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Agni

March 31, 2023

This article is about fire and the fire god in Indian religions. For other uses, see Agni (disambiguation).

Agni (Sanskrit: अग्नि, romanized: Agni, Sanskrit pronunciation: [ˈɐgnɪ]) is a Sanskrit word meaning fire and connotes the Vedic fire deity of Hinduism.[4][5][6] He is also the guardian deity of the southeast direction and is typically found in southeast corners of Hindu temples.[7] In the classical cosmology of the Indian religions, Agni as fire is one of the five inert impermanent elements (pañcabhūtá) along with space (ākāśa), water (ap), air (vāyu) and earth (pṛthvī), the five combining to form the empirically perceived material existence (Prakṛti).[5][8][9]

Agni
God of Fire[1][2]
Agni upon his mount
AffiliationDeva, Dikpāla
AbodeAgniloka
MantraOm Agni Vidmahe
WeaponĀgneyāstra
MountUrial[3]
Personal information
ParentsBrahma
ConsortSvāhā
ChildrenPāvaka, Pāvamāna, Śuchi, Nīla, Agneya
Equivalents
Indo-European equivalenth1n̥gʷnis

In Vedic literature, Agni is a major and oft-invoked god along with Indra and Soma.[5][10] Agni is considered the mouth of the gods and goddesses and the medium that conveys offerings to them in a homa (votive ritual).[4][11][12] He is conceptualized in ancient Hindu texts to exist at three levels, on earth as fire, in the atmosphere as lightning, and in the sky as the sun. This triple presence accords him as the messenger between the deities and human beings in the Vedic scriptures.[5] The relative importance of Agni declined in the post-Vedic era,[13] as he was internalised[14] and his identity evolved to metaphorically represent all transformative energy and knowledge in the Upanishads and later Hindu literature.[15][16][17] Agni remains an integral part of Hindu traditions, such as being the central witness of the rite-of-passage ritual in traditional Hindu weddings called Saptapadi or Agnipradakṣiṇam (seven steps and mutual vows), in the Upanayana ceremony of rite of passage, as well being part of the diyā (lamp) in festivals such as Deepavali and Aarti in Puja.[5]

Agni (Pali: Aggi) is a term that appears extensively in Buddhist texts[18] and in the literature related to the Senika heresy debate within the Buddhist traditions.[19][20] In the ancient Jainism thought, Agni (fire) contains soul and fire-bodied beings,[21] additionally appears as Agni-kumara or "fire princes" in its theory of rebirth and a class of reincarnated beings[22] and is discussed in its texts with the equivalent term Tejas.[23]

Etymology, meaning and other names

 
Agni (fire) is a part of major rites-of-passage rituals such as weddings and cremation in Indian religions.

Sanskrit अग्नि (Agni) continues one of two core terms for fire reconstructed to Proto-Indo-European, *h₁n̥gʷnís, other reflexes of which include *En or *Enji ([ɛɲi]) is the reconstructed name of the fire god in the Albanian pagan mythology, which continues to be used in the modern Albanian language to refer to Thursday (e enjte)[24][25][26]Latin ignis (the root of English ignite), Lithuanian ugnis, Kurdish agir, Old Slavonian огнь (ognĭ)[27] and its descendants: Russian огонь (ogon'), Serbian oganj, Polish ogień, etc., all meaning "fire".[28]

The ancient Indian grammarians variously derived it:

  • from root aj, which in Sanskrit means "to drive" in the sense of "nimble, agile";[29][30]
  • from agri, the root of which means "first", referring to "that first in the universe to arise" or "fire" according to Shatapatha Brahmana section 6.1.1; the Brahmana claims this is cryptically called as Agni because everyone including the gods are known to love short nicknames;[31]
  • according to the 5th-century BCE Sanskrit text Nirukta-Nighantu in section 7.14, sage Śakapūṇi states the word Agni is derived from three verbs – from 'going', from 'shining or burning', and from 'leading'; the letter "a" (अ) is from root "i" which he claims implies 'to go', the letter "g" (ग्) is from the root "añj" meaning 'to shine' or "dah" meaning 'to burn', and the last letter is by itself the root "nī" (नी) which means 'to lead'.[32] None of the three explanations cited above is plausible in the modern scientific sense.

In the early Vedic literature, Agni primarily connotes the fire as a god, one reflecting the primordial powers to consume, transform and convey.[33][34] Yet the term is also used with the meaning of a Mahabhuta (constitutive substance), one of five that the earliest Vedic thinkers believed to constitute material existence, and that later Vedic thinkers such as Kanada and Kapila expanded widely, namely Akasha (ether, space), Vayu (air), Ap (water), Prithvi (earth) and Agni (fire).[35][36]

The word Agni is used in many contexts, ranging from fire in the stomach, the cooking fire in a home, the sacrificial fire in an altar, the fire of cremation, the fire of rebirth, the fire in the energetic saps concealed within plants, the atmospheric fire in lightning and the celestial fire in the sun.[6][33][37] In the Brahmanas layer of the Vedas, such as in section 5.2.3 of Shatapatha Brahmana, Agni represents all the gods, all concepts of spiritual energy that permeates everything in the universe.[15][38] In the Upanishads and post-Vedic literature, Agni additionally became a metaphor for immortal principle in man, and any energy or knowledge that consumes and dispels a state of darkness, transforms and procreates an enlightened state of existence.[16][17][35]

