramics.[136] In the Muisca religion in Altiplano Cundiboyacense, the jaguar was considered a sacred animal, and people dressed in jaguar skins during religious rituals.[137] The skins were traded with peoples in the nearby Orinoquía Region.[138] The name of the Muisca ruler Nemequene was derived from the Chibcha words nymy and quyne, meaning "force of the jaguar".[139][140]

Sculptures with "Olmec were-jaguar" motifs were found on the Yucatán Peninsula in Veracruz and Tabasco; they show stylized jaguars with half-human faces.[141] In the later Maya civilization, the jaguar was believed to facilitate communication between the living and the dead and to protect the royal household. The Maya saw these powerful felines as their companions in the spiritual world, and several Maya rulers bore names that incorporated the Mayan word for jaguar b'alam in many of the Mayan languages. Balam remains a common Maya surname, and it is also the name of Chilam Balam, a legendary author to whom are attributed 17th and 18th-centuries Maya miscellanies preserving much important knowledge. Remains of jaguar bones were discovered in a burial site in Guatemala, which indicates that Mayans may have kept jaguars as pets.[142]

The Aztec civilization shared this image of the jaguar as the representative of the ruler and as a warrior. The Aztecs formed an elite warrior class known as the Jaguar warrior. In Aztec mythology, the jaguar was considered to be the totem animal of the powerful deity Tezcatlipoca.[143][144]

A conch shell gorget depicting a jaguar was found in a burial mound in Benton County, Missouri. The gorget shows evenly-engraved lines and measures 104 mm × 98 mm (4.1 in × 3.9 in).[52] Rock drawings made by the Hopi, Anasazi and Pueblo all over the desert and chaparral regions of the American Southwest show an explicitly spotted cat, presumably a jaguar, as it is drawn much larger than an ocelot.[56]

The jaguar is also used as a symbol in contemporary culture. It is the national animal of Guyana and is featured in its coat of arms.[145] The flag of the Department of Amazonas features a black jaguar silhouette leaping towards a hunter.[146] The crest of the Argentine Rugby Union features a jaguar.[147]

See also

References

  1. ^ a b c d e Quigley, H.; Foster, R.; Petracca, L.; Payan, E.; Salom, R. & Harmsen, B. (2018) [errata version of 2017 assessment]. "Panthera onca". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2017: e.T15953A123791436. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2017-3.RLTS.T15953A50658693.en. Retrieved 15 January 2022.
  2. ^ a b c Wozencraft, W. C. (2005). "Species Panthera onca". In Wilson, D. E.; Reeder, D. M. (eds.). Mammal Species of the World: A Taxonomic and Geographic Reference (3rd ed.). Johns Hopkins University Press. pp. 546–547. ISBN 978-0-8018-8221-0. OCLC 62265494.
  3. ^ Guggisberg, C. A. W. (1975). "Jaguar Panthera onca (Linnaeus, 1758)". Wild Cats of the World. New York: Taplinger Publishing. pp. 247–265. ISBN 978-0-8008-8324-9.
  4. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Seymour, K. L. (1989). (PDF). Mammalian Species (340): 1–9. doi:10.2307/3504096. JSTOR 3504096. S2CID 253932256. Archived from the original (PDF) on 20 June 2010.
  5. ^ Qualls, E. J. (2012). "The dialects of English". The Qualls Concise English Grammar. Danaan Press. ISBN 9781890000097.
  6. ^ "Jaguar". Cambridge Dictionary. from the original on 12 November 2020. Retrieved 16 November 2021.
  7. ^ Labat, J.B. (1731). "Once, espèce de Tigre". Voyage du chevalier Des Marchais en Guinée, isles voisines, et à Cayenne, fait en 1725, 1726 & 1727. Vol. III. Amsterdam: La Compagnie. p. 285. from the original on 29 November 2021. Retrieved 13 August 2020.
  8. ^ FABIO MARTON (16 January 2019). "POR QUE NO BRASIL CHAMAMOS O JAGUAR DE ONÇA?".
  9. ^ Ray, J. (1693). "Pardus an Lynx brasiliensis, Jaguara". Synopsis Methodica Animalium Quadrupedum et Serpentini Generis. Vulgarium Notas Characteristicas, Rariorum Descriptiones integras exhibens. London: S. Smith & B. Walford. p. 168.
  10. ^ Liddell, H. G. & Scott, R. (1940). πάνθηρ. A Greek-English Lexicon (Revised and augmented ed.). Oxford: Clarendon Press. from the original on 11 April 2008. Retrieved 20 February 2021.
  11. ^ a b Linnaeus, C. (1758). "Felis onca". Systema naturæ per regna tria naturæ, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis (in Latin). Vol. I (Decima, reformata ed.). Holmiae: Laurentius Salvius. p. 42.
  12. ^ a b Pocock, R. I. (1939). "The races of jaguar (Panthera onca)". Novitates Zoologicae. 41: 406–422.
  13. ^ Blainville, H. M. D. de (1843). "F. leo nubicus". Ostéographie ou description iconographique comparée du squelette et du système dentaire des mammifères récents et fossils pour servir de base à la zoologie et la géologie (in French). Vol. II. Paris: J. B. Baillière et Fils. p. Plate VIII. from the original on 29 November 2021. Retrieved 13 August 2020.
  14. ^ Gray, J. E. (1857). "Notice of a new species of jaguar from Mazatlan, living in the gardens of the Zoological Society". Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London. 25: 278.
  15. ^ Ameghino, F. (1888). "Formación Pampeana". Los Mamíferos fósiles de la República Argentina (in Spanish). Buenos Aires: Pablo E. Coni é hijos. pp. 473–493.
  16. ^ a b Mearns, E. A. (1901). "The American Jaguars". Proceedings of the Biological Society of Washington. 14: 137–143.
  17. ^ Hollister, N. (1915). "Two new South American jaguars". Proceedings of the United States National Museum. 48 (2069): 169–170. doi:10.5479/si.00963801.48-2069.169.
  18. ^ Goldman, E. A. (1932). "The jaguars of North America". Proceedings of the Biological Society of Washington. 45: 143–146.
  19. ^ Nelson, E. W. & Goldman, E. A. (1933). "Revision of the jaguars". Journal of Mammalogy. 14 (3): 221–240. doi:10.2307/1373821. JSTOR 1373821.
  20. ^ a b Eizirik, E.; Kim, J. H.; Menotti-Raymond, M.; Crawshaw P. G. Jr.; O'Brien, S. J. & Johnson, W. E. (2001). "Phylogeography, population history and conservation genetics of jaguars (Panthera onca, Mammalia, Felidae)". Molecular Ecology. 10 (1): 65–79. doi:10.1046/j.1365-294X.2001.01144.x. PMID 11251788. S2CID 3916428. from the original on 29 November 2021. Retrieved 29 November 2019.
  21. ^ Larson, S. E. (1997). "Taxonomic re-evaluation of the jaguar". Zoo Biology. 16 (2): 107–120. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1098-2361(1997)16:2<107::AID-ZOO2>3.0.CO;2-E.
  22. ^ Ruiz-Garcia, M.; Payan, E.; Murillo, A. & Alvarez, D. (2006). "DNA microsatellite characterization of the jaguar (Panthera onca) in Colombia". Genes & Genetic Systems. 81 (2): 115–127. doi:10.1266/ggs.81.115. PMID 16755135. from the original on 16 December 2014. Retrieved 13 December 2014.
  23. ^ Kitchener, A. C.; Breitenmoser-Würsten, C.; Eizirik, E.; Gentry, A.; Werdelin, L.; Wilting, A.; Yamaguchi, N.; Abramov, A. V.; Christiansen, P.; Driscoll, C.; Duckworth, J. W.; Johnson, W.; Luo, S.-J.; Meijaard, E.; O'Donoghue, P.; Sanderson, J.; Seymour, K.; Bruford, M.; Groves, C.; Hoffmann, M.; Nowell, K.; Timmons, Z. & Tobe, S. (2017). "A revised taxonomy of the Felidae: The final report of the Cat Classification Task Force of the IUCN Cat Specialist Group" (PDF). Cat News. Special Issue 11: 70–71. (PDF) from the original on 30 July 2018. Retrieved 13 May 2018.
  24. ^ a b c Johnson, W. E.; Eizirik, E.; Pecon-Slattery, J.; Murphy, W. J.; Antunes, A.; Teeling, E. & O'Brien, S. J. (2006). "The late miocene radiation of modern Felidae: A genetic assessment". Science. 311 (5757): 73–77. Bibcode:2006Sci...311...73J. doi:10.1126/science.1122277. PMID 16400146. S2CID 41672825. from the original on 4 October 2020. Retrieved 24 November 2021.
  25. ^ a b Werdelin, L.; Yamaguchi, N.; Johnson, W. E. & O'Brien, S. J. (2010). "Phylogeny and evolution of cats (Felidae)". In Macdonald, D. W. & Loveridge, A. J. (eds.). Biology and Conservation of Wild Felids. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. pp. 59–82. ISBN 978-0-19-923445-5. from the original on 25 September 2018. Retrieved 24 November 2021.
  26. ^ a b Li, G.; Davis, B. W.; Eizirik, E. & Murphy, W. J. (2016). "Phylogenomic evidence for ancient hybridization in the genomes of living cats (Felidae)". Genome Research. 26 (1): 1–11. doi:10.1101/gr.186668.114. PMC 4691742. PMID 26518481.
  27. ^ Tseng, Z. J.; Wang, X.; Slater, G. J.; Takeuchi, G. T.; Li, Q.; Liu, J. & Xie, G. (2014). "Himalayan fossils of the oldest known pantherine establish ancient origin of big cats". Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 281 (1774): 20132686. doi:10.1098/rspb.2013.2686. PMC 3843846. PMID 24225466.
  28. ^ Davis, B. W.; Li, G. & Murphy, W. J. (2010). "Supermatrix and species tree methods resolve phylogenetic relationships within the big cats, Panthera (Carnivora: Felidae)". Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution. 56 (1): 64–76. doi:10.1016/j.ympev.2010.01.036. PMID 20138224.
  29. ^ Mazák, J. H.; Christiansen, P.; Kitchener, A. C. & Goswami, A. (2011). "Oldest known pantherine skull and evolution of the tiger". PLOS ONE. 6 (10): e25483. Bibcode:2011PLoSO...625483M. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0025483. PMC 3189913. PMID 22016768.
  30. ^ Argant, A. & Argant, J. (2011). "The Panthera gombaszogensis story: the contribution of the Château Breccia (Saône-et-Loire, Burgundy, France)". Quaternaire (Hors-serie 4): 247–269. from the original on 29 November 2021. Retrieved 24 November 2021.
  31. ^ Jiangzuo, Q. & Liu, J. (2020). "First record of the Eurasian jaguar in southern Asia and a review of dental differences between pantherine cats". Journal of Quaternary Science. 35 (6): 817–830. Bibcode:2020JQS....35..817J. doi:10.1002/jqs.3222. S2CID 219914902.
  32. ^ Chahud, A.; Okumura, M. (2020). "The presence of Panthera onca Linnaeus 1758 (Felidae) in the Pleistocene of the region of Lagoa Santa, State of Minas Gerais, Brazil". Historical Biology. 33 (10): 2496–2503. doi:10.1080/08912963.2020.1808975. S2CID 225408043.
  33. ^ a b Hayward, M. W.; Kamler, J. F.; Montgomery, R. A. & Newlove, A. (2016). "Prey Preferences of the Jaguar Panthera onca Reflect the Post-Pleistocene Demise of Large Prey". Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution. 3: 148. doi:10.3389/fevo.2015.00148.
  34. ^ Hope, M. K. & Deem, S. L. (2006). "Retrospective Study of Morbidity and Mortality of Captive Jaguars (Panthera onca) in North America: 1982–2002" (PDF). Zoo Biology. 25 (6): 501–512. doi:10.1002/zoo.20112. (PDF) from the original on 9 September 2018. Retrieved 12 September 2018.
  35. ^ Rich, M.S. (1976). "The jaguar". Zoonoz. Vol. 49, no. 9. pp. 14–17.
  36. ^ a b Nowak, R.M. (1999). Walker's Mammals of the World. Vol. 2. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 831. ISBN 978-0-8018-5789-8.
  37. ^ Burnie, D. & Wilson, D.E. (2001). Animal: The Definitive Visual Guide to the World's Wildlife. New York City: Dorling Kindersley. ISBN 978-0-7894-7764-4.
  38. ^ a b Gonyea, W.J. (1976). "Adaptive differences in the body proportions of large felids". Acta Anatomica. 96 (1): 81–96. doi:10.1159/000144663. PMID 973541.
  39. ^ a b c d Nuanaez, R.; Miller, B. & Lindzey, F. (2000). "Food habits of jaguars and pumas in Jalisco, Mexico". Journal of Zoology. 252 (3): 373–379. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7998.2000.tb00632.x. from the original on 10 August 2016. Retrieved 8 September 2006.
  40. ^ Allen, W.L.; Cuthill, I.C.; Scott-Samuel, N.E. & Baddeley, R. (2010). "Why the leopard got its spots: relating pattern development to ecology in felids". Proceedings of the Royal Society B. 278 (1710): 1373–1380. doi:10.1098/rspb.2010.1734. PMC 3061134. PMID 20961899.
  41. ^ a b Nowell, K. & Jackson, P. (1996). "Jaguar, Panthera onca (Linnaeus, 1758)" (PDF). Wild Cats. Status Survey and Conservation Action Plan. Gland, Switzerland: IUCN/SSC Cat Specialist Group. pp. 118–122. (PDF) from the original on 7 August 2007. Retrieved 31 August 2006.
  42. ^ Wroe, S.; McHenry, C. & Thomason, J. (2006). "Bite club: comparative bite force in big biting mammals and the prediction of predatory behavior in fossil taxa". Proceedings of the Royal Society B. 272 (1563): 619–625. doi:10.1098/rspb.2004.2986. PMC 1564077. PMID 15817436.
  43. ^ Christiansen, P. (2007). "Canine morphology in the larger Felidae: implications for feeding ecology". Biological Journal of the Linnean Society. 91 (4): 573–592. doi:10.1111/j.1095-8312.2007.00819.x.
