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*Dʰéǵʰōm

May 03, 2024

*Dʰéǵʰōm (Proto-Indo-European: *dʰéǵʰōm or *dʰǵʰōm; lit. 'earth'),[1][2] or *Pl̥th₂éwih₂ (PIE: *pl̥th₂éwih₂, lit. the 'Broad One'),[3][4] is the reconstructed name of the Earth-goddess in the Proto-Indo-European mythology.

The Mother Earth (*Dʰéǵʰōm Méh₂tēr) is generally portrayed as the vast (*pl̥th₂éwih₂) and dark (*dʰengwo-) abode of mortals, the one who bears all things and creatures. She is often paired with Dyēus, the daylight sky and seat of the never-dying and heavenly gods, in a relationship of contrast and union, since the fructifying rains of Dyēus might bring nourishment and prosperity to local communities through formulaic invocations. Dʰéǵʰōm is thus commonly associated in Indo-European traditions with fertility, growth, and death, and is conceived as the origin and final dwelling of human beings.

Name and etymology edit

 
Look up Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/dʰéǵʰōm in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

The Proto-Indo-European (PIE) word for 'earth', *dʰ(é)ǵʰōm (acc. dʰǵʰ-ém-m, gen. *dʰǵʰ-mós), is among the most widely attested words in Indo-European languages (cf. Albanian dhe and toka; Hittite tēkan, tagān; Sanskrit kṣám; Greek khthṓn; Latin humus; Avestan zam; Tocharian tkaṃ; Old Irish dú, Lithuanian žẽmė; Old Slavonic zemlja), which makes it one of the most securely reconstructed PIE terms.[1] On the other hand, the linguistic evidence for the ritualization of the name *dʰéǵʰōm is not systematically spread across the inherited traditions, as she also appears under other names and epithets, principally *pl̥th₂éwih₂ (the 'Broad One').[3]

If the PIE Earth-goddess is reliably reconstructed under the name *Dʰéǵʰōm, with *pl̥th₂éwih₂ being one of her epithets, she was most likely the Earth herself conceived as a divine entity, rather than a goddess of the earth,[5] Proto-Indo-European mythology still relying on a strong animistic substrate.[6]

Epithets edit

Based on comparative analysis of textual and epigraphic evidence, historical linguists and philologists have been able to reconstruct with a comfortable level of certainty several epithets and expressions that were associated with *Dʰéǵʰōm in Proto-Indo-European times: *Pl̥th₂éwih₂ (the 'Broad One'), *Dʰéǵʰōm Méh₂tēr ('Mother-Earth'), and, in this form or a similar one, *Dʰéǵʰōm Dʰengwo- ('Dark Earth').[4][7]

The Broad One edit

The commonest epithet applied to the earth in Indo-European poetic traditions is *pl̥th₂éwih₂ (the 'Broad One'), which is the feminine form of *pléth₂-us, meaning 'flat, vast, broad'. A group of cognates appear in various divine names, including the Vedic earth-goddess Pṛth(i)vī, the Greek nymph Plataia, and the Gaulish goddess Litavī.[4][8] The epithet is also attested in nearly identical poetic expressions associating *dʰéǵʰōm and *pl̥th₂éwih₂: Avestan ząm pərəθβīm ('broad earth'), Sanskrit kṣā́m ... pṛthivī́m ('broad earth'), and Old Hittite palḫiš ... dagan(-zipaš) ('broad ... earth[-genius]').[7][9][10]

Another similar epithet is the 'All-Bearing One', the one who bears all things and creatures.[11] She was also referred to as 'much-nourishing' or 'rich-pastured' in Vedic, Greek, and Old Norse ritual expressions sharing the root *plh₁u- ('much').[3]

In the Proto-Indo-European cosmology, the earth Dʰéǵʰōm was likely perceived as a vast, flat and circular continent surrounded by waters ('The Ocean').[8]

Mother Earth edit

The Earth-goddess was widely celebrated with the title of 'mother' (méh₂tēr), and often paired with *Dyḗus ph2tḗr, the 'sky-father'. She is called annas Dagan-zipas ('Mother Earth-genius') in Hittite liturgy, and paired with the Storm-god of heaven, as well as Mat' Syra Zemlya ('Mother Moist Earth') in the Russian epic poems.[a] To the Vedic goddess of the earth Prithvi is often attached the epithet Mata ('mother') in the Rigveda, especially when she is mentioned together with Dyaus, the sky-father.[13]

úpa sarpa mātáram Bhū́mim etā́m uruvyácasam Pṛthivī́ṃ suśevām
Slip in to this Mother Earth, the wide-extending Broad One, the friendly...

— 10.18.10, in The Rigveda, translated by M. L. West.[14]

The Baltic earth-goddess Zemyna is likewise associated with the epithets 'Mother of the Fields' and 'Mother of the Forests'.[15] She is also treated respectfully as mother of humans.[b] Similarly, the cult of the "Earth Mother" in old Slavic religion and traditions associated the earth with the progenetrix's role.[c][d][19] In a legend from Smolensk, it is told that a human has three mothers: a birth mother (rodna) and two great (velikih) mothers, Mother Moist Earth and the Mother of God.[20] Additionally, the Anglo-Saxon goddess Erce (possibly meaning 'bright, pure') is called the 'mother of Earth' (eorþan modor) and likely identified with Mother Earth herself in a ritual to be performed on an unfruitful plough-land.[13] She is also called Fīra Mōdor ('Mother of men') in Old English poetry.[5]

A similar epithet, Mother of All (Μητηρ Παντων), is ascribed to the Greek earth-goddess Gaia, as recorded for instance in Aeschylus' Prometheus Unbound (παμμῆτόρ τε γῆ; "Oh! universal mother Earth"),[21] and in The Libation Bearers (ἰὼ γαῖα μαῖα; Mother Gaia).[22] Likewise, several of the Orphic Hymns attach the epithet 'mother' to Earth (γαῖα θεὰ μήτηρ).[23] In a Samaveda hymn dedicated to the Vedic fire god Agni, he is described as "rapidly ... [moving] along his mother earth".[24] In an Atharveda Hymn (12.1) (Pṛthvī Sūkta, or Bhūmī Sūkta), the celebrant invokes Prithvi as his Mother, because he is "a son of Earth".[25] The word bhūmi is also used as an epithet of Prithvi meaning 'soil' and in reference to a threefold division of the universe into heavens, sky, and earth.[26][27][28] On her own, Bhūmi is another Vedic deity with Mother-Earth attributes.[29][30][31]

The Greek goddess of the harvest and agriculture Demeter could also be a cognate, possibly deriving from an Illyrian root dā- (from *dʰǵʰ(e)m-) attached to māter ('mother'), although this proposition remains controversial in scholarship.[13] The Roman evidence for the idea of Earth as a mother is doubtful, as it is usually associated with the name Terra rather than Tellus (the pre-Imperial earth-goddess), and the attested tradition may have been influenced by Greek motifs.[32]

In Albanian the Earth Mother Goddess or Great Mother (Magna Mater) is simply referred to as Dhé "Earth", and traces of her worship have been preserved in Albanian tradition.[33]

Dark Earth edit

Another Proto-Indo-European epithet, *dʰéǵʰōm dʰengwo- or *dʰéǵʰōm dʰṇgu- ('dark earth'), can be reconstructed from the Hittite formulae dankuiš dagan-zipaš ('dark genius of the earth') and dankuš tēkan, which were frequently used to name the underworld, but sometimes also the earth's surface, and partially from the Albanian and Slavonic expressions dhe të zi ('black earth') and *črnā(yā) zemyā ('dark earth'), which have retained the term *dʰéǵʰōm.[34][11][7] Other reflexes can be found in Greek Gaia Melaina (γαîα μέλαινα; 'black earth'), or in Old Irish domun donn ('brown earth').[11][35] A Lithuanian expression takes the form "may the black earth not support me".[36]

ištamašta=an=ma palḫiš dankuiš daganzipaš
...the broad dark earth heard him...

— 4.4 Rs. 12ff, in Keilschrifturkunden aus Boghazköi [de], translated by J. L. García Ramón.[7]

In Latvian dainas about plant fertility, the color black symbolized a good and abundant harvest, and the black soil was considered the most fertile.[37] In a Russian fairy tale, the maiden is buried "under a blanket of black earth".[38]

A formula *čṛnā(jā) zemjā ('dark earth') can be reconstructed based on expressions found in the southern Slavic-speaking area, in ritual and burial contexts, like Ukrainian čorna zemlicja (in a Christmas carol); Slovene černa zemlja (in incantations); Bulgarian černata (in relation to the Earth, in curses), oženich se zadevojka černozemka (metaphor for 'to die young'), "черна земя" ('black earth');[39] Serbo-Croatian zagrlila (poljubila) ga je (crna) zemlja (meaning 'he has died'); Serbian crna zemlja.[40]

In another line of scholarship, the formula of the dark earth seems to be related to invocation or oaths, where the announcer summons the Earth as an observer or witness, as seen by Solon's elegiac Fragment 36.[41] The Slavic deity 'Moist Earth' (Syra Zemlya) was similarly invoked during oaths and called to witness in land disputes.[42]

Role edit

Mating with the Sky Father edit

The Earth goddess was conceived as the dark dwelling of mortals, in contrast with Dyēus, the bright diurnal sky and the seat of the gods.[11][e] Both deities often appear as a pair, the Sky Father (*Dyḗws Ph₂tḗr) uniting with Mother Earth (*Dʰéǵʰōm Méh₂tēr) to bring fertility and growth.[14][44] The Earth is thus often portrayed as the giver of good things: she is exhorted to become pregnant in an Old English prayer, and Slavic peasants described Zemlja as a prophetess that shall offer favourable harvest to the community.[5][45] The unions of Zeus with Semele and Demeter is similarly associated with fertility and growth in Greek mythology.[45] According to Jackson, however, Dʰéǵʰōm is "a more fitting partner of Perkwunos than of Dyēus", since the former is commonly associated with fructifying rains as a weather god.[3]

The Earth–Heaven couple was probably not at the origin of the other heavenly gods. The Divine Twins and H2éwsōs seem to have been conceived by Dyēus alone,[46] since they are mentioned through the formulaic expressions *Diwós Népoth1e ('Descendants of Dyēus') and *Diwós Dhuǵh2tḗr ('Daughter of Dyēus), respectively.[47]

Anatolian edit

In Hittite mythology, the Storm God of Heaven, one of the most important in the Hittite pantheon,[48] has been syncretized with local Anatolian or Hattian deities, merging with a local storm god with terrestrial characteristics. At a later point, the Storm God of Heaven was paired with local goddess Wurulemu, with chthonic traits.[49]

Indo-Aryan edit

In the Vedic texts, Prithvi the mother is usually paired with Dyaus the father,[50][14] as shown for instance in Samaveda hymns.[51][52] Due to their complementary relationship, they are celebrated as universal parents.[53] However, other texts of sacred literature attribute different partners to the Earth goddess: in an Atharveda Hymn (12.1), Prithvi is coupled with Parjanya (Sanskrit: पर्जन्य, parjánya), a deity of rain and fertilizer of earth.[54][55] In the same hymn, verse 6 (12.1.6), Indra, another Vedic deity of thunder and rain, is described as "consort" and protector of Earth.[56]

According to Herodotus, the Scythians considered Earth to be the wife of Zeus.[45]

Graeco-Roman edit

Zeus is associated with Semele, a possible descendant of Dʰéǵʰōm, but also with Demeter, which could be another cognate stemming from the Mother Earth.[45][5] In the Danaids, Aeschylus describes how Ouranos and Chthôn are seized by a mutual desire for sexual intercourse: the rain falls, then Earth conceives and brings forth pasture, cereal crops, and foliage.[45] Likewise, "Heaven and Earth" regularly appear as a duo among deities invoked as witnesses to Hittite treaties, and the Roman Tellus Mater is paired with Jupiter in Macrobius's Saturnalia.[14]

The mating of Zeus and female characters with chthonic elements (Démeter) or associated with earth (such as Semele, Plataia and Themis) may be a remnant of the Sky/Earth coupling.[45] Other religious expressions and formulas in Greek cultic practice attest to a wedding or union between a sky-god and an earth-mother: the Homeric Hymn to Gaia calls her "Wife of Starry Ouranos";[57] weddings in Athens were dedicated to both Ouranos and Gaia;[58] an Orphic hymn tells that the cultist is both "a child of Earth and starry Sky";[59] in Athens, there was a statue of Gaia on the Acropolis depicting her beseeching Zeus for rain;[60][f] Zeus Chthonios and Gê Chthonia form a cultic pair in Mykonos;[62][63] Zeus is invoked with an Earth Mother partner by their priestesses in Dodona;[64][65] a funerary epigram of one Lycophron of Pherai, son of Philiskos, states he shall live "among the stars uplifted by his father" (Zeus), while his body "occupies mother earth".[66]

In the cosmogony of Pherecydes of Syros, male deity Zas (identified with Zeus and the celestial/heavenly heights) unites with female character Chthonie (associated with the earth and the subterranean depths) in sacred rites of marriage, a union that appears to hark back to "the theology of the rites of fertility-fecundity"[67] and lays the foundation of the cosmos;[68]

Ancient Roman scholar Varro, in his book De re rustica, listed five divine pairs, among which Juppiter, "father", and Tellus, "the Earth mother", both responsible for the fruitfulness of agriculture.[69]

Norse edit

In Norse mythology, the goddess Jörd, a jötunn (giantess) whose name means 'earth' (from Proto-Germanic *erþō-, 'earth, soil, land'), begets the thunder-god Thor (Donar) with Odinn–not a sky-god, although a chief god of the Norse pantheon.[70] A line in the Gylfaginning by Norse poet Snorri Sturluson mentions that the Earth is both daughter and wife ("Jörðin var dóttir hans ok kona hans") of the All-Father,[71] identified as Odinn.

Slavic edit

Russian scholar O. G. Radchenko points that remnants of the coupling exist in East Slavic riddles, incantations and herb charms.[43] As pointed by scholarship, Croatian historian Natko Nodilo saw an occurrence of the Masculine Heavens and Feminine Earth in the riddle Visok tata, plosna mama, bunovit zet, manita devojka ("Tall father, fat mother, rebellious son-in-law, frenzied maiden"), about the components of the world, and whose answer is "Sky, Earth, Wind and Fog".[72] In a Russian incantation (Beschwörungsformel), heaven and earth are referred to as a father/mother pair: Ty nebo otec; ty zemlja mat'. ("You Heaven are father; you Earth are mother").[73][g] A folk expression "plaskófka matka, vysoki tatka" refers to "the low, flat earth" in contrast with "the highest sky".[75]

Polish scholarship also indicates some holdover of the idea exists in the folklore of Poland, for instance, in folk riddle Matka nisko, ojciec wysoko, córka ślepa, syn szalony ("A mother low down, a father high up, a blind daughter and a mad son"), whose answer is "earth, heaven, night, wind".[76][h]

In a charm collected in Arkhangelsky and published in 1878 by historian Alexandra Efimenko (ru), the announcer invokes "Mother-Earth" (Земля мать) and "Father Heaven" (небо отец).[78] According to researcher Natalya Polyakova, there was among the Slavs an old belief that earth was fertilized by the heavenly rains and that it was a sin to profane her. If this happened, the heavenly father would no longer send her rains, and thus would cause drought.[79]

Baltic edit

Baltic scholarship recognizes in ancient Baltic beliefs a division of the world into a heavenly half, with masculine and dynamic attributes and associated with light and celestial bodies, and an earthly half, feminine and static, related to plants and waters.[80]

According to Lithuanian ethnologue Nijolė Laurinkienė [lt], in Baltic tradition, it was said that the earth closed off (as in "sleeping" or "hibernating") near the end of autumn/beginning of winter, and "opened up" with the coming of the spring - a season when the first rains begin to fall. For this reason, it was believed that Baltic thunder god Perkūnas acted as the "opener" of the earth with his rains, making the grass grow and bringing life anew. In later tradition, it seems this deity was replaced by Saint George (Jurgis, Yurja, Sveti Juraj), who, in folksongs, was described as opening the earth in the spring with a key.[81][i]

Final dwelling of mortals edit

Dʰéǵʰōm had a connection with both death and life: the deceased are made from her and shall eventually return to her, but the crop also grows from her moist soil fertilized by the rain of Dyēus.[84] This points to a hierarchical conception of the status of mankind regarding the heavenly gods, confirmed by the widespread use of the term 'mortal' as a synonym of 'human' rather than 'living species' in Indo-European traditions.[85] In a Hittite military oath, the earth is said to drink the blood of the fallen ("This not wine, it is your blood, and as the earth has swallowed this..."), as in Aeschylus' Seven Against Thebes (736) and in the Indian Mahabharata ("... the earth shall drink today the blood of their king").[86]

The word for 'earth' underlies the many formations for designating humans, because they are seen as 'earthly' or fashioned from the earth itself.[87] It is attested in the derivative forms *dʰǵʰ(e)-mōn and *dʰǵʰom-yos, which underwent a semantic shift from 'earthling' to 'human': Sanskrit jmán ('from the earth') and kṣámyaḥ ('earthly'), Latin homō ('man'), Gothic guma ('man'), Old Lithuanian žmuõ ('man') and Old Prussian smoy ('man'), Old Irish duine ('man'), and Gaulish -xtonio (*gdonios 'man'?).[88] The Neo-Phrygian term zemelōs (ζεμελως) is interpreted as meaning 'men', or 'terrestrial' as opposed to 'heavenly'.[89][90] In the words of linguist Antoine Meillet, those metaphors go back to a time when it was "natural to designate 'humans' by the distinctive features that distinguish them from the gods: mortality, life on earth".[91]

Albanian edit

 
Practicing of Gjâma, the Albanian traditional lamentation of the dead, by the men of Theth (Shala) in the funeral of Ujk Vuksani, 1937.