Agni is also famously known as:[39]

  • Pāvaka – sanctifier of everything;
  • Havyavāhana – one who carries the sacrificial butter;
  • Saptajihvi – one with seven tongues (flames); consumes the sacrificial butter very fast;
  • Vahni – travelling with wind;
  • Anala – as one of the Vasus;
  • Hutāśana;
  • Chitrabhānu – colourful light;
  • Jvalana – glowing;
  • Vaiśvānara;
  • Vibhāvasu – whose light is wealth.

Other names include Śikhī, Pingesa, Plavanga, Bhūritejaḥ, Rudragarva and Hiraṇyakṛt.

Origins

Agnipani (100 BCE)
 
Front
 
Back of head with flame tongues
"Agnipani" ("Fire-holder"), 100 BCE. Behind its turban, the statue has a flame-shaped aureole incised with flame tongues. Mathura Museum, GMM 87.146

There are many theories about the origins of the god Agni, some tracing it to Indo-European mythologies, others tracing to mythologies within the Indian tradition.[40][41]

The origin myth found in many Indo-European cultures is one of a bird, or bird like being, that carries or brings fire from the gods to mankind. Alternatively, this messenger brings an elixir of immortality from heaven to earth. In either case, the bird returns everyday with sacrificial offerings for the gods, but sometimes the bird hides or disappears without trace. Agni is molded in similar mythical themes, in some hymns with the phrase the "heavenly bird that flies".[41][42]

The earliest layers of the Vedic texts of Hinduism, such as section 6.1 of Kaṭhaka Saṃhitā and section 1.8.1 of Maitrāyaṇī Saṃhitā state that the universe began with nothing, neither night nor day existed, what existed was just Prajāpati (also referred to as Brahman).[40] Agni originated from the forehead of Prajāpati, assert these texts. With the creation of Agni came light, and with that were created day and night. Agni, state these Saṃhitās, is the same as the Brahman, the truth, the eye of the manifested universe.[40] These mythologies develop into more complex stories about Agni's origins in the later layers of Vedic texts, such as in section 2.1.2 of the Taittiriya Brahmana and sections 2.2.3–4 of Shatapatha Brahmana.[40]

Agni is originally conceptualized as the ultimate source of the "creator-maintainer-destroyer" triad, then one of the trinities, as the one who ruled the earth. His twin brother Indra ruled the atmosphere as the god of storm, rain and war, while Sūrya ruled the sky and heavens.[13][a] His position and importance evolves over time, in the "creator-maintainer-destroyer" aspects of existence in Hindu thought.[44][b]

The Shatapatha Brahmana mentions there have been three previous Agnis and current one is the fourth in the series.[47]

Fourfold, namely, was Agni (fire) at first. Now that Agni whom they at first chose for the office of Hotri priest passed away. He also whom they chose the second time passed away. He also whom they chose the third time passed away. Thereupon the one who still constitutes the fire in our own time, concealed himself from fear. He entered into the waters. Him the gods discovered and brought forcibly away from the waters. – 1:2:3:1

Texts

Vedas

 
A pre-3rd century CE, Kushan Empire era red-stone Agni statue. Art of Mathura.

In the Vedic pantheon, Agni occupies, after Indra, the most important position.[6] Agni is prominent in the hymns of the Vedas and particularly the Brahmanas. In the ṚgVeda there are over 200 hymns that praise Agni. His name or synonyms appear in nearly a third of 1,028 hymns in the ṚgVeda.[48] The ṚgVeda opens with a hymn inviting Agni, who is then addressed later in the hymn as the guardian of Ṛta (Dharma).[49][50][c]

The Vedas describe the parents of Agni as two kindling fire sticks, whose loving action creates him. Just born, he is poetically presented as a tender baby, who needs loving attention lest he vanishes. With care, he sparks and smokes, then flames and grows stronger than his parents, finally so strong that he devours what created him.[52]

The hymns in these ancient texts refer to Agni with numerous epithets and synonyms, such as Jātavedas (he who knows all generations), Vaiśvānara (relating to all men), Tanūnapāt (son of himself, self-made), Narāśaṃsa (who embodies men's praise), Tripatsya (with three dwellings), and many others.[52][53] In Vedic mythologies, Agni is also presented as one who is mysterious with a tendency to play hide and seek, not just with humans but with the gods. He hides in strange places such as waters where in one myth he imbues life force into living beings that dwell therein, and in another where the fishes report his presence to the gods.[54]

Agni is in hymn 10.124 of the ṚgVeda, a Rishi (sage-poet-composer) and along with Indra and Sūrya makes up the Vedic triad of deities.[55]

Agni is considered equivalent to and henotheistically identified with all the gods in the Vedic thought, which formed the foundation for the various non-dualistic and monistic theologies of Hinduism.[48] These theme of equivalence is repeatedly presented in the Vedas, such as with the following words in the Maṇḍala 1 of the ṚgVeda:

They call it Indra, Mitra, Varuna, Agni,
and he is heavenly-winged Garutman.
To what is One, sages give many a title,
they call it Agni, Yama, Matarisvan.