  44. ^ Hartstone-Rose, A.; Perry, J.M.G. & Morrow, C.J. (2012). "Bite Force Estimation and the Fiber Architecture of Felid Masticatory Muscles". The Anatomical Record: Advances in Integrative Anatomy and Evolutionary Biology. 295 (8): 1336–1351. doi:10.1002/ar.22518. PMID 22707481. S2CID 35304260.
  45. ^ Brown, D.E. & Lopez-Gonzalez, C.A. (2001). Borderland jaguars: tigres de la frontera. Salt Lake City, UT: University of Utah Press.
  46. ^ Eizirik, E.; Yuhki, N.; Johnson, W.E.; Menotti-Raymond, M.; Hannah, S.S. & O'Brien, S.J. (2003). "Molecular Genetics and Evolution of Melanism in the Cat Family". Current Biology. 13 (5): 448–453. doi:10.1016/S0960-9822(03)00128-3. PMID 12620197. S2CID 19021807.
  47. ^ Dinets, V. & Polechla, P.J. (2005). . Cat News. 42: 18. Archived from the original on 26 September 2006.
  48. ^ Núñez, M.C. & Jiménez, E.C. (2009). "A new record of a black jaguar, Panthera onca (Carnivora: Felidae) in Costa Rica". Brenesia. 71: 67–68. from the original on 29 November 2021. Retrieved 12 April 2021.
  49. ^ Mooring, M. S.; Eppert, A. A. & Botts, R. T. (2020). "Natural Selection of Melanism in Costa Rican Jaguar and Oncilla: A Test of Gloger's Rule and the Temporal Segregation Hypothesis". Tropical Conservation Science. 13: 1–15. doi:10.1177/1940082920910364.
  50. ^ Sáenz-Bolaños, C.; Montalvo, V.; Fuller, T.K. & Carrillo, E. (2015). "Records of black jaguars at Parque Nacional Barbilla, Costa Rica". Cat News (62): 38–39.
  51. ^ Yacelga, M. & Craighead, K. (2019). "Melanistic jaguars in Panama". Cat News (70): 39–41. from the original on 29 November 2021. Retrieved 17 April 2021.
  52. ^ a b Daggett, P. M. & Henning, D. R. (1974). "The Jaguar in North America". American Antiquity. 39 (3): 465–469. doi:10.2307/279437. JSTOR 279437. S2CID 160927286.
  53. ^ Merriam, C.H. (1919). "Is the Jaguar entitled to a place in the Californian fauna?". Journal of Mammalogy. 1 (1): 38–42. doi:10.1093/jmammal/1.1.38. from the original on 18 November 2018. Retrieved 18 November 2018.
  54. ^ a b c Sanderson, E. W.; Redford, K. H.; Chetkiewicz, C. L. B.; Medellin, R. A.; Rabinowitz, A. R.; Robinson, J. G. & Taber, A. B. (2002). "Planning to save a species: the jaguar as a model". Conservation Biology. 16 (1): 58–72. doi:10.1046/j.1523-1739.2002.00352.x. PMID 35701976. S2CID 3955250. from the original on 29 November 2021. Retrieved 29 November 2019.
  55. ^ Brown, D. E. & González, C. A. L. (2000). "Notes on the occurrences of jaguars in Arizona and New Mexico". The Southwestern Naturalist. 45 (4): 537–542. doi:10.2307/3672607. JSTOR 3672607.
  56. ^ a b Pavlik, S. (2003). "Rohonas and spotted Lions: The historical and cultural occurrence of the Jaguar, Panthera onca, among the native tribes of the American Southwest". Wíčazo Ša Review. 18 (1): 157–175. doi:10.1353/wic.2003.0006. JSTOR 1409436. S2CID 161236104.
  57. ^ Culver, M. (2016). "Jaguar surveying and monitoring in the United States". Open-File Report (Report). 2016-1095. Reston, VA: U.S. Geological Survey. doi:10.3133/ofr20161095.
  58. ^ Colchero, F.; Conde, D. A.; Manterola, C.; Chávez, C.; Rivera, A. & Ceballos, G. (2011). "Jaguars on the move: modeling movement to mitigate fragmentation from road expansion in the Mayan Forest" (PDF). Animal Conservation. 14 (2): 1–9. doi:10.1111/J.1469-1795.2010.00406.X. S2CID 62820463. (PDF) from the original on 26 January 2021. Retrieved 14 March 2021.
  59. ^ Caso, A. & Domínguez, E. F. (2018). "Confirmed presence of jaguar, ocelot and jaguarundi in the Sierra of San Carlos, Mexico". Cat News (68): 31–32.
  60. ^ Scognamillo, D.; Maxit, I. E.; Sunquist, M. & Polisar, J. (2003). "Coexistence of jaguar (Panthera onca) and puma (Puma concolor) in a mosaic landscape in the Venezuelan llanos". Journal of Zoology. 259 (3): 269–279. doi:10.1017/S0952836902003230.
  61. ^ Harmsen, B. J.; Foster, R. J.; Silver, S. C.; Ostro, L. E. T. & Doncaster, C. P. (2009). "Spatial and temporal interactions of sympatric jaguars (Panthera onca) and pumas (Puma concolor) in a neotropical forest". Journal of Mammalogy. 90 (3): 612–620. doi:10.1644/08-MAMM-A-140R.1.
  62. ^ Foster, V.C.; Sarmento, P.; Sollmann, R.; Tôrres, N.; et al. (2013). "Jaguar and Puma Activity Patterns and Predator-Prey Interactions in Four Brazilian Biomes". Biotropica. 45 (3): 373–379. doi:10.1111/btp.12021. S2CID 86338173. from the original on 29 November 2021. Retrieved 28 February 2021.
  63. ^ Astete, S.R.; Sollmann, R. & Silveira, L. (2008). "Comparative ecology of jaguars in Brazil". Cat News (Special Issue 4): 9–14. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.528.3603.
  64. ^ Harmsen, B.J.; Foster, R.J.; Silver, S. C.; Ostro, L.E.T. & Doncaster, C.P. (2011). "Jaguar and puma activity patterns in relation to their main prey". Mammalian Biology – Zeitschrift für Säugetierkunde. 76 (3): 320–324. doi:10.1016/j.mambio.2010.08.007.
  65. ^ Nijhawan, S. (2012). "Conservation units, priority areas and dispersal corridors for jaguars in Brazil" (PDF). Cat News (Special Issue): 43–47. (PDF) from the original on 29 November 2021. Retrieved 17 August 2020.
  66. ^ Petracca, L.S.; Ramírez-Bravo, O.E. & Hernández-Santín, L. (2014). "Occupancy estimation of jaguar Panthera onca to assess the value of east-central Mexico as a jaguar corridor". Oryx. 48 (1): 133–140. doi:10.1017/S0030605313000069. S2CID 86460403.
  67. ^ Wright, S. J.; Gompper, M. E. & DeLeon, B. (1994). "Are large predators keystone species in Neotropical forests? The evidence from Barro Colorado Island". Oikos. 71 (2): 279–294. doi:10.2307/3546277. JSTOR 3546277. from the original on 29 November 2021. Retrieved 18 June 2019.
  68. ^ Gutiérrez-González, C. E. & López-González, C. A. (2017). "Jaguar interactions with pumas and prey at the northern edge of jaguars' range". PeerJ. 5 (5): e2886. doi:10.7717/peerj.2886. PMC 5248577. PMID 28133569.
  69. ^ Iriarte, J. A.; Franklin, W.L.; Johnson, W.E. & Redford, K.H. (1990). "Biogeographic variation of food habits and body size of the America puma". Oecologia. 85 (2): 185–190. Bibcode:1990Oecol..85..185I. doi:10.1007/BF00319400. PMID 28312554. S2CID 10134066.
  70. ^ a b Miranda, E; Menezes, J & Rheingantz, M. L. (2016). "Reptiles as principal prey? Adaptations for durophagy and prey selection by jaguar (Panthera onca)". Journal of Natural History. 50 (31–32): 2021–2035. doi:10.1080/00222933.2016.1180717. S2CID 89150920. from the original on 29 November 2021. Retrieved 28 February 2021.
  71. ^ a b Eriksson, C.; et al. (2021). "Extensive aquatic subsidies lead to territorial breakdown and high density of an apex predator". Ecology. 103 (1): e03543. doi:10.1002/ecy.3543. PMID 34841521. S2CID 242197640.
  72. ^ Amit, R.; Gordillo-Chávez, E.J. & Bone, R. (2013). "Jaguar and puma attacks on livestock in Costa Rica". Human-Wildlife Interactions. 7 (1): 77–84.
  73. ^ Zarco-González, M.M.; Monroy-Vilchis, O. & Alaníz, J. (2013). "Spatial model of livestock predation by jaguar and puma in Mexico: conservation planning". Biological Conservation. 159: 80–87. doi:10.1016/j.biocon.2012.11.007.
  74. ^ a b c d e Emmons, L. H. (1987). "Comparative feeding ecology of fields in a neotropical rain forest". Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology. 20 (4): 271–283. doi:10.1007/BF00292180. S2CID 24990860. from the original on 29 November 2021. Retrieved 13 April 2021.
  75. ^ Emmons, L. H. (1989). "Jaguar predation on chelonians". Journal of Herpetology. 23 (3): 311–314. doi:10.2307/1564460. JSTOR 1564460.
  76. ^ Rosa, C. L. de la & Nocke, C. C. (2000). "Jaguar (Panthera onca)". A guide to the carnivores of Central America: natural history, ecology, and conservation. University of Texas Press. pp. 39–?. ISBN 978-0-292-71604-9. from the original on 29 November 2021. Retrieved 28 February 2021.
  77. ^ Schaller, G.B. & Vasconselos, J.M.C. (1978). "Jaguar predation on capybara" (PDF). Zeitschrift für Säugetierkunde. 43: 296–301. (PDF) from the original on 25 June 2021. Retrieved 16 August 2020.
  78. ^ Cavalcanti, S. M. C. & Gese, E. M. (2010). "Kill rates and predation patterns of jaguars (Panthera onca) in the southern Pantanal, Brazil". Journal of Mammalogy. 91 (3): 722–736. doi:10.1644/09-MAMM-A-171.1. from the original on 29 November 2021. Retrieved 8 March 2021.
  79. ^ Baker, W. K. Jr. Law, C. (ed.). (PDF). Jaguar Species Survival Plan. Association of Zoos and Aquariums. pp. 8–16. Archived from the original (PDF) on 13 January 2012.
  80. ^ a b Schaller, G. B. & Crawshaw, P. G. Jr. (1980). "Movement Patterns of Jaguar". Biotropica. 12 (3): 161–168. doi:10.2307/2387967. JSTOR 2387967.
  81. ^ Jędrzejewski, W; Hoogesteijn, R; Devlin, A. L.; et al. (2022). "Collaborative behaviour and coalitions in male jaguars (Panthera onca)—evidence and comparison with other felids". Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology. 76 (9): 121. doi:10.1007/s00265-022-03232-3. S2CID 251713323.
  82. ^ a b Rabinowitz, A. R. & Nottingham, B.G. Jr. (1986). "Ecology and behaviour of the Jaguar (Panthera onca) in Belize, Central America". Journal of Zoology. 210 (1): 149–159. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7998.1986.tb03627.x.
  83. ^ Harmsen, B. J.; Foster, R.J.; Gutierrez, S.M.; Marin, S.Y. & Doncaster, C.P. (2007). "Scrape-marking behavior of jaguars (Panthera onca) and pumas (Puma concolor)". Journal of Mammalogy. 91 (5): 1225–1234. doi:10.1644/09-mamm-a-416.1.
  84. ^ Morato, R.G.; Stabach, J.A.; Fleming, C.H.; Calabrese, J.M.; et al. (2016). "Space use and movement of a neotropical top predator: the endangered Jaguar". PLOS ONE. 11 (12): e0168176. Bibcode:2016PLoSO..1168176M. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0168176. PMC 5193337. PMID 28030568.
  85. ^ a b Soisalo, M.K. & Cavalcanti, S.M.C. (2006). "Estimating the density of a Jaguar population in the Brazilian Pantanal using camera-traps and capture-recapture sampling in combination with GPS radio-telemetry" (PDF). Biological Conservation. 129 (4): 487–496. doi:10.1016/j.biocon.2005.11.023.
  86. ^ Peters, G. & Tonin-Leyhausen, B. (1999). "Evolution of Acoustic Communication Signals of Mammals: Friendly Close-Range Vocalizations in Felidae (Carnivora)". Journal of Mammalian Evolution. 6 (2): 129–159. doi:10.1023/A:1020620121416. S2CID 25252052.
  87. ^ Leuchtenberger, C.; Crawshaw, P. G.; Mourão, G. & Lehn, C. R. (2009). "Courtship behavior by Jaguars in the Pantanal of Mato Grosso do Sul". Natureza & Conservaç~ao Revista Brasileira de Conservaç~ao da Natureza. 7 (1): 218–222. from the original on 29 November 2021. Retrieved 13 February 2021.
  88. ^ Wildt, D.E.; Platz, C.C.; Chakraborty, P.K. & Seager, S.W.J. (1979). "Oestrous and ovarian activity in a female jaguar (Panthera onca)". Reproduction. 56 (2): 555–558. doi:10.1530/jrf.0.0560555. PMID 383976.
  89. ^ Barnes, S.A.; Teare, J.A.; Staaden, S.; Metrione, L. & Penfold, L.M. (2016). "Characterization and manipulation of reproductive cycles in the jaguar (Panthera onca)". General and Comparative Endocrinology. 225: 95–103. doi:10.1016/j.ygcen.2015.09.012. PMID 26399935.
  90. ^ Hemmer, H. (1976). "Gestation period and postnatal development in felids". In Eaton, R.L. (ed.). The world's cats. Vol. 3. Contributions to Biology, Ecology, Behavior and Evolution. Seattle: Carnivore Research Institute, Univ. Washington. pp. 143–165.
  91. ^ Mondolfi, E. & Hoogesteijn, R. (1986). "Notes on the biology and status of the jaguar (Panthera onca) in Venezuela". In Miller, S.D. & Everett, D.D. (eds.). Cats of the world: biology, conservation and management. Washington, DC: National Wildlife Federation. pp. 85–123. ISBN 978-091218679-5.
  92. ^ Morato, R. G.; Guimaraes, M.A.B.; Ferriera, F.; Verreschi, I.T.d.N. & Barnabe, R.C. (1999). "Reproductive characteristics of captive male jaguars". Brazilian Journal of Veterinary Research and Animal Science. 36 (5). doi:10.1590/S1413-95961999000500008.