In Albanian tradition the Earth – Dheu or Toka – is deeply respected so that she would carefully receive the dead in her chest.[92] For instance, during the last phase of the Albanian traditional mourning practice – Gjâma – after a usual lament, the mourners sit on their knees in a row and continuing the last call of the dead person, they sit on the ground, put their foreheads upon the earth and caress the earth with their hands, as if they want to express love and care for the earth. They stay like this until someone of the house, specifically charged with this task, goes and lifts them up.[93]

In all Albanian lands the burial custom required to put a metal coin in the grave, inserting it in the dead's hand or mouth, or on one side of the body. A general explanation was that it served "to pay for the place of the grave" or "to pay the Earth so that she keeps the dead inside her". This is a reflection of the cult of the Earth, associated "with the place of the new dwelling in the eternal life", with the coin representing a symbolic gift to the Earth. Coins of this type have also been found by archaeologists in the graves of the Albanians in the Middle Ages and in those of the Illyrians in antiquity.[92]

Greek edit

In a religious context, Chthôn (Χθών) was conceived as the nether land of the underworld deities and the dead (Iliad 6,411; 8,14; Theogony 119; etc.), and often as the world itself as opposed to the sky.[89]

Another reflex of Dʰéǵʰōm as the mother of mortals and their final resting place may also be found in Demetrioi ('of Demeter'), an Athenian designation for the dead,[94] and in Aeschylus's verses in Choephori 127: "Yea, summon Earth, who brings all things to life, / And rears and takes again into her womb."[64][95] In addition, Demeter was worshipped in some Greek cities in relation to her connection to the Underworld (cf. epithet Chthonia, 'of the earth, underworld'), besides her typical association with grains and crops.[96][97] Demeter was also associated with the role of ward[98] or mother of the dead:[99] according to Plutarch's On the Face in the Moon's Orb, Demeter, who rules over the earth and all earthly things, separates the soul from the body after a human dies.[100]

A similar imagery is described by poet Euripides, in his play The Suppliants, lines 530-536: "Let the dead now be buried in the earth, / and each element return to the place from where it came to the body, / (...) the body to the ground; / for in no way did we get it / for our own, but to live our life in, and after that its mother earth must take it back again".[101][102] A funerary epigram of one Lycophron of Pherai, son of Philiskos, states his body, given by mother, now "occupies mother earth" (μητέρα γἥν).[103]

Baltic edit

Moreover, historical sources on Baltic mythology, specially on Lithuanian and Latvian religions and practices, describe the dual role of goddesses Zemyna and Zemes Mate: while they were connected to the fertility of the land, they were also associated with receiving the dead and acting as their ruler and guardian.[104][j]

In Latvian dainas, Zemes Mate is associated with fellow Mahte ("Mothers") Velu Mate ('Mother of Dead Souls') and Kari Mate ('Mother of Graves'). According to researcher Elza Kokare, Zemes Mate and Kari Mate act as the resting places of the dead, guarding its body and holding the key to their graves.[106] As an individual character, Zemes mate is invoked as a person's final resting place.[k][l][m] Pieces of Lithuanian folklore also make references to Earth as mother of humans and their final abode after death.[112][n][o][p]

Funeral lamentations, such as some collected in Veliouna in the 19th and 20th centuries, attest the expression "sierą žemelę" as the destination of the deceased to whom the lament is dedicated.[116][117][118][119] In a later military death lament, the "sierą žemelę" is said to drink the blood of the fallen soldier, after being shot.[120] An issue of Lithuanian newspaper Draugas published a dainas wherein the person invokes the earth as "žeme, žeme, siera žemele", and asks it to take her, a maiden, having already taken father and mother ("Atėmei tėvą ir motinėlę"), but the earth scolds her.[121]

Slavic edit

Old Slavic beliefs seem to attest some awareness of this ambivalent nature of the Earth: it was considered men's cradle and nurturer during one's lifetime, and, when the time of death came, it would open up to receive their bones, as if it were a "return to the womb".[122][q][r][s][t][u][v]

In Polish curses, the malediction is aimed towards "the Holy Earth" (święta ziemia) not receiving the remains of the person cursed (as in, Bodaj cię święta ziemia nie przyjęła! and Oby cię święta ziemia nie przyjęła!).[129] Researcher Anna Engelking cited that scholar Boris Uspensky wrote "a comprehensive analysis of the mythical trope of holy earth: the mother of humankind, which gives birth to people and accepts their bodies after death".[130] Similarly, the imagery appears in "funeral hymns and speeches", e.g., Powracasz w ziemię, co twą matką była,/ Teraz cię strawi, niedawno żywiła ("You return to earth that has been your mother,/ She has fed you so far, now you’ll be devoured").[131]

The imagery of the terre humide ("moist earth") also appears in funeral lamentations either as a geographical feature (as in Lithuanian and Ukrainian lamentations)[132] or invoked as Mère-Terre humide ("Mother Moist Earth").[133][134][w][x][y][z][aa] The imagery and expression of "Mother Moist Earth" seem to have persisted well into the 21st century, although divorced from its sacral aspect.[ab]

In a Ukrainian lamentation, the mourner invokes earth as his "damp mother" ("Земле ж моя земле, мать сирая"), and asks it to take him, the mourner ("a young one"), since it has already taken father ("отця") and mother ("неньку", endearing or diminutive form of "не́ня").[144]

In Belarusian folk songs, the earth is invoked as "syroj ziamli-matušcy" ('damp earth-mother'), and even referred to as the resting place of the mourner's loved one ("Žoŭcieńki piasok, syraja ziamlia, Tut pachavana milaja maja"; English: 'Yellow sand, damp earth: here my dear is buried').[145] In addition, phraseological studies by linguist Olga A. Lyashchynskaya (be) recognize the incidence of the expression in Belarusian: expression "спаць у сырой зямлі" ('to sleep in the damp earth') is a metaphor for death;[146] expression "ляжаць у сырой зямлі/зямельцы" ("to lie in the damp earth/ground") denotes a burial ("to be interred");[147] "ажаніцца з <сырою> зямлёй" ("to marry the [moist] earth") means "to die".[148]

Serbian idiomatic expressions also associate the earth with the grave, and the formula "dark earth" ("crna zemlja") appears in reference to the resting place of the dead.[149][150]

Mat' Syra Zemlya is also invoked in wedding songs by the orphan bride for her parents to bless her journey to the new household.[151]

Indo-Aryan edit

In Book 10 of the Rigveda, Hymn XVIII (a funeral hymn), verses 10-13, the earth is invoked to receive the body of the departed and to cover him gently, as a mother does a child: "10. Betake thee to the lap of Earth the Mother, of Earth far-spreading, very kind and gracious. (...) 11. Heave thyself, Earth, nor press thee downward heavily: afford him easy access, gently tending him. Cover him, as a mother wraps her skirt about her child, O Earth."[152][153][154] A second hymn in Vedic sacred literature requests Earth to open up and explicitly receive the dead, while also mentioning the "two kings", Yama and Varuna: "Open thy arms, o Earth, receive the dead/ With gentle pressure and with loving welcome / Embrace him tenderly, e'en as a mother / Folds her soft vestment round the child she loves. / Soul of the dead, depart (...)".[155][53]

In the Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa, written by Vedic sage Yajnavalkya, there is reference to a ritual of the placement of the bones of the deceased in the earth after cremation.[156] According to the Kanda XIII,8,3,3, the text says that "May Savitri deposit thy bones in the mother's lap [māturupastha].' Savitri thus deposits his bones in the lap of the mother [māturupastha], this earth [pṛthivyai]; 'O Earth, be thou propitious unto him!'".[157]

Evidence edit

*Dʰéǵʰōm edit

Cognates stemming from *dʰéǵʰōm are attested in the following mythologies:

Two parallel terms meaning 'human, earthling' are also attested as derivatives of the stem *dʰ(é)ǵʰ-:

Additionally, remnants of the noun *dʰéǵʰōm can be found in formulaic phrases and religious epithets:[aj]

  • Vedic: the compound Dyāvākṣamā, ('heaven and earth'), with kṣamā associated with the earth goddess Prithvi (the 'Broad One').[42]
  • Greek: the epithets χαμύνη (khamyne (de), 'of the land'), in reference to Deméter[ak] (in Pausanias 6.21.1),[213][214][215] and Χαμοναῖα (khamynaia, 'on the ground').[216][217] A designation Χαμοναῖος (khamonaïos, 'of the ground'; 'of the earth') in reference to Zeus, is also attested.[218][219] These epithets are considered cognates to χαμαί (khamaí, 'pertaining, belonging to the earth').[213][220][221]

Possible reflexes edit

Other mythologies may show the presence of characters and expressions that are etymologically cognate to *Dheghom. However, these cognates are less secured:

 
Jove and Semele (1695) by Sebastiano Ricci.
  • Anatolian:
    • Lydian: references to a cult of Men Tiamou ('of Tiamos') led scholars to believe Tiamou is an epithet that means 'of the Earth' or 'of the Netherworld', possibly connected to Luwian tiyamm(i) 'earth'.[222] This expression would be equivalent to a common epithet of Men: καταχθονιος ('of the Underworld'; 'subterranean').[223][224][225][226]
  • Hellenic:
    • Doric: linguist Krzysztof Witczak suggests the dialectal Doric word "δηγῆ" dēgê, in the expression "δηγῆ και σιωπᾷ" ("earth and keeps silence"), is a possibly ancient loanword from Proto-Albanian.[227]
    • Greek: Damia, one of the Horae, a minor deity related to spring, growth and vegetation, and usually paired with fellow Horae Auxesia.[228][229] Ancient literature suggests it might have been another name for Demeter.[230][231]
  • Iranian:
    • Khotanese: evidence suggests that the Khotanese preserved some relics of an Indo-Iranian worship of the earth, as seen in the Saka roots ysam- and ysama-, both meaning 'earth' and cognate to Avestan zam-.[232] The word is also attested in the personal name Ysamotika,[233] and in the religious expression ysamaśśandaā, meaning 'world'.[234][235][236]
  • Tocharian: the expression tkamñkät (Tocharian A) and keṃ-ñäkte (Tocharian B) are used in religious Buddhist texts written in the Tocharian languages, where it denotes the earth or an 'earth-god' of some sort.[237][238][239]
  • Italic:
    • Hunte, an Umbrian deity, possibly stemming from *ǵʰom-to- 'who is below'.[2]
    • Semonia, obscure deity associated with crops and sowing,[240] of possible Roman or Sabine origin and worship, usually attested with the epithet Salus Semonia.[241] A possible male counterpart is Semo Sancus,[242] god of Sabine provenance whose traits merged with Dius Fidius's. Semonia and Sancus appear with other agricultural/crop deities Seia and Segetia.[243]
  • Celtic:
    • Old Irish: goddess Dana, taken by some Indo-Europeanist scholars to be an Irish earth goddess.[244][245]
    • Welsh mythology: linguist John T. Koch interprets the family known as Children of Dôn (Plant Dôn) as "Children of the Earth", since the name of their matriach, Dôn, would derive from Celtic *ghdhonos ('the earth', gen.).[246]
  • Baltic:
    • Lithuanian: Žemėpatis[247][248] ('Earth Spouse')[249] and Žemininkas,[250] male deities associated with cattle, agriculture and the fertility of the land.[251] Their names are present in historical records of the Lithuanian non-Christian faith by foreign missionaries.[252] A male divinity with the name Zemeluks, Zamoluksei,[253] Zameluks or Ziameluks[254][255] is also said to be attested. An account tells he is a DEUS TERRAE ('earth god'),[256] while in other he is "a lord or god of earth who was buried in the earth" by the Prussians.[257]
  • Unclassified Indo-European languages:

*Pl̥th₂éwih₂ edit

Cognates stemming from the epithet *Pl̥th₂éwih₂ (the 'Broad One') are attested in the following traditions:

  • Old Hittite: palḫiš dankuiš daganzipaš, 'broad dark earth-genius',[7]
  • Indo-Iranian: *pṛtH-uiH-,[271]
    • Vedic: Pṛithvī Mātā (पृथ्वी) ('Mother Earth, the Vast One'), the most frequent Vedic word for both the earth and the Earth-goddess;[5][4] and the poetic formula kṣā́m ... pṛthivī́m ('broad earth'),[7][10] cf. also Prithu (Sanskrit: पृथु, Pṛthu), a mythological sovereign who chases the goddess Prthvi, shapeshifted as a cow; his name means 'far, wide, broad'.[272][273]
    • Young Avestan: ząm pərəθβīm, 'broad earth',[9][7][10]
  • Greek: Plátaia (Πλάταια), a naiad described as consort of Zeus and the daughter of the river Asopos; also the name given to the city of Plataea in Beotia,[4]
  • Celtic: Litavī, probably an earth-goddess; also the divine name given to the peninsula of Brittany in medieval Celtic languages,[4][274]

The word also survived in common terms for 'land, field':

 
Statue of Ibu Pertiwi, a non-Indo-European descendant of *Pl̥th₂éwih₂

In non-Indo-European traditions, a notable descendant of *Pl̥th₂éwih₂ occurs as Ibu Pertiwi; her name borrowed from Vedic Pṛithvī, she is a national personification of Indonesia.[280]

Other cognates are less secured:

Parallels edit

Although not considered a cognate to either Dʰéǵʰōm or Pl̥th₂éwih₂, deity Spenta Armaiti, of Zoroastrism religion, is associated with the earth,[297][298] with fertility[299] and farmers[ap][aq] as well as the dead.[302]

A counterpart exists in pre-Christian Armenian mythology, named Spandaramet or Sandaramet, whose role is connected to earth and the underworld.[303] Namely, she was the "Armenian earth-goddess" of vineyards,[304] but also ruled over "'those that are asleep', i.e. the dead".[305] She is considered to have been developed from her Zoroastrian counterpart, Spenta Armaiti, a female being in that tradition. Spandaremet was transformed into a male god of the Underworld in later Armenian tradition,[306] and, under Christian influence, lent her name to an underworld realm where evil spirits are said to dwell.[304][307]

Both deities are seen, in their respective religions, as the wife or companion of a sky-god, Ahura Mazda[308][309][310][ar] or Aramazd. He, in turn, is said to be the deity of rains in some accounts.[312]