  — ṚgVeda 1.164.46, Translator: Klaus Klostermaier[56][57][58]

Upanishads

 
Agni with an aura of flames, seated on ram.

Agni features prominently in the major and minor Upanishads of Hinduism. Among the earliest mention is the legend of a boy named Satyakāma Jābāla, of uncertain parentage from an unwed mother, in chapter 4 of the Chhāndogya Upanishad (~700 BCE). He honestly admits his poverty and that his mother does not know who his father was, an honesty that earns him a spot in a Vedic school (gurukul).[59][60] During his studies, the boy meets Agni, who then becomes the metaphor for him as a cardinal direction, world body, eye and knowledge, and the abstract principle of Brahman which the Upanishad states is in everything and is everywhere.[59][61][62] Agni appears in section 1.13 of Chandogya Upanishad as well.[63]

In verse 18 of the Isha Upanishad, Agni is invoked with, "O Agni, you know all the paths, lead me on to success by the good path, keep me away from the wrong path of sin".[64][65][d] In sections 4.5–6 of the Maitri Upanishad, students ask their Vedic Guru (teacher) about which god is best among gods they name, a list that includes Agni.[67][68] The Guru replies that they are all supreme, all merely forms of the Brahman, the whole world is Brahman. So pick anyone, suggests the Upanishad, meditate and adore that one, then meditate over them all, then deny and discard the individuality of every one of these gods including of Agni, thus journey unto the universal, for a communion with the Purusha, the Ātman.[69][70]

Sections 3 and 4 of Kena Upanishad, another major ancient Upanishad, present an allegorical story which includes gods Agni, Vāyu, Indra and goddess Umā.[71] After a battle between good gods and evil demons, where Brahman helps the good gain victory, the gods wonder, "what is this Brahman, a wonderful being?" Agni goes first to find out, but fails. Vāyu too fails.[71] Then Indra tries, but meets the goddess who already understands Brahman, explains what Brahman is and how the good reached victory through the nature of Brahman.[72][73] Indra shares this knowledge with Agni and Vayu. The Kena Upanishad closes these sections by stating that "Agni, Vāyu and Indra" are revered first because they were the first among gods to realize Brahman.[71][72] The allegorical legend, states Paul Deussen, aims to teach that all the Vedic gods and natural phenomenon have their basis in the timeless, universal monistic principle called Brahman.[71]

Another ancient major Hindu scripture named Prashna Upanishad mentions Agni in its second Prashna (question section).[74] The section states that Agni and other deities manifest as five gross constituents that combine to make the entire universe, and that all the deities are internalized in the temple of a living body with Agni as the eyes.[75][76]

Agni is mentioned in many minor Upanishads, such as the Pranagnihotra Upanishad, the Yogatattva Upanishad, the Yogashikha Upanishad, the Trishikhibrahmana Upanishad and others.[77] The syncretic and monistic Shaivism text, namely Rudrahridaya Upanishad states that Rudra is same as Agni, and Uma is same as Svaha.[78][79]

Mundaka Upanishad (2.4) mentioned the seven tongues of Agni as kālī, karālī, manojavā, sulohita, sudhāmravarṇā, sphuliṅginī and visvarucī.[80]

Significance

Vedic rituals involve Agni. He is a part of many Hindu rites-of-passage ceremonies such as celebrating a birth (lighting a lamp), prayers (aarti lamp), at weddings (the yajna where the bride and groom circle the fire seven times) and at death (cremation). According to Atharvaveda, it is Agni that conveys the soul of the dead from the pyre to be reborn in the next world or life.[13] However, this role was in post-Vedic texts subsumed in the role of god Yama.[13] Agni has been important in temple architecture, is typically present in the southeast corner of a Hindu temple.

 
Saptapadi, a Hindu wedding ritual, around Agni in progress.

Rites of passage: Hindu wedding

Main article: Hindu wedding

The most important ritual of Hindu weddings is performed around Agni. It is called the Saptapadi (Sanskrit for "seven steps/feet") or Sat Phere, and it represents the legal part of Hindu marriage.[81][82] The ritual involves a couple completing seven actual or symbolic circuits around the Agni, which is considered a witness to the vows they make to each other.[e] Each circuit of the consecrated fire is led by either the bride or the groom, varying by community and region. With each circuit, the couple makes a specific vow to establish some aspect of a happy relationship and household for each other, with Agni as the divine witness to those mutual vows.[84] In Central India and Suriname, the bride leads the first three or four circuits.[83]