  93. ^ Pacifici, M.; Santini, L.; Di Marco, M.; Baisero, D.; Francucci, L.; Grottolo Marasini, G.; Visconti, P. & Rondinini, C. (2013). "Generation length for mammals". Nature Conservation. 5 (5): 87–94. doi:10.3897/natureconservation.5.5734.
  94. ^ Cavalcanti, S. M. C. & Gese, E. M. (2009). "Spatial ecology and social interactions of jaguars (Panthera onca) in the southern Pantanal, Brazil". Journal of Mammalogy. 90 (4): 935–945. doi:10.1644/08-MAMM-A-188.1.
  95. ^ Egerton, J. (2006). (PDF). Wild Tracks. Archived from the original (PDF) on 21 July 2011. Retrieved 6 December 2009.
  96. ^ Soares, T. N.; Telles, M. P.; Resende, L.V.; Silveira, L.; et al. (2006). "Paternity testing and behavioral ecology: A case study of jaguars (Panthera onca) in Emas National Park, Central Brazil" (PDF). Genetics and Molecular Biology. 29 (4): 735–740. doi:10.1590/S1415-47572006000400025. (PDF) from the original on 27 October 2020. Retrieved 27 February 2021.
  97. ^ Tortato, F.R.; Devlin, A.L.; Hoogesteijn, R.; Júnior, J.A.M.; Frair, J.L.; Crawshaw, P.G.; Izzo, T.J. & Quigley, H.B. (2017). "Infanticide in a jaguar (Panthera onca) population – does the provision of livestock carcasses increase the risk?". Acta Ethologica. 20 (1): 69–73. doi:10.1007/s10211-016-0241-4. S2CID 34002056. from the original on 29 November 2021. Retrieved 27 February 2021.
  98. ^ Stasiukynas, D. C.; Boron, V.; Hoogesteijn, R.; Barragán2, J.; Martin, A.; Tortato, F.; Rincón, S.; Payán, E. (2021). "Hide and flirt: observed behavior of female jaguars (Panthera onca) to protect their young cubs from adult males". Acta Ethologica. 25 (3): 179–183. doi:10.1007/s10211-021-00384-9. S2CID 239539707.
  99. ^ Porter, J. H. (1894). "The Jaguar". Wild beasts; a study of the characters and habits of the elephant, lion, leopard, panther, jaguar, tiger, puma, wolf, and grizzly bear. New York: C. Scribner's sons. pp. 174–195.
  100. ^ de Paula, R.; Campos Neto, M. F. & Morato, R. G. (2008). "First Official Record of Human Killed by Jaguar in Brazil". Cat News (49): 31–32.
  101. ^ Iserson, K. V. & Francis, A. M. (2015). "Jaguar Attack on a Child: Case Report and Literature Review". Western Journal of Emergency Medicine. 16 (2): 303–309. doi:10.5811/westjem.2015.1.24043. PMC 4380383. PMID 25834674.
  102. ^ Seidensticker, J. & Lumpkin, S. (2016). Cats in Question: The Smithsonian Answer Book. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution. ISBN 978-158834546-2.
  103. ^ De La Torre, J.A.; González-Maya, J.F.; Zarza, H.; Ceballos, G. & Medellín, R.A. (2018). "The jaguar's spots are darker than they appear: assessing the global conservation status of the jaguar Panthera onca". Oryx. 52 (2): 300–315. doi:10.1017/S0030605316001046.
  104. ^ Olsoy, P.J.; Zeller, K.A.; Hicke, J.A.; Quigley, H.B.; Rabinowitz, A.R. & Thornton, D.H. (2016). "Quantifying the effects of deforestation and fragmentation on a range-wide conservation plan for jaguars". Biological Conservation. 203: 8–16. doi:10.1016/j.biocon.2016.08.037. from the original on 29 November 2021. Retrieved 13 April 2021.
  105. ^ Thompson, J.J. & Velilla, M. (2017). "Modeling the effects of deforestation on the connectivity of jaguar Panthera onca populations at the southern extent of the species' range" (PDF). Endangered Species Research. 34: 109–121. doi:10.3354/esr00840. (PDF) from the original on 8 March 2021. Retrieved 2 March 2021.
  106. ^ a b Ceballos, G.; Zarza, H.; Chávez, C. & González-Maya, J.F. (2016). "Ecology and Conservation of Jaguars in Mexico". In Aguirre, A. & Sukumar, R. (eds.). Tropical conservation: Perspectives on local and global priorities. Oxford University Press. pp. 273–289. ISBN 978-019976698-7. from the original on 29 November 2021. Retrieved 28 February 2021.
  107. ^ Moreno, R.; Meyer, N.; Olmos, M.; Hoogesteijn, R. & Hoogesteijn, A.L. (2015). "Causes of jaguar killing in Panama – a long term survey using interviews" (PDF). Cat News (62): 40–42. (PDF) from the original on 18 November 2021. Retrieved 18 November 2021.
  108. ^ Jędrzejewski, W.; Boede, E.O.; Abarca, M.; Sánchez-Mercado, A.; Ferrer-Paris, J.R.; Lampo, M.; Velásquez, G.; Carreño, R.; Viloria, Á.L.; Hoogesteijn, R.; Robinson, H.S.; Stachowicz, I.; Cerda, H.; Weisz, M. del Mar; Barros, T.R.; Rivas, Gilson A.; Borges, G.; Molinari, J.; Lew, D.; Takiff, H. & Schmidt, K. (2017). "Predicting carnivore distribution and extirpation rate based on human impacts and productivity factors; assessment of the state of jaguar (Panthera onca) in Venezuela". Biological Conservation. 206: 132–142. doi:10.1016/j.biocon.2016.09.027. from the original on 29 November 2021. Retrieved 28 February 2021.
  109. ^ Espinosa, S.; Celis, G. & Branch, L.C. (2018). "When roads appear jaguars decline: Increased access to an Amazonian wilderness area reduces potential for jaguar conservation". PLOS ONE. 13 (1): e0189740. Bibcode:2018PLoSO..1389740E. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0189740. PMC 5751993. PMID 29298311.
  110. ^ Paviolo, A.; De Angelo, C.D.; Di Blanco, Y.E. & Di Bitetti, M.S. (2008). "Jaguar Panthera onca population decline in the Upper Paraná Atlantic Forest of Argentina and Brazil". Oryx. 42 (4): 554–561. doi:10.1017/S0030605308000641.
  111. ^ Balaguera-Reina, S. & Gonzalez-Maya, J.F. (2008). "Occasional jaguar hunting for subsistence in Colombian Chocó". Cat News (48): 5. from the original on 29 November 2021. Retrieved 28 February 2021.
  112. ^ Foster, R.J.; Harmsen, B.J.; Urbina, Y. L.; Wooldridge, R.L.; Doncaster, C.P.; Quigley, H. & Figueroa, O.A. (2020). "Jaguar (Panthera onca) density and tenure in a critical biological corridor". Journal of Mammalogy. 101 (6): 1622–1637. doi:10.1093/jmammal/gyaa134. PMC 7816682. PMID 33505226.
  113. ^ Broad, S. (1987). The harvest of and trade in Latin American spotted cats (Felidae) and otters (Lutrinae). Cambridge: IUCN Conservation Monitoring Centre. from the original on 13 January 2020. Retrieved 21 February 2018.
  114. ^ Weber, W. & Rabinowitz, A. (1996). (PDF). Conservation Biology. 10 (4): 1046–1054. doi:10.1046/j.1523-1739.1996.10041046.x. Archived from the original (PDF) on 26 April 2012.
  115. ^ Knox, J.; Negrões, N.; Marchini, S.; Barboza, K.; Guanacoma, G.; Balhau, P.; Tobler, M.W. & Glikman, J.A. (2019). "Jaguar persecution without "cowflict": insights from protected territories in the Bolivian Amazon". Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution. 7: 494. doi:10.3389/fevo.2019.00494.
  116. ^ Braczkowski, A.; Ruzo, A.; Sanchez, F.; Castagnino, R.; Brown, C.; Guynup, S.; Winter, S.; Gandy, D. & O'Bryan, C. (2019). "The ayahuasca tourism boom: An undervalued demand driver for jaguar body parts?". Conservation Science and Practice. 1 (12): e126. doi:10.1111/csp2.126. from the original on 29 November 2021. Retrieved 28 February 2021.
  117. ^ Arias, M.; Hinsley, A. & Milner-Gulland, E.J. (2020). "Characteristics of, and uncertainties about, illegal jaguar trade in Belize and Guatemala". Biological Conservation. 250: 108765. doi:10.1016/j.biocon.2020.108765. S2CID 224967913. from the original on 29 November 2021. Retrieved 18 November 2021.
  118. ^ Morcatty, T.Q.; Bausch Macedo, J.C.; Nekaris, K.A.I.; Ni, Q.; Durigan, C.C.; Svensson, M.S. & Nijman, V. (2020). "Illegal trade in wild cats and its link to Chinese‐led development in Central and South America". Conservation Biology. 34 (6): 1525–1535. doi:10.1111/cobi.13498. PMID 32484587.
  119. ^ Earth League International (2020). Unveiling the criminal networks behind jaguar trafficking in Bolivia (PDF) (Report). Amsterdam: IUCN National Committee of the Netherlands. (PDF) from the original on 26 July 2021. Retrieved 26 July 2021.
  120. ^ Zapata Ríos, G.; Araguillin, E.; Cevallos, J.; Moreno, F.; Ortega, A.; Rengel, J. & Valarezo, N. (2014). Plan de Acción para la Conservación del Jaguar en el Ecuador [Action Plan for the Conservation of the Jaguar in Ecuador] (PDF) (in Spanish). Quito: Ministerio del Ambiente y Wildlife Conservation Society Ecuador. (PDF) from the original on 23 September 2020. Retrieved 13 February 2021.
  121. ^ Kerman, I. (2010). Felix, M.-L. (ed.). Exploitation of the jaguar, Panthera onca and other large forest cats in Suriname (PDF). Paramaribo: WWF Guianas.
  122. ^ Weckel, M.; Giuliano, W. & Silver, S. (2006). "Cockscomb revisited: jaguar diet in the Cockscomb Basin Wildlife Sanctuary, Belize". Biotropica. 38 (5): 687–690. doi:10.1111/j.1744-7429.2006.00190.x. S2CID 85151201. from the original on 27 May 2020. Retrieved 29 November 2019.
  123. ^ Rabinowitz, A. & Zeller, K.A. (2010). "A range-wide model of landscape connectivity and conservation for the jaguar, Panthera onca" (PDF). Biological Conservation. 143 (4): 939–945. doi:10.1016/j.biocon.2010.01.002. (PDF) from the original on 29 November 2021. Retrieved 14 March 2021.
  124. ^ Zeller, K.A.; Rabinowitz, A.; Salom-Perez, R. & Quigley, H. (2013). "The Jaguar Corridor Initiative: A range-wide conservation strategy" (PDF). In Ruiz-Garcia, M. & Shostell, J.M. (eds.). Molecular population genetics, evolutionary biology and biological conservation of Neotropical carnivores. New York: Nova Science Publishers. pp. 629–657. ISBN 978-1-62417-071-3. (PDF) from the original on 29 November 2021. Retrieved 14 March 2021.
  125. ^ Rodríguez-Soto, C.; Monroy-Vilchis, O. & Zarco-González, M.M. (2013). "Corridors for jaguar (Panthera onca) in Mexico: Conservation strategies". Journal for Nature Conservation. 21 (6): 438–443. doi:10.1016/j.jnc.2013.07.002. from the original on 29 November 2021. Retrieved 18 November 2021.
  126. ^ Department of the Interior Fish and Wildlife Service (2012). "Designation of Critical Habitat for Jaguar; Proposed Rule" (PDF). Federal Register. 77 (161): 50214–50242. (PDF) from the original on 14 February 2020. Retrieved 13 March 2021.
  127. ^ Sanderson, E.W.; Fisher, K.; Peters, R.; Beckmann, J.P.; Bird, B.; Bradley, C.M.; Bravo, J.C.; Grigione, M.M.; Hatten, J.R.; González, C.A.L.; Menke, K.; Miller, J.R.B.; Miller, P.S.; Mormorunni, C.; Robinson, M.J.; Thomas, R.E. & Wilcox, S. (2021). "A systematic review of potential habitat suitability for the jaguar Panthera onca in central Arizona and New Mexico, USA". Oryx. 56: 116–127. doi:10.1017/S0030605320000459.
  128. ^ Ceballos, G.; Zarza, H.; González-Maya, J.F.; de la Torre, J.A.; Arias-Alzate, A.; Alcerreca, C.; Barcenas, H.V.; Carreón-Arroyo, G.; Chávez, C.; Cruz, C. & Medellín, D. (2021). "Beyond words: From jaguar population trends to conservation and public policy in Mexico". PLOS ONE. 16 (10): e0255555. Bibcode:2021PLoSO..1655555C. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0255555. PMC 8494370. PMID 34613994.
  129. ^ Thornton, D.; Zeller, K.; Rondinini, C.; Boitani, L.; Crooks, K.; Burdett, C.; Rabinowitz, A. & Quigley, H. (2016). "Assessing the umbrella value of a range‐wide conservation network for jaguars (Panthera onca)" (PDF). Ecological Applications. 26 (4): 1112–1124. doi:10.1890/15-0602. hdl:11573/893793. JSTOR 24818150. PMID 27509752. (PDF) from the original on 16 November 2021. Retrieved 16 November 2021.
  130. ^ Figel, J.J.; Castañeda, F.; Calderón, A.P.; Torre, J.; García-Padilla, E. & Noss, R.F. (2018). "Threatened amphibians sheltered under the big cat's umbrella: conservation of jaguars Panthera onca (Carnivora: Felidae) and endemic herpetofauna in Central America". Revista de Biología Tropical. 66 (4): 1741–1753. doi:10.15517/rbt.v66i4.32544.
  131. ^ Gutierrez-Gonzalez, C.E.; Gomez-Ramirez, M.A.; Lopez-Gonzalez, C.A. & Doherty, P.F. (2015). "Are Private Reserves Effective for Jaguar Conservation?". PLOS ONE. 10 (9): e0137541. Bibcode:2015PLoSO..1037541G. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0137541. PMC 4580466. PMID 26398115.
  132. ^ Furtado, M.M.; Carrillo-Percastegui, S.E.; Jácomo, A.T.A.; Powell, G.; Silveira, L.; Vynne, C. & Sollmann, R. (2008). "Studying jaguars in the wild: past experiences and future perspectives" (PDF). Cat News (Special Issue 4): 41–47. (PDF) from the original on 2 February 2019. Retrieved 2 February 2019.
  133. ^ Estévez, E. (2009). . World Wildlife Fund. Archived from the original on 17 December 2014. Retrieved 1 September 2006.
  134. ^ Mossaz, A.; Buckley, R.C. & Castley, J.G. (2015). "Ecotourism contributions to conservation of African big cats". Journal for Nature Conservation. 28: 112–118. doi:10.1016/j.jnc.2015.09.009. hdl:10072/125191.
  135. ^ Bulliet, R.W.; Crossley, P.; Headrick, D.; Hirsch, S. & Johnson, L., eds. (2000). The Earth and Its Peoples: A Global History. Vol. A 1: To 1200 (Fifth ed.). Houghton Mifflin. pp. 75–76. ISBN 978-1-4390-8476-2.
  136. ^ Park, Yumi (2012). Mirrors of Clay: Reflections of Ancient Andean Life in Ceramics from the Sam Olden Collection. University Press of Mississippi. p. 49. ISBN 9781617037955.
  137. ^ Ocampo López, J. (2007). Grandes culturas indígenas de América – Great indigenous cultures of the Americas (in Spanish). Bogotá, Colombia: Plaza & Janes Editores Colombia S.A. p. 231. ISBN 978-958-14-0368-4.
  138. ^ Kruschek, M.H. (2003). The evolution of the Bogotá chiefdom: A household view (PDF) (PhD thesis). Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh. (PDF) from the original on 15 August 2016. Retrieved 12 January 2017.
  139. ^ "nymy" (in Spanish). Muysc cubun Dictionary Online. from the original on 13 October 2020. Retrieved 11 January 2017.
  140. ^ "quyne" (in Spanish). Muysc cubun Dictionary Online. from the original on 10 January 2017. Retrieved 11 January 2017.
  141. ^ Metcalf, G. & Flannery, K.V. (1967). "An Olmec "were-jaguar" from the Yucatan Peninsula". American Antiquity. 32 (1): 109–111. doi:10.2307/278787. JSTOR 278787. S2CID 164201137.
  142. ^ Dapcevich, M. (2018). "Ancient Mayans Probably Kept Jaguars As Pets And Raised Dogs For Food". IFLScience. from the original on 27 March 2020. Retrieved 26 July 2017.
  143. ^ Saunders, N.J. (1994). "Predators of culture: Jaguar symbolism and Mesoamerican elites". World Archaeology. 26 (1): 104–117. doi:10.1080/00438243.1994.9980264. JSTOR 124867.
  144. ^ Christenson, A.J. (2007). "The first four men". Popol Vuh: The Sacred Book of the Maya. Oklahoma: University of Oklahoma Press. pp. 196–199. ISBN 978-0-8061-3839-8.
  145. ^ Khan, A. (2021). "National symbols: The Coat-Of-Arms". Guyana News and Information. from the original on 12 May 2012. Retrieved 10 February 2021.
  146. ^ Gutterman, D. (2008). "Amazonas Department (Colombia)". Flag of the World. from the original on 9 June 2020. Retrieved 2 April 2010.
  147. ^ Davies, S. (2007). "Puma power: Argentinian rugby". BBC News. from the original on 19 April 2020. Retrieved 8 October 2007.

External links

 
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Panthera onca.
 
Wikispecies has information related to Panthera onca.
  • "Jaguar Panthera onca". IUCN Cat Specialist Group.
  • "Jaguars: Born free". BBC Natural World. 2013. Retrieved 13 August 2021.
  • Felidae Conservation Fund
  • "Jaguar" . Encyclopedia Americana. 1920.
Listen to this article (35 minutes)
 
This audio file was created from a revision of this article dated 26 December 2011 (2011-12-26), and does not reflect subsequent edits.
(Audio help · More spoken articles)

January 07, 2023
jaguar, manufacturer, cars, other, uses, disambiguation, jaguar, panthera, onca, large, species, only, living, member, genus, panthera, native, americas, with, body, length, weight, largest, species, americas, third, largest, world, distinctively, marked, coat. For the car manufacturer see Jaguar Cars For other uses see Jaguar disambiguation The jaguar Panthera onca is a large cat species and the only living member of the genus Panthera native to the Americas With a body length of up to 1 85 m 6 ft 1 in and a weight of up to 158 kg 348 lb it is the largest cat species in the Americas and the third largest in the world Its distinctively marked coat features pale yellow to tan colored fur covered by spots that transition to rosettes on the sides although a melanistic black coat appears in some individuals The jaguar s powerful bite allows it to pierce the carapaces of turtles and tortoises and to employ an unusual killing method it bites directly through the skull of mammalian prey between the ears to deliver a fatal blow to the brain JaguarTemporal range 0 5 0 Ma PreꞒ Ꞓ O S D C P T J K Pg N Middle Pleistocene RecentConservation statusNear Threatened IUCN 3 1 1 CITES Appendix I CITES 1 Scientific classificationKingdom AnimaliaPhylum ChordataClass MammaliaOrder CarnivoraSuborder FeliformiaFamily FelidaeSubfamily PantherinaeGenus PantheraSpecies P oncaBinomial namePanthera onca Linnaeus 1758 Current range Former rangeSynonyms 2 Felis augustus Leidy 1872 Felis listai Roth 1899 Felis onca Linnaeus 1758Felis onca subsp boliviensis Nelson amp Goldman 1933Felis onca subsp coxi Nelson amp Goldman 1933Felis onca subsp ucayalae Nelson amp Goldman 1933Felis veronis Hay 1919Iemish listai Roth 1899 Panthera augusta Leidy 1872 Panthera onca subsp augusta Leidy 1872 Uncia augusta Leidy 1872 The modern jaguar s ancestors probably entered the Americas from Eurasia during the Early Pleistocene via the land bridge that once spanned the Bering Strait Today the jaguar s range extends from core Southwestern United States across Mexico and much of Central America the Amazon rainforest and south to Paraguay and northern Argentina It inhabits a variety of forested and open terrains but its preferred habitat is tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forest wetlands and wooded regions It is adept at swimming and is largely a solitary opportunistic stalk and ambush apex predator As a keystone species it plays an important role in stabilizing ecosystems and in regulating prey populations The jaguar is threatened by habitat loss habitat fragmentation poaching for trade with its body parts and killings in human wildlife conflict situations particularly with ranchers in Central and South America It has been listed as Near Threatened on the IUCN Red List since 2002 The wild population is thought to have declined since the late 1990s Priority areas for jaguar conservation comprise 51 Jaguar Conservation Units JCUs defined as large areas inhabited by at least 50 breeding jaguars The JCUs are located in 36 geographic regions ranging from Mexico to Argentina The jaguar has featured prominently in the mythology of indigenous peoples of the Americas including those of the Aztec and Maya civilizations Contents 1 Etymology 2 Taxonomy and evolution 2 1 Taxonomy 2 2 Evolution 3 Description 3 1 Color variation 4 Distribution and habitat 5 Behavior and ecology 5 1 Ecological role 5 2 Hunting and diet 5 3 Social activity 5 4 Reproduction and life cycle 5 5 Attacks on humans 6 Threats 7 Conservation 7 1 Jaguar Conservation Units 7 2 Approaches 8 In culture and mythology 9 See also 10 References 11 External linksEtymologyThe word jaguar is possibly derived from the Tupi Guarani word yaguara meaning wild beast that overcomes its prey at a bound 3 4 In North America the word is pronounced disyllabic ˈ dʒ ae ɡ w ɑːr while in British English it is pronounced with three syllables ˈ dʒ ae ɡ juː er 5 6 Because that word also applies to other animals indigenous peoples in Guyana call it jaguarete with the added sufix ete meaning true beast 7 8 Onca is derived from the Portuguese name onca for a spotted cat in Brazil that is larger than a lynx cf ounce 9 The word panther is derived from classical Latin panthera itself from the ancient Greek pan8hr panther 10 Taxonomy and evolutionTaxonomy In 1758 Carl Linnaeus described the jaguar in his work Systema Naturae and gave it the scientific name Felis onca 11 In the 19th and 20th centuries several jaguar type specimens formed the basis for descriptions of subspecies 2 In 1939 Reginald Innes Pocock recognized eight subspecies based on the geographic origins and skull morphology of these specimens 12 Pocock did not have access to sufficient zoological specimens to critically evaluate their subspecific status but expressed doubt about the status of several Later consideration of his work suggested only three subspecies should be recognized The description of P o palustris was based on a fossil skull 4 By 2005 nine subspecies were considered to be valid taxa 2 Formerly recognized subspecies P o onca Linnaeus 1758 was a jaguar from Brazil 11 P o peruviana De Blainville 1843 was a jaguar skull from Peru 13 P o hernandesii Gray 1857 was a jaguar from Mazatlan in Mexico 14 P o palustris Ameghino 1888 was a fossil jaguar mandible excavated in the Sierras Pampeanas of Cordova District Argentina 15 P o centralis Mearns 1901 was a skull of a male jaguar from Talamanca Costa Rica 16 P o goldmani Mearns 1901 was a jaguar skin from Yohatlan in Campeche Mexico 16 P o paraguensis Hollister 1914 was a skull of a male jaguar from Paraguay 17 P o arizonensis Goldman 1932 was a skin and skull of a male jaguar from the vicinity of Cibecue Arizona 18 P o veraecrucis Nelson and Goldman 1933 was a skull of a male jaguar from San Andres Tuxtla in Mexico 19 Reginald Innes Pocock placed the jaguar in the genus Panthera and observed that it shares several morphological features with the leopard P pardus He therefore concluded that they are most closely related to each other 12 Results of morphological and genetic research indicate a clinal north south variation between populations but no evidence for subspecific differentiation 20 21 DNA analysis of 84 jaguar samples from South America revealed that the gene flow between jaguar populations in Colombia was high in the past 22 Since 2017 the jaguar is considered to be a monotypic taxon 23 Evolution Fossil skull of P o augusta The Panthera lineage is estimated to have genetically diverged from the common ancestor of the Felidae around 9 32 to 4 47 million years ago to 11 75 to 0 97 million years ago 24 25 26 and the geographic origin of the genus is most likely northern Central Asia 27 Some genetic analyses place the jaguar as a sister species to the lion with which it diverged 3 46 to 1 22 million years ago 24 25 but other studies place the lion closer to the leopard 28 29 The lineage of the jaguar appears to have originated in Africa and spread to Eurasia 1 95 1 77 mya The modern species may have descended from Panthera gombaszoegensis which is thought to have entered the American continent via Beringia the land bridge that once spanned the Bering Strait 30 31 Fossils of modern jaguars have been found in North America dating to over 850 000 years ago 4 Results of mitochondrial DNA analysis of 37 jaguars indicate that current populations evolved between 510 000 and 280 000 years ago in northern South America and subsequently recolonized North and Central America after the extinction of jaguars there during the Late Pleistocene 20 Two extinct subspecies of jaguar are recognized in the fossil record the North American P o augusta and South American P o mesembrina 32 Phylogenetic relationships of the jaguar as derived through analysis ofnuclear DNA 24 Felidae Felinae Pantherinae Panthera Lion P leo Jaguar Leopard P pardus Tiger P tigris Snow leopard P uncia Neofelis mitochondrial DNA 26 Felidae Felinae Pantherinae Panthera Lion Leopard Snow leopard Jaguar Tiger Neofelis Description Skull of a jaguar Illustration of cheetah leopard and jaguar A black jaguar Such melanistic jaguars as well as leopards are commonly called black panthers The jaguar is a compact and well muscled animal It is the largest cat native to the Americas and the third largest in the world exceeded in size only by the tiger and the lion 4 33 34 It stands 68 to 75 cm 26 8 to 29 5 in tall at the shoulders 35 Its size and weight vary considerably weights are normally in the range of 56 96 kg 123 212 lb Exceptionally big males have been recorded to weigh as much as 158 kg 348 lb 36 37 The smallest females weigh about 36 kg 79 lb It is sexually dimorphic with females typically being 10 20 smaller than males The length from the nose to the base of the tail varies from 1 12 to 1 85 m 3 ft 8 in to 6 ft 1 in The tail is 45 to 75 cm 18 to 30 in long and the shortest of any big cat 36 Its muscular legs are shorter than the legs of other Panthera species with similar body weight 38 Further variations in size have been observed across regions and habitats with size tending to increase from north to south Jaguars in the Chamela Cuixmala Biosphere Reserve on the Pacific coast of central Mexico weighed around 50 kg 110 lb which is about the size of a female cougar Puma concolor 39 Jaguars in Venezuela and Brazil are much larger with average weights of about 95 kg 209 lb in males and of about 56 78 kg 123 172 lb in females 4 The jaguar s coat ranges from pale yellow to tan or reddish yellow with a whitish underside and covered in black spots The spots and their shapes vary on the sides they become rosettes which may include one or several dots The spots on the head and neck are generally solid as are those on the tail where they may merge to form bands near the end and create a black tip They are elongated on the middle of the back often connecting to create a median stripe and blotchy on the belly 4 These patterns serve as camouflage in areas with dense vegetation and patchy shadows 40 Jaguars living in forests are often darker and considerably smaller than those living in open areas possibly due to the smaller numbers of large herbivorous prey in forest areas 41 The jaguar closely resembles the leopard but is generally more robust with stockier limbs and a more square head The rosettes on a jaguar s coat are larger darker fewer in number and have thicker lines with a small spot in the middle 38 It has powerful jaws with the third highest bite force of all felids after the tiger and the lion 42 It has an average bite force at the canine tip of 887 0 Newton and a bite force quotient at the canine tip of 118 6 43 A 100 kg 220 lb jaguar can bite with a force of 4 939 kN 1 110 lbf with the canine teeth and 6 922 kN 1 556 lbf at the carnassial notch 44 Color variation Melanistic jaguars are also known as black panthers The black morph is less common than the spotted one 45 Black jaguars have been documented in Central and South America Melanism in the jaguar is caused by deletions in the melanocortin 1 receptor gene and inherited through a dominant allele 46 In 2004 a camera trap in the Sierra Madre Occidental mountains photographed the first documented black jaguar in Northern Mexico 47 Black jaguars were also photographed in Costa Rica s Alberto Manuel Brenes Biological Reserve in the mountains of the Cordillera de Talamanca in Barbilla National Park and in eastern Panama 48 49 50 51 Distribution and habitat A female jaguar at Piquiri River Mato Grosso state Brazil A jaguar in Sao Lourenco River See also North American jaguar and South American jaguar In the 19th century the jaguar was still sighted at the North Platte River in Colorado and coastal Louisiana 52 In 1919 sightings of jaguars were reported in the Monterey California region 53 In 1999 its historic range at the turn of the 20th century was estimated at 19 000 000 km2 7 300 000 sq mi stretching from the southern United States through Central America to southern Argentina By the turn of the 21st century its global range had decreased to about 8 750 000 km2 3 380 000 sq mi with most declines in the southern United States northern Mexico northern Brazil and southern Argentina 54 Its present range extends from Mexico through Central America to South America comprising Belize Guatemala Honduras Nicaragua Costa Rica particularly on the Osa Peninsula Panama Colombia Venezuela Guyana Suriname French Guiana Ecuador Peru Bolivia Brazil Paraguay and Argentina It is considered to be locally extinct in El Salvador and Uruguay 1 Jaguars have been occasionally sighted in Arizona New Mexico and Texas 55 56 Between 2012 and 2015 a male vagrant jaguar was recorded in 23 locations in the Santa Rita Mountains 57 The jaguar prefers dense forest and typically inhabits dry deciduous forests tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests rainforests and cloud forests in Central and South America open seasonally flooded wetlands dry grassland and historically also oak forests in the United States It has been recorded at elevations up to 3 800 m 12 500 ft but avoids montane forests It favors riverine habitat and swamps with dense vegetation cover 41 In the Mayan forests of Mexico and Guatemala 11 GPS collared jaguars preferred undisturbed dense habitat away from roads females avoided even areas with low levels of human activity whereas males appeared less disturbed by human population density 58 A young male jaguar was also recorded in the semi arid Sierra de San Carlos at a waterhole 59 Behavior and ecologyThe jaguar is mostly active at night and during twilight 60 61 62 However jaguars living in densely forested regions of the Amazon Rainforest and the Pantanal are largely active by day whereas jaguars in the Atlantic Forest are primarily active by night 63 The activity pattern of the jaguar coincides with the activity of its main prey species 64 Jaguars are good swimmers and play and hunt in the water possibly more than tigers They have been recorded moving between islands and the shore Jaguars are also good at climbing trees but do so less often than cougars 4 Ecological role Jaguar at Three Brothers River Pantanal Brazil The adult jaguar is an apex predator meaning it is at the top of the food chain and is not preyed upon in the wild The jaguar has also been termed a keystone species as it is assumed that it controls the population levels of prey such as herbivorous and seed eating mammals and thus maintains the structural integrity of forest systems 39 65 66 However field work has shown this may be natural variability and the population increases may not be sustained Thus the keystone predator hypothesis is not accepted by all scientists 67 The jaguar is sympatric with the cougar Puma concolor In central Mexico both prey on white tailed deer Odocoileus virginianus which makes up 54 and 66 of jaguar and cougar s prey respectively 39 In northern Mexico the jaguar and the cougar share the same habitat and their diet overlaps dependent on prey availability Jaguars seemed to prefer deer and calves In Mexico and Central America neither of the two cats are considered to be the dominant predator 68 In South America the jaguar is larger than the cougar and tends to take larger prey usually over 22 kg 49 lb The cougar s prey usually weighs between 2 and 22 kg 4 and 49 lb which is thought to be the reason for its smaller size 69 This situation may be advantageous to the cougar Its broader prey niche including its ability to take smaller prey may give it an advantage over the jaguar in human altered landscapes 39 Hunting and diet The jaguar has a powerful bite that allows it to pierce the shells of armored prey Jaguars killing and feeding on a yacare caiman The jaguar is an obligate carnivore and depends solely on flesh for its nutrient requirements An analysis of 53 studies documenting the diet of the jaguar revealed that its prey ranges in weight from 1 to 130 kg 2 2 to 286 6 lb it prefers prey weighing 45 85 kg 99 187 lb with capybara Hydrochoerus hydrochaeris and giant anteater Myrmecophaga tridactyla being the most selected When available it also preys on marsh deer Blastocerus dichotomus southern tamandua Tamandua tetradactyla collared peccary Dicotyles tajacu and black agouti Dasyprocta fuliginosa 33 In floodplains jaguars opportunistically take reptiles such as turtles and caimans Consumption of reptiles appears to be more frequent in jaguars than in other big cats 70 One remote population in the Brazilian Pantanal is recorded to primarily feed on aquatic reptiles and fish 71 The jaguar also preys on livestock in cattle ranching areas where wild prey is scarce 72 73 The daily food requirement of a captive jaguar weighing 34 kg 75 lb was estimated at 1 4 kg 3 1 lb of meat 74 The jaguar s bite force allows it to pierce the carapaces of the yellow spotted Amazon river turtle Podocnemis unifilis and the yellow footed tortoise Chelonoidis denticulatus 74 75 It employs an unusual killing method it bites mammalian prey directly through the skull between the ears to deliver a fatal bite to the brain 76 It kills capybara by piercing its canine teeth through the temporal bones of its skull breaking its zygomatic arch and mandible and penetrating its brain often through the ears 77 It has been hypothesized to be an adaptation to cracking open turtle shells armored reptiles may have formed an abundant prey base for the jaguar following the late Pleistocene extinctions 74 However this is disputed as even in areas where jaguars prey on reptiles they are still taken relatively infrequently compared to mammals in spite of their greater abundance 70 Between October 2001 and April 2004 10 jaguars were monitored in the southern Pantanal In the dry season from April to September they killed prey at intervals ranging from one to seven days and ranging from one to 16 days in the wet season from October to March 78 The jaguar uses a stalk and ambush strategy when hunting rather than chasing prey The cat will slowly walk down forest paths listening for and stalking prey before rushing or ambushing The jaguar attacks from cover and usually from a target s blind spot with a quick pounce the species ambushing abilities are considered nearly peerless in the animal kingdom by both indigenous people and field researchers and are probably a product of its role as an apex predator in several different environments The ambush may include leaping into water after prey as a jaguar is quite capable of carrying a large kill while swimming its strength is such that carcasses as large as a heifer can be hauled up a tree to avoid flood levels After killing prey the jaguar will drag the carcass to a thicket or other secluded spot It begins eating at the neck and chest The heart and lungs are consumed followed by the shoulders 79 Social activity Female left and male jaguar right at Sao Lourenco River The jaguar is generally solitary except for females with cubs In 1977 groups consisting of a male female and cubs and two females with two males were sighted several times in a study area in the Paraguay River valley 80 In some areas males may form paired coalitions which together mark defend and invade territories find and mate with the same females and search for and share prey 81 A radio collared female moved in a home range of 25 38 km2 9 7 14 7 sq mi which partly overlapped with another female The home range of the male in this study area overlapped with several females 80 The jaguar uses scrape marks urine and feces to mark its territory 82 83 The size of home ranges depends on the level of deforestation and human population density The home ranges of females vary from 15 3 km2 5 9 sq mi in the Pantanal to 53 6 km2 20 7 sq mi in the Amazon to 233 5 km2 90 2 sq mi in the Atlantic Forest Male jaguar home ranges vary from 25 km2 9 7 sq mi in the Pantanal to 180 3 km2 69 6 sq mi in the Amazon to 591 4 km2 228 3 sq mi in the Atlantic Forest and 807 4 km2 311 7 sq mi in the Cerrado 84 Studies employing GPS telemetry in 2003 and 2004 found densities of only six to seven jaguars per 100 km2 in the Pantanal region compared with 10 to 11 using traditional methods this suggests the widely used sampling methods may inflate the actual numbers of individuals in a sampling area 85 Fights between males occur but are rare and avoidance behavior has been observed in the wild 82 In one wetland population with degraded territorial boundaries and more social proximity adults of the same sex are more tolerant of each other and engage in more friendly and co operative interactions 71 source source source Captive jaguar vocalizing while playing The jaguar roars or grunts for long distance communication 4 74 intensive bouts of counter calling between individuals have been observed in the wild 74 This vocalization is described as hoarse with five or six guttural notes 4 Chuffing is produced by individuals when greeting during courting or by a mother comforting her cubs This sound is described as low intensity snorts possibly intended to signal tranquility and passivity 86 87 Cubs have been recorded bleating gurgling and mewing 4 Reproduction and life cycle Female jaguar picking up her cub In captivity the female jaguar is recorded to reach sexual maturity at the age of about 2 5 years Estrus lasts 7 15 days with an estrus cycle of 41 8 to 52 6 days During estrus she exhibits increased restlessness with rolling and prolonged vocalizations 88 She is an induced ovulator but can also ovulate spontaneously 89 Gestation lasts 91 to 111 days 90 The male is sexually mature at the age of three to four years 91 His mean ejaculate volume is 8 6 1 3 ml 92 Generation length of the jaguar is 9 8 years 93 In the Pantanal breeding pairs were observed to stay together for up to five days Females had one to two cubs 94 The young are born with closed eyes but open them after two weeks Cubs are weaned at the age of three months but remain in the birth den for six months before leaving to accompany their mother on hunts 95 Jaguars remain with their mothers for up to two years They appear to rarely live beyond 11 years but captive individuals may live 22 years 4 In 2001 a male jaguar killed and partially consumed two cubs in Emas National Park DNA paternity testing of blood samples revealed that the male was the father of the cubs 96 Two more cases of infanticide were documented in the northern Pantanal in 2013 97 To defend against infanticide the female may hide her cubs and distract the male with courtship behavior 98 Attacks on humans Further information Man eater The Spanish conquistadors feared the jaguar According to Charles Darwin the indigenous peoples of South America stated that people did not need to fear the jaguar as long as capybaras were abundant 99 The first official record of a jaguar killing a human in Brazil dates to June 2008 100 Two children were attacked by jaguars in Guyana 101 The jaguar is the least likely of all big cats to kill and eat humans and the majority of attacks come when it has been cornered or wounded 102 Threats A South American jaguar killed by Theodore Roosevelt The jaguar is threatened by loss and fragmentation of habitat illegal killing in retaliation for livestock depredation and for illegal trade in jaguar body parts It is listed as Near Threatened on the IUCN Red List since 2002 as the jaguar population has probably declined by 20 25 since the mid 1990s Deforestation is a major threat to the jaguar across its range Habitat loss was most rapid in drier regions such as the Argentine pampas the arid grasslands of Mexico and the southwestern United States 1 In 2002 it was estimated that the range of the jaguar had declined to about 46 of its range in the early 20th century 54 In 2018 it was estimated that its range had declined by 55 in the last century The only remaining stronghold is the Amazon rainforest a region that is rapidly being fragmented by deforestation 103 Between 2000 and 2012 forest loss in the jaguar range amounted to 83 759 km2 32 340 sq mi with fragmentation increasing in particular in corridors between Jaguar Conservation Units JCUs 104 By 2014 direct linkages between two JCUs in Bolivia were lost and two JCUs in northern Argentina became completely isolated due to deforestation 105 In Mexico the jaguar is primarily threatened by poaching Its habitat is fragmented in northern Mexico in the Gulf of Mexico and the Yucatan Peninsula caused by changes in land use construction of roads and tourism infrastructure 106 In Panama 220 of 230 jaguars were killed in retaliation for predation on livestock between 1998 and 2014 107 In Venezuela the jaguar was extirpated in about 26 of its range in the country since 1940 mostly in dry savannas and unproductive scrubland in the northeastern region of Anzoategui 108 In Ecuador the jaguar is threatened by reduced prey availability in areas where the expansion of the road network facilitated access of human hunters to forests 109 In the Alto Parana Atlantic forests at least 117 jaguars were killed in Iguacu National Park and the adjacent Misiones Province between 1995 and 2008 110 Some Afro Colombians in the Colombian Choco Department hunt jaguars for consumption and sale of meat 111 Between 2008 and 2012 at least 15 jaguars were killed by livestock farmers in central Belize 112 The international trade of jaguar skins boomed between the end of the Second World War and the early 1970s 113 Significant declines occurred in the 1960s as more than 15 000 jaguars were yearly killed for their skins in the Brazilian Amazon alone the trade in jaguar skins decreased since 1973 when the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species was enacted 114 Interview surveys with 533 people in the northwestern Bolivian Amazon revealed that local people killed jaguars out of fear in retaliation and for trade 115 Between August 2016 and August 2019 jaguar skins and body parts were seen for sale in tourist markets in the Peruvian cities of Lima Iquitos and Pucallpa 116 Human wildlife conflict opportunistic hunting and hunting for trade in domestic markets are key drivers for killing jaguars in Belize and Guatemala 117 Seizure reports indicate that at least 857 jaguars were involved in trade between 2012 and 2018 including 482 individuals in Bolivia alone 31 jaguars were seized in China 118 Between 2014 and early 2019 760 jaguar fangs were seized that originated in Bolivia and were destined for China Undercover investigations revealed that the smuggling of jaguar body parts is run by Chinese residents in Bolivia 119 ConservationThe jaguar is listed on CITES Appendix I which means that all international commercial trade in jaguars or their body parts is prohibited Hunting jaguars is prohibited in Argentina Brazil Colombia French Guiana Honduras Nicaragua Panama Paraguay Suriname the United States and Venezuela Hunting jaguars is restricted in Guatemala and Peru 1 In Ecuador hunting jaguars is prohibited and it is classified as threatened with extinction 120 In Guyana it is protected as an endangered species and hunting it is illegal 121 El Jefe a jaguar in Arizona In 1986 the Cockscomb Basin Wildlife Sanctuary was established in Belize as the world s first protected area for jaguar conservation 122 Jaguar Conservation Units In 1999 field scientists from 18 jaguar range countries determined the most important areas for long term jaguar conservation based on the status of jaguar population units stability of prey base and quality of habitat These areas called Jaguar Conservation Units JCUs are large enough for at least 50 breeding individuals and range in size from 566 to 67 598 km2 219 to 26 100 sq mi 51 JCUs were designated in 36 geographic regions including 54 the Sierra Madre Occidental and Sierra de Tamaulipas in Mexico the Selva Maya tropical forests extending over Mexico Belize and Guatemala the Choco Darien moist forests from Honduras and Panama to Colombia Venezuelan Llanos northern Cerrado and Amazon basin in Brazil Tropical Andes in Bolivia and Peru Misiones Province in ArgentinaOptimal routes of travel between core jaguar population units were identified across its range in 2010 to implement wildlife corridors that connect JCUs These corridors represent areas with the shortest distance between jaguar breeding populations require the least possible energy input of dispersing individuals and pose a low mortality risk They cover an area of 2 600 000 km2 1 000 000 sq mi and range in length from 3 to 1 102 km 1 9 to 684 8 mi in Mexico and Central America and from 489 14 to 1 607 km 303 94 to 998 54 mi in South America 123 Cooperation with local landowners and municipal state or federal agencies is essential to maintain connected populations and prevent fragmentation in both JCUs and corridors 124 Seven of 13 corridors in Mexico are functioning with a width of at least 14 25 km 8 85 mi and a length of no more than 320 km 200 mi The other corridors may hamper passage as they are narrower and longer 125 In August 2012 the United States Fish and Wildlife Service set aside 3 392 20 km2 838 232 acres in Arizona and New Mexico for the protection of the jaguar 126 The Jaguar Recovery Plan was published in April 2019 in which Interstate 10 is considered to form the northern boundary of the Jaguar Recovery Unit in Arizona and New Mexico 127 In Mexico a national conservation strategy was developed from 2005 on and published in 2016 106 The Mexican jaguar population increased from an estimated 4 000 individuals in 2010 to about 4 800 individuals in 2018 This increase is seen as a positive effect of conservation measures that were implemented in cooperation with governmental and non governmental institutions and landowners 128 An evaluation of JCUs from Mexico to Argentina revealed that they overlap with high quality habitats of about 1 500 mammals to varying degrees Since co occurring mammals benefit from the JCU approach the jaguar has been called an umbrella species 129 Central American JCUs overlap with the habitat of 187 of 304 regional endemic amphibian and reptile species of which 19 amphibians occur only in the jaguar range 130 Approaches A jaguar in Belize In setting up protected reserves efforts generally also have to be focused on the surrounding areas as jaguars are unlikely to confine themselves to the bounds of a reservation especially if the population is increasing in size Human attitudes in the areas surrounding reserves and laws and regulations to prevent poaching are essential to make conservation areas effective 131 To estimate population sizes within specific areas and to keep track of individual jaguars camera trapping and wildlife tracking telemetry are widely used and feces are sought out with the help of detection dogs to study jaguar health and diet 85 132 Current conservation efforts often focus on educating ranch owners and promoting ecotourism 133 Ecotourism setups are being used to generate public interest in charismatic animals such as the jaguar while at the same time generating revenue that can be used in conservation efforts A key concern in jaguar ecotourism is the considerable habitat space the species requires If ecotourism is used to aid in jaguar conservation some considerations need to be made as to how existing ecosystems will be kept intact or how new ecosystems will be put into place that are large enough to support a growing jaguar population 134 In culture and mythology Jaguar warrior in the Aztec culture Moche jaguar figurine dating to 300 CE at the Larco Museum in Lima Peru Further information Jaguars in Mesoamerican cultures In the pre Columbian Americas the jaguar was a symbol of power and strength In the Andes a jaguar cult disseminated by the early Chavin culture became accepted over most of today s Peru by 900 BC 135 The later Moche culture in northern Peru used the jaguar as a symbol of power in many of their ceramics 136 In the Muisca religion in Altiplano Cundiboyacense the jaguar was considered a sacred animal and people dressed in jaguar skins during religious rituals 137 The skins were traded with peoples in the nearby Orinoquia Region 138 The name of the Muisca ruler Nemequene was derived from the Chibcha words nymy and quyne meaning force of the jaguar 139 140 Sculptures with Olmec were jaguar motifs were found on the Yucatan Peninsula in Veracruz and Tabasco they show stylized jaguars with half human faces 141 In the later Maya civilization the jaguar was believed to facilitate communication between the living and the dead and to protect the royal household The Maya saw these powerful felines as their companions in the spiritual world and several Maya rulers bore names that incorporated the Mayan word for jaguar b alam in many of the Mayan languages Balam remains a common Maya surname and it is also the name of Chilam Balam a legendary author to whom are attributed 17th and 18th centuries Maya miscellanies preserving much important knowledge Remains of jaguar bones were discovered in a burial site in Guatemala which indicates that Mayans may have kept jaguars as pets 142 The Aztec civilization shared this image of the jaguar as the representative of the ruler and as a warrior The Aztecs formed an elite warrior class known as the Jaguar warrior In Aztec mythology the jaguar was considered to be the totem animal of the powerful deity Tezcatlipoca 143 144 A conch shell gorget depicting a jaguar was found in a burial mound in Benton County Missouri The gorget shows evenly engraved lines and measures 104 mm 98 mm 4 1 in 3 9 in 52 Rock drawings made by the Hopi Anasazi and Pueblo all over the desert and chaparral regions of the American Southwest show an explicitly spotted cat presumably a jaguar as it is drawn much larger than an ocelot 56 The jaguar is also used as a symbol in contemporary culture It is the national animal of Guyana and is featured in its coat of arms 145 The flag of the Department of Amazonas features a black jaguar silhouette leaping towards a hunter 146 The crest of the Argentine Rugby Union features a jaguar 147 See alsoList of largest catsReferences a b c d e Quigley H Foster R Petracca L Payan E Salom R amp Harmsen B 2018 errata version of 2017 assessment Panthera onca IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2017 e T15953A123791436 doi 10 2305 IUCN UK 2017 3 RLTS T15953A50658693 en Retrieved 15 January 2022 a b c Wozencraft W C 2005 Species Panthera onca In Wilson D E Reeder D M eds Mammal Species of the World A Taxonomic and Geographic Reference 3rd ed Johns Hopkins University Press pp 546 547 ISBN 978 0 8018 8221 0 OCLC 62265494 Guggisberg C A W 1975 Jaguar Panthera onca Linnaeus 1758 Wild Cats of the World New York Taplinger Publishing pp 247 265 ISBN 978 0 8008 8324 9 a b c d e f g h i j k Seymour K L 1989 Panthera onca PDF Mammalian Species 340 1 9 doi 10 2307 3504096 JSTOR 3504096 S2CID 253932256 Archived from the original PDF on 20 June 2010 Qualls E J 2012 The dialects of English The Qualls Concise English Grammar Danaan Press ISBN 9781890000097 Jaguar Cambridge Dictionary Archived from the original on 12 November 2020 Retrieved 16 November 2021 Labat J B 1731 Once espece de Tigre Voyage du chevalier Des Marchais en Guinee isles voisines et a Cayenne fait en 1725 1726 amp 1727 Vol III Amsterdam La Compagnie p 285 Archived from the original on 29 November 2021 Retrieved 13 August 2020 FABIO MARTON 16 January 2019 POR QUE NO BRASIL CHAMAMOS O JAGUAR DE ONCA Ray J 1693 Pardus an Lynx brasiliensis Jaguara Synopsis Methodica Animalium Quadrupedum et Serpentini Generis Vulgarium Notas Characteristicas Rariorum Descriptiones integras exhibens London S Smith amp B Walford p 168 Liddell H G amp Scott R 1940 pan8hr A Greek English Lexicon Revised and augmented ed Oxford Clarendon Press Archived from the original on 11 April 2008 Retrieved 20 February 2021 a b Linnaeus C 1758 Felis onca Systema naturae per regna tria naturae secundum classes ordines genera species cum characteribus differentiis synonymis locis in Latin Vol I Decima reformata ed Holmiae Laurentius Salvius p 42 a b Pocock R I 1939 The races of jaguar Panthera onca Novitates Zoologicae 41 406 422 Blainville H M D de 1843 F leo nubicus Osteographie ou description iconographique comparee du squelette et du systeme dentaire des mammiferes recents et fossils pour servir de base a la zoologie et la geologie in French Vol II Paris J B Bailliere et Fils p Plate VIII Archived from the original on 29 November 2021 Retrieved 13 August 2020 Gray J E 1857 Notice of a new species of jaguar from Mazatlan living in the gardens of the Zoological Society Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London 25 278 Ameghino F 1888 Formacion Pampeana Los Mamiferos fosiles de la Republica Argentina in Spanish Buenos Aires Pablo E Coni e hijos pp 473 493 a b Mearns E A 1901 The American Jaguars Proceedings of the Biological Society of Washington 14 137 143 Hollister N 1915 Two new South American jaguars Proceedings of the United States National Museum 48 2069 169 170 doi 10 5479 si 00963801 48 2069 169 Goldman E A 1932 The jaguars of North America Proceedings of the Biological Society of Washington 45 143 146 Nelson E W amp Goldman E A 1933 Revision of the jaguars Journal of Mammalogy 14 3 221 240 doi 10 2307 1373821 JSTOR 1373821 a b Eizirik E Kim J H Menotti Raymond M Crawshaw P G Jr O Brien S J amp Johnson W E 2001 Phylogeography population history and conservation genetics of jaguars Panthera onca Mammalia Felidae Molecular Ecology 10 1 65 79 doi 10 1046 j 1365 294X 2001 01144 x PMID 11251788 S2CID 3916428 Archived from the original on 29 November 2021 Retrieved 29 November 2019 Larson S E 1997 Taxonomic re evaluation of the jaguar Zoo Biology 16 2 107 120 doi 10 1002 SICI 1098 2361 1997 16 2 lt 107 AID ZOO2 gt 3 0 CO 2 E Ruiz Garcia M Payan E Murillo A amp Alvarez D 2006 DNA microsatellite characterization of the jaguar Panthera onca in Colombia Genes amp Genetic Systems 81 2 115 127 doi 10 1266 ggs 81 115 PMID 16755135 Archived from the original on 16 December 2014 Retrieved 13 December 2014 Kitchener A C Breitenmoser Wursten C Eizirik E Gentry A Werdelin L Wilting A Yamaguchi N Abramov A V Christiansen P Driscoll C Duckworth J W Johnson W Luo S J Meijaard E O Donoghue P Sanderson J Seymour K Bruford M Groves C Hoffmann M Nowell K Timmons Z amp Tobe S 2017 A revised taxonomy of the Felidae The final report of the Cat Classification Task Force of the IUCN Cat Specialist Group PDF Cat News Special Issue 11 70 71 Archived PDF from the original on 30 July 2018 Retrieved 13 May 2018 a b c Johnson W E Eizirik E Pecon Slattery J Murphy W J Antunes A Teeling E amp O Brien S J 2006 The late miocene radiation of modern Felidae A genetic assessment Science 311 5757 73 77 Bibcode 2006Sci 311 73J doi 10 1126 science 1122277 PMID 16400146 S2CID 41672825 Archived from the original on 4 October 2020 Retrieved 24 November 2021 a b Werdelin L Yamaguchi N Johnson W E amp O Brien S J 2010 Phylogeny and evolution of cats Felidae In Macdonald D W amp Loveridge A J eds Biology and Conservation of Wild Felids Oxford UK Oxford University Press pp 59 82 ISBN 978 0 19 923445 5 Archived from the original on 25 September 2018 Retrieved 24 November 2021 a b Li G Davis B W Eizirik E amp Murphy W J 2016 Phylogenomic evidence for ancient hybridization in the genomes of living cats Felidae Genome Research 26 1 1 11 doi 10 1101 gr 186668 114 PMC 4691742 PMID 26518481 Tseng Z J Wang X Slater G J Takeuchi G T Li Q Liu J amp Xie G 2014 Himalayan fossils of the oldest known pantherine establish ancient origin of big cats Proceedings of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences 281 1774 20132686 doi 10 1098 rspb 2013 2686 PMC 3843846 PMID 24225466 Davis B W Li G amp Murphy W J 2010 Supermatrix and species tree methods resolve phylogenetic relationships within the big cats Panthera Carnivora Felidae Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 56 1 64 76 doi 10 1016 j ympev 2010 01 036 PMID 20138224 Mazak J H Christiansen P Kitchener A C amp Goswami A 2011 Oldest known pantherine skull and evolution of the tiger PLOS ONE 6 10 e25483 Bibcode 2011PLoSO 625483M doi 10 1371 journal pone 0025483 PMC 3189913 PMID 22016768 Argant A amp Argant J 2011 The Panthera gombaszogensis story the contribution of the Chateau Breccia Saone et Loire Burgundy France Quaternaire Hors serie 4 247 269 Archived from the original on 29 November 2021 Retrieved 24 November 2021 Jiangzuo Q amp Liu J 2020 First record of the Eurasian jaguar in southern Asia and a review of dental differences between pantherine cats Journal of Quaternary Science 35 6 817 830 Bibcode 2020JQS 35 817J doi 10 1002 jqs 3222 S2CID 219914902 Chahud A Okumura M 2020 The presence of Panthera onca Linnaeus 1758 Felidae in the Pleistocene of the region of Lagoa Santa State of Minas Gerais Brazil Historical Biology 33 10 2496 2503 doi 10 1080 08912963 2020 1808975 S2CID 225408043 a b Hayward M W Kamler J F Montgomery R A amp Newlove A 2016 Prey Preferences of the Jaguar Panthera onca Reflect the Post Pleistocene Demise of Large Prey Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution 3 148 doi 10 3389 fevo 2015 00148 Hope M K amp Deem S L 2006 Retrospective Study of Morbidity and Mortality of Captive Jaguars Panthera onca in North America 1982 2002 PDF Zoo Biology 25 6 501 512 doi 10 1002 zoo 20112 Archived PDF from the original on 9 September 2018 Retrieved 12 September 2018 Rich M S 1976 The jaguar Zoonoz Vol 49 no 9 pp 14 17 a b Nowak R M 1999 Walker s Mammals of the World Vol 2 Baltimore Johns Hopkins University Press p 831 ISBN 978 0 8018 5789 8 Burnie D amp Wilson D E 2001 Animal The Definitive Visual Guide to the World s Wildlife New York City Dorling Kindersley ISBN 978 0 7894 7764 4 a b Gonyea W J 1976 Adaptive differences in the body proportions of large felids Acta Anatomica 96 1 81 96 doi 10 1159 000144663 PMID 973541 a b c d Nuanaez R Miller B amp Lindzey F 2000 Food habits of jaguars and pumas in Jalisco Mexico Journal of Zoology 252 3 373 379 doi 10 1111 j 1469 7998 2000 tb00632 x Archived from the original on 10 August 2016 Retrieved 8 September 2006 Allen W L Cuthill I C Scott Samuel N E amp Baddeley R 2010 Why the leopard got its spots relating pattern development to ecology in felids Proceedings of the Royal Society B 278 1710 1373 1380 doi 10 1098 rspb 2010 1734 PMC 3061134 PMID 20961899 a b Nowell K amp Jackson P 1996 Jaguar Panthera onca Linnaeus 1758 PDF Wild Cats Status Survey and Conservation Action Plan Gland Switzerland IUCN SSC Cat Specialist Group pp 118 122 Archived PDF from the original on 7 August 2007 Retrieved 31 August 2006 Wroe S McHenry C amp Thomason J 2006 Bite club comparative bite force in big biting mammals and the prediction of predatory behavior in fossil taxa Proceedings of the Royal Society B 272 1563 619 625 doi 10 1098 rspb 2004 2986 PMC 1564077 PMID 15817436 Christiansen P 2007 Canine morphology in the larger Felidae implications for feeding ecology Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 91 4 573 592 doi 10 1111 j 1095 8312 2007 00819 x Hartstone Rose A Perry J M G amp Morrow C J 2012 Bite Force Estimation and the Fiber Architecture of Felid Masticatory Muscles The Anatomical Record Advances in Integrative Anatomy and Evolutionary Biology 295 8 1336 1351 doi 10 1002 ar 22518 PMID 22707481 S2CID 35304260 Brown D E amp Lopez Gonzalez C A 2001 Borderland jaguars tigres de la frontera Salt Lake City UT University of Utah Press Eizirik E Yuhki N Johnson W E Menotti Raymond M Hannah S S amp O Brien S J 2003 Molecular Genetics and Evolution of Melanism in the Cat Family Current Biology 13 5 448 453 doi 10 1016 S0960 9822 03 00128 3 PMID 12620197 S2CID 19021807 Dinets V amp Polechla P J 2005 First documentation of melanism in the jaguar Panthera onca from northern Mexico Cat News 42 18 Archived from the original on 26 September 2006 Nunez M C amp Jimenez E C 2009 A new record of a black jaguar Panthera onca Carnivora Felidae in Costa Rica Brenesia 71 67 68 Archived from the original on 29 November 2021 Retrieved 12 April 2021 Mooring M S Eppert A A amp Botts R T 2020 Natural Selection of Melanism in Costa Rican Jaguar and Oncilla A Test of Gloger s Rule and the Temporal Segregation Hypothesis Tropical Conservation Science 13 1 15 doi 10 1177 1940082920910364 Saenz Bolanos C Montalvo V Fuller T K amp Carrillo E 2015 Records of black jaguars at Parque Nacional Barbilla Costa Rica Cat News 62 38 39 Yacelga M amp Craighead K 2019 Melanistic jaguars in Panama Cat News 70 39 41 Archived from the original on 29 November 2021 Retrieved 17 April 2021 a b Daggett P M amp Henning D R 1974 The Jaguar in North America American Antiquity 39 3 465 469 doi 10 2307 279437 JSTOR 279437 S2CID 160927286 Merriam C H 1919 Is the Jaguar entitled to a place in the Californian fauna Journal of Mammalogy 1 1 38 42 doi 10 1093 jmammal 1 1 38 Archived from the original on 18 November 2018 Retrieved 18 November 2018 a b c Sanderson E W Redford K H Chetkiewicz C L B Medellin R A Rabinowitz A R Robinson J G amp Taber A B 2002 Planning to save a species the jaguar as a model Conservation Biology 16 1 58 72 doi 10 1046 j 1523 1739 2002 00352 x PMID 35701976 S2CID 3955250 Archived from the original on 29 November 2021 Retrieved 29 November 2019 Brown D E amp Gonzalez C A L 2000 Notes on the occurrences of jaguars in Arizona and New Mexico The Southwestern Naturalist 45 4 537 542 doi 10 2307 3672607 JSTOR 3672607 a b Pavlik S 2003 Rohonas and spotted Lions The historical and cultural occurrence of the Jaguar Panthera onca among the native tribes of the American Southwest Wicazo Sa Review 18 1 157 175 doi 10 1353 wic 2003 0006 JSTOR 1409436 S2CID 161236104 Culver M 2016 Jaguar surveying and monitoring in the United States Open File Report Report 2016 1095 Reston VA U S Geological Survey doi 10 3133 ofr20161095 Colchero F Conde D A Manterola C Chavez C Rivera A amp Ceballos G 2011 Jaguars on the move modeling movement to mitigate fragmentation from road expansion in the Mayan Forest PDF Animal Conservation 14 2 1 9 doi 10 1111 J 1469 1795 2010 00406 X S2CID 62820463 Archived PDF from the original on 26 January 2021 Retrieved 14 March 2021 Caso A amp Dominguez E F 2018 Confirmed presence of jaguar ocelot and jaguarundi in the Sierra of San Carlos Mexico Cat News 68 31 32 Scognamillo D Maxit I E Sunquist M amp Polisar J 2003 Coexistence of jaguar Panthera onca and puma Puma concolor in a mosaic landscape in the Venezuelan llanos Journal of Zoology 259 3 269 279 doi 10 1017 S0952836902003230 Harmsen B J Foster R J Silver S C Ostro L E T amp Doncaster C P 2009 Spatial and temporal interactions of sympatric jaguars Panthera onca and pumas Puma concolor in a neotropical forest Journal of Mammalogy 90 3 612 620 doi 10 1644 08 MAMM A 140R 1 Foster V C Sarmento P Sollmann R Torres N et al 2013 Jaguar and Puma Activity Patterns and Predator Prey Interactions in Four Brazilian Biomes Biotropica 45 3 373 379 doi 10 1111 btp 12021 S2CID 86338173 Archived from the original on 29 November 2021 Retrieved 28 February 2021 Astete S R Sollmann R amp Silveira L 2008 Comparative ecology of jaguars in Brazil Cat News Special Issue 4 9 14 CiteSeerX 10 1 1 528 3603 Harmsen B J Foster R J Silver S C Ostro L E T amp Doncaster C P 2011 Jaguar and puma activity patterns in relation to their main prey Mammalian Biology Zeitschrift fur Saugetierkunde 76 3 320 324 doi 10 1016 j mambio 2010 08 007 Nijhawan S 2012 Conservation units priority areas and dispersal corridors for jaguars in Brazil PDF Cat News Special Issue 43 47 Archived PDF from the original on 29 November 2021 Retrieved 17 August 2020 Petracca L S Ramirez Bravo O E amp Hernandez Santin L 2014 Occupancy estimation of jaguar Panthera onca to assess the value of east central Mexico as a jaguar corridor Oryx 48 1 133 140 doi 10 1017 S0030605313000069 S2CID 86460403 Wright S J Gompper M E amp DeLeon B 1994 Are large predators keystone species in Neotropical forests The evidence from Barro Colorado Island Oikos 71 2 279 294 doi 10 2307 3546277 JSTOR 3546277 Archived from the original on 29 November 2021 Retrieved 18 June 2019 Gutierrez Gonzalez C E amp Lopez Gonzalez C A 2017 Jaguar interactions with pumas and prey at the northern edge of jaguars range PeerJ 5 5 e2886 doi 10 7717 peerj 2886 PMC 5248577 PMID 28133569 Iriarte J A Franklin W L Johnson W E amp Redford K H 1990 Biogeographic variation of food habits and body size of the America puma Oecologia 85 2 185 190 Bibcode 1990Oecol 85 185I doi 10 1007 BF00319400 PMID 28312554 S2CID 10134066 a b Miranda E Menezes J amp Rheingantz M L 2016 Reptiles as principal prey Adaptations for durophagy and prey selection by jaguar Panthera onca Journal of Natural History 50 31 32 2021 2035 doi 10 1080 00222933 2016 1180717 S2CID 89150920 Archived from the original on 29 November 2021 Retrieved 28 February 2021 a b Eriksson C et al 2021 Extensive aquatic subsidies lead to territorial breakdown and high density of an apex predator Ecology 103 1 e03543 doi 10 1002 ecy 3543 PMID 34841521 S2CID 242197640 Amit R Gordillo Chavez E J amp Bone R 2013 Jaguar and puma attacks on livestock in Costa Rica Human Wildlife Interactions 7 1 77 84 Zarco Gonzalez M M Monroy Vilchis O amp Alaniz J 2013 Spatial model of livestock predation by jaguar and puma in Mexico conservation planning Biological Conservation 159 80 87 doi 10 1016 j biocon 2012 11 007 a b c d e Emmons L H 1987 Comparative feeding ecology of fields in a neotropical rain forest Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 20 4 271 283 doi 10 1007 BF00292180 S2CID 24990860 Archived from the original on 29 November 2021 Retrieved 13 April 2021 Emmons L H 1989 Jaguar predation on chelonians Journal of Herpetology 23 3 311 314 doi 10 2307 1564460 JSTOR 1564460 Rosa C L de la amp Nocke C C 2000 Jaguar Panthera onca A guide to the carnivores of Central America natural history ecology and conservation University of Texas Press pp 39 ISBN 978 0 292 71604 9 Archived from the original on 29 November 2021 Retrieved 28 February 2021 Schaller G B amp Vasconselos J M C 1978 Jaguar predation on capybara PDF Zeitschrift fur Saugetierkunde 43 296 301 Archived PDF from the original on 25 June 2021 Retrieved 16 August 2020 Cavalcanti S M C amp Gese E M 2010 Kill rates and predation patterns of jaguars Panthera onca in the southern Pantanal Brazil Journal of Mammalogy 91 3 722 736 doi 10 1644 09 MAMM A 171 1 Archived from the original on 29 November 2021 Retrieved 8 March 2021 Baker W K Jr Law C ed Guidelines for Captive Management of Jaguars PDF Jaguar Species Survival Plan Association of Zoos and Aquariums pp 8 16 Archived from the original PDF on 13 January 2012 a b Schaller G B amp Crawshaw P G Jr 1980 Movement Patterns of Jaguar Biotropica 12 3 161 168 doi 10 2307 2387967 JSTOR 2387967 Jedrzejewski W Hoogesteijn R Devlin A L et al 2022 Collaborative behaviour and coalitions in male jaguars Panthera onca evidence and comparison with other felids Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 76 9 121 doi 10 1007 s00265 022 03232 3 S2CID 251713323 a b Rabinowitz A R amp Nottingham B G Jr 1986 Ecology and behaviour of the Jaguar Panthera onca in Belize Central America Journal of Zoology 210 1 149 159 doi 10 1111 j 1469 7998 1986 tb03627 x Harmsen B J Foster R J Gutierrez S M Marin S Y amp Doncaster C P 2007 Scrape marking behavior of jaguars Panthera onca and pumas Puma concolor Journal of Mammalogy 91 5 1225 1234 doi 10 1644 09 mamm a 416 1 Morato R G Stabach J A Fleming C H Calabrese J M et al 2016 Space use and movement of a neotropical top predator the endangered Jaguar PLOS ONE 11 12 e0168176 Bibcode 2016PLoSO 1168176M doi 10 1371 journal pone 0168176 PMC 5193337 PMID 28030568 a b Soisalo M K amp Cavalcanti S M C 2006 Estimating the density of a Jaguar population in the Brazilian Pantanal using camera traps and capture recapture sampling in combination with GPS radio telemetry PDF Biological Conservation 129 4 487 496 doi 10 1016 j biocon 2005 11 023 Peters G amp Tonin Leyhausen B 1999 Evolution of Acoustic Communication Signals of Mammals Friendly Close Range Vocalizations in Felidae Carnivora Journal of Mammalian Evolution 6 2 129 159 doi 10 1023 A 1020620121416 S2CID 25252052 Leuchtenberger C Crawshaw P G Mourao G amp Lehn C R 2009 Courtship behavior by Jaguars in the Pantanal of Mato Grosso do Sul Natureza amp Conservac ao Revista Brasileira de Conservac ao da Natureza 7 1 218 222 Archived from the original on 29 November 2021 Retrieved 13 February 2021 Wildt D E Platz C C Chakraborty P K amp Seager S W J 1979 Oestrous and ovarian activity in a female jaguar Panthera onca Reproduction 56 2 555 558 doi 10 1530 jrf 0 0560555 PMID 383976 Barnes S A Teare J A Staaden S Metrione L amp Penfold L M 2016 Characterization and manipulation of reproductive cycles in the jaguar Panthera onca General and Comparative Endocrinology 225 95 103 doi 10 1016 j ygcen 2015 09 012 PMID 26399935 Hemmer H 1976 Gestation period and postnatal development in felids In Eaton R L ed The world s cats Vol 3 Contributions to Biology Ecology Behavior and Evolution Seattle Carnivore Research Institute Univ Washington pp 143 165 Mondolfi E amp Hoogesteijn R 1986 Notes on the biology and status of the jaguar Panthera onca in Venezuela In Miller S D amp Everett D D eds Cats of the world biology conservation and management Washington DC National Wildlife Federation pp 85 123 ISBN 978 091218679 5 Morato R G Guimaraes M A B Ferriera F Verreschi I T d N amp Barnabe R C 1999 Reproductive characteristics of captive male jaguars Brazilian Journal of Veterinary Research and Animal Science 36 5 doi 10 1590 S1413 95961999000500008 Pacifici M Santini L Di Marco M Baisero D Francucci L Grottolo Marasini G Visconti P amp Rondinini C 2013 Generation length for mammals Nature Conservation 5 5 87 94 doi 10 3897 natureconservation 5 5734 Cavalcanti S M C amp Gese E M 2009 Spatial ecology and social interactions of jaguars Panthera onca in the southern Pantanal Brazil Journal of Mammalogy 90 4 935 945 doi 10 1644 08 MAMM A 188 1 Egerton J 2006 Jaguars Magnificence in the Southwest PDF Wild Tracks Archived from the original PDF on 21 July 2011 Retrieved 6 December 2009 Soares T N Telles M P Resende L V Silveira L et al 2006 Paternity testing and behavioral ecology A case study of jaguars Panthera onca in Emas National Park Central Brazil PDF Genetics and Molecular Biology 29 4 735 740 doi 10 1590 S1415 47572006000400025 Archived PDF from the original on 27 October 2020 Retrieved 27 February 2021 Tortato F R Devlin A L Hoogesteijn R Junior J A M Frair J L Crawshaw P G Izzo T J amp Quigley H B 2017 Infanticide in a jaguar Panthera onca population does the provision of livestock carcasses increase the risk Acta Ethologica 20 1 69 73 doi 10 1007 s10211 016 0241 4 S2CID 34002056 Archived from the original on 29 November 2021 Retrieved 27 February 2021 Stasiukynas D C Boron V Hoogesteijn R Barragan2 J Martin A Tortato F Rincon S Payan E 2021 Hide and flirt observed behavior of female jaguars Panthera onca to protect their young cubs from adult males Acta Ethologica 25 3 179 183 doi 10 1007 s10211 021 00384 9 S2CID 239539707 Porter J H 1894 The Jaguar Wild beasts a study of the characters and habits of the elephant lion leopard panther jaguar tiger puma wolf and grizzly bear New York C Scribner s sons pp 174 195 de Paula R Campos Neto M F amp Morato R G 2008 First Official Record of Human Killed by Jaguar in Brazil Cat News 49 31 32 Iserson K V amp Francis A M 2015 Jaguar Attack on a Child Case Report and Literature Review Western Journal of Emergency Medicine 16 2 303 309 doi 10 5811 westjem 2015 1 24043 PMC 4380383 PMID 25834674 Seidensticker J amp Lumpkin S 2016 Cats in Question The Smithsonian Answer Book Washington D C Smithsonian Institution ISBN 978 158834546 2 De La Torre J A Gonzalez Maya J F Zarza H Ceballos G amp Medellin R A 2018 The jaguar s spots are darker than they appear assessing the global conservation status of the jaguar Panthera onca Oryx 52 2 300 315 doi 10 1017 S0030605316001046 Olsoy P J Zeller K A Hicke J A Quigley H B Rabinowitz A R amp Thornton D H 2016 Quantifying the effects of deforestation and fragmentation on a range wide conservation plan for jaguars Biological Conservation 203 8 16 doi 10 1016 j biocon 2016 08 037 Archived from the original on 29 November 2021 Retrieved 13 April 2021 Thompson J J amp Velilla M 2017 Modeling the effects of deforestation on the connectivity of jaguar Panthera onca populations at the southern extent of the species range PDF Endangered Species Research 34 109 121 doi 10 3354 esr00840 Archived PDF from the original on 8 March 2021 Retrieved 2 March 2021 a b Ceballos G Zarza H Chavez C amp Gonzalez Maya J F 2016 Ecology and Conservation of Jaguars in Mexico In Aguirre A amp Sukumar R eds Tropical conservation Perspectives on local and global priorities Oxford University Press pp 273 289 ISBN 978 019976698 7 Archived from the original on 29 November 2021 Retrieved 28 February 2021 Moreno R Meyer N Olmos M Hoogesteijn R amp Hoogesteijn A L 2015 Causes of jaguar killing in Panama a long term survey using interviews PDF Cat News 62 40 42 Archived PDF from the original on 18 November 2021 Retrieved 18 November 2021 Jedrzejewski W Boede E O Abarca M Sanchez Mercado A Ferrer Paris J R Lampo M Velasquez G Carreno R Viloria A L Hoogesteijn R Robinson H S Stachowicz I Cerda H Weisz M del Mar Barros T R Rivas Gilson A Borges G Molinari J Lew D Takiff H amp Schmidt K 2017 Predicting carnivore distribution and extirpation rate based on human impacts and productivity factors assessment of the state of jaguar Panthera onca in Venezuela Biological Conservation 206 132 142 doi 10 1016 j biocon 2016 09 027 Archived from the original on 29 November 2021 Retrieved 28 February 2021 Espinosa S Celis G amp Branch L C 2018 When roads appear jaguars decline Increased access to an Amazonian wilderness area reduces potential for jaguar conservation PLOS ONE 13 1 e0189740 Bibcode 2018PLoSO 1389740E doi 10 1371 journal pone 0189740 PMC 5751993 PMID 29298311 Paviolo A De Angelo C D Di Blanco Y E amp Di Bitetti M S 2008 Jaguar Panthera onca population decline in the Upper Parana Atlantic Forest of Argentina and Brazil Oryx 42 4 554 561 doi 10 1017 S0030605308000641 Balaguera Reina S amp Gonzalez Maya J F 2008 Occasional jaguar hunting for subsistence in Colombian Choco Cat News 48 5 Archived from the original on 29 November 2021 Retrieved 28 February 2021 Foster R J Harmsen B J Urbina Y L Wooldridge R L Doncaster C P Quigley H amp Figueroa O A 2020 Jaguar Panthera onca density and tenure in a critical biological corridor Journal of Mammalogy 101 6 1622 1637 doi 10 1093 jmammal gyaa134 PMC 7816682 PMID 33505226 Broad S 1987 The harvest of and trade in Latin American spotted cats Felidae and otters Lutrinae Cambridge IUCN Conservation Monitoring Centre Archived from the original on 13 January 2020 Retrieved 21 February 2018 Weber W amp Rabinowitz A 1996 A global perspective on large carnivore conservation PDF Conservation Biology 10 4 1046 1054 doi 10 1046 j 1523 1739 1996 10041046 x Archived from the original PDF on 26 April 2012 Knox J Negroes N Marchini S Barboza K Guanacoma G Balhau P Tobler M W amp Glikman J A 2019 Jaguar persecution without cowflict insights from protected territories in the Bolivian Amazon Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution 7 494 doi 10 3389 fevo 2019 00494 Braczkowski A Ruzo A Sanchez F Castagnino R Brown C Guynup S Winter S Gandy D amp O Bryan C 2019 The ayahuasca tourism boom An undervalued demand driver for jaguar body parts Conservation Science and Practice 1 12 e126 doi 10 1111 csp2 126 Archived from the original on 29 November 2021 Retrieved 28 February 2021 Arias M Hinsley A amp Milner Gulland E J 2020 Characteristics of and uncertainties about illegal jaguar trade in Belize and Guatemala Biological Conservation 250 108765 doi 10 1016 j biocon 2020 108765 S2CID 224967913 Archived from the original on 29 November 2021 Retrieved 18 November 2021 Morcatty T Q Bausch Macedo J C Nekaris K A I Ni Q Durigan C C Svensson M S amp Nijman V 2020 Illegal trade in wild cats and its link to Chinese led development in Central and South America Conservation Biology 34 6 1525 1535 doi 10 1111 cobi 13498 PMID 32484587 Earth League International 2020 Unveiling the criminal networks behind jaguar trafficking in Bolivia PDF Report Amsterdam IUCN National Committee of the Netherlands Archived PDF from the original on 26 July 2021 Retrieved 26 July 2021 Zapata Rios G Araguillin E Cevallos J Moreno F Ortega A Rengel J amp Valarezo N 2014 Plan de Accion para la Conservacion del Jaguar en el Ecuador Action Plan for the Conservation of the Jaguar in Ecuador PDF in Spanish Quito Ministerio del Ambiente y Wildlife Conservation Society Ecuador Archived PDF from the original on 23 September 2020 Retrieved 13 February 2021 Kerman I 2010 Felix M L ed Exploitation of the jaguar Panthera oncaand other large forest cats in Suriname PDF Paramaribo WWF Guianas Weckel M Giuliano W amp Silver S 2006 Cockscomb revisited jaguar diet in the Cockscomb Basin Wildlife Sanctuary Belize Biotropica 38 5 687 690 doi 10 1111 j 1744 7429 2006 00190 x S2CID 85151201 Archived from the original on 27 May 2020 Retrieved 29 November 2019 Rabinowitz A amp Zeller K A 2010 A range wide model of landscape connectivity and conservation for the jaguar Panthera onca PDF Biological Conservation 143 4 939 945 doi 10 1016 j biocon 2010 01 002 Archived PDF from the original on 29 November 2021 Retrieved 14 March 2021 Zeller K A Rabinowitz A Salom Perez R amp Quigley H 2013 The Jaguar Corridor Initiative A range wide conservation strategy PDF In Ruiz Garcia M amp Shostell J M eds Molecular population genetics evolutionary biology and biological conservation of Neotropical carnivores New York Nova Science Publishers pp 629 657 ISBN 978 1 62417 071 3 Archived PDF from the original on 29 November 2021 Retrieved 14 March 2021 Rodriguez Soto C Monroy Vilchis O amp Zarco Gonzalez M M 2013 Corridors for jaguar Panthera onca in Mexico Conservation strategies Journal for Nature Conservation 21 6 438 443 doi 10 1016 j jnc 2013 07 002 Archived from the original on 29 November 2021 Retrieved 18 November 2021 Department of the Interior Fish and Wildlife Service 2012 Designation of Critical Habitat for Jaguar Proposed Rule PDF Federal Register 77 161 50214 50242 Archived PDF from the original on 14 February 2020 Retrieved 13 March 2021 Sanderson E W Fisher K Peters R Beckmann J P Bird B Bradley C M Bravo J C Grigione M M Hatten J R Gonzalez C A L Menke K Miller J R B Miller P S Mormorunni C Robinson M J Thomas R E amp Wilcox S 2021 A systematic review of potential habitat suitability for the jaguar Panthera onca in central Arizona and New Mexico USA Oryx 56 116 127 doi 10 1017 S0030605320000459 Ceballos G Zarza H Gonzalez Maya J F de la Torre J A Arias Alzate A Alcerreca C Barcenas H V Carreon Arroyo G Chavez C Cruz C amp Medellin D 2021 Beyond words From jaguar population trends to conservation and public policy in Mexico PLOS ONE 16 10 e0255555 Bibcode 2021PLoSO 1655555C doi 10 1371 journal pone 0255555 PMC 8494370 PMID 34613994 Thornton D Zeller K Rondinini C Boitani L Crooks K Burdett C Rabinowitz A amp Quigley H 2016 Assessing the umbrella value of a range wide conservation network for jaguars Panthera onca PDF Ecological Applications 26 4 1112 1124 doi 10 1890 15 0602 hdl 11573 893793 JSTOR 24818150 PMID 27509752 Archived PDF from the original on 16 November 2021 Retrieved 16 November 2021 Figel J J Castaneda F Calderon A P Torre J Garcia Padilla E amp Noss R F 2018 Threatened amphibians sheltered under the big cat s umbrella conservation of jaguars Panthera onca Carnivora Felidae and endemic herpetofauna in Central America Revista de Biologia Tropical 66 4 1741 1753 doi 10 15517 rbt v66i4 32544 Gutierrez Gonzalez C E Gomez Ramirez M A Lopez Gonzalez C A amp Doherty P F 2015 Are Private Reserves Effective for Jaguar Conservation PLOS ONE 10 9 e0137541 Bibcode 2015PLoSO 1037541G doi 10 1371 journal pone 0137541 PMC 4580466 PMID 26398115 Furtado M M Carrillo Percastegui S E Jacomo A T A Powell G Silveira L Vynne C amp Sollmann R 2008 Studying jaguars in the wild past experiences and future perspectives PDF Cat News Special Issue 4 41 47 Archived PDF from the original on 2 February 2019 Retrieved 2 February 2019 Estevez E 2009 Jaguar Refuge in the Llanos Ecoregion World Wildlife Fund Archived from the original on 17 December 2014 Retrieved 1 September 2006 Mossaz A Buckley R C amp Castley J G 2015 Ecotourism contributions to conservation of African big cats Journal for Nature Conservation 28 112 118 doi 10 1016 j jnc 2015 09 009 hdl 10072 125191 Bulliet R W Crossley P Headrick D Hirsch S amp Johnson L eds 2000 The Earth and Its Peoples A Global History Vol A 1 To 1200 Fifth ed Houghton Mifflin pp 75 76 ISBN 978 1 4390 8476 2 Park Yumi 2012 Mirrors of Clay Reflections of Ancient Andean Life in Ceramics from the Sam Olden Collection University Press of Mississippi p 49 ISBN 9781617037955 Ocampo Lopez J 2007 Grandes culturas indigenas de America Great indigenous cultures of the Americas in Spanish Bogota Colombia Plaza amp Janes Editores Colombia S A p 231 ISBN 978 958 14 0368 4 Kruschek M H 2003 The evolution of the Bogota chiefdom A household view PDF PhD thesis Pittsburgh University of Pittsburgh Archived PDF from the original on 15 August 2016 Retrieved 12 January 2017 nymy in Spanish Muysc cubun Dictionary Online Archived from the original on 13 October 2020 Retrieved 11 January 2017 quyne in Spanish Muysc cubun Dictionary Online Archived from the original on 10 January 2017 Retrieved 11 January 2017 Metcalf G amp Flannery K V 1967 An Olmec were jaguar from the Yucatan Peninsula American Antiquity 32 1 109 111 doi 10 2307 278787 JSTOR 278787 S2CID 164201137 Dapcevich M 2018 Ancient Mayans Probably Kept Jaguars As Pets And Raised Dogs For Food IFLScience Archived from the original on 27 March 2020 Retrieved 26 July 2017 Saunders N J 1994 Predators of culture Jaguar symbolism and Mesoamerican elites World Archaeology 26 1 104 117 doi 10 1080 00438243 1994 9980264 JSTOR 124867 Christenson A J 2007 The first four men Popol Vuh The Sacred Book of the Maya Oklahoma University of Oklahoma Press pp 196 199 ISBN 978 0 8061 3839 8 Khan A 2021 National symbols The Coat Of Arms Guyana News and Information Archived from the original on 12 May 2012 Retrieved 10 February 2021 Gutterman D 2008 Amazonas Department Colombia Flag of the World Archived from the original on 9 June 2020 Retrieved 2 April 2010 Davies S 2007 Puma power Argentinian rugby BBC News Archived from the original on 19 April 2020 Retrieved 8 October 2007 External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to Panthera onca Wikispecies has information related to Panthera onca Jaguar Panthera onca IUCN Cat Specialist Group Jaguars Born free BBC Natural World 2013 Retrieved 13 August 2021 People and Jaguars a Guide for Coexistence Felidae Conservation Fund Jaguar Encyclopedia Americana 1920 Listen to this article 35 minutes source source This audio file was created from a revision of this article dated 26 December 2011 2011 12 26 and does not reflect subsequent edits Audio help More spoken articles Portals Cats Mammals Animals Biology North America Central America South America Mesoamerica Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Jaguar amp oldid 1131827739, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

article

, read, download, free, free download, mp3, video, mp4, 3gp, jpg, jpeg, gif, png, picture, music, song, movie, book, game, games.