See also edit

Footnotes edit

  1. ^ Professor Małgorzata Oleszkiewicz-Peralba states the character of "Mother Moist Earth" was worshipped by the Eastern Slavs, while a deity called Holy Earth was venerated by the Western Slavs.[12]
  2. ^ "According to Lithuanian myths, the god Perkunas is the brilliant son of Zemyna, Mother Earth (Zeme in Lithuanian is 'Earth'). She is the beginning of all: waters come from her depths, plants are rooted in her, animals have their existence, their lives and their support from her; men, too, call her their mother. 'Whoever hits earth with a stick, hits his own mother.'."[16]
  3. ^ "(...) In Ancient Russia, as V. L. Komarovic has convincingly demonstrated, the cult of the Earth, Mother Earth, was very narrowly linked to the cult of the ancestors, of the clan ('rod'). The earth was the mother of the family and of the clan. She was seen as a motherly body that brings forth and nurtures children. Sometimes, she is described as a person: stones were her body, roots her bones; trees and grass her hair. (...) Both for the Slavs and for the Varangians, she was the source of fertility and prosperity, and of political authority. (...)"[17]
  4. ^ "[Mother Earth] was also the maternal breast and womb; the black and fruitful soil. As such she was thought to carry the family, the village, and the nation, which she nurtured and protected - and ruled - like a mother.
    'Mother Earth,' wrote Fedotov, 'becomes clearer to us against the background of the gens religion.' Through her the individual and the tribal ancestors were united and made whole; she conferred identity upon each person: 'The sacred motherhood of the earth is intimately akin to the worship of the parents. (...)' She was also the genetrix of the family and the clan."[18]
  5. ^ According to Gritsay, Russian scholars E. V. Antonova and O. G. Radchenko mention that the sky is associated with a paternal figure and the elements of light and fire (e.g, epithet "свет-батюшка" 'luminous father'), in contrast with a Mother-type character, associated with water (moisture) and earth, and also called "темная" and "черная" ('dark', 'black').[43]
  6. ^ On that note, the epithet ὀμβροχαρής ('delighting in rain') - a Hapax legomenon - is attached to the Earth in an Orphic hymn.[61]
  7. ^ "Some remnants of fertilizing rites still point in the direction that there might have been a marriage between earth and heaven in the primitive mythology of Eastern Slavs".[74]
  8. ^ "In folk cosmogonic myths, the male sky fertilises the earth (SSSL 1(2): 17–56), the act being described as "the sacred union (hierogamy) between the Sky-God and the Earth-Mother" (Eliade 1961, after Cummings n.d.). (...) Echoes of the hierogamy can be found in a Polish folk riddle: "Father shoots but doesn't kill; mother eats, though it has no mouth", which stands for the heaven–rain–earth complex. In peasant poems, heaven embraces the earth with love: at the crossroads, where Christ dies, heaven embraces the earth and presents the Mother of Bread with a herb-and-wheat wreath."[77]
  9. ^ The worship of Saint George with the coming of springtime also occurs in South Slavic tradition.[82][83]
  10. ^ "Zemyna (otherwise Zemlja or Perkunatelé) is the earth-goddess and psychopomp of the dead."[105]
  11. ^ Best exemplified by mythologist Lotte Motz: "The chthonic goddess zemes mate (Mother Earth) receives the dead within her realm. In dainas addressed to her, she provides the eternal resting place: "Rock me mother, hold me mother! / Short is the time spent at your breast. / Mother Earth will hold me longer, / beneath her turf, a welcome guest." (J1209)".[107] She also stated that "In Latvian society ... Mother Earth - zemes mate - is chiefly the resting place of the departed, ..."[108]
  12. ^ "In the next quatrain folksong it concerns about death, the sleeping (slumbering) in the grave. The Mother Earth is the goddess, from whom are coming all living beings and to whom after death they go back: (25) Ar Dieviņu, mâmulïte, / Labvakar, zemes mate!/ Labvakar, zemes mate, / Vai büs laba dusesanal [Good bye, Mother, / Good evening, Mother Earth! / Good evening, Mother Earth, / Shall I slumber well?]".[109]
  13. ^ "Ar Dieviņu, tēvs, māmiņa,/ Labvakaru, Zemes māte (x2)/ Glabā manu augumiņu". [Farewell, father and mother, / Good evening, Earth mother (x2) / Take my body in your keeping].[110][111]
  14. ^ "Archeological findings witness that the most ancient phase of Lithuanian culture was definitely Zemyna's culture. The distinguishing factor in these findings was the burial rites. In the oldest cultural phase, the dead were buried - given back to Zemyna, Mother Earth."[113]
  15. ^ Researcher Nijole Laurinkiene, at the end of her book on Zemyna, writes thus: "Žemyna was also imagined as the giver and supporter of human life, because like flora and fauna, humanity is a part of nature. (...) The newborn would immediately be laid down on Mother Earth as if she were its biological mother, so that she could ‘accept’ and ‘embrace’ the infant as her own earthly creation and give it vegetative power and vitality on a cosmic plane. (...)".[114]
  16. ^ "Žeme, motina mano, aš iš tavęs esu, tu mane šeri, tu mane nešioji, tu mane po smerčio pakavosi" [Earth, my mother, I am from you, you feed me, you support me, you embrace me after death].[115]
  17. ^ For instance: "the Russian peasant envisioned the underworld of the ancestors as a house heated against the dampness of Mother Moist Earth by a pech [pečʹ, 'stove'].";[18] "Among the peasantry in Vladimir Province, as in other places, it was customary for the dying to ask earth permission to reenter her body with the ritual invocation: 'Mother Moist Earth, forgive me and take me'."[123]
  18. ^ "The peasant child who died left its natal mother and went back to 'mother earth'. (...) That Russians did (and still do) personify the earth as a mother is well known. The peasant topos 'mother moist earth' ('mat' syra zemlia') refers to the mother specifically as a place one goes after dying, or in order to die (as opposed to a fertile place which gives birth to a harvest - for which there are other topoi). Ransel speaks of peasant beliefs about the earth pulling the child back to itself, inviting death. (...) To resist death too much is to resist 'mother moist earth'."[124]
  19. ^ "According to a Polish legend, "God ordered the Earth: ‘You will give birth to people and you will devour them; whatever you give birth to, you will eat, as it is yours’" (Szyjewski 211, 130).".[125]
  20. ^ "Mother Earth stands at the core of the Eastern Slavic religiosity. In her converge the most secret and profound religious feelings. With awe, the people venerate the black, moist depths - the womb which is the source of all fertilized powers, the nourishing breast of nature, the definitive resting place of all in death. Mother Earth is covered by a veil of grass, flowers, forests, trees, vegetables and grain. Thus both beauty and fertility are her choice virtues and powers. As a mother who nourishes living human beings, the earth is the embodiment of kindness and mercy; she also embraces them for rest after death."[126]
  21. ^ "Symbolically, funeral rites provide the belief that the deceased will return to mother earth to live a new life in a new abode (the coffin and grave). According to Russian folk belief, the deceased no longer lives in its former home but continues a liminal existence in a new "dwelling-place," that is the coffin, which in some parts of Russia even had windows (Vostochnoslavianskaia 348). (...) In this context, the motif of life in the funeral lament is similar to the archetypal figure of the Moist Mother Earth (Mati syra zemlia) in its representation of rebirth. In these laments, the deceased is portrayed as being returned to the Moist Mother Earth, but before settling in her "permanent nest" it is carried into its new room—the coffin. С попом—отцом духовныим / Да с петьем божьим церковныим! / Как схороним тебя, белая лебедушка, / Во матушку сыру землю / И во буеву холодную могилушку, / В вековечну, бесконечну тебя жирушку, / Закроем тебя матушкой сырой землей, / Замуравим тебя травонькой шелковою! (Chistov 237) [With a priest, with a spiritual father / And with the swimming of God's Church / How will we bury you, little white swan / In the Damp Mother Earth / In the cold little grave / In the eternal, heavenly home / We will cover you with the Damp Mother Earth / We will cover you with silk grass]. (...) Funeral rituals, thus, reinforced the link between the living and the departed while allowing the deceased to rest permanently in its new domicile—the cosmic womb that is the Moist Mother Earth."[127]
  22. ^ "East Slavic paganism was the product of a landlocked agricultural empire. Gods of sun, moon, stars, and wind did exist, but prayers were directed down to the life-giving black soil rather than up to celestial deities. Bodies did not "rise" after death but were reabsorbed into the womb of Mat'-syra-zemlya, Moist Mother Earth".[128]
  23. ^ For example: "The maiden fair is dead (...) Split open, damp Mother Earth! / Fly asunder, ye coffin planks!";[135] "A young sergeant prayed to God, / Weeping the while, as a river flows,/ For the recent death of the Emperor, / The Emperor, Peter the First. / And thus amid his sobs he spake, - / 'Split asunder, O damp mother Earth / On all four sides - / Open, ye coffin planks (...)'";[136] "All on my father's grave / A star has fallen, has fallen from heaven ... / Split open, O dart of the thunder, The moist mother Earth!";[137] "I will take my dear children [and see], / Whether moist Mother Earth will not split open. / If moist Mother Earth splits open, / Straightway will I and my children bury ourselves in it (...) Split open, moist Mother Earth, / And be thou open, O new coffin-planks (...) (a widow's lament)";[138] "Arise, O ye wild winds, from all sides! Be ye borne, O winds, into the Church of God! Sweep open the moist earth! Strike, O wild winds, on the great bell! Will not its sounds and mine awaken words of kindness" (an orphan's lament).[138]
  24. ^ The expression is also mentioned in a saying from Olonets: the master of the house invites his ghostly visitor to warm itself by the fire of the pech, since it must have been cold for him staying "in the moist earth".[139]
  25. ^ In an adjuration by a Raskol, the supplicant invokes her to forgive them: "Forgive me, O Lord; forgive me, O holy Mother of God; (...) forgive, O damp-mother-earth; (...)".[140]
  26. ^ In a funeral lament collected in the Olonets region by scholar Barsov, the mourner cries for a man struck by lightning sent by "thunderous" Saint Ilya, when said man was supposed to perform his Christian duties: "They lit candles of bright wax, / They prayed to God diligently, / They bowed low to moist mother earth / (...) The sinful soul departed without repentance/ (...)/ [His body] will not be committed to moist mother earth."[141]
  27. ^ "Were you not afraid, had you no fear of entering mother-moist-earth? For it is cold there, and there is hunger there.".[142]
  28. ^ Professors Elizabeth Warner and Svetlana Adonyeva published in 2021 a book with the results of a joint research on funeral laments in modern Russian rural places. Their findings show that the laments still contained the poetical expression. For instance: "(...) Well, I know myself, little orphan girl, / Where you are going, all dressed up,/ You are on your way into mother-moist-earth..."; "(...) Break asunder, mother-moist-earth./ (...)/Stand up, my darling child. / Hear me, your grieving mother, (...)".[143]
  29. ^ Sometimes Zam is paired with other Zoroastrian deity, Armaiti, another being associated with the Earth,[168] thus forming a compound Zam-Armaiti or Zam-Armatay.[169]
  30. ^ The word sierà means the color 'gray' in Lithuanian, and scholarship suggests it is phonetically - not semantically - close to Russian syra 'wet, moist'. However, it is also acknowledged that the expression "gray earth" may still indicate the fertility of the land by referring to a combination of the elements of earth and water (humidity). Works that contain this expression have been collected from eastern and southern Lithuania.[178] On the other hand, historian Rainer Eckert claimed the word sierà 'damp' is a borrowing from East Slavic syra.[179]
  31. ^ A common epithet that accompanies 'earth' in Slavic languages is syra 'moist, damp'. Claire Le Feuvre suggests that the word is etymologically related to Old Icelandic saurr and Greek language 'eúroeis', used to describe the Underworld and the burial place of mortals, and all three words derive from a Proto-Indo-European poetical expression that means "damp earth".[181]
  32. ^ Invoked as the celebrant's mother: Syraja zemlja, - ty ž maty moja ("Moist Earth, you are my mother").[185] The original text is thus: "Сира земля — то ж мати моя. / То ж то мати моя мене прийняла".[186]
  33. ^ Professor Małgorzata Oleszkiewicz-Peralba stated that Polish and Russian languages refer to the earth and the rivers with this feminine epithet "little mother".[188]
  34. ^ According to Russian scholarship, Bulgarian folkloric tradition uses the adjective "сура" (syra) "as a permanent epithet" of "земя" (earth).[190]
  35. ^ The idiom is "drunken as mother Earth", speculated to be of Proto-Slavic origin and presumed to relate to Earth as a passive element, that receives the frutifying rains of Heaven.[197]
  36. ^ As an aside, Serbian philogist Aleksandar Loma once suggested that the Slavic name for the Verbascum, divizna (cs), is a dvandva compound of "*div" 'sky' and "*zma" (> zna) 'earth', harking back to the sacred mythological Sky-Earth pair.[211]
  37. ^ Another possibility is that Khamyne was herself, in fact, a separate deity who was syncrethized with Demeter in later times. Her temple was discovered in 2006, 150 metres away from the main stadium.[212]
  38. ^ Etymological connections of "Thraco-Phrygian" Semele with Žemele and Žemyna have been noted.[261] Thus, according to Borissoff, "she could be an important link bridging the ancient Thracian and Slavonic cults (...)".[249]
  39. ^ Ivan Duridanov pointed out that the Phrygian word zemelō also meant "Mother Earth".[262]
  40. ^ The epithet also appears associated with minor deity Iacchus, as in the expression Semeleios Iakchus plutodotas ("Son of Semele, Iakchus, wealth-giver").[269]
  41. ^ Another Germanic reflex of "fold" is present in compound Feldgeister ('spirits of the fields'), creatures of Germanic folklore.
  42. ^ She is "the Old Iranian goddess of cultivated land, vegetation and fertility, having a link with the rite of inhumation" and to whom "the material earth belongs".[300]
  43. ^ "In the realm of the material world, Spenta Armaiti is the guardian spirit of the earth (Vendidad 3.35), the symbol of bountifulness ... as well as the protector of herdsmen and farmers. Frequently, however, she is spoken of as the earth itself rather than as the genius of the earth (Yasna 16.10; Yasht 24.50; Vendidad 2.10, 2.14, 2.18, 18.51, 18.64). ... in the physical realm she represents, and later becomes, the earth."[301]
  44. ^ In Ahura Mazda's case, he is described as creator (or father) of Armaiti.[311]

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Bibliography edit

  • Beekes, Robert S. P. (2009). Etymological Dictionary of Greek. Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-32186-1.
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  • Kloekhorst, Alwin (2008). Etymological Dictionary of the Hittite Inherited Lexicon. Brill. ISBN 9789004160927.
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  • Mann, Stuart E. (1948). An Historical Albanian-English Dictionary. Vol. II, N–Z. Longmans, Green and Co., LTD.
  • Matasović, Ranko (2009). Etymological Dictionary of Proto-Celtic. Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-17336-1.
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Further reading edit

  • Bodewitz, Henk (2019). "The Waters in Vedic Cosmic Classifications". Vedic Cosmology and Ethics. Vol. 19. Brill. pp. 37–45. ISBN 9789004398641. JSTOR 10.1163/j.ctvrxk42v.9.
  • Burrow, T. (1959). "On the Phonological History of Sanskrit kṣám- 'Earth,' ṛ́kṣa- 'Bear' and likṣá̄ 'Nit'". Journal of the American Oriental Society. 79 (2): 85–90. doi:10.2307/595849. JSTOR 595849.
  • Dundulienė, Pranė (1976). "Žemė lietuvių tikėjimuose ir liaudies mene. In: Istorija 16.1: 129-153.
  • Hamp, Eric P. (1990). "Albanian dhē 'earth'". Historische Sprachforschung. 103 (2): 289–292. JSTOR 40848998.
  • Hamp, Eric P. "On the Paradigm of OIr. dú". In: Zeitschrift für celtische Philologie 44, no. 1 (1991): 76-78. On the Paradigm of OIr. dú
  • Kretschmer, Paul (1931). "Χθών". Glotta. 20 (1/2): 65–67. JSTOR 40265301.
  • Meier-Brügger, Michael (1977). "Lateinisch humī und domī". Zeitschrift für Vergleichende Sprachforschung. 91 (1): 159–165. JSTOR 40848521.
  • Oettinger, Norbert. "Die 'dunkle Erde' Im Hethitischen Und Griechischen: Alfred Heubeck Zum Gedächtnis (20.7. 1914–24.5. 1987)". In: Die Welt Des Orients 20/21 (1989): 83-98. Accessed April 27, 2021. Die 'dunkle Erde' im Hethitischen und Griechischen: Alfred Heubeck zum Gedächtnis (20.7. 1914–24.5. 1987).
  • Rico, Christophe. "L'équivalence χθών: sk. kşám. Nouvelle approche d'un vieux débat". In: Indogermanische Forschungen 109, issue 2004 (2004): 61-111. L’équivalence χθών: sk. kṣsám-Nouvelle approche d’un vieux débat
  • Steer, Thomas. "Uridg. *dh(e)ǵhōm 'Erde' und *ǵʰ(e)i̯ōm 'Winter'". In: Indogermanische Forschungen 118, no. 2013 (2013): 55-92. Uridg. *dh(e)ǵhōm ‚Erde‘ und *ǵʰ(e)i̯ōm ‚Winter: Eine kurze Revision der Stammbildung
  • Toporov, Vladimir N. "К реконструкции балто-славянского мифологического образа Земли-Матери *Zemi̯a & *Mātē (Mati)" [Towards a reconstruction of the Balto-Slavic mythological image of Earth Mother *Zemia & *Mate (Mati)]. In: Балто-славянские исследования. 1998–1999. ХIV. Москва: 2010 [2000]. pp. 241–371. ISBN 978-5-9551-0388-4
  • Willi, Andreas (2007). "Demeter, Gê, and the Indo-European word(s) for 'earth'". Historische Sprachforschung. 120: 169–194. doi:10.13109/hisp.2007.120.1.169. ISSN 0935-3518. JSTOR 40849297.