Rituals: Agnihotra

Main articles: Agnihotra, Yajna, and Śrauta

The Agnihotra involves fire, and the term refers to the ritual of keeping fire at home, and in some cases making "sacrificial offerings" such as milk and seeds to this fire.[85] The Srauta texts state that it is the duty of man to perform Agnihotra. A wide range of Agnihotra procedures are found in the Brahmana layer of the Vedas, ranging from the most common simple keeping of sacred fire and its symbolism, to more complicated procedures for the expiation of guilt, to rituals claimed to grant immortality to the performer.[86] According to the Jaiminiya Brahmana, for example, an Agnihotra sacrifice frees the performer from evil and death.[87] In contrast, states the Shatapatha Brahmana, Agnihotra is a symbolic reminder and equivalent to the Sun, where the fire keeper is reminded of the heat that creates life, the fire in beings, the heat in the womb behind the cycle of life.[88]

Festivals: Holi and Diwali

Main articles: Holi and Diwali
 
Agni is a part of the ritual grammar in many Hindu festivals. Above Holika for Holi, includes Agni.[89]

Two major festivals in Hinduism, namely Holi (festival of colors) and Diwali (festival of lights) incorporate Agni in their ritual grammar, as a symbol of divine energy.[90][91] During the autumn celebrations of Diwali, traditional small fire lamps called Diya are included to mark the festivities. For Holi, Hindus burn bonfires as Holika, on the night before the spring festival. The bonfire marks god Agni, and in rural India mothers carry their babies around the fire clockwise on Holika in Agni's remembrance.[89]

Forms

Agni has two forms: Jataveda and Kravyada:

  • Jātaveda is the fire that carries the quid-pro-quo offerings to the gods, in which case Agni is light identified with knowledge and with Brahman. In the Jātaveda form, "He who knows all creatures", Agni acts as the divine model for the priest. He is the messenger who carries the oblation from humans to the gods, bringing the Gods to sacrifice, and intercedes between gods and humans (Rig Veda I.26.3). Together with Indra and Soma, Agni is invoked in the Rig Veda more than any other gods.[92]
  • Kravyād (क्रव्याद) is the form of Agni which cremates corpses, the fire of the funeral pyre that triggers the recycling of matter and spirit.[93] In this way, states Shatapatha Brahmana in verse 2.2.4.8, after one's death and at the time of cremation, Agni heats up and burns only the body, yet by its heat, one is reborn.[94]

Symbolism

Agni is symbolism for psychological and physiological aspects of life, states Maha Purana[clarification needed] section LXVII.202–203. There are three kinds of Agni inside every human being, states this text, the krodha-agni or "fire of anger", the kama-agni or "fire of passion and desire", and the udara-agni or "fire of digestion". These respectively need introspective and voluntary offerings of forgiveness, detachment and fasting, if one desires spiritual freedom and liberation.[43]

Agni variously denotes the natural element fire, the supernatural deity symbolized by fire and the inner natural will aspiring for the highest knowledge.[95][96][97]

Heat, combustion and energy is the realm of Agni which symbolizes the transformation of the gross to the subtle; Agni is the life-giving energy.[98] Agnibija is the consciousness of tapas (proto-cosmic energy); agni (the energizing principle); the sun, representing the Reality (Brahman) and the Truth (Satya), is Rta, the order, the organizing principle of everything that is.[99]

Agni, who is addressed as Atithi ('guest'), is also called Jatavedasam (जातवेदसम्), meaning "the one who knows all things that are born, created or produced".[100] He symbolizes will-power united with wisdom.[101]

Agni is the essence of the knowledge of Existence. Agni destroys ignorance and all delusions, removes nescience. The Kanvasatpathabrahmanam (SB.IV.i.iv.11) calls Agni "wisdom" (मेधायैमनसेऽग्नये स्वाहेति).[102] Agni is symbolism for "the mind swiftest among (all) those that fly".[103]

Iconography

 
 
The icons for Agni show wide regional variations. Left: Agni on ram, Right: Agni with goddess Svaha.

The iconography of Agni varies by region.[104] The design guidelines and specifications of his iconography are described in the Hindu Agama texts. He is shown with one to three heads, two to four arms, is typically red-complexioned or smoky-grey complexioned standing next to or riding a ram, with a characteristic dramatic halo of flames leaping upwards from his crown.[105][106] He is shown as a strong looking man, sometimes bearded, with a large belly because he eats everything offered into his flames, with golden brown hair, eyes and mustache to match the color of fire.[107]

Agni holds a rosary in one hand to symbolize his prayer-related role, and a sphere in another hand in eastern states of India. In other regions, his four arms hold an ax, torch, spoon (or fan) and a flaming spear (or rosary).[107]

Seven rays of light or flames emit from his body. One of his names is Saptajihva, "the one having seven tongues", to symbolize how rapidly he consumes sacrificial butter.[108] Occasionally, Agni iconography is shown in Rohitasva form, which has no ram as his vahana, but where he is pulled in a chariot with seven red horses, and the symbolic wind that makes fire move as the wheels of the chariot.[107] In Khmer art, Agni has been depicted with a rhinoceros as his vahana.[109][110] The number seven symbolizes his reach in all seven mythical continents in ancient Hindu cosmology or colors of a rainbow in his form as the sun.[111]

Agni has three forms, namely fire, lightning, and the Sun, forms sometimes symbolized by giving his icon three heads or three legs. He sometimes is shown wearing a garland of fruits or flowers, symbolic of the offerings made into the fire.[111]

History

 
Agni god in southeast corner of the 11th-century Rajarani Temple in Bhubaneshwar Odisha. The ram is carved below him.

The earliest surviving artwork of Agni have been found at archaeological sites near Mathura (Uttar Pradesh), and these date from 1st-century BCE.[112]: 215, 366–367, xix, with caption for Figure 86  In the collection at Bharat Kalā Bhavan, there is a red sandstone sculpture from around the start of the common era but no later than 1st-century CE, identifiable as Agni shown in the garb of a Brahmin, very much like sage Kashyapa. In the Panchala coins of Agnimitra, a deity is always present with a halo of flames. In Gupta sculptures, Agni is found with a halo of flames round the body, the sacred thread across his chest, a beard, pot-bellied and holding in his right hand a amrtaghata (nectar-pot).[112]: 215–216  Many of these early carvings and early statues show just one head, but elaborate details such as ear-rings made of three fruits, a detailed necklace, a slightly smiling face wearing a crown, and flames engraved into the hairs at the back of Agni's statue.[112]: 215 

The iconographic statues and reliefs of god Agni are typically present in the southeast corners of a Hindu temple. However, in rare temples where Agni is envisioned as a presiding astrological divinity, according to texts such as the Samarangana Sutradhara, he is assigned the northeast corner.[113]

Agni is historically considered to be present in every grihastha (home), and therein presented in one of three forms – gārhapatya (for general domestic usage), āhavaniya (for inviting and welcoming a personage or deity) and dakshinagni (for fighting against all evil).[114] Yāska states that his predecessor Sākapuṇi regarded the threefold existence of Agni as being in earth, air and heaven as stated by the Rig Veda, but a Brāhmana considered the third manifestation to be the Sun.

Mythologies

 
Agni seated on a ram, 14th–15th century Indonesia.

A sage of the Ṛg Veda (Sūkta IV.iii.11) states that the Sun became visible when Agni was born.[115]

Epics

Offended by Agni, Bhṛgu had cursed Agni to become the devourer of all things on this earth, but Brahma modified that curse and made Agni the purifier of all things he touched.[116]

In the "Khāṇḍava-daha Parva" (Mahābhārata CCXXV), Agni in disguise approaches Krishna and Arjuna seeking sufficient food for gratification of his hunger; and on being asked about the kind of food which would gratify, Agni expressed the desire to consume the forest of Khāṇḍava protected by Indra for the sake of Takṣaka, the chief of the Nāgas. Aided by Krishna and Arjuna, Agni consumes the Khāṇḍava Forest, which burnt for fifteen days, sparing only Aswasena, Maya, and the four birds called sarangakas; later, as a boon Arjuna got all his weapons from Indra and also the bow, Gāṇḍīva, from Varuṇa.[117]

There is the story about King Shibi who was tested by Agni assuming the form of a pigeon and by Indra assuming the form of a hawk; Shibi offered his own flesh to the hawk in exchange of pigeon's life. The pigeon which had sought Shibi's shelter was thus saved by the king's sacrifice.[118]

Agniparīkṣā or 'the Fire test' has Agni as the witness. In the Rāmāyaṇa, Sītā voluntarily goes through this ordeal to prove her virtue.

Puranas

Agni is the eldest son of Brahma. In the Viṣṇu Purāṇa, Agni, called Abhimāni is said to have sprung from the mouth of the Virāt Puruṣa, the Cosmic Man. In another version, Agni emerged from the ritual fire produced by the wife of Dharma (eternal law) named Vasubhāryā (literally, "daughter of Light").[119]

According to the Puranic mythology, Agni married Svāhā (invocation offering) and fathered three sons – Pāvaka (purifier), Pāvamāna (purifying) and Śuchi (purity). From these sons, he has forty-five grandchildren which are symbolic names of different aspects of a fire.[119][120] In some texts, Medhā (intelligence) is Agni's sister.[119]

Relationships

 
Agni (right) with his son Skanda (Karttikeya), about 1st-century CE.

Wife and children

Goddess Svāhā is Agni's wife. Her name is pronounced with offerings such as butter and seeds poured into the fire during ceremonies. However, like many names in Hindu traditions, the name Svāhā embeds symbolic meanings, through its relationship with the Vedic word Svadhā found in the hymns of the ṚgVeda. Thomas Coburn states that the term Svadhā refers to "one's own particular nature or inclination", and the secondary sense of "a customary pleasure or enjoyment, a refreshment that nourishes".[121] Svāhā is also found in the hymns of the Vedic literature, in the sense of "welcome, praise to you". This salutation is a remembrance of Agni, as an aspect of that which is "the source of all beings".[121] As a goddess and wife of Agni, Svāhā represents this Shakti.[122]

In the text Devi Māhātmya of the goddess tradition of Hinduism (Shaktism), and in the Hindu mythologies, Svāhā is the daughter of Daksha, Svāhā has a crush for Agni. She seduces him by successively impersonating six of seven women at a gurukul (school) that Agni desired for, and thus with him has a baby who grows to become god Skanda – the god of war. Other chapters suggest he was the son of the god Shiva.[122]

The Mahābhārata also mentions that when Agni was residing at Mahishmati he fell in love with the daughter of king Nila. In the guise of a Brahmana, he asked for the hand of the princess, but the king refused and was about to punish him. Agni revealed his true form and flamed up in wrath. The frightened king apologized and bestowed his daughter on Agni. In return, Agni promised protection of the city during any invasion.[123]

Other gods

Agni is identified with same characteristics, equivalent personality or stated to be identical as many major and minor gods in different layers of the Vedic literature, including Vāyu, Soma, Rudra (Shiva), Varuṇa and Mitra.[124][125] In hymn 2.1 of the ṚgVeda, in successive verses, Agni is identified to be the same as twelve gods and five goddesses.[125]

Some of the gods that Agni is identified with:

  • Prajāpati: The vedic text Shatapatha Brahmana, in section 6.1.2 describes how and why Prajāpati is the father of Agni, and also the son of Agni, because they both are the image of the one Ātman (Soul, Self) that was, is and will be the true, eternal identity of the universe.[126] The Prajāpati, cosmic Purusha and Agni are stated to be the same in sections 6.1.1 and 6.2.1 of Shatapatha Brahmana.[127]
  • Varuṇa and Mitra: when Agni is born, he is Varuṇa; when he is kindled, he is Mitra.[125] He is also stated to become Varuṇa in the evening, and he is Mitra when he rises in the morning.[125]
  • Indra: Agni is generally presented as Indra's twin, they both go and appear together.[128] In chapter 13.3 of the Atharvaveda, Agni is said to become Indra when he illumines the sky.[125] Agni is also called Vishva-Vedāh,[f] "dawn," which refers both to Indra, the Protector, and to the all-knowing Agni.[129]
  • Rudra: in the ṚgVeda Agni is addressed as having the same fierce nature as Rudra.[130][g] The Shiva-linga represents that pillar of fire which is Agni,[131][132] a Skambha symbolism borrowed in some Buddhist artworks.[133] The verses 8 through 18 in section 6.1.3 of the Shatapatha Brahmana state Rudra is same as Agni, who is known by many other names.[134] Later, in section 9.1.1, the Shatapatha Brahmana states, "this entire Agni (fire altar) has now been completed, he is now this god Rudra".[134]
  • Savitr (Sun): Agni is same as Savitr during the day, as he traverses the space delivering light and energy to all living beings.[125]
  • Vāyu and Soma: in the Vedas, Agni or 'fire' (light and heat), Vāyu or 'air' (energy and action), and Soma or 'water', are major deities who cooperate to empower all life. In some passages, they are stated to be aspects of the same energy and principle that transforms.[124][135]
  • Gāyatrī: is identified with Agni in Aitareya Brahmana section 1.1, Jaiminiya Brahmana section 3.184 and Taittiriya Brahmana section 7.8, and the most revered Gayatri meter in the Sanskrit prosody and Hindu traditions is associated with Agni.[127]
  • Vāc (goddess of speech) and Prāṇa (life force): are identified with Agni in Jaiminiya Brahmana sections 1.1 and 2.54, Shatapatha Brahmana sections 2.2.2 and 3.2.2.[127]
  • Sarama: in a hymn in praise of Agni,[h] Rishi Parāśara Śāktya speaks of Saramā, the goddess of Intuition, the forerunner of the dawn of Truth in the Human mind, who finds the Truth which is lost.[i] It is Saramā who is a power of the Truth, whose cows are the rays of the dawn of illumination and who awakens man who finds Agni standing in the supreme seat and goal.[136]

Buddhism

Canonical texts

 
 
Left: Agni sitting on a red goat, as medicine Buddha in 15th-century Tibetan Buddhist art;
Right: Four-armed Katen (火天) in 17th-century Japan.

Agni (Sanskrit; Pali; Aggi) appears in many Buddhist canonical texts, as both a god as well as a metaphor for the element of heart or fire. In Pali literature, he is also called Aggi-Bhagavā, Jātaveda, and Vessānara.[137]

The Aggi-Vacchagotta Sutta, presents a philosophical exchange between Buddha and a wandering ascetic named Śreṇika Vatsagotra (Sanskrit; Pali: Senika Vacchagotta).[19][138] The conversation between Buddha and Śreṇika have remained a part of a debate that continues in modern Buddhism.[19][139] It is called the Śreṇika heresy (Traditional Chinese: 先尼外道; Pinyin: Xiānní wàidào; Romaji: Sennigedō 先尼外道).[19][140]

Śreṇika suggested that there is an eternal Self (Atman) that lives in a temporary physical body and is involved in rebirth. In the Buddhist traditions, the Buddha taught there is rebirth and Anātman, or that there is no eternal Self. The Pali texts state that Śreṇika disagreed and asked the Buddha many questions, which the Buddha refused to answer, calling his questions as indeterminate. The Buddha clarified that were he to answer Śreṇika's questions, it would "entangle" him.[19] The Buddha explains the Dharma with Agni as a metaphor, stating that just like fire is extinguished and no longer exists after it is extinguished, in the same way all skandha that constitute a human being are extinguished after death. Different versions of this debate appear throughout scripture across traditions, such as the Mahāparinibbāṇa Sutta, and the Mahāprajñāpāramitōpadeśa. In some versions, Śreṇika offers his own simile of Agni to further his views.[19] Scholars such as Nagarjuna have extensively commented on the Śreṇika heresy.[138]

In a manner similar to the Hindu texts, the Buddhist texts also treat Agni (referred to as the fire element Tejas) as a fundamental material and building block of nature. For example, in section 11.31 of the Visuddhimagga as well as the Rūpakaṇḍa section of the Dhammasangani, Agni and Tejas are credited as that which warms, ages, burns and digests food and life processes.[43]

Art

Agni is featured prominently in the art of the Mahayana tradition.

In Tibet, he is one of the fifty-one Buddhist deities found in the mandala of medicine Buddha.[141][142] He appears in Tibetan Manjushri's mandalas as well, where he is depicted with Brahma and Indra.[143] The Tibetan iconography for Agni strongly resembles that found in the Hindu tradition, with elements such as red-colored skin, a goat vehicle, conical hair and crown, a beard, and wielding a pot of water or fire in one hand, and rosary beads in the other. Such art will often include Buddhist themes such as the dharma wheel, white conch, golden fish, elephant, the endless knot.[141]

In Theravada traditions, such as that found in Thailand, Agni is a minor deity. Agni is called Phra Phloeng (also spelled Phra Plerng, literally, "holy flames").[144][145] He is commonly depicted with two faces, eight arms, red in color, wearing a headdress in the shape of a gourd, and emitting flames. Medieval era Thai literature describes him as a deity with seven tongues, a purple crown of smoke, and fiery complexion. He rides a horse chariot, a rhinoceros or a ram.[144] Phra Phloeng's wife in these texts is stated to be Subanee, Garudee, or Swaha.[144] Some Thai texts state Nilanon to be their son.[146]

 
The Buddhist Fire God "Katen" (火天) in Japanese art. Dated 1127 CE, Kyoto National Museum.

In East Asian Buddhism, Agni is a dharmapāla and often classed as one of a group of twelve deities (Japanese: Jūniten, 十二天) grouped together as directional guardians.[147]

In Japan, he is called "Katen" (火天). He is included with the other eleven devas, which include Taishakuten (Śakra/Indra), Fūten (Vāyu), Emmaten (Yama), Rasetsuten (Nirṛti/Rākṣasa), Ishanaten (Īśāna), Bishamonten (Vaiśravaṇa/Kubera), Suiten (Varuṇa) Bonten (Brahmā), Jiten (Pṛthivī), Nitten (Sūrya/Āditya), and Gatten (Candra).[148] While iconography varies, he is often depicted as an elderly mountain ascetic with two or three legs, and two or four arms.

Jainism

The word Agni in Jainism refers to fire, but not in the sense of Vedic ideas. Agni appears in Jain thought, as a guardian deity and in its cosmology. He is one of the eight dikpalas, or directional guardian deities in Jain temples, along with these seven: Indra, Yama, Nirrti, Varuna, Vayu, Kubera and Isana. They are typically standing, with their iconography is similar to those found in Hindu and Buddhist temple pantheon.[149][150][151]

In ancient Jain thought, living beings have souls and exist in myriad of realms, and within the earth realm shared by human beings, there are two kinds of beings: mobile and immobile.[152][153] The mobile beings – which includes tiny insects, birds, aquatic life, animals and human beings – have two or more senses, while the immobile beings have only a single sense (ekenderiya).[43][154] Among the single sense beings are plant beings, air beings (whirlwind[j]), earth beings (clay), water beings (dew drop) and fire beings (burning coal, meteor, lightning). The last class of beings are Agni-bodies, and these are believed to contain soul and fire-bodied beings.[21][152] Ahimsa, or non-violence, is the highest precept in Jainism. In their spiritual pursuits, Jain monks go to great lengths to practice Ahimsa; they neither start Agni nor extinguish Agni because doing so is considered violent to "fire beings" and an act that creates harmful Karma.[43][156]

Agni-kumara or "fire princes" are a part of Jain theory of rebirth and a class of reincarnated beings.[22] Agni or Tejas are terms used to describe substances and concepts that create beings, and in which transmigrating soul gets bound according to Jainism theology.[157]

Ancient medicine and food

Main article: Agni (Ayurveda)

Agni, as constitutive principle of fire or heat, was incorporated in Hindu texts of ancient medicine such as the Charaka Samhita and Sushruta Samhita. It is, along with Soma, the two classification premises in the pre-4th century CE medical texts found in Hinduism and Buddhism. Agni-related category, states Dominik Wujastyk, included that of "hot, fiery, dry or parched" types, while Soma-related category included "moist, nourishing, soothing and cooling" types. This classification system was a basis of grouping medicinal herbs, seasons of the year, tastes and foods, empirical diagnosis of human illnesses, veterinary medicine, and many other aspects of health and lifestyle.[158][159][160]

Agni was viewed as the life force in a healthy body, the power to digest foods, and innate in food.[161][162] In Ayurveda, states Fleischman, "the amount of Agni determines the state of health".[163]

Agni is an important entity in Ayurveda. Agni is the fiery metabolic energy of digestion, allows assimilation of food while ridding the body of waste and toxins, and transforms dense physical matter into subtle forms of energy the body needs. Jathar-agni determines the production of hydrochloric acid in the stomach, Bhuta-agni determines the production of bile in the liver, Kloma-agni determines the production of sugar-digesting pancreatic enzymes and so forth. The nature and quality of these agnis depend on one's dosha which can be – vata, pitta or kapha.[164]

Agni is also known as Vaisvanara. Just as the illuminating power in the fire is a part of Agni's own effulgence, even so the heating power in the foods digestive and appetizing power is also a part of Agni's energy or potency.[165]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ The Vedic idea that the sun, lightning, and fire were different manifestation of the same element and principle is summarized in many Hindu texts, such as the ancient Bṛhaddevatā.[43]
  2. ^ The Trimurti idea of Hinduism, states Jan Gonda, "seems to have developed from ancient cosmological and ritualistic speculations about the triple character of an individual god, in the first place of Agni, whose births are three or threefold, and who is threefold light, has three bodies and three stations".[45]: 218–219  Other trinities, beyond the more common "Brahma, Vishnu, Shiva", mentioned in ancient and medieval Hindu texts include: "Indra, Vishnu, Brahmanaspati"; "Agni, Indra, Surya"; "Agni, Vayu, Aditya"; "Mahalakshmi, Mahasarasvati, and Mahakali"; and others.[45]: 212–226 [46]
  3. ^ Other hymns of the Rigveda link Ṛta (cosmic harmony) to other Vedic deities, such as verse 10.133.6 calls on Indra for guidance on Ṛta.[51]
  4. ^ This prayer to Agni appears in Rigveda verse 1.89.1, composed before 1200 BCE.[66]
  5. ^ The two rake the holy vow in the presence of Agni ... In the first four rounds, the bride leads and the groom follows, and in the final three, the groom leads and the bride follows. While walking around the fire, the bride places her right palm on the groom's right palm and the bride's brother pours some unhusked rice or barley into their hands and they offer it to the fire ...[83]
  6. ^ विश्ववेदा, appearing in the Taittiriya Samhita (IV.iii.2.10) – अभून्मम सुमतौ विश्ववेदा आष्ट प्रतिष्ठामविदद्धि गाधम्, and in the Rig Veda:
    * ये पायवो मामतेयं ते अग्ने पश्यन्तो अन्धं दुरितादरक्षन्
  7. ^ In a prayer (R.V.I.27.10) addressed to Agni, the sage prays ": जराबोध तद्विविड्ढि विशेविशे यज्ञियाय
  8. ^ स्वाध्यो दिव आ सप्त यह्वी रायो (Rig Veda I.72.8)
  9. ^ He says – विदद् गव्यं सरमा दृहमूर्वमं येना नु कं मानुषी भोजते विट् – "Saramā discovered the strong and wide places of the hidden knowledge; this discovery brings happiness to all human beings".
  10. ^ For other examples from Uttaradhyayana Sutra text of Jainism, see Chapple.[155]

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External links

 
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Agni (God).
 
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  • "Agni: Indian god". Encyclopædia Britannica.
  • (PDF). Rigveda, Rāmakṛṣṇa Janasvāmi. University of Massachusetts. Archived from the original (PDF) on 12 November 2020. Retrieved 13 October 2016.
  • "Agni, the fire altar". The Pluralism Project. Harvard University.
  • Tull, Herman. "Vedic Agni". Oxford Bibliographies.
  • "Agni". athirathram.org.
  • Fórizs, László. "Apāṁ Napāt, Dīrghatamas and Construction of the Brick Altar. Analysis of RV 1.143". Vedic Investigations, Orig. Eds. Asko Parpola, Masato Fujii and Stanley Insler. Papers of the 12Th World Sanskrit Conference: 97–126 (Helsinki, Finland, 13–18 July, 2003), Eds. Asko Parpola and Petteri Koskikallio. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 2016. 4277610.
  • Dr. K. Parvathi Kumar. "Agni. The Symbolism and the Ritual of Fire". Dhanishta Publications.

March 31, 2023
agni, this, article, about, fire, fire, indian, religions, other, uses, disambiguation, sanskrit, अग, romanized, sanskrit, pronunciation, ˈɐgnɪ, sanskrit, word, meaning, fire, connotes, vedic, fire, deity, hinduism, also, guardian, deity, southeast, direction,. This article is about fire and the fire god in Indian religions For other uses see Agni disambiguation Agni Sanskrit अग न romanized Agni Sanskrit pronunciation ˈɐgnɪ is a Sanskrit word meaning fire and connotes the Vedic fire deity of Hinduism 4 5 6 He is also the guardian deity of the southeast direction and is typically found in southeast corners of Hindu temples 7 In the classical cosmology of the Indian religions Agni as fire is one of the five inert impermanent elements pancabhuta along with space akasa water ap air vayu and earth pