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Tajikistan

March 17, 2024

Tajikistan,[a] officially the Republic of Tajikistan,[b] is a landlocked country in Central Asia. Dushanbe is the capital and most populous city. Tajikistan is bordered by Afghanistan to the south, Uzbekistan to the west, Kyrgyzstan to the north, and China to the east. It is separated from Pakistan by Afghanistan's Wakhan Corridor. Tajiks form the ethnic majority in the country and their national language is Tajik, a variety of Persian.[16]

Republic of Tajikistan
Ҷумҳурии Тоҷикистон (Tajik)
Jumhurii Tojikiston
Республика Таджикистан (Russian)
Respublika Tadzhikistan
Motto: Истиқлол, Озодӣ, Ватан (Tajik)
Istiqlol, Ozodí, Vatan
"Independence, Freedom, Homeland"
Anthem: Суруди Миллӣ (Tajik)
Surudi Milli
"National Anthem"
Location of Tajikistan (green)
Capital
and largest city
Dushanbe
38°33′N 68°48′E / 38.550°N 68.800°E / 38.550; 68.800
Official languages
Spoken languages
Ethnic groups
(2020[2])
Religion
(2020)[3][4]
Demonym(s)
GovernmentUnitary presidential republic under an authoritarian dictatorship[7]
• President
Emomali Rahmon
Kokhir Rasulzoda
LegislatureSupreme Assembly
• Upper house
National Assembly
• Lower house
Assembly of Representatives
Formation
24 August 1990
31 August 1991
9 September 1991
26 December 1991
Area
• Total
143,100[8][9][10] km2 (55,300 sq mi) (94th)
• Water
2,575 km2 (994 sq mi)
• Water (%)
1.8
Population
• 1 Jan 2023 estimate
 10,077,600[11] (92th)
• Density
48.6/km2 (125.9/sq mi) (155th)
GDP (PPP)2023 estimate
• Total
 $53.679 billion[12] (119th)
• Per capita
 $5,360[12] (148th)
GDP (nominal)2023 estimate
• Total
 $11.816 billion[12] (151st)
• Per capita
 $1,180[12] (167th)
Gini (2015)34[13]
medium
HDI (2021) 0.685[14]
medium (122nd)
CurrencySomoni (TJS)
Time zoneUTC+5 (TJT)
Date formatdd.mm.yyyy
Driving sideright
Calling code+992
ISO 3166 codeTJ
Internet TLD.tj
  1. Russian has the status of an official language through its use as the official interethnic language as cited in the Constitution of Tajikistan.[15]

The territory was previously home to cultures of the Neolithic and the Bronze Age, including the city of Sarazm,[17] and was later home to kingdoms ruled by people of faiths and cultures, including the Oxus civilization, Andronovo culture, Buddhism, Nestorian Christianity, Hinduism, Zoroastrianism, Manichaeism, and Islam. The area has been ruled by empires and dynasties, including the Achaemenid Empire, Sasanian Empire, Hephthalite Empire, Samanid Empire, and Mongol Empire. After being ruled by the Timurid Empire and Khanate of Bukhara, the Timurid Renaissance flourished. The region was later conquered by the Russian Empire and subsequently by the Soviet Union. Within the Soviet Union, the country's borders were drawn when it was part of Uzbekistan as an autonomous republic before becoming a full-fledged Soviet republic in 1929.[18]

On 9 September 1991, Tajikistan declared itself an independent sovereign nation as the Soviet Union was disintegrating. A civil war was fought after independence, lasting from May 1992 to June 1997. Since the end of the war, newly established political stability and foreign aid have allowed the country's economy to grow. The country has been led by President Emomali Rahmon since 1994, who rules an authoritarian regime. There is corruption and violations of human rights, including torture, arbitrary imprisonment, increasing political repression, and a lack of religious freedom and other civil liberties.[19][20]

Tajikistan is a presidential republic consisting of 4 provinces. Most of Tajikistan's population belongs to the Tajik ethnic group,[21] who speak the Tajik language — the first official language — making it 1 of the 3 Persian-speaking countries alongside Afghanistan and Iran. Russian is used as the official inter-ethnic language. While the state is constitutionally secular, Islam is nominally adhered to by 96% of the population. In the Gorno-Badakhshan oblast, there is a linguistic diversity where Rushani, Shughni, Ishkashimi, Wakhi and Tajik are some of the languages spoken. Mountains cover more than 90% of the country. It is a developing country with a transitional economy that is dependent on remittances, aluminium and cotton production. Tajikistan is a member of the United Nations, CIS, OSCE, OIC, ECO, SCO, CSTO and a NATO PfP partner.

Etymology edit

Main article: Tajik people

The term "Tajik" itself ultimately derives from the Middle Persian Tāzīk, the Turkic rendition of the Arabic ethnonym Ṭayyi’, denoting a Qahtanite Arab tribe who emigrated to the Transoxiana region of Central Asia in the 7th century AD.[22] Tajikistan appeared as Tadjikistan or Tadzhikistan in English prior to 1991. This is due to a transliteration from the Russian: "Таджикистан". In Russian, there is no single letter "j" to represent the phoneme /d͡ʒ/, and therefore дж, or dzh, is used. Tadzhikistan is the alternate spelling and is used in English literature derived from Russian sources.[23][citation needed] "Tadjikistan" is the spelling in French and can occasionally be found in English language texts.[citation needed] The way of writing Tajikistan in the Perso-Arabic script is: تاجیکستان.

While the Library of Congress's 1997 Country Study of Tajikistan found it difficult to definitively state the origins of the word "Tajik" because the term is "embroiled in twentieth-century political disputes about whether Turkic or Iranian peoples were the original inhabitants of Central Asia,"[24] scholars concluded that contemporary Tajiks are the descendants of the Eastern Iranian inhabitants of Central Asia, in particular, the Sogdians and the Bactrians, and possibly other groups, with an admixture of Western Iranian Persians and non-Iranian peoples.[25][26] According to Richard Nelson Frye, a historian of Iranian and Central Asian history, the Persian emigration to Central Asia may be considered the beginning of the Tajik nation, and ethnic Persians, along with some elements of the Eastern Iranian Bactrians and Sogdians, as the main ancestors of the Tajiks.[27] In later works, Frye expands on the complexity of the historical origins of the Tajiks. In a 1996 publication, Frye explains that "factors must be taken into account in explaining the evolution of the peoples whose remnants are the Tajiks in Central Asia" and that "the peoples of Central Asia, whether Iranian or Turkic speaking, have one culture, one religion, one set of social values and traditions with only language separating them."[28]

Regarding Tajiks, the Encyclopædia Britannica states:

The Tajiks are the direct descendants of the Iranian peoples whose continuous presence in Central Asia and northern Afghanistan is attested from the middle of the first millennium BC. The ancestors of the Tajiks constituted the core of the ancient population of Khwārezm (Khorezm) and Bactria, which formed part of Transoxania (Sogdiana). Over the course of time, the eastern Iranian dialect that was used by the ancient Tajiks eventually gave way to Farsi, a western dialect spoken in Iran and Afghanistan.[29]

History edit

Main article: History of Tajikistan
 
Ambassador to the Tang dynasty, coming from Kumedh (胡密丹), Tajikistan. Wanghuitu (王会图) circa 650 CE.[30][31]

Cultures in the region have been dated back to at least the fourth millennium BC, including the Bronze Age Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex, the Andronovo cultures and the pro-urban site of Sarazm, a UNESCO World Heritage Site.[32]

The earliest recorded history of the region dates back to about 500 BC when most, if not all, of Tajikistan, was part of the Achaemenid Empire.[24] Some authors have suggested that in the seventh and sixth centuries BC, parts of Tajikistan, including territories in the Zeravshan valley, formed part of the Hindu Kambojas tribe[33][34] before it became part of the Achaemenid Empire.[35] After the region's conquest by Alexander the Great it became part of the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom, a successor state of Alexander's empire. Northern Tajikistan (the cities of Khujand and Panjakent) was part of Sogdia, a collection of city-states which was overrun by Scythians and Yuezhi nomadic tribes around 150 BC. The Silk Road passed through the region and following the expedition of Chinese explorer Zhang Qian during the reign of Wudi (141BC–87 BC) commercial relations between Han Empire and Sogdiana flourished.[36][37] Sogdians played a role in facilitating trade and worked in other capacities, as farmers, carpetweavers, glassmakers, and woodcarvers.[38]

The Kushan Empire, a collection of Yuezhi tribes, took control of the region in the first century AD and ruled until the fourth century AD during which time Buddhism, Nestorian Christianity, Zoroastrianism, and Manichaeism were practised in the region.[39] Later the Hephthalite Empire, a collection of nomadic tribes, moved into the region and Arabs brought Islam in the eighth century.[39]

 
The Samanid ruler Mansur I (961–976)
 
19th-century painting of lake Zorkul and a local Tajik inhabitant

Samanid Empire edit

See also: Samanid Empire

The Samanid Empire, 819 to 999, restored Persian control of the region and enlarged the cities of Samarkand and Bukhara which became the cultural centers of Iran and the region was known as Khorasan. The empire was centered in Khorasan and Transoxiana; at its greatest extent encompassing Afghanistan, parts of Iran, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan, parts of Kazakhstan, and Pakistan. Four brothers Nuh, Ahmad, Yahya, and Ilyas founded the Samanid state. Each of them ruled territory under Abbasid suzerainty. In 892, Ismail Samani (892–907) united the Samanid state under 1 ruler, thus putting an end to the feudal system used by the Samanids. It was under him that the Samanids became independent of Abbasid authority. The Kara-Khanid Khanate conquered Transoxania (which corresponds approximately with what later is Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, southern Kyrgyzstan, and southwest Kazakhstan) and ruled between 999 and 1211.[40][41] Their arrival in Transoxania signalled a definitive shift from Iranian to Turkic predominance in Central Asia,[42] and gradually the Kara-khanids became assimilated into the Perso-Arab Muslim culture of the region.[43]

In the 13th century, the Mongol Empire swept through Central Asia, invaded Khwarezmian Empire and sacked the cities, looting and massacring people. Turco-Mongol conqueror Tamerlane founded the Timurid Empire in and around what later is Tajikistan and Central Asia, becoming the first ruler of the Timurid dynasty.[44]

Bukharan rule edit

See also: Khanate of Bukhara

What later is Tajikistan fell under the rule of the Khanate of Bukhara during the 16th century and with the empire's collapse in the 18th century it came under the rule of the Emirate of Bukhara and Khanate of Kokand. The Emirate of Bukhara remained intact until the 20th century and during the 19th century, for the second time in world history, a European power (the Russian Empire) began to conquer parts of the region.[45]

Imperial Russia edit

See also: The Great Game, Russian conquest of Turkestan, and Russian Turkestan

Russian Imperialism led to the Russian Empire's conquest of Central Asia during the 19th century's Imperial Era. Between 1864 and 1885, Russia gradually took control of the entire territory of Russian Turkestan, the Tajikistan portion of which had been controlled by the Emirate of Bukhara and Khanate of Kokand. Russia was interested in gaining access to a supply of cotton and in the 1870s attempted to switch cultivation in the region from grain to cotton (a strategy later copied and expanded by the Soviets).[46]

During the 19th century, the Jadidists established themselves as an Islamic social movement throughout the region. While the Jadidists were pro-modernization and not necessarily anti-Russian, the Russians viewed the movement as a threat because the Russian Empire was predominantly Christian.[47] Russian troops were required to restore order during uprisings against the Khanate of Kokand between 1910 and 1913. Further violence occurred in July 1916 when demonstrators attacked Russian soldiers in Khujand over the threat of forced conscription during World War I. While Russian troops brought Khujand back under control, clashes continued throughout the year in locations in Tajikistan. [48]

Soviet period edit

Main articles: Basmachi movement and Tajik Soviet Socialist Republic
 
Soviet negotiations with basmachi, 1921

After the Russian Revolution of 1917 guerrillas throughout Central Asia, known as basmachi, waged a war against Bolshevik armies in an attempt to maintain independence.[49] The Bolsheviks prevailed after a 4-year war, in which mosques and villages were burned down and the population suppressed. Soviet authorities started a campaign of secularisation. Practising Islam, Judaism, and Christianity was discouraged and repressed, and mosques, churches, and synagogues were closed.[50] As a consequence of the conflict and Soviet agriculture policies, Central Asia, Tajikistan included, underwent a famine that claimed lives.[51]

In 1924, the Tajikistan Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic was created as a part of Uzbekistan,[49] and in 1929 the Tajikistan Soviet Socialist Republic (Tajikistan SSR, Таджикская ССР) was made a separate constituent republic;[49] the predominantly ethnic Tajik cities of Samarkand and Bukhara remained in the Uzbek SSR. Between 1927 and 1934, collectivisation of agriculture and an expansion of cotton production took place, especially in the southern region.[52] Soviet collectivisation policy brought violence against peasants and forced resettlement occurred throughout Tajikistan. Consequently, some peasants fought collectivization and revived the Basmachi movement. Some industrial development occurred during this time along with the expansion of irrigation infrastructure.[52]

 
Soviet Tajikistan in 1964

2 rounds of Stalin's purges (1927–1934 and 1937–1938) resulted in the expulsion of nearly 10,000 people, from all levels of the Communist Party of Tajikistan.[53] Ethnic Russians were sent in to replace those expelled and subsequently Russians dominated party positions at all levels, including the top position of first secretary.[53] Between 1926 and 1959 the proportion of Russians among Tajikistan's population grew from less than 1% to 13%.[54] Bobojon Ghafurov, First Secretary of the Communist Party of Tajikistan from 1946 to 1956, was the only Tajik politician of significance outside of the country during the Soviet Era.[55]

Tajiks began to be conscripted into the Soviet Army in 1939 and during World War II around 260,000 Tajik citizens fought against Germany, Finland and Japan. Between 60,000 (4%)[56] and 120,000 (8%)[57] of Tajikistan's 1,530,000 citizens were killed during World War II.[58] Following the war and Stalin's reign, attempts were made to further expand the agriculture and industry of Tajikistan.[55] During 1957–58 Nikita Khrushchev's Virgin Lands Campaign focused attention on Tajikistan, where living conditions, education and industry lagged behind the other Soviet Republics.[55] In the 1980s, Tajikistan had the lowest household saving rate in the USSR,[59] the lowest percentage of households in the 2 top per capita income groups,[60] and the lowest rate of university graduates per 1000 people.[61] By the 1980s Tajik nationalists were calling for increased rights. Real disturbances did not occur within the republic until 1990. The following year, the Soviet Union collapsed, and Tajikistan declared its independence on 9 September 1991, a day which is celebrated as the country's Independence Day.[62]

Independence edit

 
1990 Dushanbe riots
 
Tajik men and women rally on Ozodi square in Dushanbe shortly after independence, 1992.

In February 1990, riots and strikes in Dushanbe and other cities began due to the difficult socio-economic situation, lack of housing, and youth unemployment.[49] The nationalist and democratic opposition and supporters of independence joined the strikes and began to demand the independence of the republic and democratic reforms. Islamists began to hold strikes to demand respect for their rights and independence of the republic. The Soviet leadership introduced Internal Troops in Dushanbe to eliminate the unrest.[49]

 
Spetsnaz soldiers during the civil war, 1992

Following independence, the nation fell into civil war among factions; distinguished by clan loyalties.[63] More than 500,000 residents fled during this time because of persecution, increased poverty and better economic opportunities in the West or in other former Soviet republics.[64] Emomali Rahmon came to power in 1992,[49] defeating former prime minister Abdumalik Abdullajanov in a November presidential election with 58% of the vote.[65] The elections took place after the end of the war. The estimated dead numbered over 100,000. Around 1.2 million people were refugees inside and outside of the country.[63] In 1997, a ceasefire was reached between Rahmon and opposition parties under the guidance of Gerd D. Merrem,[49] Special Representative to the Secretary General, a result praised as a successful United Nations peacekeeping initiative. The ceasefire guaranteed 30% of ministerial positions would go to the opposition.[66] Elections were held in 1999 and were criticised by opposition parties and foreign observers as unfair and Rahmon was re-elected with 98% of the vote.[49] Elections in 2006 were again won by Rahmon (with 79% of the vote) and he began his third term in office. Opposition parties boycotted the 2006 election and the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) criticised it, while observers from the Commonwealth of Independent States claimed the elections were legal and transparent.[67][68] Rahmon's administration came under further criticism from OSCE in October 2010 for its censorship and repression of the media. OSCE claimed that the Tajik Government censored Tajik and foreign websites and instituted tax inspections on independent printing houses that led to the cessation of printing activities for a number of independent newspapers.[69]

Russian border troops were stationed along the Tajik–Afghan border until summer 2005. Since the September 11, 2001 attacks, French troops have been stationed at Dushanbe Airport in support of air operations of NATO's International Security Assistance Force in Afghanistan. United States Army and Marine Corps personnel periodically visit Tajikistan to conduct joint training missions of up to several weeks duration. The Government of India rebuilt the Ayni Air Base, a military airport located 15 km southwest of Dushanbe, at a cost of $70 million, completing the repairs in September 2010.[70] It is the main base of the Tajikistan air force. There have been talks with Russia concerning use of the Ayni facility,[71] and Russia continues to maintain a base on the outskirts of Dushanbe.[72]

In 2010, there were concerns among Tajik officials that Islamic militarism in the east of the country was on the rise following the escape of 25 militants from a Tajik prison in August, an ambush that killed 28 Tajik soldiers in the Rasht Valley in September,[73] and another ambush in the valley in October that killed 30 soldiers,[74] followed by fighting outside Gharm that left 3 militants dead. The country's Interior Ministry asserts that the central government maintains full control over the country's east, and the military operation in the Rasht Valley was concluded in November 2010.[75] Fighting erupted in July 2012.[76] In 2015, Russia sent more troops to Tajikistan.[77]

In May 2015, Tajikistan's national security underwent a setback when Colonel Gulmurod Khalimov, commander of the special-purpose police unit (OMON) of the Interior Ministry, defected to the Islamic State.[49][78]

In 2021, following the Fall of Kabul, Tajikistan allegedly got involved in the Panjshir conflict against the Taliban on the side of the National Resistance Front of Afghanistan.[79][80]

In September 2022 armed clashes, including the use of artillery, erupted along most of the border between Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan.[81]

Politics edit

Main article: Politics of Tajikistan
See also: Elections in Tajikistan, Foreign relations of Tajikistan, Military of Tajikistan, Human rights in Tajikistan, Tajikistani Civil War, and Cabinet of Tajikistan
 
The Palace of Nations in Dushanbe

After independence, Tajikistan was plunged into a civil war. Factions were supported by foreign countries including Afghanistan, Iran, Pakistan, Uzbekistan and Russia. Russia and Iran focused on keeping peace in the warring nation to decrease the chances of U.S. or Turkish involvement. Russia backed the pro-government faction and deployed troops from the Commonwealth of Independent States to guard the Tajikistan-Afghan border.[82] All but 25,000 of the more than 400,000 ethnic Russians, who were mostly employed in industry, fled to Russia. By 1997, the war had ended after a peace agreement between the government and the Islamist-led opposition, a central government began to take form, with peaceful elections in 1999.[83]

 
President of Tajikistan Emomali Rahmon has ruled the country since 1994.

"Longtime observers of Tajikistan often characterize the country as profoundly averse to risk and skeptical of promises of reform, a political passivity they trace to the country's ruinous civil war," Ilan Greenberg wrote in a news article in The New York Times before the country's November 2006 presidential election.[84]

 
Supreme Assembly in Dushanbe.

The parliamentary elections of 2005 aroused accusations from opposition parties and international observers that President Emomali Rahmon corruptly manipulates the election process and unemployment. Elections in February 2010 saw the ruling PDPT lose 4 seats in Parliament, yet still maintain a majority. The Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe election observers said the 2010 polling "failed to meet many key OSCE commitments" and that "these elections failed on many basic democratic standards."[85][86] The government insisted that only minor violations had occurred, which would not affect the will of the Tajik people.[85][86]

The Tajik government has reportedly clamped down on facial hair as part of a crackdown on Islamic influence and due to its perceived associations with Islamic extremism, which is evident in bordering Afghanistan.[87][88]

 
President of Tajikistan Emomali Rahmon with Russian president Vladimir Putin.

The presidential election held on 6 November 2006 was boycotted by "mainline" opposition parties, including the 23,000-member Islamic Renaissance Party. 4 remaining opponents "all but endorsed the incumbent", Rahmon.[84]

Freedom of the press is officially guaranteed by the government, and independent press outlets remain restricted, as does an amount of web content.[89] According to the Institute for War & Peace Reporting, access is blocked to local and foreign websites, and journalists are sometimes obstructed from reporting on some events. In practice, no public criticism of the regime is tolerated and all direct protest is suppressed and does not receive coverage in the local media.[90]

In the 2020 Democracy Index by the Economist Intelligence Unit, Tajikistan was ranked 160th, after Saudi Arabia, while receiving the designation of "authoritarian regime".[91]

In July 2019, UN ambassadors of 37 countries, including Tajikistan, signed a joint letter to UNHRC defending China's treatment of Uyghurs in the Xinjiang region.[92]

In October 2020, President Emomali Rahmon was re-elected for another seven-year term with 90% of the vote, following a largely ceremonial election.[93]

In April 2021, a conflict over water with Kyrgyzstan escalated into one of the border clashes between the two countries since independence.[94][95]

In July 2021, Tajikistan appealed to members of a Russian-led Collective Security Treaty Organization (CSTO) of ex-Soviet states for help in dealing with security challenges emerging from neighboring Afghanistan.[96] The safety concerns emerged as foreign troops such as the US and British army exited the country, causing over 1,000 Afghan civilians and servicemen to flee to neighboring Tajikistan after Taliban insurgents took control of parts of Afghanistan.[97]

Geography edit

Main article: Geography of Tajikistan
 
Satellite photograph of Tajikistan
 
Tajikistan map of Köppen climate classification

Tajikistan is landlocked, and is the smallest nation in Central Asia by area. It lies mostly between latitudes 36° and 41° N, and longitudes 67° and 75° E. It is covered by mountains of the Pamir range, and most of the country is over 3,000 metres (9,800 ft) above sea level. The areas of lower land are in the north (part of the Fergana Valley), and in the southern Kofarnihon and Vakhsh river valleys, which form the Amu Darya. Dushanbe is located on the southern slopes above the Kofarnihon valley.

Mountain Height Location
Ismoil Somoni Peak (highest) 7,495 m 24,590 ft     North-western edge of Gorno-Badakhshan (GBAO), south of the Kyrgyz border
Ibn Sina Peak (Lenin Peak) 7,134 m 23,537 ft     Northern border in the Trans-Alay Range, north-east of Ismoil Somoni Peak
Peak Korzhenevskaya 7,105 m 23,310 ft     North of Ismoil Somoni Peak, on the south bank of Muksu River
Independence Peak (Revolution Peak) 6,974 m 22,881 ft     Central Gorno-Badakhshan, south-east of Ismoil Somoni Peak
Academy of Sciences Range 6,785 m 22,260 ft     North-western Gorno-Badakhshan, stretches in the north–south direction
Karl Marx Peak 6,726 m 22,067 ft     GBAO, near the border to Afghanistan in the northern ridge of the Karakoram Range
Garmo Peak 6,595 m 21,637 ft     Northwestern Gorno-Badakhshan.
Mayakovskiy Peak 6,096 m 20,000 ft     Extreme south-west of GBAO, near the border to Afghanistan.
Concord Peak 5,469 m 17,943 ft     Southern border in the northern ridge of the Karakoram Range
Kyzylart Pass 4,280 m 14,042 ft     Northern border in the Trans-Alay Range

The Amu Darya and Panj rivers mark the border with Afghanistan, and the glaciers in Tajikistan's mountains are the source of runoff for the Aral Sea. There are over 900 rivers in Tajikistan longer than 10 kilometres.

Administrative divisions edit

Main articles: Regions of Tajikistan and Districts of Tajikistan
 Sughd ProvinceDistricts of Republican SubordinationKhatlon ProvinceGorno-Badakhshan Autonomous Province
A clickable map of Tajikistan exhibiting its four provinces.
 
Mountains of Tajikistan

Tajikistan consists of 4 administrative divisions. These are the provinces (viloyat) of Sughd and Khatlon, the autonomous province of Gorno-Badakhshan (abbreviated as GBAO), and the Region of Republican Subordination (RRP – Raiony Respublikanskogo Podchineniya in transliteration from Russian or NTJ – Ноҳияҳои тобеи ҷумҳурӣ [Nohiyahoi tobei jumhurii] in Tajik; formerly known as Karotegin Province). Each region is divided into districts (Tajik: Ноҳия, nohiya or raion), which in turn are subdivided into jamoats (village-level self-governing units) and then villages (qyshloqs). As of 2006, there were 58 districts and 367 jamoats in Tajikistan.[98]

Division ISO 3166-2 Map No Capital Area (km2)[98] Pop. (2019)[99]
Sughd TJ-SU 1 Khujand 25,400 2,658,400
Region of Republican Subordination TJ-RR 2 Dushanbe 28,600 2,122,000
Khatlon TJ-KT 3 Bokhtar　 24,800 3,274,900
Gorno-Badakhshan TJ-GB 4 Khorugh 64,200 226,900
Dushanbe Dushanbe 124.6 846,400

Biodiversity edit

Tajikistan contains 5 terrestrial ecoregions: Alai-Western Tian Shan steppe, Gissaro-Alai open woodlands, Pamir alpine desert and tundra, Badghyz and Karabil semi-desert, and Paropamisus xeric woodlands.[100]

Economy edit

Main article: Economy of Tajikistan
See also: Agriculture in Tajikistan
 
A Tajik dry fruit seller

In 2019, nearly 29% of Tajikistan's GDP came from immigrant remittances (mostly from Tajiks working in Russia).[101][102][103] With foreign revenue precariously dependent upon remittances from migrant workers overseas and exports of aluminium and cotton, the economy is vulnerable to external shocks. In fiscal year 2000, international assistance remained an essential source of support for rehabilitation programs that reintegrated former civil war combatants into the civilian economy, which helped keep the peace. International assistance was necessary to address the second year of drought that resulted in a continued shortfall of food production. On 21 August 2001, the Red Cross announced that a famine was striking Tajikistan, and called for international aid for Tajikistan and Uzbekistan.[104] In January 2012, 680,152 of the people living in Tajikistan were living with food insecurity. Out of those, 676,852 were at risk of Phase 3 (Acute Food and Livelihoods Crisis) food insecurity, and 3,300 were at risk of Phase 4 (Humanitarian Emergency). Those with the highest risk of food insecurity were living in the Murghob District of GBAO.[105]

The malnutrition rate in Tajikistan will reach 30% in 2023 according to the United Nations World Food Programme (WFP). As in the rest of Central Asia, soils are deteriorating and water resources are diminishing, particularly as a result of climate change.[106]

 
The TadAZ aluminium smelting plant, in Tursunzoda, is the largest aluminium manufacturing plant in Central Asia, and Tajikistan's chief industrial asset.

Tajikistan's economy grew after the war. The GDP of Tajikistan expanded at an average rate of 9.6% over the period of 2000–2007 according to the World Bank data. This "improved" Tajikistan's position among other Central Asian countries (namely Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan), which seem to have degraded economically ever since.[107] The primary sources of income in Tajikistan are aluminium production, cotton growing and remittances from migrant workers.[108] Cotton accounts for 60% of agricultural output, supporting 75% of the rural population, and using 45% of irrigated arable land.[109] The aluminium industry is represented by the state-owned Tajik Aluminum Company – the biggest aluminium plant in Central Asia and one of the biggest in the world.[110]

Tajikistan's rivers, such as the Vakhsh and the Panj, have hydropower potential, and the government has focused on attracting investment for projects for internal use and electricity exports. Tajikistan is home to the Nurek Dam, the second highest dam in the world.[111] Russia's RAO UES has been working on the Sangtuda-1 hydroelectric power station (670 MW capacity) commenced operations on 18 January 2008.[112][113] Other projects at the development stage include Sangtuda-2 by Iran, Zerafshan by the Chinese company SinoHydro, and the Rogun power plant that, at a projected height of 335 metres (1,099 ft), would supersede the Nurek Dam as highest in the world if it is brought to completion.[114][115] A planned project, CASA-1000, will transmit 1000 MW of surplus electricity from Tajikistan to Pakistan with power transit through Afghanistan. The total length of transmission line is 750 km while the project is planned to be on Public-Private Partnership basis with the support of WB, IFC, ADB and IDB. The project cost is estimated to be around US$865 million.[116] Other energy resources include coal deposits and smaller reserves of natural gas and petroleum.[117]

In 2014 Tajikistan was the world's most remittance-dependent economy with remittances accounting for 49% of GDP and expected to fall by 40% in 2015 due to the economic crisis in the Russian Federation.[118] Tajik migrant workers abroad, mainly in the Russian Federation, have become the main source of income for millions of Tajikistan's people[119] and with the 2014–2015 downturn in the Russian economy the World Bank has predicted numbers of Tajik men will return home and face "few" economic prospects.[118]

According to some estimates about 47% of the population lives on less than US$1.25 per day.[106][120] Migration from Tajikistan and the consequent remittances have been unprecedented in their magnitude and economic impact. In 2010, remittances from Tajik labour migrants totalled an estimated $2.1 billion US dollars, an increase from 2009. Tajikistan has achieved transition from a planned to a market economy without "substantial and protracted" recourse to aid, and by purely market-based means, simply by exporting its main commodity of comparative advantage — cheap labour.[121] The World Bank Tajikistan Policy Note 2006 concludes that remittances have played a role as 1 of the drivers of Tajikistan's economic growth during the past years, have increased incomes, and as a result helped reduce poverty.[122]

Drug trafficking is an illegal source of income in Tajikistan[123] as it is a transit country for Afghan narcotics bound for Russian and, to a lesser extent, Western European markets; some opium poppy is raised locally for the domestic market.[124] With the increasing assistance from international organisations, such as UNODC, and co-operation with the US, Russian, EU and Afghan authorities a level of progress on the fight against illegal drug-trafficking is being achieved.[125] Tajikistan holds third place in the world for heroin and raw opium confiscations (1216.3 kg of heroin and 267.8 kg of raw opium in the first half of 2006).[126][127] Drug money corrupts the country's government; according to some experts the personalities that fought on both sides of the civil war and have held the positions in the government after the armistice was signed are involved in the drug trade.[124] UNODC is working with Tajikistan to strengthen border crossings, provide training, and set up joint interdiction teams. It helped to establish Tajikistani Drug Control Agency.[128]

Besides Russia, China is 1 of the economic and trade partners of Dushanbe. Tajikistan belongs to the group of countries associated with Chinese investment within the Belt and Road Initiative.[129]

Transportation edit

Main article: Transport in Tajikistan

As a landlocked country, Tajikistan has no ports and the majority of transportation is via roads, air, and rail. In years Tajikistan has pursued agreements with Iran and Pakistan to gain port access in those countries via Afghanistan. In 2009, an agreement was made between Tajikistan, Pakistan, and Afghanistan to improve and build a 1,300 km (810 mi) highway and rail system connecting the 3 countries to Pakistan's ports. The proposed route would go through the Gorno-Badakhshan Autonomous Province in the eastern part of the country.[130] In 2012, the presidents of Tajikistan, Afghanistan, and Iran signed an agreement to construct roads and railways, and oil, gas, and water pipelines to connect the 3 countries.[131]

Rail edit

Main article: Rail transport in Tajikistan

The railroad system totals only 680 kilometres (420 mi) of track,[126] all of it 1,520 mm (4 ft 11+27⁄32 in) broad gauge. The principal segments are in the southern region and connect the capital with the industrial areas of the Hisor and Vakhsh valleys and with Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, Kazakhstan and Russia.[132] Most international freight traffic is carried by train.[133] The Bokhtar–Kulob railway connected the Kulob District with the central area of the country.[133]

Air edit

In 2009 Tajikistan had 26 airports, 18 of which had paved runways, of which 2 had runways longer than 3,000 meters.[126]

Roads edit

The total length of roads in the country is 27,800 kilometres. Automobiles account for more than 90% of the total volume of passenger transportation and more than 80% of domestic freight transportation.[133]

In 2004 the Tajik–Afghan Friendship Bridge between Afghanistan and Tajikistan was built, improving the country's access to South Asia. The bridge was built by the United States.[134]

As of 2014 highway and tunnel construction projects are underway or have been completed. Projects include rehabilitation of the Dushanbe – Chanak (Uzbek border), Dushanbe – Kulma (Chinese border), and Kurgan-Tube – Nizhny Pyanj (Afghan border) highways, and construction of tunnels under the mountain passes of Anzob, Shakhristan, Shar-Shar[135] and Chormaghzak.[136] These were supported by international donor countries.[133][137]

Demographics edit

Main article: Demographics of Tajikistan
 
Tajikistan: trends in its Human Development Index indicator 1970–2010
Population in Tajikistan[138][139][140]
Year Million
1926 0.83
1950 1.5
2000 6.2
2021 9.8
 
Group of Tajik women

In 2021, Tajikistan was estimated to have a population of 9,749,625 as per the World Bank data.[141] The Tajiks who speak Tajik (a dialect of Persian) are the main ethnic group, while there are minorities of Uzbeks and Russians, whose numbers are declining due to emigration.[142] The Pamiris of Badakhshan, a population of Yaghnobi people, and a minority of Ismailis are considered to belong to the larger group of Tajiks. Citizens of Tajikistan are called Tajikistanis.[126]

 
Nowruz celebrations in Tajikistan

In 1989, ethnic Russians in Tajikistan made up 7.6% of the population; by 1998 the proportion had reduced to approximately 0.5% following the Tajikistani Civil War which had displaced the majority of ethnic Russians. Following the end of the war, Russian emigration continued.[143] The ethnic German population of Tajikistan has declined due to emigration: having topped at 38,853 in 1979, it has "almost vanished" since the collapse of the Soviet Union.[144]

The Tajiks are the principal ethnic group in most of Tajikistan, and in northern and western Afghanistan,[145] and there are more Tajiks in Afghanistan than in Tajikistan. Tajiks are a minority in Uzbekistan.[146] More than 3 million Tajik citizens were officially registered in Russia in 2021.[147]

Languages edit

Main articles: Languages of Tajikistan, Tajikistani Russian, and Russian_dialects § Tajikistani_Russian

The 2 official languages of Tajikistan are Tajik as the state language and Russian as the interethnic language, as understood in Article 2 of the Constitution: "The state language of Tajikistan shall be Tajik. Russian shall be the language of international communication."[148]

The state (national) language (Tajik: забони давлатӣ, Russian: государственный язык) of the Republic of Tajikistan is Tajik, which is written in the Tajik Cyrillic alphabet. Linguists recognise the fact that the Tajik language is a variant of the Persian language (or Farsi). Therefore, Tajik speakers have no problems communicating with Persian speakers from Iran and Dari speakers from Afghanistan. Millions of native Tajik speakers live in neighboring Uzbekistan and in Russia.[149]

According to article 2 of the Constitution of the Republic of Tajikistan,[148] Russian is recognized as the second official language of Tajikistan; the official language of inter-ethnic communication (Russian: язык межнационального общения; Tajik: забони муоширати байни миллатҳо) in the country.[150][151]

Approximately 90% of the population of Tajikistan speaks Russian at levels. The varieties of Russian spoken in Tajikistan are referred to by scholars as Tajik(istani) Russian[152] and it shares some similarities with Uzbek(istani) Russian, such as morphological differences and the lexical differences like the use of words урюк[153] for a wild apricot or кислушка for rhubarb.[154]

Both Russian and Tajik speakers in the country use the following words in common in address to unfamiliar people and acquaintances.[155]

Words of familial relation
Tajikistani Russian Standard Russian English translation
апа старшая сестра older sister
ака старший брат older brother
хола тетя aunt
янга жена брата, невестка daughter-in-law; sister-in-law

The "highly educated" part of the population of Tajikistan, and the intelligentsia, prefer to speak Russian and Persian, the pronunciation of which in Tajikistan is called the "Iranian style".[156][150][151]

Native Uzbek speakers live in the north and west of Tajikistan. In fourth place (after Tajik, Russian and Uzbek) by number of native speakers are Pamir languages, whose native speakers live in Kuhistani Badakshshan Autonomous Region. The majority of Zoroastrians in Tajikistan speak 1 of the Pamir languages. Native speakers of the Kyrgyz language live in the north of Kuhistani Badakshshan Autonomous Region. Yagnobi language speakers live in the west of the country. The Parya language of local Romani people (Central Asian Gypsies) is spoken in Tajikistan. Tajikistan has communities of native speakers of Persian, Arabic, Pashto, Armenian, Azerbaijani, Tatar, Turkmen, Kazakh, Chinese, Ukrainian.[157]

Employment edit

In 2009 nearly 1 million Tajiks worked abroad (mainly in Russia).[158] More than 70% of the female population lives in traditional villages.[159]

Religion edit

Main article: Religion in Tajikistan
See also: Freedom of religion in Tajikistan and Islam in Tajikistan
Religion in Tajikistan, 2010[4][160]
Religion Percent
Islam
 
 96.7%
Christianity
 
 1.6%
Unaffiliated
 
 1.5%
others
 
 0.2%
 
A mosque in Isfara, Tajikistan

Tajikistan considers itself a secular state with a constitution providing for freedom of religion.[161] Sunni Islam of the Hanafi school has been officially recognised by the government since 2009.[162] The government has declared 2 Islamic holidays, Eid ul-Fitr and Eid al-Adha, as state holidays. According to a US State Department release and Pew research group, the population of Tajikistan is 98% Muslim. Approximately 87–95% of them are Sunni and roughly 3% are Shia and roughly 7% are non-denominational Muslims.[163][164] The Shia part of the population predominantly live in the Gorno-Badakhshan Autonomous Region, and are followers of the Ismailite branch of Shia Islam.[165] The remaining 2% of the population are followers of Russian Orthodoxy, Protestantism, Zoroastrianism and Buddhism. Muslims fast during Ramadan, while about 1 third in the countryside and 10% in the cities observe daily prayer and dietary restrictions.[166]

Bukharan Jews had lived in Tajikistan since the second century BC. In the 1940s, the Jewish community of Tajikistan numbered nearly 30,000 people. Most were Persian-speaking Bukharan Jews who had lived in the region for millennia along with Ashkenazi Jews from Eastern Europe who resettled there in the Soviet era. The Jewish population later is estimated at less than 500, about half of whom live in Dushanbe.[167]

There is a concern for religious institutions becoming active in the political sphere. The Islamic Renaissance Party (IRP), a combatant in the 1992–1997 Civil War and then-proponent of the creation of an Islamic state in Tajikistan, constitutes no more than 30% of the government by statute. Membership in Hizb ut-Tahrir, a militant Islamic party which aims for an overthrow of secular governments and the unification of Tajiks under 1 Islamic state, is illegal and members are subject to arrest and imprisonment.[168]

By law, religious communities must register by the State Committee on Religious Affairs (SCRA) and with local authorities. Registration with SCRA requires a charter, a list of 10 or more members, and evidence of local government approval prayer site location. Religious groups that do not have a physical structure are not allowed to gather publicly for prayer. Failure to register can result in fines and closure of a place of worship. There are reports that registration on the local level is sometimes difficult to obtain.[169] People under the age of 18 are barred from public religious practice.[170]

As of January 2016, as part of an "anti-radicalisation campaign", police in the Khatlon region reportedly shaved the beards of 13,000 men and shut down 160 shops selling the hijab. Shaving beards and discouraging women from wearing hijabs is part of a government campaign targeting trends that are deemed "alien and inconsistent with Tajik culture", and "to preserve secular traditions".[171]

Approximately 1.6% of the population in Tajikistan is Christian, mostly Orthodox Christians.[4][160] The territory of Tajikistan is part of the Dushanbe and Tajikistan Diocese of the Central Asian Metropolitan District of the Russian Orthodox Moscow Patriarchate. The country is home to communities of Catholics, Armenian Christians, Protestants, Lutherans, Jehovah's Witnesses, Baptists, Mormons, and Adventists.[172]

Health edit

Main article: Health in Tajikistan
 
A hospital in Dushanbe

The state's Ministry of Labor and Social Welfare reported that 104,272 disabled people are registered in Tajikistan (2000). The government of Tajikistan and the World Bank considered activities to support this part of the population described in the World Bank's Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper.[173] Public expenditure on health was at 1% of the GDP in 2004.[174]

Life expectancy at birth was estimated to be 69 years in 2020.[175] The infant mortality rate was approximately 30.42 deaths per 1,000 children in 2018.[176] In 2014, there were 2.1 physicians per 1,000 people, higher than any other low-income country after North Korea.[177]

Tajikistan has experienced a decrease in number of per capita hospital beds following the dissolution of the USSR (since 1992), while the number still remains relatively at 4.8 beds per 1,000 people, above the world average of 2.7.[178]

According to World Bank, 96% of births are attended by skilled health staff, a figure which has risen from 66.6% in 1999.[179]

In 2010 the country experienced an outbreak of polio that caused more than 457 cases of polio in both children and adults and resulted in 29 deaths before being brought under control.[180]

In the summer of 2021 coronavirus ravaged the country, and the Tajik president's sister reportedly died in a hospital of COVID-19. According to local media, the president's sister's sons physically assaulted the health minister and a senior doctor.[181]

Education edit

Main article: Education in Tajikistan
 
Tajik National University in Dushanbe

Tajikistan has a rate of literacy due to the old Soviet system of free education, with an estimated 99.8%[182] of the population having the ability to read and write.[126]

Public education in Tajikistan consists of 11 years of primary and secondary education and the government planned to implement a 12-year system in 2016.[183] There is a number of tertiary education institutions including Khujand State University which has 76 departments in 15 faculties,[183] Tajikistan State University of Law, Business, & Politics, Khorugh State University, Agricultural University of Tajikistan, Tajik National University, and other institutions. Universities were established during the Soviet Era. As of 2008 tertiary education enrollment was 17%, below the sub-regional average of 37%,[184] while higher than any other low-income country after Syria.[185] Tajiks left the education system due to "low" demand in the labour market for people with "extensive" educational training or professional skills.[184]

Public spending on education was relatively constant between 2005–2012 and fluctuated from 3.5% to 4.1% of GDP[186] below the OECD average of 6%.[184] The United Nations reported that the level of spending was "severely inadequate to meet the requirements of the country's high-needs education system."[184]

According to a UNICEF-supported survey, about 25% of girls in Tajikistan fail to complete compulsory primary education because of poverty and gender bias,[187] while literacy is "generally high" in Tajikistan.[174] Estimates of out of school children range from 4.6% to 19.4% with the majority being girls.[184]

In September 2017, the University of Central Asia launched its second campus in Khorog, Tajikistan, offering majors in Earth & Environmental Sciences and Economics.[188] Tajikistan was ranked 111rd in the Global Innovation Index in 2023.[189][190]

Science on the territory of Tajikistan achieved "success" in the Middle Ages, and scientific organizations were created in the Soviet period. During the period of independence, the scientific sphere experienced a "crisis": the annual number of patent applications for inventions decreased in 1994-2011 from 193 to 5.[191] A contribution to science is made by universities, where in 2011 6707 researchers worked, of which 2450 had academic degrees.[192]

Culture edit

Main article: Culture of Tajikistan
See also: Music of Tajikistan, Tajik literature, Public holidays in Tajikistan, Tajik cuisine, and Telecommunications in Tajikistan
 
Tajik traditional dress

The Tajik language is the mother tongue of around 80% of the citizens of Tajikistan. Urban centers in Tajikistan include Dushanbe (the capital), Khujand, Kulob, Panjakent, Bokhtar, Khorugh and Istaravshan. There are Uzbek, Kyrgyz and Russian minorities.[193]

The Yaghnobi people live in areas of northern Tajikistan. The estimated number of Yaghnobis is about 25,000. Forced migrations in the 20th century decimated their numbers. They speak the Yaghnobi language, which is the only direct descendant of the Sogdian language.[194]

Tajikistan artisans created the Dushanbe Tea House, which was presented in 1988 as a gift to the sister city of Boulder, Colorado.[195]

In the country, especially among women from the indigenous population, the wearing traditional national clothing is preserved. The seamstresses and embroiderers of regions of Tajikistan use factory fabrics and local needlework embroidery for home decoration and women's clothing. The practice of Chakan embroidery is preserved among women in certain areas, passing the knowledge down from 1 generation to the next.[196]

Sport edit

The national sport of Tajikistan is gushtigiri, a form of wrestling.[197][198]

Another sport is buzkashi, a game played on horseback, like polo. Buzkashi may be played as an individual sport and as a team sport. The aim of the game is to grab a 50 kg dead goat, ride clear of the other players, get back to the starting point and drop it in a designated circle. It is played at Nowruz celebrations.[199]

 
Tajikistan is a destination amongst mountaineers. 1982 expedition to Tartu Ülikool 350.

The Tajikistan Cricket Federation was formed in 2012 as the governing body for the sport of cricket in Tajikistan. It was granted affiliate membership of the Asian Cricket Council in the same year.[200]

In 2008, rugby union was officially registered with the Ministry of Justice, and there are 3 men's clubs.[201]

Khorugh, capital of Gorno-Badakhshan Autonomous Region, is the location of highest altitude where bandy has been played.[202]

Tajikistan has 1 ski resort, called Safed Dara (formerly Takob), near the town of Varzob.[203]

See also edit

Notes edit

  1. ^ /tɑːˈdʒiːkɪstɑːn/ ⓘ, /tə-, tæ-/
    Tajik: Тоҷикистон, romanized: Tojikiston, pronounced [tʰɔːdʒikʰɪsˈtʰɔːn]; Russian: Таджикистан, romanized: Tadzhikistan, pronounced [tədʐɨkʲɪˈstan]
  2. ^ Tajik: Ҷумҳурии Тоҷикистон, romanized: Jumhurii Tojikiston, pronounced [dʒʊmhʊˈɾijɪ tʰɔdʒɪkʰɪsˈtʰɔn]

References edit

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  This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain. Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan : country studies. Federal Research Division.

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Further reading edit

See also: Bibliography of the history of Central Asia
  • Kamoludin Abdullaev and Shahram Akbarzadeh, Historical Dictionary of Tajikistan, 3rd. ed., Rowman & Littlefield, 2018.
  • Shirin Akiner, Mohammad-Reza Djalili and Frederic Grare, eds., Tajikistan: The Trials of Independence, Routledge, 1998.
  • Richard Foltz, A History of the Tajiks: Iranians of the East, London: Bloomsbury Publishing, 2019.
  • Robert Middleton, Huw Thomas and Markus Hauser, Tajikistan and the High Pamirs, Hong Kong: Odyssey Books, 2008 (ISBN 978-9-622177-73-4).
  • Nahaylo, Bohdan and Victor Swoboda. Soviet Disunion: A History of the Nationalities problem in the USSR (1990) excerpt
  • Kirill Nourdhzanov and Christian Blauer, Tajikistan: A Political and Social History, Canberra: ANU E-Press, 2013.
  • Rashid, Ahmed. The Resurgence of Central Asia: Islam or Nationalism? (2017)
  • Smith, Graham, ed. The Nationalities Question in the Soviet Union (2nd ed. 1995)
  • Monica Whitlock, Land Beyond the River: The Untold Story of Central Asia, New York: St. Martin's Press, 2003.
  • Poopak NikTalab. Sarve Samarghand (Cedar of Samarkand), continuous interpretation of Rudaki's poems, Tehran 2020, Faradid Publications {Introduction}
  • Sharma, Raj Kumar, "Food Security and Political Stability in Tajikistan", New Delhi, Vij Books, 2018.

External links edit

39°N 71°E / 39°N 71°E / 39; 71

March 17, 2024
tajikistan, officially, republic, landlocked, country, central, asia, dushanbe, capital, most, populous, city, bordered, afghanistan, south, uzbekistan, west, kyrgyzstan, north, china, east, separated, from, pakistan, afghanistan, wakhan, corridor, tajiks, for. Tajikistan a officially the Republic of Tajikistan b is a landlocked country in Central Asia Dushanbe is the capital and most populous city Tajikistan is bordered by Afghanistan to the south Uzbekistan to the west Kyrgyzstan to the north and China to the east It is separated from Pakistan by Afghanistan s Wakhan Corridor Tajiks form the ethnic majority in the country and their national language is Tajik a variety of Persian 16 Republic of TajikistanҶumҳurii Toҷikiston Tajik Jumhurii TojikistonRespublika Tadzhikistan Russian Respublika TadzhikistanFlag EmblemMotto Istiklol Ozodӣ Vatan Tajik Istiqlol Ozodi Vatan Independence Freedom Homeland Anthem Surudi Millӣ Tajik Surudi Milli National Anthem source source source track track track Location of Tajikistan green Capitaland largest cityDushanbe38 33 N 68 48 E 38 550 N 68 800 E 38 550 68 800Official languagesTajik national Russian interethnic 1 Spoken languagesTajikRussianUzbekKyrgyzTurkmenShughniRushaniYaghnobiBartangiSanglechi IshkashimiCentral Asian ArabicParyaBukhoriTatarWakhiothersEthnic groups 2020 2 86 1 Tajiks11 3 Uzbeks0 4 Kyrgyz0 3 Russians1 9 OthersReligion 2020 3 4 96 4 Islam 96 Hanafi Sunni 0 4 Nizari Shia 1 8 Christianity 1 5 Irreligion 0 3 OthersDemonym s Tajikistani 5 Tajik 6 GovernmentUnitary presidential republic under an authoritarian dictatorship 7 PresidentEmomali Rahmon Prime MinisterKokhir RasulzodaLegislatureSupreme Assembly Upper houseNational Assembly Lower houseAssembly of RepresentativesFormation Sovereignty declared24 August 1990 Republic of Tajikistan declared31 August 1991 Independence declared from USSR9 September 1991 Independence recognized26 December 1991Area Total143 100 8 9 10 km2 55 300 sq mi 94th Water2 575 km2 994 sq mi Water 1 8Population 1 Jan 2023 estimate10 077 600 11 92th Density48 6 km2 125 9 sq mi 155th GDP PPP 2023 estimate Total 53 679 billion 12 119th Per capita 5 360 12 148th GDP nominal 2023 estimate Total 11 816 billion 12 151st Per capita 1 180 12 167th Gini 2015 34 13 mediumHDI 2021 0 685 14 medium 122nd CurrencySomoni TJS Time zoneUTC 5 TJT Date formatdd mm yyyyDriving siderightCalling code 992ISO 3166 codeTJInternet TLD tjRussian has the status of an official language through its use as the official interethnic language as cited in the Constitution of Tajikistan 15 The territory was previously home to cultures of the Neolithic and the Bronze Age including the city of Sarazm 17 and was later home to kingdoms ruled by people of faiths and cultures including the Oxus civilization Andronovo culture Buddhism Nestorian Christianity Hinduism Zoroastrianism Manichaeism and Islam The area has been ruled by empires and dynasties including the Achaemenid Empire Sasanian Empire Hephthalite Empire Samanid Empire and Mongol Empire After being ruled by the Timurid Empire and Khanate of Bukhara the Timurid Renaissance flourished The region was later conquered by the Russian Empire and subsequently by the Soviet Union Within the Soviet Union the country s borders were drawn when it was part of Uzbekistan as an autonomous republic before becoming a full fledged Soviet republic in 1929 18 On 9 September 1991 Tajikistan declared itself an independent sovereign nation as the Soviet Union was disintegrating A civil war was fought after independence lasting from May 1992 to June 1997 Since the end of the war newly established political stability and foreign aid have allowed the country s economy to grow The country has been led by President Emomali Rahmon since 1994 who rules an authoritarian regime There is corruption and violations of human rights including torture arbitrary imprisonment increasing political repression and a lack of religious freedom and other civil liberties 19 20 Tajikistan is a presidential republic consisting of 4 provinces Most of Tajikistan s population belongs to the Tajik ethnic group 21 who speak the Tajik language the first official language making it 1 of the 3 Persian speaking countries alongside Afghanistan and Iran Russian is used as the official inter ethnic language While the state is constitutionally secular Islam is nominally adhered to by 96 of the population In the Gorno Badakhshan oblast there is a linguistic diversity where Rushani Shughni Ishkashimi Wakhi and Tajik are some of the languages spoken Mountains cover more than 90 of the country It is a developing country with a transitional economy that is dependent on remittances aluminium and cotton production Tajikistan is a member of the United Nations CIS OSCE OIC ECO SCO CSTO and a NATO PfP partner Contents 1 Etymology 2 History 2 1 Samanid Empire 2 2 Bukharan rule 2 3 Imperial Russia 2 4 Soviet period 2 5 Independence 3 Politics 4 Geography 4 1 Administrative divisions 4 2 Biodiversity 5 Economy 6 Transportation 6 1 Rail 6 2 Air 6 3 Roads 7 Demographics 7 1 Languages 7 2 Employment 7 3 Religion 7 4 Health 7 5 Education 8 Culture 8 1 Sport 9 See also 10 Notes 11 References 12 Further reading 13 External linksEtymology editMain article Tajik people The term Tajik itself ultimately derives from the Middle Persian Tazik the Turkic rendition of the Arabic ethnonym Ṭayyi denoting a Qahtanite Arab tribe who emigrated to the Transoxiana region of Central Asia in the 7th century AD 22 Tajikistan appeared as Tadjikistan or Tadzhikistan in English prior to 1991 This is due to a transliteration from the Russian Tadzhikistan In Russian there is no single letter j to represent the phoneme d ʒ and therefore dzh or dzh is used Tadzhikistan is the alternate spelling and is used in English literature derived from Russian sources 23 citation needed Tadjikistan is the spelling in French and can occasionally be found in English language texts citation needed The way of writing Tajikistan in the Perso Arabic script is تاجیکستان While the Library of Congress s 1997 Country Study of Tajikistan found it difficult to definitively state the origins of the word Tajik because the term is embroiled in twentieth century political disputes about whether Turkic or Iranian peoples were the original inhabitants of Central Asia 24 scholars concluded that contemporary Tajiks are the descendants of the Eastern Iranian inhabitants of Central Asia in particular the Sogdians and the Bactrians and possibly other groups with an admixture of Western Iranian Persians and non Iranian peoples 25 26 According to Richard Nelson Frye a historian of Iranian and Central Asian history the Persian emigration to Central Asia may be considered the beginning of the Tajik nation and ethnic Persians along with some elements of the Eastern Iranian Bactrians and Sogdians as the main ancestors of the Tajiks 27 In later works Frye expands on the complexity of the historical origins of the Tajiks In a 1996 publication Frye explains that factors must be taken into account in explaining the evolution of the peoples whose remnants are the Tajiks in Central Asia and that the peoples of Central Asia whether Iranian or Turkic speaking have one culture one religion one set of social values and traditions with only language separating them 28 Regarding Tajiks the Encyclopaedia Britannica states The Tajiks are the direct descendants of the Iranian peoples whose continuous presence in Central Asia and northern Afghanistan is attested from the middle of the first millennium BC The ancestors of the Tajiks constituted the core of the ancient population of Khwarezm Khorezm and Bactria which formed part of Transoxania Sogdiana Over the course of time the eastern Iranian dialect that was used by the ancient Tajiks eventually gave way to Farsi a western dialect spoken in Iran and Afghanistan 29 History editMain article History of Tajikistan nbsp Ambassador to the Tang dynasty coming from Kumedh 胡密丹 Tajikistan Wanghuitu 王会图 circa 650 CE 30 31 Cultures in the region have been dated back to at least the fourth millennium BC including the Bronze Age Bactria Margiana Archaeological Complex the Andronovo cultures and the pro urban site of Sarazm a UNESCO World Heritage Site 32 The earliest recorded history of the region dates back to about 500 BC when most if not all of Tajikistan was part of the Achaemenid Empire 24 Some authors have suggested that in the seventh and sixth centuries BC parts of Tajikistan including territories in the Zeravshan valley formed part of the Hindu Kambojas tribe 33 34 before it became part of the Achaemenid Empire 35 After the region s conquest by Alexander the Great it became part of the Greco Bactrian Kingdom a successor state of Alexander s empire Northern Tajikistan the cities of Khujand and Panjakent was part of Sogdia a collection of city states which was overrun by Scythians and Yuezhi nomadic tribes around 150 BC The Silk Road passed through the region and following the expedition of Chinese explorer Zhang Qian during the reign of Wudi 141BC 87 BC commercial relations between Han Empire and Sogdiana flourished 36 37 Sogdians played a role in facilitating trade and worked in other capacities as farmers carpetweavers glassmakers and woodcarvers 38 The Kushan Empire a collection of Yuezhi tribes took control of the region in the first century AD and ruled until the fourth century AD during which time Buddhism Nestorian Christianity Zoroastrianism and Manichaeism were practised in the region 39 Later the Hephthalite Empire a collection of nomadic tribes moved into the region and Arabs brought Islam in the eighth century 39 nbsp The Samanid ruler Mansur I 961 976 nbsp 19th century painting of lake Zorkul and a local Tajik inhabitantSamanid Empire edit See also Samanid Empire The Samanid Empire 819 to 999 restored Persian control of the region and enlarged the cities of Samarkand and Bukhara which became the cultural centers of Iran and the region was known as Khorasan The empire was centered in Khorasan and Transoxiana at its greatest extent encompassing Afghanistan parts of Iran Tajikistan Turkmenistan Uzbekistan Kyrgyzstan parts of Kazakhstan and Pakistan Four brothers Nuh Ahmad Yahya and Ilyas founded the Samanid state Each of them ruled territory under Abbasid suzerainty In 892 Ismail Samani 892 907 united the Samanid state under 1 ruler thus putting an end to the feudal system used by the Samanids It was under him that the Samanids became independent of Abbasid authority The Kara Khanid Khanate conquered Transoxania which corresponds approximately with what later is Uzbekistan Tajikistan southern Kyrgyzstan and southwest Kazakhstan and ruled between 999 and 1211 40 41 Their arrival in Transoxania signalled a definitive shift from Iranian to Turkic predominance in Central Asia 42 and gradually the Kara khanids became assimilated into the Perso Arab Muslim culture of the region 43 In the 13th century the Mongol Empire swept through Central Asia invaded Khwarezmian Empire and sacked the cities looting and massacring people Turco Mongol conqueror Tamerlane founded the Timurid Empire in and around what later is Tajikistan and Central Asia becoming the first ruler of the Timurid dynasty 44 Bukharan rule edit See also Khanate of Bukhara What later is Tajikistan fell under the rule of the Khanate of Bukhara during the 16th century and with the empire s collapse in the 18th century it came under the rule of the Emirate of Bukhara and Khanate of Kokand The Emirate of Bukhara remained intact until the 20th century and during the 19th century for the second time in world history a European power the Russian Empire began to conquer parts of the region 45 Imperial Russia edit See also The Great Game Russian conquest of Turkestan and Russian Turkestan Russian Imperialism led to the Russian Empire s conquest of Central Asia during the 19th century s Imperial Era Between 1864 and 1885 Russia gradually took control of the entire territory of Russian Turkestan the Tajikistan portion of which had been controlled by the Emirate of Bukhara and Khanate of Kokand Russia was interested in gaining access to a supply of cotton and in the 1870s attempted to switch cultivation in the region from grain to cotton a strategy later copied and expanded by the Soviets 46 During the 19th century the Jadidists established themselves as an Islamic social movement throughout the region While the Jadidists were pro modernization and not necessarily anti Russian the Russians viewed the movement as a threat because the Russian Empire was predominantly Christian 47 Russian troops were required to restore order during uprisings against the Khanate of Kokand between 1910 and 1913 Further violence occurred in July 1916 when demonstrators attacked Russian soldiers in Khujand over the threat of forced conscription during World War I While Russian troops brought Khujand back under control clashes continued throughout the year in locations in Tajikistan 48 Soviet period edit Main articles Basmachi movement and Tajik Soviet Socialist Republic nbsp Soviet negotiations with basmachi 1921After the Russian Revolution of 1917 guerrillas throughout Central Asia known as basmachi waged a war against Bolshevik armies in an attempt to maintain independence 49 The Bolsheviks prevailed after a 4 year war in which mosques and villages were burned down and the population suppressed Soviet authorities started a campaign of secularisation Practising Islam Judaism and Christianity was discouraged and repressed and mosques churches and synagogues were closed 50 As a consequence of the conflict and Soviet agriculture policies Central Asia Tajikistan included underwent a famine that claimed lives 51 In 1924 the Tajikistan Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic was created as a part of Uzbekistan 49 and in 1929 the Tajikistan Soviet Socialist Republic Tajikistan SSR Tadzhikskaya SSR was made a separate constituent republic 49 the predominantly ethnic Tajik cities of Samarkand and Bukhara remained in the Uzbek SSR Between 1927 and 1934 collectivisation of agriculture and an expansion of cotton production took place especially in the southern region 52 Soviet collectivisation policy brought violence against peasants and forced resettlement occurred throughout Tajikistan Consequently some peasants fought collectivization and revived the Basmachi movement Some industrial development occurred during this time along with the expansion of irrigation infrastructure 52 nbsp Soviet Tajikistan in 19642 rounds of Stalin s purges 1927 1934 and 1937 1938 resulted in the expulsion of nearly 10 000 people from all levels of the Communist Party of Tajikistan 53 Ethnic Russians were sent in to replace those expelled and subsequently Russians dominated party positions at all levels including the top position of first secretary 53 Between 1926 and 1959 the proportion of Russians among Tajikistan s population grew from less than 1 to 13 54 Bobojon Ghafurov First Secretary of the Communist Party of Tajikistan from 1946 to 1956 was the only Tajik politician of significance outside of the country during the Soviet Era 55 Tajiks began to be conscripted into the Soviet Army in 1939 and during World War II around 260 000 Tajik citizens fought against Germany Finland and Japan Between 60 000 4 56 and 120 000 8 57 of Tajikistan s 1 530 000 citizens were killed during World War II 58 Following the war and Stalin s reign attempts were made to further expand the agriculture and industry of Tajikistan 55 During 1957 58 Nikita Khrushchev s Virgin Lands Campaign focused attention on Tajikistan where living conditions education and industry lagged behind the other Soviet Republics 55 In the 1980s Tajikistan had the lowest household saving rate in the USSR 59 the lowest percentage of households in the 2 top per capita income groups 60 and the lowest rate of university graduates per 1000 people 61 By the 1980s Tajik nationalists were calling for increased rights Real disturbances did not occur within the republic until 1990 The following year the Soviet Union collapsed and Tajikistan declared its independence on 9 September 1991 a day which is celebrated as the country s Independence Day 62 Independence edit nbsp 1990 Dushanbe riots nbsp Tajik men and women rally on Ozodi square in Dushanbe shortly after independence 1992 In February 1990 riots and strikes in Dushanbe and other cities began due to the difficult socio economic situation lack of housing and youth unemployment 49 The nationalist and democratic opposition and supporters of independence joined the strikes and began to demand the independence of the republic and democratic reforms Islamists began to hold strikes to demand respect for their rights and independence of the republic The Soviet leadership introduced Internal Troops in Dushanbe to eliminate the unrest 49 nbsp Spetsnaz soldiers during the civil war 1992Following independence the nation fell into civil war among factions distinguished by clan loyalties 63 More than 500 000 residents fled during this time because of persecution increased poverty and better economic opportunities in the West or in other former Soviet republics 64 Emomali Rahmon came to power in 1992 49 defeating former prime minister Abdumalik Abdullajanov in a November presidential election with 58 of the vote 65 The elections took place after the end of the war The estimated dead numbered over 100 000 Around 1 2 million people were refugees inside and outside of the country 63 In 1997 a ceasefire was reached between Rahmon and opposition parties under the guidance of Gerd D Merrem 49 Special Representative to the Secretary General a result praised as a successful United Nations peacekeeping initiative The ceasefire guaranteed 30 of ministerial positions would go to the opposition 66 Elections were held in 1999 and were criticised by opposition parties and foreign observers as unfair and Rahmon was re elected with 98 of the vote 49 Elections in 2006 were again won by Rahmon with 79 of the vote and he began his third term in office Opposition parties boycotted the 2006 election and the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe OSCE criticised it while observers from the Commonwealth of Independent States claimed the elections were legal and transparent 67 68 Rahmon s administration came under further criticism from OSCE in October 2010 for its censorship and repression of the media OSCE claimed that the Tajik Government censored Tajik and foreign websites and instituted tax inspections on independent printing houses that led to the cessation of printing activities for a number of independent newspapers 69 Russian border troops were stationed along the Tajik Afghan border until summer 2005 Since the September 11 2001 attacks French troops have been stationed at Dushanbe Airport in support of air operations of NATO s International Security Assistance Force in Afghanistan United States Army and Marine Corps personnel periodically visit Tajikistan to conduct joint training missions of up to several weeks duration The Government of India rebuilt the Ayni Air Base a military airport located 15 km southwest of Dushanbe at a cost of 70 million completing the repairs in September 2010 70 It is the main base of the Tajikistan air force There have been talks with Russia concerning use of the Ayni facility 71 and Russia continues to maintain a base on the outskirts of Dushanbe 72 In 2010 there were concerns among Tajik officials that Islamic militarism in the east of the country was on the rise following the escape of 25 militants from a Tajik prison in August an ambush that killed 28 Tajik soldiers in the Rasht Valley in September 73 and another ambush in the valley in October that killed 30 soldiers 74 followed by fighting outside Gharm that left 3 militants dead The country s Interior Ministry asserts that the central government maintains full control over the country s east and the military operation in the Rasht Valley was concluded in November 2010 75 Fighting erupted in July 2012 76 In 2015 Russia sent more troops to Tajikistan 77 In May 2015 Tajikistan s national security underwent a setback when Colonel Gulmurod Khalimov commander of the special purpose police unit OMON of the Interior Ministry defected to the Islamic State 49 78 In 2021 following the Fall of Kabul Tajikistan allegedly got involved in the Panjshir conflict against the Taliban on the side of the National Resistance Front of Afghanistan 79 80 In September 2022 armed clashes including the use of artillery erupted along most of the border between Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan 81 Politics editMain article Politics of Tajikistan See also Elections in Tajikistan Foreign relations of Tajikistan Military of Tajikistan Human rights in Tajikistan Tajikistani Civil War and Cabinet of Tajikistan nbsp The Palace of Nations in DushanbeAfter independence Tajikistan was plunged into a civil war Factions were supported by foreign countries including Afghanistan Iran Pakistan Uzbekistan and Russia Russia and Iran focused on keeping peace in the warring nation to decrease the chances of U S or Turkish involvement Russia backed the pro government faction and deployed troops from the Commonwealth of Independent States to guard the Tajikistan Afghan border 82 All but 25 000 of the more than 400 000 ethnic Russians who were mostly employed in industry fled to Russia By 1997 the war had ended after a peace agreement between the government and the Islamist led opposition a central government began to take form with peaceful elections in 1999 83 nbsp President of Tajikistan Emomali Rahmon has ruled the country since 1994 Longtime observers of Tajikistan often characterize the country as profoundly averse to risk and skeptical of promises of reform a political passivity they trace to the country s ruinous civil war Ilan Greenberg wrote in a news article in The New York Times before the country s November 2006 presidential election 84 nbsp Supreme Assembly in Dushanbe The parliamentary elections of 2005 aroused accusations from opposition parties and international observers that President Emomali Rahmon corruptly manipulates the election process and unemployment Elections in February 2010 saw the ruling PDPT lose 4 seats in Parliament yet still maintain a majority The Organization for Security and Co operation in Europe election observers said the 2010 polling failed to meet many key OSCE commitments and that these elections failed on many basic democratic standards 85 86 The government insisted that only minor violations had occurred which would not affect the will of the Tajik people 85 86 The Tajik government has reportedly clamped down on facial hair as part of a crackdown on Islamic influence and due to its perceived associations with Islamic extremism which is evident in bordering Afghanistan 87 88 nbsp President of Tajikistan Emomali Rahmon with Russian president Vladimir Putin The presidential election held on 6 November 2006 was boycotted by mainline opposition parties including the 23 000 member Islamic Renaissance Party 4 remaining opponents all but endorsed the incumbent Rahmon 84 Freedom of the press is officially guaranteed by the government and independent press outlets remain restricted as does an amount of web content 89 According to the Institute for War amp Peace Reporting access is blocked to local and foreign websites and journalists are sometimes obstructed from reporting on some events In practice no public criticism of the regime is tolerated and all direct protest is suppressed and does not receive coverage in the local media 90 In the 2020 Democracy Index by the Economist Intelligence Unit Tajikistan was ranked 160th after Saudi Arabia while receiving the designation of authoritarian regime 91 In July 2019 UN ambassadors of 37 countries including Tajikistan signed a joint letter to UNHRC defending China s treatment of Uyghurs in the Xinjiang region 92 In October 2020 President Emomali Rahmon was re elected for another seven year term with 90 of the vote following a largely ceremonial election 93 In April 2021 a conflict over water with Kyrgyzstan escalated into one of the border clashes between the two countries since independence 94 95 In July 2021 Tajikistan appealed to members of a Russian led Collective Security Treaty Organization CSTO of ex Soviet states for help in dealing with security challenges emerging from neighboring Afghanistan 96 The safety concerns emerged as foreign troops such as the US and British army exited the country causing over 1 000 Afghan civilians and servicemen to flee to neighboring Tajikistan after Taliban insurgents took control of parts of Afghanistan 97 Geography editMain article Geography of Tajikistan nbsp Satellite photograph of Tajikistan nbsp Tajikistan map of Koppen climate classificationTajikistan is landlocked and is the smallest nation in Central Asia by area It lies mostly between latitudes 36 and 41 N and longitudes 67 and 75 E It is covered by mountains of the Pamir range and most of the country is over 3 000 metres 9 800 ft above sea level The areas of lower land are in the north part of the Fergana Valley and in the southern Kofarnihon and Vakhsh river valleys which form the Amu Darya Dushanbe is located on the southern slopes above the Kofarnihon valley Mountain Height LocationIsmoil Somoni Peak highest 7 495 m 24 590 ft North western edge of Gorno Badakhshan GBAO south of the Kyrgyz borderIbn Sina Peak Lenin Peak 7 134 m 23 537 ft Northern border in the Trans Alay Range north east of Ismoil Somoni PeakPeak Korzhenevskaya 7 105 m 23 310 ft North of Ismoil Somoni Peak on the south bank of Muksu RiverIndependence Peak Revolution Peak 6 974 m 22 881 ft Central Gorno Badakhshan south east of Ismoil Somoni PeakAcademy of Sciences Range 6 785 m 22 260 ft North western Gorno Badakhshan stretches in the north south directionKarl Marx Peak 6 726 m 22 067 ft GBAO near the border to Afghanistan in the northern ridge of the Karakoram RangeGarmo Peak 6 595 m 21 637 ft Northwestern Gorno Badakhshan Mayakovskiy Peak 6 096 m 20 000 ft Extreme south west of GBAO near the border to Afghanistan Concord Peak 5 469 m 17 943 ft Southern border in the northern ridge of the Karakoram RangeKyzylart Pass 4 280 m 14 042 ft Northern border in the Trans Alay RangeThe Amu Darya and Panj rivers mark the border with Afghanistan and the glaciers in Tajikistan s mountains are the source of runoff for the Aral Sea There are over 900 rivers in Tajikistan longer than 10 kilometres Administrative divisions edit Main articles Regions of Tajikistan and Districts of Tajikistan nbsp A clickable map of Tajikistan exhibiting its four provinces nbsp Mountains of TajikistanTajikistan consists of 4 administrative divisions These are the provinces viloyat of Sughd and Khatlon the autonomous province of Gorno Badakhshan abbreviated as GBAO and the Region of Republican Subordination RRP Raiony Respublikanskogo Podchineniya in transliteration from Russian or NTJ Noҳiyaҳoi tobei ҷumҳurӣ Nohiyahoi tobei jumhurii in Tajik formerly known as Karotegin Province Each region is divided into districts Tajik Noҳiya nohiya or raion which in turn are subdivided into jamoats village level self governing units and then villages qyshloqs As of 2006 update there were 58 districts and 367 jamoats in Tajikistan 98 Division ISO 3166 2 Map No Capital Area km2 98 Pop 2019 99 Sughd TJ SU 1 Khujand 25 400 2 658 400Region of Republican Subordination TJ RR 2 Dushanbe 28 600 2 122 000Khatlon TJ KT 3 Bokhtar 24 800 3 274 900Gorno Badakhshan TJ GB 4 Khorugh 64 200 226 900Dushanbe Dushanbe 124 6 846 400Biodiversity edit Tajikistan contains 5 terrestrial ecoregions Alai Western Tian Shan steppe Gissaro Alai open woodlands Pamir alpine desert and tundra Badghyz and Karabil semi desert and Paropamisus xeric woodlands 100 Economy editMain article Economy of Tajikistan See also Agriculture in Tajikistan nbsp A Tajik dry fruit sellerIn 2019 nearly 29 of Tajikistan s GDP came from immigrant remittances mostly from Tajiks working in Russia 101 102 103 With foreign revenue precariously dependent upon remittances from migrant workers overseas and exports of aluminium and cotton the economy is vulnerable to external shocks In fiscal year 2000 international assistance remained an essential source of support for rehabilitation programs that reintegrated former civil war combatants into the civilian economy which helped keep the peace International assistance was necessary to address the second year of drought that resulted in a continued shortfall of food production On 21 August 2001 the Red Cross announced that a famine was striking Tajikistan and called for international aid for Tajikistan and Uzbekistan 104 In January 2012 680 152 of the people living in Tajikistan were living with food insecurity Out of those 676 852 were at risk of Phase 3 Acute Food and Livelihoods Crisis food insecurity and 3 300 were at risk of Phase 4 Humanitarian Emergency Those with the highest risk of food insecurity were living in the Murghob District of GBAO 105 The malnutrition rate in Tajikistan will reach 30 in 2023 according to the United Nations World Food Programme WFP As in the rest of Central Asia soils are deteriorating and water resources are diminishing particularly as a result of climate change 106 nbsp The TadAZ aluminium smelting plant in Tursunzoda is the largest aluminium manufacturing plant in Central Asia and Tajikistan s chief industrial asset Tajikistan s economy grew after the war The GDP of Tajikistan expanded at an average rate of 9 6 over the period of 2000 2007 according to the World Bank data This improved Tajikistan s position among other Central Asian countries namely Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan which seem to have degraded economically ever since 107 The primary sources of income in Tajikistan are aluminium production cotton growing and remittances from migrant workers 108 Cotton accounts for 60 of agricultural output supporting 75 of the rural population and using 45 of irrigated arable land 109 The aluminium industry is represented by the state owned Tajik Aluminum Company the biggest aluminium plant in Central Asia and one of the biggest in the world 110 Tajikistan s rivers such as the Vakhsh and the Panj have hydropower potential and the government has focused on attracting investment for projects for internal use and electricity exports Tajikistan is home to the Nurek Dam the second highest dam in the world 111 Russia s RAO UES has been working on the Sangtuda 1 hydroelectric power station 670 MW capacity commenced operations on 18 January 2008 112 113 Other projects at the development stage include Sangtuda 2 by Iran Zerafshan by the Chinese company SinoHydro and the Rogun power plant that at a projected height of 335 metres 1 099 ft would supersede the Nurek Dam as highest in the world if it is brought to completion 114 115 A planned project CASA 1000 will transmit 1000 MW of surplus electricity from Tajikistan to Pakistan with power transit through Afghanistan The total length of transmission line is 750 km while the project is planned to be on Public Private Partnership basis with the support of WB IFC ADB and IDB The project cost is estimated to be around US 865 million 116 Other energy resources include coal deposits and smaller reserves of natural gas and petroleum 117 In 2014 Tajikistan was the world s most remittance dependent economy with remittances accounting for 49 of GDP and expected to fall by 40 in 2015 due to the economic crisis in the Russian Federation 118 Tajik migrant workers abroad mainly in the Russian Federation have become the main source of income for millions of Tajikistan s people 119 and with the 2014 2015 downturn in the Russian economy the World Bank has predicted numbers of Tajik men will return home and face few economic prospects 118 According to some estimates about 47 of the population lives on less than US 1 25 per day 106 120 Migration from Tajikistan and the consequent remittances have been unprecedented in their magnitude and economic impact In 2010 remittances from Tajik labour migrants totalled an estimated 2 1 billion US dollars an increase from 2009 Tajikistan has achieved transition from a planned to a market economy without substantial and protracted recourse to aid and by purely market based means simply by exporting its main commodity of comparative advantage cheap labour 121 The World Bank Tajikistan Policy Note 2006 concludes that remittances have played a role as 1 of the drivers of Tajikistan s economic growth during the past years have increased incomes and as a result helped reduce poverty 122 Drug trafficking is an illegal source of income in Tajikistan 123 as it is a transit country for Afghan narcotics bound for Russian and to a lesser extent Western European markets some opium poppy is raised locally for the domestic market 124 With the increasing assistance from international organisations such as UNODC and co operation with the US Russian EU and Afghan authorities a level of progress on the fight against illegal drug trafficking is being achieved 125 Tajikistan holds third place in the world for heroin and raw opium confiscations 1216 3 kg of heroin and 267 8 kg of raw opium in the first half of 2006 126 127 Drug money corrupts the country s government according to some experts the personalities that fought on both sides of the civil war and have held the positions in the government after the armistice was signed are involved in the drug trade 124 UNODC is working with Tajikistan to strengthen border crossings provide training and set up joint interdiction teams It helped to establish Tajikistani Drug Control Agency 128 Besides Russia China is 1 of the economic and trade partners of Dushanbe Tajikistan belongs to the group of countries associated with Chinese investment within the Belt and Road Initiative 129 Transportation editMain article Transport in Tajikistan As a landlocked country Tajikistan has no ports and the majority of transportation is via roads air and rail In years Tajikistan has pursued agreements with Iran and Pakistan to gain port access in those countries via Afghanistan In 2009 an agreement was made between Tajikistan Pakistan and Afghanistan to improve and build a 1 300 km 810 mi highway and rail system connecting the 3 countries to Pakistan s ports The proposed route would go through the Gorno Badakhshan Autonomous Province in the eastern part of the country 130 In 2012 the presidents of Tajikistan Afghanistan and Iran signed an agreement to construct roads and railways and oil gas and water pipelines to connect the 3 countries 131 Rail edit Main article Rail transport in Tajikistan The railroad system totals only 680 kilometres 420 mi of track 126 all of it 1 520 mm 4 ft 11 27 32 in broad gauge The principal segments are in the southern region and connect the capital with the industrial areas of the Hisor and Vakhsh valleys and with Uzbekistan Turkmenistan Kazakhstan and Russia 132 Most international freight traffic is carried by train 133 The Bokhtar Kulob railway connected the Kulob District with the central area of the country 133 Air edit In 2009 Tajikistan had 26 airports 18 of which had paved runways of which 2 had runways longer than 3 000 meters 126 Roads edit The total length of roads in the country is 27 800 kilometres Automobiles account for more than 90 of the total volume of passenger transportation and more than 80 of domestic freight transportation 133 In 2004 the Tajik Afghan Friendship Bridge between Afghanistan and Tajikistan was built improving the country s access to South Asia The bridge was built by the United States 134 As of 2014 update highway and tunnel construction projects are underway or have been completed Projects include rehabilitation of the Dushanbe Chanak Uzbek border Dushanbe Kulma Chinese border and Kurgan Tube Nizhny Pyanj Afghan border highways and construction of tunnels under the mountain passes of Anzob Shakhristan Shar Shar 135 and Chormaghzak 136 These were supported by international donor countries 133 137 Demographics editMain article Demographics of Tajikistan nbsp Tajikistan trends in its Human Development Index indicator 1970 2010Population in Tajikistan 138 139 140 Year Million1926 0 831950 1 52000 6 22021 9 8 nbsp Group of Tajik womenIn 2021 Tajikistan was estimated to have a population of 9 749 625 as per the World Bank data 141 The Tajiks who speak Tajik a dialect of Persian are the main ethnic group while there are minorities of Uzbeks and Russians whose numbers are declining due to emigration 142 The Pamiris of Badakhshan a population of Yaghnobi people and a minority of Ismailis are considered to belong to the larger group of Tajiks Citizens of Tajikistan are called Tajikistanis 126 nbsp Nowruz celebrations in TajikistanIn 1989 ethnic Russians in Tajikistan made up 7 6 of the population by 1998 the proportion had reduced to approximately 0 5 following the Tajikistani Civil War which had displaced the majority of ethnic Russians Following the end of the war Russian emigration continued 143 The ethnic German population of Tajikistan has declined due to emigration having topped at 38 853 in 1979 it has almost vanished since the collapse of the Soviet Union 144 The Tajiks are the principal ethnic group in most of Tajikistan and in northern and western Afghanistan 145 and there are more Tajiks in Afghanistan than in Tajikistan Tajiks are a minority in Uzbekistan 146 More than 3 million Tajik citizens were officially registered in Russia in 2021 147 Languages edit Main articles Languages of Tajikistan Tajikistani Russian and Russian dialects Tajikistani Russian The 2 official languages of Tajikistan are Tajik as the state language and Russian as the interethnic language as understood in Article 2 of the Constitution The state language of Tajikistan shall be Tajik Russian shall be the language of international communication 148 The state national language Tajik zaboni davlatӣ Russian gosudarstvennyj yazyk of the Republic of Tajikistan is Tajik which is written in the Tajik Cyrillic alphabet Linguists recognise the fact that the Tajik language is a variant of the Persian language or Farsi Therefore Tajik speakers have no problems communicating with Persian speakers from Iran and Dari speakers from Afghanistan Millions of native Tajik speakers live in neighboring Uzbekistan and in Russia 149 According to article 2 of the Constitution of the Republic of Tajikistan 148 Russian is recognized as the second official language of Tajikistan the official language of inter ethnic communication Russian yazyk mezhnacionalnogo obsheniya Tajik zaboni muoshirati bajni millatҳo in the country 150 151 Approximately 90 of the population of Tajikistan speaks Russian at levels The varieties of Russian spoken in Tajikistan are referred to by scholars as Tajik istani Russian 152 and it shares some similarities with Uzbek istani Russian such as morphological differences and the lexical differences like the use of words uryuk 153 for a wild apricot or kislushka for rhubarb 154 Both Russian and Tajik speakers in the country use the following words in common in address to unfamiliar people and acquaintances 155 Words of familial relation Tajikistani Russian Standard Russian English translationapa starshaya sestra older sisteraka starshij brat older brotherhola tetya auntyanga zhena brata nevestka daughter in law sister in lawThe highly educated part of the population of Tajikistan and the intelligentsia prefer to speak Russian and Persian the pronunciation of which in Tajikistan is called the Iranian style 156 150 151 Native Uzbek speakers live in the north and west of Tajikistan In fourth place after Tajik Russian and Uzbek by number of native speakers are Pamir languages whose native speakers live in Kuhistani Badakshshan Autonomous Region The majority of Zoroastrians in Tajikistan speak 1 of the Pamir languages Native speakers of the Kyrgyz language live in the north of Kuhistani Badakshshan Autonomous Region Yagnobi language speakers live in the west of the country The Parya language of local Romani people Central Asian Gypsies is spoken in Tajikistan Tajikistan has communities of native speakers of Persian Arabic Pashto Armenian Azerbaijani Tatar Turkmen Kazakh Chinese Ukrainian 157 Employment edit In 2009 nearly 1 million Tajiks worked abroad mainly in Russia 158 More than 70 of the female population lives in traditional villages 159 Religion edit Main article Religion in Tajikistan See also Freedom of religion in Tajikistan and Islam in Tajikistan Religion in Tajikistan 2010 4 160 Religion PercentIslam 96 7 Christianity 1 6 Unaffiliated 1 5 others 0 2 nbsp A mosque in Isfara TajikistanTajikistan considers itself a secular state with a constitution providing for freedom of religion 161 Sunni Islam of the Hanafi school has been officially recognised by the government since 2009 162 The government has declared 2 Islamic holidays Eid ul Fitr and Eid al Adha as state holidays According to a US State Department release and Pew research group the population of Tajikistan is 98 Muslim Approximately 87 95 of them are Sunni and roughly 3 are Shia and roughly 7 are non denominational Muslims 163 164 The Shia part of the population predominantly live in the Gorno Badakhshan Autonomous Region and are followers of the Ismailite branch of Shia Islam 165 The remaining 2 of the population are followers of Russian Orthodoxy Protestantism Zoroastrianism and Buddhism Muslims fast during Ramadan while about 1 third in the countryside and 10 in the cities observe daily prayer and dietary restrictions 166 Bukharan Jews had lived in Tajikistan since the second century BC In the 1940s the Jewish community of Tajikistan numbered nearly 30 000 people Most were Persian speaking Bukharan Jews who had lived in the region for millennia along with Ashkenazi Jews from Eastern Europe who resettled there in the Soviet era The Jewish population later is estimated at less than 500 about half of whom live in Dushanbe 167 There is a concern for religious institutions becoming active in the political sphere The Islamic Renaissance Party IRP a combatant in the 1992 1997 Civil War and then proponent of the creation of an Islamic state in Tajikistan constitutes no more than 30 of the government by statute Membership in Hizb ut Tahrir a militant Islamic party which aims for an overthrow of secular governments and the unification of Tajiks under 1 Islamic state is illegal and members are subject to arrest and imprisonment 168 By law religious communities must register by the State Committee on Religious Affairs SCRA and with local authorities Registration with SCRA requires a charter a list of 10 or more members and evidence of local government approval prayer site location Religious groups that do not have a physical structure are not allowed to gather publicly for prayer Failure to register can result in fines and closure of a place of worship There are reports that registration on the local level is sometimes difficult to obtain 169 People under the age of 18 are barred from public religious practice 170 As of January 2016 as part of an anti radicalisation campaign police in the Khatlon region reportedly shaved the beards of 13 000 men and shut down 160 shops selling the hijab Shaving beards and discouraging women from wearing hijabs is part of a government campaign targeting trends that are deemed alien and inconsistent with Tajik culture and to preserve secular traditions 171 Approximately 1 6 of the population in Tajikistan is Christian mostly Orthodox Christians 4 160 The territory of Tajikistan is part of the Dushanbe and Tajikistan Diocese of the Central Asian Metropolitan District of the Russian Orthodox Moscow Patriarchate The country is home to communities of Catholics Armenian Christians Protestants Lutherans Jehovah s Witnesses Baptists Mormons and Adventists 172 Health edit Main article Health in Tajikistan nbsp A hospital in DushanbeThe state s Ministry of Labor and Social Welfare reported that 104 272 disabled people are registered in Tajikistan 2000 The government of Tajikistan and the World Bank considered activities to support this part of the population described in the World Bank s Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper 173 Public expenditure on health was at 1 of the GDP in 2004 174 Life expectancy at birth was estimated to be 69 years in 2020 175 The infant mortality rate was approximately 30 42 deaths per 1 000 children in 2018 176 In 2014 there were 2 1 physicians per 1 000 people higher than any other low income country after North Korea 177 Tajikistan has experienced a decrease in number of per capita hospital beds following the dissolution of the USSR since 1992 while the number still remains relatively at 4 8 beds per 1 000 people above the world average of 2 7 178 According to World Bank 96 of births are attended by skilled health staff a figure which has risen from 66 6 in 1999 179 In 2010 the country experienced an outbreak of polio that caused more than 457 cases of polio in both children and adults and resulted in 29 deaths before being brought under control 180 In the summer of 2021 coronavirus ravaged the country and the Tajik president s sister reportedly died in a hospital of COVID 19 According to local media the president s sister s sons physically assaulted the health minister and a senior doctor 181 Education edit Main article Education in Tajikistan nbsp Tajik National University in DushanbeTajikistan has a rate of literacy due to the old Soviet system of free education with an estimated 99 8 182 of the population having the ability to read and write 126 Public education in Tajikistan consists of 11 years of primary and secondary education and the government planned to implement a 12 year system in 2016 183 There is a number of tertiary education institutions including Khujand State University which has 76 departments in 15 faculties 183 Tajikistan State University of Law Business amp Politics Khorugh State University Agricultural University of Tajikistan Tajik National University and other institutions Universities were established during the Soviet Era As of 2008 update tertiary education enrollment was 17 below the sub regional average of 37 184 while higher than any other low income country after Syria 185 Tajiks left the education system due to low demand in the labour market for people with extensive educational training or professional skills 184 Public spending on education was relatively constant between 2005 2012 and fluctuated from 3 5 to 4 1 of GDP 186 below the OECD average of 6 184 The United Nations reported that the level of spending was severely inadequate to meet the requirements of the country s high needs education system 184 According to a UNICEF supported survey about 25 of girls in Tajikistan fail to complete compulsory primary education because of poverty and gender bias 187 while literacy is generally high in Tajikistan 174 Estimates of out of school children range from 4 6 to 19 4 with the majority being girls 184 In September 2017 the University of Central Asia launched its second campus in Khorog Tajikistan offering majors in Earth amp Environmental Sciences and Economics 188 Tajikistan was ranked 111rd in the Global Innovation Index in 2023 189 190 Science on the territory of Tajikistan achieved success in the Middle Ages and scientific organizations were created in the Soviet period During the period of independence the scientific sphere experienced a crisis the annual number of patent applications for inventions decreased in 1994 2011 from 193 to 5 191 A contribution to science is made by universities where in 2011 6707 researchers worked of which 2450 had academic degrees 192 Culture editMain article Culture of Tajikistan See also Music of Tajikistan Tajik literature Public holidays in Tajikistan Tajik cuisine and Telecommunications in Tajikistan nbsp Tajik traditional dressThe Tajik language is the mother tongue of around 80 of the citizens of Tajikistan Urban centers in Tajikistan include Dushanbe the capital Khujand Kulob Panjakent Bokhtar Khorugh and Istaravshan There are Uzbek Kyrgyz and Russian minorities 193 The Yaghnobi people live in areas of northern Tajikistan The estimated number of Yaghnobis is about 25 000 Forced migrations in the 20th century decimated their numbers They speak the Yaghnobi language which is the only direct descendant of the Sogdian language 194 Tajikistan artisans created the Dushanbe Tea House which was presented in 1988 as a gift to the sister city of Boulder Colorado 195 In the country especially among women from the indigenous population the wearing traditional national clothing is preserved The seamstresses and embroiderers of regions of Tajikistan use factory fabrics and local needlework embroidery for home decoration and women s clothing The practice of Chakan embroidery is preserved among women in certain areas passing the knowledge down from 1 generation to the next 196 Sport edit The national sport of Tajikistan is gushtigiri a form of wrestling 197 198 Another sport is buzkashi a game played on horseback like polo Buzkashi may be played as an individual sport and as a team sport The aim of the game is to grab a 50 kg dead goat ride clear of the other players get back to the starting point and drop it in a designated circle It is played at Nowruz celebrations 199 nbsp Tajikistan is a destination amongst mountaineers 1982 expedition to Tartu Ulikool 350 The Tajikistan Cricket Federation was formed in 2012 as the governing body for the sport of cricket in Tajikistan It was granted affiliate membership of the Asian Cricket Council in the same year 200 In 2008 rugby union was officially registered with the Ministry of Justice and there are 3 men s clubs 201 Khorugh capital of Gorno Badakhshan Autonomous Region is the location of highest altitude where bandy has been played 202 Tajikistan has 1 ski resort called Safed Dara formerly Takob near the town of Varzob 203 See also edit nbsp Geography portal nbsp Tajikistan portal nbsp Asia portal2006 Tajikistan earthquake Armed Forces of the Republic of Tajikistan Central Asian Union Dushanbe Foreign relations of Tajikistan Gorno Badakhshan Autonomous Province Ittihodi Scouthoi Tojikiston List of cities in Tajikistan LGBT rights in Tajikistan Mount Imeon Outline of Tajikistan Russian Turkistan Mass media in Tajikistan Yaghnob Valley Tajikistani Civil WarNotes edit t ɑː ˈ dʒ iː k ɪ s t ɑː n t e t ae Tajik Toҷikiston romanized Tojikiston pronounced tʰɔːdʒikʰɪsˈtʰɔːn Russian Tadzhikistan romanized Tadzhikistan pronounced tedʐɨkʲɪˈstan Tajik Ҷumҳurii Toҷikiston romanized Jumhurii Tojikiston pronounced dʒʊmhʊˈɾijɪ tʰɔdʒɪkʰɪsˈtʰɔn References edit nbsp This article incorporates public domain material from The World Factbook CIA nbsp This article incorporates text from this source which is in the public domain Kazakhstan Kyrgyzstan Tajikistan Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan country studies Federal Research Division Constitution of Tajikistan https unece org sites default files 2023 09 WS10RizoevENG pdf 2019 Report on International Religious Freedom Tajikistan U S Department of State Archived from the original on 27 September 2022 Retrieved 22 January 2023 a b c Religious Composition by Country 2010 2050 Pew Research Center Archived 2 August 2017 at the Wayback Machine Pewforum org 2 April 2015 Retrieved on 20 January 2017 Tajikistan World Factbook www cia gov Archived from the original on 20 August 2021 Retrieved 8 May 2021 M A Geography B A Geography Ever Wonder What Residents of a Particular Country Are Called ThoughtCo Archived from the original on 21 August 2016 Retrieved 31 May 2019 Democracy Index 2020 Economist Intelligence Unit Archived from the original on 3 March 2021 Retrieved 17 December 2021 General information Embassy of the Republic of Tajikistan to France 1 March 2013 Retrieved 29 January 2020 Territoru 143 1 thsd square kilometers Demographic Yearbook Table 3 Population by sex rate of population increase surface area and density PDF United Nations Statistics Division 2012 6 Retrieved 29 January 2020 Continent country or area Surface area Superficie km 2012 Tajikistan Tadjikistan 143 100 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a Cite journal requires journal help Alex Sodiqov 24 January 2011 Tajikistan cedes disputed land to China Eurasia Daily Monitor Jamestown Foundation 8 16 Retrieved 23 September 2018 On January 12 the lower house of the Tajik parliament voted to ratify the 2002 border demarcation agreement handing over 1 122 square kilometers 433 square miles of mountainous land in the remote Pamir Mountains www asiaplus tj January 12 The ceded land represents about 0 8 percent of the country s total area of 143 100 square kilometers 55 250 square miles Presidential Statistical Agency of the Republic of Tajikistan 1 January 2023 Retrieved 2 January 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org Archived from the original on 12 July 2020 Retrieved 12 July 2020 Births attended by skilled health staff of total Tajikistan Low income Data data worldbank org Archived from the original on 12 July 2020 Retrieved 12 July 2020 2010 polio outbreak in Tajikistan A reminder of the continued need for vigilance as the Region marks 10 years of polio free status World Health Organization 10 July 2012 Archived from the original on 4 March 2016 Retrieved 28 February 2016 Dixon Robyn After the Tajik president s sister died of covid her sons beat up the country s top health officials Archived 28 July 2021 at the Wayback Machine Washington Post 27 August 2021 Tajikistan uis unesco org 27 November 2016 Archived from the original on 27 July 2020 Retrieved 27 July 2020 a b Tajikistan Education System classbase com Archived from the original on 2 April 2014 a b c d e Education in Tajikistan Archived 6 November 2013 at the Wayback Machine unicef org School enrollment tertiary gross Low income Data data worldbank org Archived from the original on 27 July 2020 Retrieved 27 July 2020 Tajikistan Public spending on education total of GDP Archived 14 July 2014 at the Wayback Machine World Bank Tajikistan hosts education forum News note UNICEF 9 June 2005 Archived from the original on 4 November 2013 Retrieved 12 September 2013 University of Central Asia University of Central Asia www ucentralasia org Archived from the original on 29 November 2016 WIPO Global Innovation Index 2023 15th Edition www wipo int doi 10 34667 tind 46596 Retrieved 30 October 2023 Global Innovation Index INSEAD Knowledge 28 October 2013 Archived from the original on 2 September 2021 Retrieved 2 September 2021 Sultanova L Sh Ajdinova M A Znachenie kanala transfera novyh tehnologij dlya Uzbekistana Aktualnye voprosy sovremennoj nauki 2014 1 2 3 S 87 Sharipov M M Rol vuzov v formirovanii i razvitii innovacionnoj ekonomiki v Respublike Tadzhikistan Sovremennye problemy nauki i obrazovaniya 2014 6 S 627 Tajikistan People Britannica Archived from the original on 25 February 2021 Retrieved 5 February 2021 Award winning Yaghnobi Czech dictionary captures dying language Charles University Archived from the original on 11 April 2021 Retrieved 5 January 2021 The Dushanbe Boulder tea house boulder dushanbe org UNESCO Chakan embroidery art in the Republic of Tajikistan Intangible Cultural Heritage Archived from the original on 10 December 2020 Retrieved 25 April 2022 Ibbotson Sophie Lovell Hoare Max 2013 Tajikistan Bradt Travel Guides p 22 ISBN 978 1 84162 455 6 Tajikistan National Sport Gushtigiri Then And Now Bjj Eastern Europe 30 June 2016 Archived from the original on 10 October 2020 Retrieved 5 October 2020 Abdullaev Kamoludin Akbarzaheh Shahram 27 April 2010 Historical Dictionary of Tajikistan Scarecrow Press p 85 ISBN 978 0 8108 7379 7 Archived from the original on 24 January 2023 Retrieved 8 November 2015 Cricket in Tajikisyan Emerging Cricket Archived from the original on 23 January 2021 Retrieved 5 February 2021 Tasisi nahustin timi duhtaronai rogbӣ dar Toҷikiston Establishment of the first girls rugby team in Tajikistan BBC Tajik Persian in Tajik Retrieved 5 October 2020 permanent dead link Google Translate google co uk Archived from the original on 30 January 2017 Retrieved 13 November 2016 Safed Dara Trip Advisor Archived from the original on 11 August 2017 Further reading editSee also Bibliography of the history of Central Asia Kamoludin Abdullaev and Shahram Akbarzadeh Historical Dictionary of Tajikistan 3rd ed Rowman amp Littlefield 2018 Shirin Akiner Mohammad Reza Djalili and Frederic Grare eds Tajikistan The Trials of Independence Routledge 1998 Richard Foltz A History of the Tajiks Iranians of the East London Bloomsbury Publishing 2019 Robert Middleton Huw Thomas and Markus Hauser Tajikistan and the High Pamirs Hong Kong Odyssey Books 2008 ISBN 978 9 622177 73 4 Nahaylo Bohdan and Victor Swoboda Soviet Disunion A History of the Nationalities problem in the USSR 1990 excerpt Kirill Nourdhzanov and Christian Blauer Tajikistan A Political and Social History Canberra ANU E Press 2013 Rashid Ahmed The Resurgence of Central Asia Islam or Nationalism 2017 Smith Graham ed The Nationalities Question in the Soviet Union 2nd ed 1995 Monica Whitlock Land Beyond the River The Untold Story of Central Asia New York St Martin s Press 2003 Poopak NikTalab Sarve Samarghand Cedar of Samarkand continuous interpretation of Rudaki s poems Tehran 2020 Faradid Publications Introduction Sharma Raj Kumar Food Security and Political Stability in Tajikistan New Delhi Vij Books 2018 External links editTajikistan at Wikipedia s sister projects nbsp Definitions from Wiktionary nbsp Media from Commons nbsp News from Wikinews nbsp Quotations from Wikiquote nbsp Texts from Wikisource nbsp Textbooks from Wikibooks nbsp Resources from Wikiversity nbsp Travel information from Wikivoyage Tajikistan at UCB Libraries GovPubs Tajikistan The World Factbook Central Intelligence Agency Tajikistan at Curlie Tajikistan profile from the BBC News nbsp Wikimedia Atlas of Tajikistan Key Development Forecasts for Tajikistan from International Futures Flight Information Region In Tajikistan 39 N 71 E 39 N 71 E 39 71 Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Tajikistan amp oldid 1214086515, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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