May 03, 2024
dʰéǵʰōm, proto, indo, european, dʰéǵʰōm, dʰǵʰōm, earth, éwih, éwih, broad, reconstructed, name, earth, goddess, proto, indo, european, mythology, mother, earth, méh, tēr, generally, portrayed, vast, éwih, dark, dʰengwo, abode, mortals, bears, things, creatures. Dʰeǵʰōm Proto Indo European dʰeǵʰōm or dʰǵʰōm lit earth 1 2 or Pl th ewih PIE pl th ewih lit the Broad One 3 4 is the reconstructed name of the Earth goddess in the Proto Indo European mythology The Mother Earth Dʰeǵʰōm Meh ter is generally portrayed as the vast pl th ewih and dark dʰengwo abode of mortals the one who bears all things and creatures She is often paired with Dyeus the daylight sky and seat of the never dying and heavenly gods in a relationship of contrast and union since the fructifying rains of Dyeus might bring nourishment and prosperity to local communities through formulaic invocations Dʰeǵʰōm is thus commonly associated in Indo European traditions with fertility growth and death and is conceived as the origin and final dwelling of human beings Contents 1 Name and etymology 2 Epithets 2 1 The Broad One 2 2 Mother Earth 2 3 Dark Earth 3 Role 3 1 Mating with the Sky Father 3 1 1 Anatolian 3 1 2 Indo Aryan 3 1 3 Graeco Roman 3 1 4 Norse 3 1 5 Slavic 3 1 6 Baltic 3 2 Final dwelling of mortals 3 2 1 Albanian 3 2 2 Greek 3 2 3 Baltic 3 2 4 Slavic 3 2 5 Indo Aryan 4 Evidence 4 1 Dʰeǵʰōm 4 1 1 Possible reflexes 4 2 Pl th ewih 5 Parallels 6 See also 7 Footnotes 8 References 9 Bibliography 10 Further readingName and etymology edit nbsp Look up Reconstruction Proto Indo European dʰeǵʰōm in Wiktionary the free dictionary The Proto Indo European PIE word for earth dʰ e ǵʰōm acc dʰǵʰ em m gen dʰǵʰ mos is among the most widely attested words in Indo European languages cf Albanian dhe and toka Hittite tekan tagan Sanskrit kṣam Greek khthṓn Latin humus Avestan zam Tocharian tkaṃ Old Irish du Lithuanian zẽme Old Slavonic zemlja which makes it one of the most securely reconstructed PIE terms 1 On the other hand the linguistic evidence for the ritualization of the name dʰeǵʰōm is not systematically spread across the inherited traditions as she also appears under other names and epithets principally pl th ewih the Broad One 3 If the PIE Earth goddess is reliably reconstructed under the name Dʰeǵʰōm with pl th ewih being one of her epithets she was most likely the Earth herself conceived as a divine entity rather than a goddess of the earth 5 Proto Indo European mythology still relying on a strong animistic substrate 6 Epithets editBased on comparative analysis of textual and epigraphic evidence historical linguists and philologists have been able to reconstruct with a comfortable level of certainty several epithets and expressions that were associated with Dʰeǵʰōm in Proto Indo European times Pl th ewih the Broad One Dʰeǵʰōm Meh ter Mother Earth and in this form or a similar one Dʰeǵʰōm Dʰengwo Dark Earth 4 7 The Broad One edit The commonest epithet applied to the earth in Indo European poetic traditions is pl th ewih the Broad One which is the feminine form of pleth us meaning flat vast broad A group of cognates appear in various divine names including the Vedic earth goddess Pṛth i vi the Greek nymph Plataia and the Gaulish goddess Litavi 4 8 The epithet is also attested in nearly identical poetic expressions associating dʰeǵʰōm and pl th ewih Avestan zam pere8bim broad earth Sanskrit kṣa m pṛthivi m broad earth and Old Hittite palḫis dagan zipas broad earth genius 7 9 10 Another similar epithet is the All Bearing One the one who bears all things and creatures 11 She was also referred to as much nourishing or rich pastured in Vedic Greek and Old Norse ritual expressions sharing the root plh u much 3 In the Proto Indo European cosmology the earth Dʰeǵʰōm was likely perceived as a vast flat and circular continent surrounded by waters The Ocean 8 Mother Earth edit The Earth goddess was widely celebrated with the title of mother meh ter and often paired with Dyḗus ph2tḗr the sky father She is called annas Dagan zipas Mother Earth genius in Hittite liturgy and paired with the Storm god of heaven as well as Mat Syra Zemlya Mother Moist Earth in the Russian epic poems a To the Vedic goddess of the earth Prithvi is often attached the epithet Mata mother in the Rigveda especially when she is mentioned together with Dyaus the sky father 13 upa sarpa mataram Bhu mim eta m uruvyacasam Pṛthivi ṃ susevam Slip in to this Mother Earth the wide extending Broad One the friendly 10 18 10 in The Rigveda translated by M L West 14 The Baltic earth goddess Zemyna is likewise associated with the epithets Mother of the Fields and Mother of the Forests 15 She is also treated respectfully as mother of humans b Similarly the cult of the Earth Mother in old Slavic religion and traditions associated the earth with the progenetrix s role c d 19 In a legend from Smolensk it is told that a human has three mothers a birth mother rodna and two great velikih mothers Mother Moist Earth and the Mother of God 20 Additionally the Anglo Saxon goddess Erce possibly meaning bright pure is called the mother of Earth eorthan modor and likely identified with Mother Earth herself in a ritual to be performed on an unfruitful plough land 13 She is also called Fira Mōdor Mother of men in Old English poetry 5 A similar epithet Mother of All Mhthr Pantwn is ascribed to the Greek earth goddess Gaia as recorded for instance in Aeschylus Prometheus Unbound pammῆtor te gῆ Oh universal mother Earth 21 and in The Libation Bearers ἰὼ gaῖa maῖa Mother Gaia 22 Likewise several of the Orphic Hymns attach the epithet mother to Earth gaῖa 8eὰ mhthr 23 In a Samaveda hymn dedicated to the Vedic fire god Agni he is described as rapidly moving along his mother earth 24 In an Atharveda Hymn 12 1 Pṛthvi Sukta or Bhumi Sukta the celebrant invokes Prithvi as his Mother because he is a son of Earth 25 The word bhumi is also used as an epithet of Prithvi meaning soil and in reference to a threefold division of the universe into heavens sky and earth 26 27 28 On her own Bhumi is another Vedic deity with Mother Earth attributes 29 30 31 The Greek goddess of the harvest and agriculture Demeter could also be a cognate possibly deriving from an Illyrian root da from dʰǵʰ e m attached to mater mother although this proposition remains controversial in scholarship 13 The Roman evidence for the idea of Earth as a mother is doubtful as it is usually associated with the name Terra rather than Tellus the pre Imperial earth goddess and the attested tradition may have been influenced by Greek motifs 32 In Albanian the Earth Mother Goddess or Great Mother Magna Mater is simply referred to as Dhe Earth and traces of her worship have been preserved in Albanian tradition 33 Dark Earth edit Another Proto Indo European epithet dʰeǵʰōm dʰengwo or dʰeǵʰōm dʰṇgu dark earth can be reconstructed from the Hittite formulae dankuis dagan zipas dark genius of the earth and dankus tekan which were frequently used to name the underworld but sometimes also the earth s surface and partially from the Albanian and Slavonic expressions dhe te zi black earth and crna ya zemya dark earth which have retained the term dʰeǵʰōm 34 11 7 Other reflexes can be found in Greek Gaia Melaina gaia melaina black earth or in Old Irish domun donn brown earth 11 35 A Lithuanian expression takes the form may the black earth not support me 36 istamasta an ma palḫis dankuis daganzipas the broad dark earth heard him 4 4 Rs 12ff in Keilschrifturkunden aus Boghazkoi de translated by J L Garcia Ramon 7 In Latvian dainas about plant fertility the color black symbolized a good and abundant harvest and the black soil was considered the most fertile 37 In a Russian fairy tale the maiden is buried under a blanket of black earth 38 A formula cṛna ja zemja dark earth can be reconstructed based on expressions found in the southern Slavic speaking area in ritual and burial contexts like Ukrainian corna zemlicja in a Christmas carol Slovene cerna zemlja in incantations Bulgarian cernata in relation to the Earth in curses ozenich se zadevojka cernozemka metaphor for to die young cherna zemya black earth 39 Serbo Croatian zagrlila poljubila ga je crna zemlja meaning he has died Serbian crna zemlja 40 In another line of scholarship the formula of the dark earth seems to be related to invocation or oaths where the announcer summons the Earth as an observer or witness as seen by Solon s elegiac Fragment 36 41 The Slavic deity Moist Earth Syra Zemlya was similarly invoked during oaths and called to witness in land disputes 42 Role editMating with the Sky Father edit The Earth goddess was conceived as the dark dwelling of mortals in contrast with Dyeus the bright diurnal sky and the seat of the gods 11 e Both deities often appear as a pair the Sky Father Dyḗws Ph tḗr uniting with Mother Earth Dʰeǵʰōm Meh ter to bring fertility and growth 14 44 The Earth is thus often portrayed as the giver of good things she is exhorted to become pregnant in an Old English prayer and Slavic peasants described Zemlja as a prophetess that shall offer favourable harvest to the community 5 45 The unions of Zeus with Semele and Demeter is similarly associated with fertility and growth in Greek mythology 45 According to Jackson however Dʰeǵʰōm is a more fitting partner of Perkwunos than of Dyeus since the former is commonly associated with fructifying rains as a weather god 3 The Earth Heaven couple was probably not at the origin of the other heavenly gods The Divine Twins and H2ewsōs seem to have been conceived by Dyeus alone 46 since they are mentioned through the formulaic expressions Diwos Nepoth1e Descendants of Dyeus and Diwos Dhuǵh2tḗr Daughter of Dyeus respectively 47 Anatolian edit In Hittite mythology the Storm God of Heaven one of the most important in the Hittite pantheon 48 has been syncretized with local Anatolian or Hattian deities merging with a local storm god with terrestrial characteristics At a later point the Storm God of Heaven was paired with local goddess Wurulemu with chthonic traits 49 Indo Aryan edit In the Vedic texts Prithvi the mother is usually paired with Dyaus the father 50 14 as shown for instance in Samaveda hymns 51 52 Due to their complementary relationship they are celebrated as universal parents 53 However other texts of sacred literature attribute different partners to the Earth goddess in an Atharveda Hymn 12 1 Prithvi is coupled with Parjanya Sanskrit पर जन य parjanya a deity of rain and fertilizer of earth 54 55 In the same hymn verse 6 12 1 6 Indra another Vedic deity of thunder and rain is described as consort and protector of Earth 56 According to Herodotus the Scythians considered Earth to be the wife of Zeus 45 Graeco Roman edit Zeus is associated with Semele a possible descendant of Dʰeǵʰōm but also with Demeter which could be another cognate stemming from the Mother Earth 45 5 In the Danaids Aeschylus describes how Ouranos and Chthon are seized by a mutual desire for sexual intercourse the rain falls then Earth conceives and brings forth pasture cereal crops and foliage 45 Likewise Heaven and Earth regularly appear as a duo among deities invoked as witnesses to Hittite treaties and the Roman Tellus Mater is paired with Jupiter in Macrobius s Saturnalia 14 The mating of Zeus and female characters with chthonic elements Demeter or associated with earth such as Semele Plataia and Themis may be a remnant of the Sky Earth coupling 45 Other religious expressions and formulas in Greek cultic practice attest to a wedding or union between a sky god and an earth mother the Homeric Hymn to Gaia calls her Wife of Starry Ouranos 57 weddings in Athens were dedicated to both Ouranos and Gaia 58 an Orphic hymn tells that the cultist is both a child of Earth and starry Sky 59 in Athens there was a statue of Gaia on the Acropolis depicting her beseeching Zeus for rain 60 f Zeus Chthonios and Ge Chthonia form a cultic pair in Mykonos 62 63 Zeus is invoked with an Earth Mother partner by their priestesses in Dodona 64 65 a funerary epigram of one Lycophron of Pherai son of Philiskos states he shall live among the stars uplifted by his father Zeus while his body occupies mother earth 66 In the cosmogony of Pherecydes of Syros male deity Zas identified with Zeus and the celestial heavenly heights unites with female character Chthonie associated with the earth and the subterranean depths in sacred rites of marriage a union that appears to hark back to the theology of the rites of fertility fecundity 67 and lays the foundation of the cosmos 68 Ancient Roman scholar Varro in his book De re rustica listed five divine pairs among which Juppiter father and Tellus the Earth mother both responsible for the fruitfulness of agriculture 69 Norse edit In Norse mythology the goddess Jord a jotunn giantess whose name means earth from Proto Germanic erthō earth soil land begets the thunder god Thor Donar with Odinn not a sky god although a chief god of the Norse pantheon 70 A line in the Gylfaginning by Norse poet Snorri Sturluson mentions that the Earth is both daughter and wife Jordin var dottir hans ok kona hans of the All Father 71 identified as Odinn Slavic edit Russian scholar O G Radchenko points that remnants of the coupling exist in East Slavic riddles incantations and herb charms 43 As pointed by scholarship Croatian historian Natko Nodilo saw an occurrence of the Masculine Heavens and Feminine Earth in the riddle Visok tata plosna mama bunovit zet manita devojka Tall father fat mother rebellious son in law frenzied maiden about the components of the world and whose answer is Sky Earth Wind and Fog 72 In a Russian incantation Beschworungsformel heaven and earth are referred to as a father mother pair Ty nebo otec ty zemlja mat You Heaven are father you Earth are mother 73 g A folk expression plaskofka matka vysoki tatka refers to the low flat earth in contrast with the highest sky 75 Polish scholarship also indicates some holdover of the idea exists in the folklore of Poland for instance in folk riddle Matka nisko ojciec wysoko corka slepa syn szalony A mother low down a father high up a blind daughter and a mad son whose answer is earth heaven night wind 76 h In a charm collected in Arkhangelsky and published in 1878 by historian Alexandra Efimenko ru the announcer invokes Mother Earth Zemlya mat and Father Heaven nebo otec 78 According to researcher Natalya Polyakova there was among the Slavs an old belief that earth was fertilized by the heavenly rains and that it was a sin to profane her If this happened the heavenly father would no longer send her rains and thus would cause drought 79 Baltic edit Baltic scholarship recognizes in ancient Baltic beliefs a division of the world into a heavenly half with masculine and dynamic attributes and associated with light and celestial bodies and an earthly half feminine and static related to plants and waters 80 According to Lithuanian ethnologue Nijole Laurinkiene lt in Baltic tradition it was said that the earth closed off as in sleeping or hibernating near the end of autumn beginning of winter and opened up with the coming of the spring a season when the first rains begin to fall For this reason it was believed that Baltic thunder god Perkunas acted as the opener of the earth with his rains making the grass grow and bringing life anew In later tradition it seems this deity was replaced by Saint George Jurgis Yurja Sveti Juraj who in folksongs was described as opening the earth in the spring with a key 81 i Final dwelling of mortals edit Dʰeǵʰōm had a connection with both death and life the deceased are made from her and shall eventually return to her but the crop also grows from her moist soil fertilized by the rain of Dyeus 84 This points to a hierarchical conception of the status of mankind regarding the heavenly gods confirmed by the widespread use of the term mortal as a synonym of human rather than living species in Indo European traditions 85 In a Hittite military oath the earth is said to drink the blood of the fallen This not wine it is your blood and as the earth has swallowed this as in Aeschylus Seven Against Thebes 736 and in the Indian Mahabharata the earth shall drink today the blood of their king 86 The word for earth underlies the many formations for designating humans because they are seen as earthly or fashioned from the earth itself 87 It is attested in the derivative forms dʰǵʰ e mōn and dʰǵʰom yos which underwent a semantic shift from earthling to human Sanskrit jman from the earth and kṣamyaḥ earthly Latin homō man Gothic guma man Old Lithuanian zmuo man and Old Prussian smoy man Old Irish duine man and Gaulish xtonio gdonios man 88 The Neo Phrygian term zemelōs zemelws is interpreted as meaning men or terrestrial as opposed to heavenly 89 90 In the words of linguist Antoine Meillet those metaphors go back to a time when it was natural to designate humans by the distinctive features that distinguish them from the gods mortality life on earth 91 Albanian edit nbsp Practicing of Gjama the Albanian traditional lamentation of the dead by the men of Theth Shala in the funeral of Ujk Vuksani 1937 In Albanian tradition the Earth Dheu or Toka is deeply respected so that she would carefully receive the dead in her chest 92 For instance during the last phase of the Albanian traditional mourning practice Gjama after a usual lament the mourners sit on their knees in a row and continuing the last call of the dead person they sit on the ground put their foreheads upon the earth and caress the earth with their hands as if they want to express love and care for the earth They stay like this until someone of the house specifically charged with this task goes and lifts them up 93 In all Albanian lands the burial custom required to put a metal coin in the grave inserting it in the dead s hand or mouth or on one side of the body A general explanation was that it served to pay for the place of the grave or to pay the Earth so that she keeps the dead inside her This is a reflection of the cult of the Earth associated with the place of the new dwelling in the eternal life with the coin representing a symbolic gift to the Earth Coins of this type have also been found by archaeologists in the graves of the Albanians in the Middle Ages and in those of the Illyrians in antiquity 92 Greek edit In a religious context Chthon X8wn was conceived as the nether land of the underworld deities and the dead Iliad 6 411 8 14 Theogony 119 etc and often as the world itself as opposed to the sky 89 Another reflex of Dʰeǵʰōm as the mother of mortals and their final resting place may also be found in Demetrioi of Demeter an Athenian designation for the dead 94 and in Aeschylus s verses in Choephori 127 Yea summon Earth who brings all things to life And rears and takes again into her womb 64 95 In addition Demeter was worshipped in some Greek cities in relation to her connection to the Underworld cf epithet Chthonia of the earth underworld besides her typical association with grains and crops 96 97 Demeter was also associated with the role of ward 98 or mother of the dead 99 according to Plutarch s On the Face in the Moon s Orb Demeter who rules over the earth and all earthly things separates the soul from the body after a human dies 100 A similar imagery is described by poet Euripides in his play The Suppliants lines 530 536 Let the dead now be buried in the earth and each element return to the place from where it came to the body the body to the ground for in no way did we get it for our own but to live our life in and after that its mother earth must take it back again 101 102 A funerary epigram of one Lycophron of Pherai son of Philiskos states his body given by mother now occupies mother earth mhtera gἥn 103 Baltic edit Moreover historical sources on Baltic mythology specially on Lithuanian and Latvian religions and practices describe the dual role of goddesses Zemyna and Zemes Mate while they were connected to the fertility of the land they were also associated with receiving the dead and acting as their ruler and guardian 104 j In Latvian dainas Zemes Mate is associated with fellow Mahte Mothers Velu Mate Mother of Dead Souls and Kari Mate Mother of Graves According to researcher Elza Kokare Zemes Mate and Kari Mate act as the resting places of the dead guarding its body and holding the key to their graves 106 As an individual character Zemes mate is invoked as a person s final resting place k l m Pieces of Lithuanian folklore also make references to Earth as mother of humans and their final abode after death 112 n o p Funeral lamentations such as some collected in Veliouna in the 19th and 20th centuries attest the expression siera zemele as the destination of the deceased to whom the lament is dedicated 116 117 118 119 In a later military death lament the siera zemele is said to drink the blood of the fallen soldier after being shot 120 An issue of Lithuanian newspaper Draugas published a dainas wherein the person invokes the earth as zeme zeme siera zemele and asks it to take her a maiden having already taken father and mother Atemei teva ir motinele but the earth scolds her 121 Slavic edit Old Slavic beliefs seem to attest some awareness of this ambivalent nature of the Earth it was considered men s cradle and nurturer during one s lifetime and when the time of death came it would open up to receive their bones as if it were a return to the womb 122 q r s t u v In Polish curses the malediction is aimed towards the Holy Earth swieta ziemia not receiving the remains of the person cursed as in Bodaj cie swieta ziemia nie przyjela and Oby cie swieta ziemia nie przyjela 129 Researcher Anna Engelking cited that scholar Boris Uspensky wrote a comprehensive analysis of the mythical trope of holy earth the mother of humankind which gives birth to people and accepts their bodies after death 130 Similarly the imagery appears in funeral hymns and speeches e g Powracasz w ziemie co twa matka byla Teraz cie strawi niedawno zywila You return to earth that has been your mother She has fed you so far now you ll be devoured 131 The imagery of the terre humide moist earth also appears in funeral lamentations either as a geographical feature as in Lithuanian and Ukrainian lamentations 132 or invoked as Mere Terre humide Mother Moist Earth 133 134 w x y z aa The imagery and expression of Mother Moist Earth seem to have persisted well into the 21st century although divorced from its sacral aspect ab In a Ukrainian lamentation the mourner invokes earth as his damp mother Zemle zh moya zemle mat siraya and asks it to take him the mourner a young one since it has already taken father otcya and mother nenku endearing or diminutive form of ne nya 144 In Belarusian folk songs the earth is invoked as syroj ziamli matuscy damp earth mother and even referred to as the resting place of the mourner s loved one Zoŭcienki piasok syraja ziamlia Tut pachavana milaja maja English Yellow sand damp earth here my dear is buried 145 In addition phraseological studies by linguist Olga A Lyashchynskaya be recognize the incidence of the expression in Belarusian expression spac u syroj zyamli to sleep in the damp earth is a metaphor for death 146 expression lyazhac u syroj zyamli zyamelcy to lie in the damp earth ground denotes a burial to be interred 147 azhanicca z lt syroyu gt zyamlyoj to marry the moist earth means to die 148 Serbian idiomatic expressions also associate the earth with the grave and the formula dark earth crna zemlja appears in reference to the resting place of the dead 149 150 Mat Syra Zemlya is also invoked in wedding songs by the orphan bride for her parents to bless her journey to the new household 151 Indo Aryan edit In Book 10 of the Rigveda Hymn XVIII a funeral hymn verses 10 13 the earth is invoked to receive the body of the departed and to cover him gently as a mother does a child 10 Betake thee to the lap of Earth the Mother of Earth far spreading very kind and gracious 11 Heave thyself Earth nor press thee downward heavily afford him easy access gently tending him Cover him as a mother wraps her skirt about her child O Earth 152 153 154 A second hymn in Vedic sacred literature requests Earth to open up and explicitly receive the dead while also mentioning the two kings Yama and Varuna Open thy arms o Earth receive the dead With gentle pressure and with loving welcome Embrace him tenderly e en as a mother Folds her soft vestment round the child she loves Soul of the dead depart 155 53 In the Satapatha Brahmaṇa written by Vedic sage Yajnavalkya there is reference to a ritual of the placement of the bones of the deceased in the earth after cremation 156 According to the Kanda XIII 8 3 3 the text says that May Savitri deposit thy bones in the mother s lap maturupastha Savitri thus deposits his bones in the lap of the mother maturupastha this earth pṛthivyai O Earth be thou propitious unto him 157 Evidence edit Dʰeǵʰōm edit Cognates stemming from dʰeǵʰōm are attested in the following mythologies PIE dʰ e ǵʰ ōm acc dʰǵʰ em m gen dʰǵʰ mos the earth 1 2 158 Anatolian deǵ m 158 Hittite Tagan zepa Genius of the Earth later dagan zipa a chthonic deity also serving as a witness in treaties composed of the stem dagan earth attached to sipa genius 42 34 159 Proto Greek kʰtʰōn earth the initial consonant cluster dʰǵʰ evolved into kʰtʰ via metathesis the final m turned into n through regular sound laws 160 Greek Chthonie attested in fragmentary passages of Pherecydes of Syros as a primordial goddess of earth who changed her name to Gaia after Zeus married her 161 she is depicted as Chthon X8wn the partner of Ouranos in Aeschylus Danaids the same name is also used as an epithet of Poseidon by Homer 89 the epithets Chthonia X8wnia belonging to the earth the ground the underworld associated with the grain goddess Demeter 162 163 and Chtonios X8onios id attached to Zeus or Hermes as those who go to the underworld 160 164 another cognate appears in the name of the chthonic deities x8onioi 8eoi of the underworld 165 Old Avestan Zam Earth a sanctified being in the Zoroastrian tradition that embodies the concept of Earth 166 167 ac Young Avestan Zamyad a contraction of zam hudad yazad divinity of the Munificent Earth in the Zamyad Yast 170 171 172 Balto Slavic zem from dʰǵʰ em 173 Baltic zeme 174 Lithuanian Zemyna also Zemynele and Zemele 175 a goddess celebrated as the bringer of flowers and a recipient of prayers and sacrifices 42 5 176 expression siera zeme wet humid earth 177 ad Latvian Zemes Mate Mother Earth one of the goddesses of death in Latvian mythology 5 180 Slavic zeml a 173 ae East Slavic Old Russian Mat Syra Zemlya Mother Moist Earth in the byliny epic poems and Matushka zeml ja Little Mother Earth 182 in folk incantations to ensure a good harvest 183 Ukrainian Syraja zemlja and mati syra zemlja 184 af Belarusian Maci syra zjamlja Maci syra zyamlya 185 184 and expression The Sacred Earth it is our mother Zyamlya svyataya yana nasha maci 184 187 West Slavic Polish Mateczka Ziemia Little mother earth ag matka ziemia ziemicka mamicka and do ziemi matusi 184 South Slavic Bulgarian Sura Zemya Moist Earth in folk songs 42 189 ah and surova zemya Surova zemya 191 192 193 Serbian mother Earth majka zemљa in an idiomatic expression 194 195 196 ai Proto Albanian dzō 198 Albanian dhe earth appearing in Dhe Zonja e Dheut Earth Great Mother Earth Goddess respectively 199 and ritualized in the cult of the earth and oath swearings beja me dhe 200 201 also appears in euphemisms like Dhetokesi Dheu or Perdhesi used to refer to the serpent as an earth deity 202 and E Bukura e Dheut Beauty of the Earth a chthonic goddess 203 204 205 Two parallel terms meaning human earthling are also attested as derivatives of the stem dʰ e ǵʰ PIE dʰǵʰom yo human earthling 206 Sanskrit kṣamyaḥ terrestrial 89 Proto Greek kʰtʰōnyos Greek chtonios x8onios belonging to the earth 160 89 Celtic gdonyo human person 206 Gaulish xtonio gdonios human in the expression deuogdonioi gods and men 207 206 Old Irish duine human 206 Middle Welsh dyn human 206 PIE dʰǵʰ e mōn acc dʰǵʰ m on m human earthling 208 209 210 Italic xem ō xe om on m 208 Latin homō hominis human man 208 Oscan humuns Umbrian homonus man 208 Germanic guman man 209 Gothic guma man 209 Old Norse gumi man 209 Old English guma Old Saxon gumo Old High German gomo man 209 Baltic Old Lithuanian zmuō man Lith zmones people zmona wife woman 210 Old Prussian smoy man smuni person 210 Additionally remnants of the noun dʰeǵʰōm can be found in formulaic phrases and religious epithets aj Vedic the compound Dyavakṣama heaven and earth with kṣama associated with the earth goddess Prithvi the Broad One 42 Greek the epithets xamynh khamyne de of the land in reference to Demeter ak in Pausanias 6 21 1 213 214 215 and Xamonaῖa khamynaia on the ground 216 217 A designation Xamonaῖos khamonaios of the ground of the earth in reference to Zeus is also attested 218 219 These epithets are considered cognates to xamai khamai pertaining belonging to the earth 213 220 221 Possible reflexes edit Other mythologies may show the presence of characters and expressions that are etymologically cognate to Dheghom However these cognates are less secured nbsp Jove and Semele 1695 by Sebastiano Ricci Anatolian Lydian references to a cult of Men Tiamou of Tiamos led scholars to believe Tiamou is an epithet that means of the Earth or of the Netherworld possibly connected to Luwian tiyamm i earth 222 This expression would be equivalent to a common epithet of Men katax8onios of the Underworld subterranean 223 224 225 226 Hellenic Doric linguist Krzysztof Witczak suggests the dialectal Doric word dhgῆ dege in the expression dhgῆ kai siwpᾷ earth and keeps silence is a possibly ancient loanword from Proto Albanian 227 Greek Damia one of the Horae a minor deity related to spring growth and vegetation and usually paired with fellow Horae Auxesia 228 229 Ancient literature suggests it might have been another name for Demeter 230 231 Iranian Khotanese evidence suggests that the Khotanese preserved some relics of an Indo Iranian worship of the earth as seen in the Saka roots ysam and ysama both meaning earth and cognate to Avestan zam 232 The word is also attested in the personal name Ysamotika 233 and in the religious expression ysamassandaa meaning world 234 235 236 Tocharian the expression tkamnkat Tocharian A and keṃ nakte Tocharian B are used in religious Buddhist texts written in the Tocharian languages where it denotes the earth or an earth god of some sort 237 238 239 Italic Hunte an Umbrian deity possibly stemming from ǵʰom to who is below 2 Semonia obscure deity associated with crops and sowing 240 of possible Roman or Sabine origin and worship usually attested with the epithet Salus Semonia 241 A possible male counterpart is Semo Sancus 242 god of Sabine provenance whose traits merged with Dius Fidius s Semonia and Sancus appear with other agricultural crop deities Seia and Segetia 243 Celtic Old Irish goddess Dana taken by some Indo Europeanist scholars to be an Irish earth goddess 244 245 Welsh mythology linguist John T Koch interprets the family known as Children of Don Plant Don as Children of the Earth since the name of their matriach Don would derive from Celtic ghdhonos the earth gen 246 Baltic Lithuanian Zemepatis 247 248 Earth Spouse 249 and Zemininkas 250 male deities associated with cattle agriculture and the fertility of the land 251 Their names are present in historical records of the Lithuanian non Christian faith by foreign missionaries 252 A male divinity with the name Zemeluks Zamoluksei 253 Zameluks or Ziameluks 254 255 is also said to be attested An account tells he is a DEUS TERRAE earth god 256 while in other he is a lord or god of earth who was buried in the earth by the Prussians 257 Unclassified Indo European languages Phrygian the epithet GDAN MA Gdan Ma taken to mean Earth Mother 258 or a loan from Anatolian languages 244 259 However the name appears as a compound in names of Asia Minor written in the Greek alphabet 260 Phrygian also attests the word KTON as referring to the earth 258 Thracian Zemela possibly from gʰem ela with a cognate in the Greek goddess Semele 42 5 al am and the obscure Dionysian epithet Semeleios 263 Semeleius or Semeleus 264 meaning He of the Earth son of Semele 265 266 267 268 an Messapic Damatura from da possibly from dʰǵʰ e m attached to matura mother maybe at the origin of the Greek goddess Demeter 270 Pl th ewih edit Cognates stemming from the epithet Pl th ewih the Broad One are attested in the following traditions Old Hittite palḫis dankuis daganzipas broad dark earth genius 7 Indo Iranian pṛtH uiH 271 Vedic Pṛithvi Mata प थ व Mother Earth the Vast One the most frequent Vedic word for both the earth and the Earth goddess 5 4 and the poetic formula kṣa m pṛthivi m broad earth 7 10 cf also Prithu Sanskrit प थ Pṛthu a mythological sovereign who chases the goddess Prthvi shapeshifted as a cow his name means far wide broad 272 273 Young Avestan zam pere8bim broad earth 9 7 10 Greek Plataia Plataia a naiad described as consort of Zeus and the daughter of the river Asopos also the name given to the city of Plataea in Beotia 4 Celtic Litavi probably an earth goddess also the divine name given to the peninsula of Brittany in medieval Celtic languages 4 274 The word also survived in common terms for land field Germanic fuldō earth ground field the world 9 Old Norse fold Old English folde same meaning 10 9 ao Proto Slavic pȍle field 275 Slavic mythology Polevoi or Polevik male deity of the fields 276 Polianitsa name of a female bogatyr related to pȍle 277 278 Byely Polianin White Field Dweller a folktale character 279 Old Church Slavonic polje field 275 nbsp Statue of Ibu Pertiwi a non Indo European descendant of Pl th ewih In non Indo European traditions a notable descendant of Pl th ewih occurs as Ibu Pertiwi her name borrowed from Vedic Pṛithvi she is a national personification of Indonesia 280 Other cognates are less secured Baltic Latvian expression plata mate wide mother present in Latvian riddles about natural features and whose answer is zeme earth 281 282 Italic Venetic pletuvei attested in a funerary monument 283 and Pultovia 284 285 Vestinian Peltuinum 286 285 Umbrian Pletinas an epithet assigned to Italic goddess Cupra 286 287 Celtic Celtiberian letontu Letondonis attested as a personal name 288 leitasama superlative form of adjective attested on a coin 289 290 Gallaecian Bletisam a modern Ledesma Salamanca 291 attested in a rock carving inscribed in a tombstone Hispano Celtic the toponym Ledana es in Cuenca Spain thought to derive from p litanya 292 Gaulish Litana 293 toponym describing a vast forest 294 located in North Italy which according to historiographer Titus Livius was named Litania by the Gauls the site of the historical Battle of Silva Litana Gallo Roman Litanobriga 295 296 a Celtic settlement of unknown location Parallels editAlthough not considered a cognate to either Dʰeǵʰōm or Pl th ewih deity Spenta Armaiti of Zoroastrism religion is associated with the earth 297 298 with fertility 299 and farmers ap aq as well as the dead 302 A counterpart exists in pre Christian Armenian mythology named Spandaramet or Sandaramet whose role is connected to earth and the underworld 303 Namely she was the Armenian earth goddess of vineyards 304 but also ruled over those that are asleep i e the dead 305 She is considered to have been developed from her Zoroastrian counterpart Spenta Armaiti a female being in that tradition Spandaremet was transformed into a male god of the Underworld in later Armenian tradition 306 and under Christian influence lent her name to an underworld realm where evil spirits are said to dwell 304 307 Both deities are seen in their respective religions as the wife or companion of a sky god Ahura Mazda 308 309 310 ar or Aramazd He in turn is said to be the deity of rains in some accounts 312 See also editEarth goddessFootnotes edit Professor Malgorzata Oleszkiewicz Peralba states the character of Mother Moist Earth was worshipped by the Eastern Slavs while a deity called Holy Earth was venerated by the Western Slavs 12 According to Lithuanian myths the god Perkunas is the brilliant son of Zemyna Mother Earth Zeme in Lithuanian is Earth She is the beginning of all waters come from her depths plants are rooted in her animals have their existence their lives and their support from her men too call her their mother Whoever hits earth with a stick hits his own mother 16 In Ancient Russia as V L Komarovic has convincingly demonstrated the cult of the Earth Mother Earth was very narrowly linked to the cult of the ancestors of the clan rod The earth was the mother of the family and of the clan She was seen as a motherly body that brings forth and nurtures children Sometimes she is described as a person stones were her body roots her bones trees and grass her hair Both for the Slavs and for the Varangians she was the source of fertility and prosperity and of political authority 17 Mother Earth was also the maternal breast and womb the black and fruitful soil As such she was thought to carry the family the village and the nation which she nurtured and protected and ruled like a mother Mother Earth wrote Fedotov becomes clearer to us against the background of the gens religion Through her the individual and the tribal ancestors were united and made whole she conferred identity upon each person The sacred motherhood of the earth is intimately akin to the worship of the parents She was also the genetrix of the family and the clan 18 According to Gritsay Russian scholars E V Antonova and O G Radchenko mention that the sky is associated with a paternal figure and the elements of light and fire e g epithet svet batyushka luminous father in contrast with a Mother type character associated with water moisture and earth and also called temnaya and chernaya dark black 43 On that note the epithet ὀmbroxarhs delighting in rain a Hapax legomenon is attached to the Earth in an Orphic hymn 61 Some remnants of fertilizing rites still point in the direction that there might have been a marriage between earth and heaven in the primitive mythology of Eastern Slavs 74 In folk cosmogonic myths the male sky fertilises the earth SSSL 1 2 17 56 the act being described as the sacred union hierogamy between the Sky God and the Earth Mother Eliade 1961 after Cummings n d Echoes of the hierogamy can be found in a Polish folk riddle Father shoots but doesn t kill mother eats though it has no mouth which stands for the heaven rain earth complex In peasant poems heaven embraces the earth with love at the crossroads where Christ dies heaven embraces the earth and presents the Mother of Bread with a herb and wheat wreath 77 The worship of Saint George with the coming of springtime also occurs in South Slavic tradition 82 83 Zemyna otherwise Zemlja or Perkunatele is the earth goddess and psychopomp of the dead 105 Best exemplified by mythologist Lotte Motz The chthonic goddess zemes mate Mother Earth receives the dead within her realm In dainas addressed to her she provides the eternal resting place Rock me mother hold me mother Short is the time spent at your breast Mother Earth will hold me longer beneath her turf a welcome guest J1209 107 She also stated that In Latvian society Mother Earth zemes mate is chiefly the resting place of the departed 108 In the next quatrain folksong it concerns about death the sleeping slumbering in the grave The Mother Earth is the goddess from whom are coming all living beings and to whom after death they go back 25 Ar Dievinu mamulite Labvakar zemes mate Labvakar zemes mate Vai bus laba dusesanal Good bye Mother Good evening Mother Earth Good evening Mother Earth Shall I slumber well 109 Ar Dievinu tevs mamina Labvakaru Zemes mate x2 Glaba manu auguminu Farewell father and mother Good evening Earth mother x2 Take my body in your keeping 110 111 Archeological findings witness that the most ancient phase of Lithuanian culture was definitely Zemyna s culture The distinguishing factor in these findings was the burial rites In the oldest cultural phase the dead were buried given back to Zemyna Mother Earth 113 Researcher Nijole Laurinkiene at the end of her book on Zemyna writes thus Zemyna was also imagined as the giver and supporter of human life because like flora and fauna humanity is a part of nature The newborn would immediately be laid down on Mother Earth as if she were its biological mother so that she could accept and embrace the infant as her own earthly creation and give it vegetative power and vitality on a cosmic plane 114 Zeme motina mano as is taves esu tu mane seri tu mane nesioji tu mane po smercio pakavosi Earth my mother I am from you you feed me you support me you embrace me after death 115 For instance the Russian peasant envisioned the underworld of the ancestors as a house heated against the dampness of Mother Moist Earth by a pech pecʹ stove 18 Among the peasantry in Vladimir Province as in other places it was customary for the dying to ask earth permission to reenter her body with the ritual invocation Mother Moist Earth forgive me and take me 123 The peasant child who died left its natal mother and went back to mother earth That Russians did and still do personify the earth as a mother is well known The peasant topos mother moist earth mat syra zemlia refers to the mother specifically as a place one goes after dying or in order to die as opposed to a fertile place which gives birth to a harvest for which there are other topoi Ransel speaks of peasant beliefs about the earth pulling the child back to itself inviting death To resist death too much is to resist mother moist earth 124 According to a Polish legend God ordered the Earth You will give birth to people and you will devour them whatever you give birth to you will eat as it is yours Szyjewski 211 130 125 Mother Earth stands at the core of the Eastern Slavic religiosity In her converge the most secret and profound religious feelings With awe the people venerate the black moist depths the womb which is the source of all fertilized powers the nourishing breast of nature the definitive resting place of all in death Mother Earth is covered by a veil of grass flowers forests trees vegetables and grain Thus both beauty and fertility are her choice virtues and powers As a mother who nourishes living human beings the earth is the embodiment of kindness and mercy she also embraces them for rest after death 126 Symbolically funeral rites provide the belief that the deceased will return to mother earth to live a new life in a new abode the coffin and grave According to Russian folk belief the deceased no longer lives in its former home but continues a liminal existence in a new dwelling place that is the coffin which in some parts of Russia even had windows Vostochnoslavianskaia 348 In this context the motif of life in the funeral lament is similar to the archetypal figure of the Moist Mother Earth Mati syra zemlia in its representation of rebirth In these laments the deceased is portrayed as being returned to the Moist Mother Earth but before settling in her permanent nest it is carried into its new room the coffin S popom otcom duhovnyim Da s petem bozhim cerkovnyim Kak shoronim tebya belaya lebedushka Vo matushku syru zemlyu I vo buevu holodnuyu mogilushku V vekovechnu beskonechnu tebya zhirushku Zakroem tebya matushkoj syroj zemlej Zamuravim tebya travonkoj shelkovoyu Chistov 237 With a priest with a spiritual father And with the swimming of God s Church How will we bury you little white swan In the Damp Mother Earth In the cold little grave In the eternal heavenly home We will cover you with the Damp Mother Earth We will cover you with silk grass Funeral rituals thus reinforced the link between the living and the departed while allowing the deceased to rest permanently in its new domicile the cosmic womb that is the Moist Mother Earth 127 East Slavic paganism was the product of a landlocked agricultural empire Gods of sun moon stars and wind did exist but prayers were directed down to the life giving black soil rather than up to celestial deities Bodies did not rise after death but were reabsorbed into the womb of Mat syra zemlya Moist Mother Earth 128 For example The maiden fair is dead Split open damp Mother Earth Fly asunder ye coffin planks 135 A young sergeant prayed to God Weeping the while as a river flows For the recent death of the Emperor The Emperor Peter the First And thus amid his sobs he spake Split asunder O damp mother Earth On all four sides Open ye coffin planks 136 All on my father s grave A star has fallen has fallen from heaven Split open O dart of the thunder The moist mother Earth 137 I will take my dear children and see Whether moist Mother Earth will not split open If moist Mother Earth splits open Straightway will I and my children bury ourselves in it Split open moist Mother Earth And be thou open O new coffin planks a widow s lament 138 Arise O ye wild winds from all sides Be ye borne O winds into the Church of God Sweep open the moist earth Strike O wild winds on the great bell Will not its sounds and mine awaken words of kindness an orphan s lament 138 The expression is also mentioned in a saying from Olonets the master of the house invites his ghostly visitor to warm itself by the fire of the pech since it must have been cold for him staying in the moist earth 139 In an adjuration by a Raskol the supplicant invokes her to forgive them Forgive me O Lord forgive me O holy Mother of God forgive O damp mother earth 140 In a funeral lament collected in the Olonets region by scholar Barsov the mourner cries for a man struck by lightning sent by thunderous Saint Ilya when said man was supposed to perform his Christian duties They lit candles of bright wax They prayed to God diligently They bowed low to moist mother earth The sinful soul departed without repentance His body will not be committed to moist mother earth 141 Were you not afraid had you no fear of entering mother moist earth For it is cold there and there is hunger there 142 Professors Elizabeth Warner and Svetlana Adonyeva published in 2021 a book with the results of a joint research on funeral laments in modern Russian rural places Their findings show that the laments still contained the poetical expression For instance Well I know myself little orphan girl Where you are going all dressed up You are on your way into mother moist earth Break asunder mother moist earth Stand up my darling child Hear me your grieving mother 143 Sometimes Zam is paired with other Zoroastrian deity Armaiti another being associated with the Earth 168 thus forming a compound Zam Armaiti or Zam Armatay 169 The word siera means the color gray in Lithuanian and scholarship suggests it is phonetically not semantically close to Russian syra wet moist However it is also acknowledged that the expression gray earth may still indicate the fertility of the land by referring to a combination of the elements of earth and water humidity Works that contain this expression have been collected from eastern and southern Lithuania 178 On the other hand historian Rainer Eckert claimed the word siera damp is a borrowing from East Slavic syra 179 A common epithet that accompanies earth in Slavic languages is syra moist damp Claire Le Feuvre suggests that the word is etymologically related to Old Icelandic saurr and Greek language euroeis used to describe the Underworld and the burial place of mortals and all three words derive from a Proto Indo European poetical expression that means damp earth 181 Invoked as the celebrant s mother Syraja zemlja ty z maty moja Moist Earth you are my mother 185 The original text is thus Sira zemlya to zh mati moya To zh to mati moya mene prijnyala 186 Professor Malgorzata Oleszkiewicz Peralba stated that Polish and Russian languages refer to the earth and the rivers with this feminine epithet little mother 188 According to Russian scholarship Bulgarian folkloric tradition uses the adjective sura syra as a permanent epithet of zemya earth 190 The idiom is drunken as mother Earth speculated to be of Proto Slavic origin and presumed to relate to Earth as a passive element that receives the frutifying rains of Heaven 197 As an aside Serbian philogist Aleksandar Loma once suggested that the Slavic name for the Verbascum divizna cs is a dvandva compound of div sky and zma gt zna earth harking back to the sacred mythological Sky Earth pair 211 Another possibility is that Khamyne was herself in fact a separate deity who was syncrethized with Demeter in later times Her temple was discovered in 2006 150 metres away from the main stadium 212 Etymological connections of Thraco Phrygian Semele with Zemele and Zemyna have been noted 261 Thus according to Borissoff she could be an important link bridging the ancient Thracian and Slavonic cults 249 Ivan Duridanov pointed out that the Phrygian word zemelō also meant Mother Earth 262 The epithet also appears associated with minor deity Iacchus as in the expression Semeleios Iakchus plutodotas Son of Semele Iakchus wealth giver 269 Another Germanic reflex of fold is present in compound Feldgeister spirits of the fields creatures of Germanic folklore She is the Old Iranian goddess of cultivated land vegetation and fertility having a link with the rite of inhumation and to whom the material earth belongs 300 In the realm of the material world Spenta Armaiti is the guardian spirit of the earth Vendidad 3 35 the symbol of bountifulness as well as the protector of herdsmen and farmers Frequently however she is spoken of as the earth itself rather than as the genius of the earth Yasna 16 10 Yasht 24 50 Vendidad 2 10 2 14 2 18 18 51 18 64 in the physical realm she represents and later becomes the earth 301 In Ahura Mazda s case he is described as creator or father of Armaiti 311 References edit a b c Mallory amp Adams 2006 p 99 a b c de Vaan 2008 p 292 a b c d Jackson 2002 p 80 81 a b c d e f West 2007 p 174 175 178 179 a b c d e f g h Mallory amp Adams 1997 p 174 West 2007 pp 135 136 138 139 a b c d e f g Garcia Ramon 2017 pp 5 6 a b Delamarre 2003 p 204 205 a b c d Kroonen 2013 p 159 a b c d West 2007 pp 177 178 a b c d West 2007 pp 178 179 Oleszkiewicz Peralba Malgorzata The Black Madonna in Latin America and Europe Tradition and Transformation Albuquerque The University of New Mexico Press 2007 p 27 ISBN 978 0 8263 4102 0 a b c West 2007 p 176 a b c d West 2007 p 180 181 Dixon Kennedy Mike Encyclopedia of Russian and Slavic myth and legend ABC CLIO 1998 p 320 ISBN 978 1 57607 130 4 Vycinas Vincent Search for Gods Springer Dordrecht 1972 p 48 ISBN 978 94 010 2816 5 Vereecken Jeannine Jaroslavna Voice of the Russian Earth A Contribution to the Interpretation of the Igor Tale In Russian Literature Volume 66 Issue 4 15 November 2009 p 490 DOI https doi org 10 1016 j ruslit 2009 11 007 a b Hubbs Joanna Mother Russia The Feminine Myth in Russian Culture Bloomington and Indianapolis Indiana University Press 1993 p 55 ISBN 978 0 253 11578 2 Matossian Mary Kilbourne In the Beginning God Was a Woman In Journal of Social History 6 no 3 1973 334 335 Accessed April 11 2021 http www jstor org stable 3786544 Ingerflom Claudio Sergio Kondratieva Tamara Bez carja zemlja vdova Syncretisme dans le Vremennik d Ivan Timofeev In Cahiers du monde russe et sovietique vol 34 n 1 2 Janvier Juin 1993 Noblesse Etat et societe en Russie XVIe debut du XIXe siecle pp 262 DOI https doi org 10 3406 cmr 1993 2352 www persee fr doc cmr 0008 0160 1993 num 34 1 2352 Aeschylus 1926 Herbert W Smyth transl Prometheus Bound 88 Harvard University Press Aeschylus 1926 Herbert W Smyth transl The Libation Bearers 45 Harvard University Press Macedo Jose Marcos Kolligan Daniel Barbieri Pedro Polywnymoi A Lexicon of the Divine Epithets in the Orphic Hymns Wurzburg University Press 2021 p 127 ISBN 9783958261556 Hymns of the Samaveda sacred texts com Atharva Veda Book 12 Hymn 1 A hymn of prayer and praise to Prithivi or deified Earth sacred texts com Soiver Deborah A State University of New York Press Nov 1991 ISBN 978 0 7914 0799 8 p 51 The Myths of Narasimha and Vamana Two Avatars in Cosmological Perspective Gonda J 1968 The Hindu Trinity Anthropos 63 64 1 2 212 226 JSTOR 40457085 Stutley Margaret Stutley James 1977 A Dictionary of Hinduism London Routledge pp 46 and 84 85 ISBN 978 0 429 62754 5 OL 35543927M Crooke W 1919 The Cults of the Mother Goddesses in India Folklore 30 4 282 308 doi 10 1080 0015587X 1919 9719110 ISSN 0015 587X JSTOR 1255109 Patil Sharad 1974 Earth Mother Social Scientist 2 9 31 58 doi 10 2307 3516111 ISSN 0970 0293 JSTOR 3516111 Kramrisch Stella 1975 The Indian Great Goddess History of Religions 14 4 235 265 doi 10 1086 462728 ISSN 0018 2710 JSTOR 1062045 S2CID 162164934 West 2007 p 177 Poghirc 1987 p 178 Pipa 1993 p 253 Tirta 2004 pp 189 190 a b Puhvel 2004 pp 194 196 Calin 2017 p 75 West 2007 p 180 usaityte Jurgita Zemes epitetas tradicijos kaita The Epithet of the Earth The Change of Tradition In Tautosakos darbai Folklore Studies 2000 19 pp 58 59 61 ISSN 1392 2831 Ransome Arthur Old Peter s Russian Tales London and Edinburgh T C amp E C Jack Ltd 1916 pp 32 36 DYaBEVYa MYaRIYaND EV EPITETI v BLGYaRSKYaTYa NDRODNYa PSEN SOFIYa Pechatnica Kultura 1939 pp 124 203 270 Dukova Ute 1994 Der leuchtende Himmel und die dunkle Erde Erganzungen zur Etymologie eines indoeuropaischen Mythologems The Shining Sky and the Dark Earth Additions to the Etymology of Indo European mythologems ORPHEUS Journal of Indo European and Thracian Studies in German 4 9 GAEA Page 3 Greek Mythology a b c d e f West 2007 p 174 175 a b Gricaj L A Sopostavlenie mifologem mat i otec v russkoj i karelskoj folklornoj tradicii Comparison of the mythological archetypes mother and father in the Russian and the Karelian folk traditions Nauchno obrazovatelnoe elektronnoe periodicheskoe izdanie Grani poznaniya 2013 6 26 p 119 Mallory amp Adams 2006 p 432 a b c d e f West 2007 p 182 183 West 2007 p 191 Jackson 2002 pp 67 79 Singer Itamar Hittite Prayers Leiden Brill 2002 p 82 ISBN 90 04 12695 3 Green Alberto Ravinell Whitney The Storm god in the Ancient Near East Published for Biblical and Judaic Studies The University of California San Diego Winona Lake Indiana Eisenbraus 2003 pp 144 152 ISBN 1 57506 069 8 O Heaven our father Earth our guileless mother the Rigveda 6 51 5 trans West 2007 Samaveda Book IV Chapter I Decade IV Samaveda Book VII Chapter III Hymn XIV a b Kinsley David R Goddess in Vedic Literature In Hindu Goddesses Visions of the Divine Feminine in the Hindu Religious Tradition University of California Press 1986 p 8 Accessed May 10 2021 http www jstor org stable 10 1525 j ctt1pp3m5 5 MacDonell Arthur Anthony 1995 Vedic Mythology Arthur Anthony Macdonell Google Ksiazki Motilal Banarsidass Publ ISBN 9788120811133 Gonda Jan 1969 Aspects of Early Viṣṇuism Jan Gonda Google Ksiazki Motilal Banarsidass Publ ISBN 9788120810877 Kinsley David R Goddess in Vedic Literature In Hindu Goddesses Visions of the Divine Feminine in the Hindu Religious Tradition University of California Press 1986 p 9 Accessed May 10 2021 http www jstor org stable 10 1525 j ctt1pp3m5 5 Palaima Thomas G Anthology of Classical Myth Primary Sources in Translation Indianapolis Hackett Publishing Company Inc 2004 p 209 ISBN 0 87220 722 6 Benko Stephen The Virgin Goddess Studies in the Pagan and Christian Roots of Mariology Leiden Brill p 90 ISBN 90 04 13639 8 Numerous tablets contain this essential formula with minor variations for the Greek texts and translations see Fritz Graf and Sarah Iles Johnston Ritual Texts for the Afterlife Orpheus and the Bacchic Gold Tablets Routledge 2007 pp 4 5 Hipponion 400 BC 6 7 Petelia 4th century BC pp 16 17 Entella possibly 3rd century BC pp 20 25 five tablets from Eleutherna Crete 2nd or 1st century BC pp 26 27 Mylopotamos 2nd century BC pp 28 29 Rethymnon 2nd or 1st century BC pp 34 35 Pharsalos Thessaly 350 300 BC and pp 40 41 Thessaly mid 4th century BC Pausanias Description of Greece 1 24 3 ff Macedo Jose Marcos Kolligan Daniel Barbieri Pedro Polywnymoi A Lexicon of the Divine Epithets in the Orphic Hymns Wurzburg University Press 2021 p 135 ISBN 9783958261556 Loma Aleksandar Dalje od reci Rekonstrukcija prajezickih leksemskih spojeva kao perspektiva slovenske i indoevropske etimologije I O slovenskom i dackom nazivu biljke Verbascum II Neki refleksi ie korena dereu u slovenskim jezicima In Јuzhnoslovenski filolog 51 Beograd 1995 p 33 Zusammenfassung Die Rekonstruktion ursprachlicher Fugungen als Perspektive der slavischen und indogermanischen Etymologie Larson Jennifer Lynn Greek Heroine Cults The University of Wisconsin Press 1995 p 78 ISBN 0 299 14370 8 a b Jones Prudence Pennick Nigel 1995 A History of Pagan Europe Routledge p 17 ISBN 978 1 136 14172 0 Zolotnikova Olga A The sanctuary of Zeus in Dodona Evolution of the religious concept In Journal Of Hellenic Religion 2019 Vol 12 pp 89 90 ISSN 1748 782X Aphrodite A Avagianou Physiology and Mysticism at Pherai The Funerary Epigram for Lykophron In Kernos Online 15 2002 p 75 Online since 21 April 2011 connection on 20 April 2019 URL http journals openedition org kernos 1368 DOI 10 4000 kernos 1368 Marmoz Julien La Cosmogonie de Pherecyde de Syros In Nouvelle Mythologie Comparee n 5 2019 2020 p 12 Marmoz Julien La Cosmogonie de Pherecyde de Syros In Nouvelle Mythologie Comparee n 5 2019 2020 pp 5 41 Trevizam Matheus 2009 Religiao Romana Nos Livros Iniciais Do De Re Rustica Varroniano In Nuntius Antiquus 4 dezembro 58 59 doi 10 17851 1983 3636 4 Fee Christopher R Gods Heroes amp Kings The Battle for Mythic Britain Oxford University Press 2001 pp 77 78 ISBN 0 19 513479 6 The Viking Age A Reader Second Edition Edited by Angus A Somerville and R Andrew McDonald University of Toronto Press 2014 p 45 ISBN 978 1 4426 0867 2 Marjanic Suzana 2003 The Dyadic Goddess and Duotheism in Nodilo s The Ancient Faith of the Serbs and the Croats Dijadna Boginja I Duoteizam U Nodilovoj Staroj Vjeri Srba I Hrvata In Studia Mythologica Slavica 6 May Ljubljana Slovenija pp 189 190 doi 10 3986 sms v6i0 1783 Eckert Rainer 1999 Eine Slawische Une Baltische Erdgottheit Studia Mythologica Slavica 2 May 1999 Ljubljana Slovenija p 208 doi 10 3986 sms v2i0 1850 Bilaniuk Petro B T The Ultimate Reality and Meaning in the Pre Christian Religion of the Eastern Slavs In Ultimate Reality and Meaning Volume 11 Issue 4 December 1988 p 260 DOI https doi org 10 3138 uram 11 4 247 Ivanova Liliya Porivnyalna harakteristika frazeologizmiv iz znachennyam p yanij p yanstvo napitisya v ukrayinskij i serbskij movah In Ukrayinsko serbskij zbirnik Ukras vipusk 1 6 Kiyiv Tempora 2012 p 126 Maslowska Ewa Mediating the Otherworld in Polish Folklore A Cognitive Linguistic Perspective Bern Peter Lang 2020 p 149 ISBN 9783631796849 Niebrzegowska Bartminska Stanislawa Symbolism of fertility in Polish folklore In Ethnolinguistic 28 Lublin 2017 p 207 Translated by Agnieszka Mierzwinska Hajnos DOI 10 17951 et 2016 28 207 Toporkov Andrei 2018 Wondrous Dressing with Celestial Bodies in Russian Charms and Lyrical Poetry PDF In Folklore Electronic Journal of Folklore 71 208 209 doi 10 7592 FEJF2018 71 toporkov ISSN 1406 0949 Archived PDF from the original on April 20 2021 Polyakova Natalya V 2011 Verbalizaciya koncepta Zemlya v selkupskom i russkom yazykah Verbalization of the Concept Earth in the Selkup and Russian languages In Vestnik Tomskogo gosudarstvennogo pedagogicheskogo universiteta 9 135 URL https cyberleninka ru article n verbalizatsiya kontsepta zemlya v selkupskom i russkom yazykah data obrasheniya 21 04 2021 Cepiene Irena 2014 Kai kurie mitines pasaulekuros aspektai lietuviu tradicineje kulturoje Certain aspects of mythical world building in Lithuanian traditional culture Geografija ir edukacija Geography and education 2 56 65 ISSN 2351 6453 Laurinkiene Nijole 2015 Koncepcija Sezonnogo Otmykanija I Zamykanija Zemli V Baltijskoj tradicii The Concept of Earth s Opening in Spring and Closing in Autumn In Studia Mythologica Slavica 18 July Ljubljana Slovenija 51 60 doi 10 3986 sms v18i0 2830 Lulic Storic Jasenka Magija u seoskoj tradicijskoj kulturi Bukovice Magic in Rural Folk Culture of Bukovica In Ethnologica Dalmatica br 9 2000 67 https hrcak srce hr 108487 Hiiemae Mall Some Possible Origins of St George s Day Customs and Beliefs In Folklore Vol 1 June 1996 published by the Institute of Estonian Languages Tartu West 2007 p 180 181 191 Fortson 2004 p 22 24 West 2007 p 491 Mallory amp Adams 2006 p 120 Wodtko Irslinger amp Schneider 2008 pp 86 88 a b c d e Chantraine Pierre 1968 Dictionnaire etymologique de la langue grecque Klincksieck pp 1258 1259 ISBN 978 2 252 03681 5 Lubotsky Alexander New Phrygian Metrics and the dews zemelws Formula Mir curad Studies in Honor of Calvert Watkins eds Jasanoff Jay Melchert H Craig Oliver Lisi Innsbruck Institut fur Sprachwissenschaft 1998 pp 413 421 Meillet Antoine 1982 Le nom de l homme in Linguistique historique et linguistique generale Champion pp 272 280 a b Tirta 2004 pp 230 231 Tirta 2004 pp 220 221 Harrison Jane Ellen Myths of Greece and Rome 1928 p 65 Harrison Jane Ellen Myths of Greece and Rome 1928 pp 63 64 Fairbanks Arthur The Chthonic Gods of Greek Religion In The American Journal of Philology 21 no 3 1900 247 248 doi 10 2307 287716 Johnston Sarah Iles Demeter in Hermione Sacrifice and Ritual Polyvalence In Arethusa 45 no 2 2012 211 42 http www jstor org stable 26322731 Rigoglioso Marguerite Virgin Mother Goddesses of Antiquity Palgrave Macmillan 2010 p 104 ISBN 978 0 230 11312 1 https doi org 10 1057 9780230113121 Gimbutas Marija Miriam Robbins Dexter 1999 The Living Goddesses University of California Press p 160 ISBN 0 520 22915 0 XXVII For instance about Demeter and Cora they are right in their names but wrong in supposing that they both belong to the same region for the latter is on earth and has power over earthly things XXVIII When these three principles union of mind soul and body have been compacted the earth contributes body to the birth of man the moon soul the sun reason The death which we die is of Sylla two kinds the one takes place in the earth which is the realm of Demeter and is initiation unto her Demeter parts soul from body quickly and with force In Plutarch Prickard Arthur Octavius Plutarch on the face which appears on the orb of the Moon Translation and notes with appendix Winchester Warren and Son London Simpkin 1911 pp 44 45 PerseusCatalog Let the corpses now be covered with the earth From which each of them came forth to the light Only to go back thither And body to the earth In Lincoln Bruce Myth Cosmos and Society Indo European Themes of Creation and Destruction Cambridge MA and London England Harvard University Press 2013 p 120 https doi org 10 4159 harvard 9780674864290 Aphrodite A Avagianou Physiology and Mysticism at Pherai The Funerary Epigram for Lykophron In Kernos Online 15 2002 p 75 86 88 Online since 21 April 2011 connection on 20 April 2019 URL http journals openedition org kernos 1368 DOI 10 4000 kernos 1368 Laurinkiene Nijole Pozemio ir mirusiuju karalystes deive Goddesses of the Kingdom of the Dead and the Underworld In Metai n 1 2010 pp 116 127 Jones Prudence Pennick Nigel 1995 A History of Pagan Europe Routledge p 175 ISBN 978 1 136 14172 0 Kokare Elza A survey of the basic structures in Latvian mythology In Journal of the Baltic Institute of Folklore Tallinn 1996 Nr 1 pp 65 91 Mottz Lotte The Faces of the Goddess New York amp Oxford Oxford University Press 1997 pp 72 73 ISBN 0 19 508967 7 Mottz Lotte The Faces of the Goddess New York amp Oxford Oxford University Press 1997 p 83 ISBN 0 19 508967 7 Eckert Rainer A Tendency of Nominalization in the Language of Latvian Folksong In Zeitschrift fur Slawistik 45 no 3 2000 324 https doi org 10 1524 slaw 2000 45 3 318 VikE FREIBERGA Vaira 1980 Dzejiska iztele latvju dainas The poetic imagination of the Latvian dainas In Jauna Gaita Hamilton Ont 25 Nr 127 7 11 Nr 128 continued 15 18 Vikis Freibergs Vaira The Poetic Imagination of the Latvian dainas In Mosaic A Journal for the Interdisciplinary Study of Literature 6 no 4 1973 209 21 Accessed May 4 2021 http www jstor org stable 24776924 usaityte Jurgita Motina Zeme Moteriskumo reprezentacija Mother Earth representation of femininity In Tautosakos darbai Folklore Studies 2002 23 p 148 ISSN 1392 2831 1 Vycinas Vincent Search for Gods Springer Dordrecht 1972 p 32 ISBN 978 94 010 2816 5 Laurinkiene Nijole Zemyna ir jos mitinis pasaulis Zemyna and her mythical world Vilnius Lietuviu literaturos ir tautosakos institutas 2013 p 494 ISBN 9786094251092 Jonas Balys apud Vaitkeviciene Daiva Ugnies metaforos Lietuviu ir latviu mitologijos studija Vilnius Lietuviu literaturos ir tautosakos institutas 2001 p 67 ISBN 9955 475 13 7 Zickiene Ausra Veliuonos raudos XIX ir XX amziuje Lamentations from Veliuona district recorded in the 19th and 20th centuries In Tautosakos darbai Folklore Studies 25 2003 pp 33 35 ISSN 1392 2831 Cerniauskaite Dalia Metaforinis mirties temos kodavimas lietuviu laidotuviu raudose Metaphor Encoding of Death Theme in the Lithuanian Funeral Laments In Filologija Nr 11 2006 pp 20 ISSN 1392 561X Vaitkeviciene Astramskaite Daiva Vestimentarinis kodas lietuviu mitologijoje linai ir lemimai In Baltos lankos 1993 t 3 p 127 Laurinkiene Nijole Zeme motina In Zmogus ir jo gyvenamoji aplinka konferencijos medziaga Vilnius Lietuvos liaudies kulturos centras 2007 pp 69 70 Ivanauskaite Vita Mirtis ir laidotuves velyvosiose karinese istorinese dainose folkloriniai naujos istorines patirties atspindziai Death and funerals in late Lithuanian military historic songs folklore reflections of new historical experience In Tautosakos darbai Folklore Studies 32 2006 p 169 ISSN 1392 2831 GAZSNA KRIVICKIENfE Santykiavimas su mirusiais musu tautosakoje Draugas Publication date October 27 1979 Retrieved April 23 2021 Vasilchuk A A SLAVYaNSKIYa NARODNYYa UYaЎLENNI PRA ZYaMLYu Slavic folk beliefs about the Earth In MOVA LITARATURA KULTURA Materyyaly VI Mizhnarodnaj navukovaj kanferencyi g Minsk 28 29 kastrychnika 2010 goda LANGUAGE LITERATURE CULTURE Proceedings of the VI International Scientific Conference in Minsk October 28 29 2010 Minsk BDU 2011 pp 52 53 Hubbs Joanna Mother Russia The Feminine Myth in Russian Culture Bloomington and Indianapolis Indiana University Press 1993 p 60 ISBN 978 0 253 11578 2 Rancour Laferriere Daniel The Slave Soul of Russia Moral Masochism and the Cult of Suffering New York and London New York University Press 1995 pp 74 75 ISBN 0 8147 7458 X Oleszkiewicz Peralba Malgorzata Fierce Feminine Divinities of Eurasia and Latin America Baba Yaga Kali Pombagira and Santa Muerte Palgrave MacMillan 2015 p 19 ISBN 978 1 137 53500 9 Bilaniuk Petro B T The Ultimate Reality and Meaning in the Pre Christian Religion of the Eastern Slavs In Ultimate Reality and Meaning Volume 11 Issue 4 December 1988 pp 259 260 DOI https doi org 10 3138 uram 11 4 247 Sang Hyun Kim Prichitaniia and Rituals as Symbolic Representations of Russian Peasants Collective Memory A Comparative Study of Wedding and Funeral Ceremonies In Studies in Slavic Culture issue V May 2006 pp 46 48 52 53 footnote nr 29 Emerson Caryl The Cambridge Introduction to Russian Literature Cambridge University Press 2008 p 61 ISBN 978 0 511 41376 6 Engelking Anna The Curse On Folk Magic of the Word Translated by Anna Gutowska Monographs Warsaw Institute of Slavic Studies Polish Academy of Sciences 2017 2000 pp 152 217 251 ISBN 978 83 64031 63 2 Engelking Anna The Curse On Folk Magic of the Word Translated by Anna Gutowska Monographs Warsaw Institute of Slavic Studies Polish Academy of Sciences 2017 2000 p 355 footnote nr 65 ISBN 978 83 64031 63 2 Maslowska Ewa Mediating the Otherworld in Polish Folklore A Cognitive Linguistic Perspective Bern Peter Lang 2020 p 165 ISBN 9783631796849 Nevskaja Lidija Toucas Bouteau Michele traduceur Les lamentations balto slaves semantique et structure In Cahiers slaves n 3 2001 La mort et ses representations Monde slave et Europe du Nord pp 201 202 DOI https doi org 10 3406 casla 2001 904 www persee fr doc casla 1283 3878 2001 num 3 1 904 Adon eva S B Kabakova Galina traducteur Lamentation dans le Nord de la Russie texte et rituel In Cahiers slaves n 6 2002 Les etudes regionales en Russie 1890 1990 Origines crise renaissance pp 434 DOI https doi org 10 3406 casla 2002 962 www persee fr doc casla 1283 3878 2002 num 6 1 962 Labriolle Francois de Seriot Patrick Lise Gruel Apert La tradition orale russe compte rendu In Revue des etudes slaves tome 68 fascicule 1 1996 p 138 www persee fr doc slave 0080 2557 1996 num 68 1 6318 t1 0137 0000 1 Ralston William Ralston Shedden The songs of the Russian people as illustrative of Slavonic mythology and Russian social life London Ellis amp Green 1872 p 27 Ralston William Ralston Shedden The songs of the Russian people as illustrative of Slavonic mythology and Russian social life London Ellis amp Green 1872 pp 53 54 Ralston William Ralston Shedden The songs of the Russian people as illustrative of Slavonic mythology and Russian social life London Ellis amp Green 1872 p 334 a b Ralston William Ralston Shedden The songs of the Russian people as illustrative of Slavonic mythology and Russian social life London Ellis amp Green 1872 p 340 Ralston William Ralston Shedden The songs of the Russian people as illustrative of Slavonic mythology and Russian social life London Ellis amp Green 1872 p 322 Ralston William Ralston Shedden The songs of the Russian people as illustrative of Slavonic mythology and Russian social life London Ellis amp Green 1872 pp 364 365 Warner Elizabeth A Death by Lightning For Sinner or Saint Beliefs from Novosokol niki Region Pskov Province Russia In Folklore 113 no 2 2002 255 256 Accessed April 11 2021 http www jstor org stable 1260679 WARNER ELIZABETH and SVETLANA ADONYEVA Ritual Feeding and the Cult of Ancestors In We Remember We Love We Grieve Mortuary and Memorial Practice in Contemporary Russia Madison Wisconsin University of Wisconsin Press 2021 p 94 Accessed April 27 2021 doi 10 2307 j ctv1g245zd 10 ADONYEVA SVETLANA and ELIZABETH WARNER The Lament A Language for Communicating with the Dead In We Remember We Love We Grieve Mortuary and Memorial Practice in Contemporary Russia Madison Wisconsin University of Wisconsin Press 2021 pp 102 104 105 Accessed April 27 2021 doi 10 2307 j ctv1g245zd 11 Ukrayinska mala enciklopediya A little encyclopedia of Ukraine U 8 t uk Tom 2 Knizhka IV Literi Zh J Buenos Ajres 1959 p 512 Hrynevich Yanina Worldview of Belarusian Folk Song Lyrics In Folklore Electronic Journal of Folklore 72 2018 115 136 Lyashchynskaya V A Kancept zyamlya y frazealagichnaj karcine svetu belarusay permanent dead link In Vesci BDPU Seryya 1 Pedagogika Psihalogiya Filalogiya 2015 1 83 p 38 Lyashchynskaya V A Shvedava Z U Semantychnyya madeli i asnoynyya matyvy belaruskih frazealagizmay pra smerc In Izvestiya Gomelskogo gosudarstvennogo universiteta imeni F Skoriny Ser Gumanitarnye nauki 2013 1 76 pp 24 26 Lyashchynskaya V A Kanceptualizacyya zakanchennya zhyccya chalaveka y belaruskaj frazealogii In Visnik Dnipropetrovskogo universitetu Seriya Movoznavstvo 2013 T 21 vip 19 1 pp 190 200 Rezhim dostupu http nbuv gov ua UJRN vdumo 2013 21 19 1 32 Đapovic Lasta S Zemlja u ritualima i verovanjima Srba Earth in beliefs and rituals of Serbs Beograd Univerzitet u Beogradu Filozofski fakulte 1994 pp 113 115 Doctoral Thesis Mandiћ Mariјa 2021 Crna zemљa u epskoј formuli Black Earth in Epic Formula In Lidija Delic Snezana Samardzija eds Towers and Cities in Serbian Belgrade Serbian Folklore Association Institute for Balkan Studies SASA pp 48 64 68 Should Mother Wet Ground crack Should the coffin cover open Of my father and mother And will they pray for me miserable one A great blessing To go to the far strange lands Avilova Liudmila I and Alexey V Chernetsov Magical Practices in Russia Today An Observer s Report In Russian History 40 no 3 4 2013 566 Accessed April 27 2021 http www jstor org stable 24667227 Griffith Ralph T H The Rig Veda 1896 Whitney William Dwight Oriental and linguistic studies New York Scribner Armstrong and Company 1873 p 54 Brereton Joel P Jamison Stephanie W The Rigveda A Guide Guides to Sacred Texts Oxford University Press 2020 p 110 ISBN 9780190633400 Poor Laura Elizabeth Sanskrit and Its Kindred Literatures Studies in Comparative Mythology Kegan Paul 1881 p 80 Bodewitz Henk Classifications and Yonder World in the Veda In Vedic Cosmology and Ethics Leiden The Netherlands Brill 2019 p 190 footnote nr 60 doi https doi org 10 1163 9789004400139 015 https www sacred texts com hin sbr sbe44 sbe44115 htm Satapatha Brahmana Part V Sacred Books of the East Vol 44 Julius Eggeling translator Oxford the Clarendon Press 1900 p 433 a b Kloekhorst 2008 p 859 Kloekhorst 2008 p 812 a b c Beekes 2009 pp 1632 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Religious Heritage Numen 49 1 61 102 doi 10 1163 15685270252772777 ISSN 0029 5973 JSTOR 3270472 Kloekhorst Alwin 2008 Etymological Dictionary of the Hittite Inherited Lexicon Brill ISBN 9789004160927 Kroonen Guus 2013 Etymological Dictionary of Proto Germanic Brill ISBN 9789004183407 Mallory James P Adams Douglas Q 1997 Encyclopedia of Indo European Culture London Routledge ISBN 978 1 884964 98 5 Mallory James P Adams Douglas Q 2006 The Oxford Introduction to Proto Indo European and the Proto Indo European World Oxford England Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 929668 2 Mann Stuart E 1948 An Historical Albanian English Dictionary Vol II N Z Longmans Green and Co LTD Matasovic Ranko 2009 Etymological Dictionary of Proto Celtic Brill ISBN 978 90 04 17336 1 Orel Vladimir 1998 Albanian etymological dictionary Brill ISBN 978 90 04 11024 3 Pipa Arshi 1993 The Mythology of Albania In Bonnefoy Yves ed American African and Old European mythologies University of Chicago Press ISBN 0 226 06457 3 Poghirc Cicerone 1987 Albanian Religion In Mircea Eliade ed The Encyclopedia of Religion Vol 1 New York MacMillan Publishing Co pp 178 180 Puhvel Jaan 2004 Darkness in Hittite Historische Sprachforschung 117 2 194 196 ISSN 0935 3518 JSTOR 40849222 Sansalvador Ana Vegas 1992 Xamynh ein Beiname der Demeter in Olympia PDF Glotta 70 3 4 166 180 ISSN 0017 1298 JSTOR 40266930 Tirta Mark 2004 Petrit Bezhani ed Mitologjia nder shqiptare in Albanian Tirana Mesonjetorja ISBN 99927 938 9 9 de Vaan Michiel 2008 Etymological Dictionary of Latin and the other Italic Languages Brill Academic Publishers ISBN 978 90 04 16797 1 Ushaku Ruzhdi 1988 Mbi strukturen leksiko semantike dhe etimologjike te tipit te togfjaleshit te shqipes burri i dheut Mundesia per nje rindertim Gjurmime Albanologjike 17 18 Albanological Institute of Prishtina 63 76 West Martin Litchfield 2007 Indo European Poetry and Myth Oxford England Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 928075 9 Wodtko Dagmar S Irslinger Britta Sofie Schneider Carolin 2008 Nomina im Indogermanischen Lexikon in German Universitaetsverlag Winter ISBN 978 3 8253 5359 9 York Michael 1993 Toward a Proto Indo European vocabulary of the sacred WORD 44 2 235 254 doi 10 1080 00437956 1993 11435902 ISSN 0043 7956 Further reading editBodewitz Henk 2019 The Waters in Vedic Cosmic Classifications Vedic Cosmology and Ethics Vol 19 Brill pp 37 45 ISBN 9789004398641 JSTOR 10 1163 j ctvrxk42v 9 Burrow T 1959 On the Phonological History of Sanskrit kṣam Earth ṛ kṣa Bear and likṣa Nit Journal of the American Oriental Society 79 2 85 90 doi 10 2307 595849 JSTOR 595849 Dunduliene Prane 1976 Zeme lietuviu tikejimuose ir liaudies mene In Istorija 16 1 129 153 Hamp Eric P 1990 Albanian dhe earth Historische Sprachforschung 103 2 289 292 JSTOR 40848998 Hamp Eric P On the Paradigm of OIr du In Zeitschrift fur celtische Philologie 44 no 1 1991 76 78 On the Paradigm of OIr du Kretschmer Paul 1931 X8wn Glotta 20 1 2 65 67 JSTOR 40265301 Meier Brugger Michael 1977 Lateinisch humi und domi Zeitschrift fur Vergleichende Sprachforschung 91 1 159 165 JSTOR 40848521 Oettinger Norbert Die dunkle Erde Im Hethitischen Und Griechischen Alfred Heubeck Zum Gedachtnis 20 7 1914 24 5 1987 In Die Welt Des Orients 20 21 1989 83 98 Accessed April 27 2021 Die dunkle Erde im Hethitischen und Griechischen Alfred Heubeck zum Gedachtnis 20 7 1914 24 5 1987 Rico Christophe L equivalence x8wn sk ksam Nouvelle approche d un vieux debat In Indogermanische Forschungen 109 issue 2004 2004 61 111 L equivalence x8wn sk kṣsam Nouvelle approche d un vieux debat Steer Thomas Uridg dh e ǵhōm Erde und ǵʰ e i ōm Winter In Indogermanische Forschungen 118 no 2013 2013 55 92 Uridg dh e ǵhōm Erde und ǵʰ e i ōm Winter Eine kurze Revision der Stammbildung Toporov Vladimir N K rekonstrukcii balto slavyanskogo mifologicheskogo obraza Zemli Materi Zemi a amp Mate Mati Towards a reconstruction of the Balto Slavic mythological image of Earth Mother Zemia amp Mate Mati In Balto slavyanskie issledovaniya 1998 1999 HIV Moskva 2010 2000 pp 241 371 ISBN 978 5 9551 0388 4 Willi Andreas 2007 Demeter Ge and the Indo European word s for earth Historische Sprachforschung 120 169 194 doi 10 13109 hisp 2007 120 1 169 ISSN 0935 3518 JSTOR 40849297 Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Dʰeǵʰōm amp oldid 1219803515, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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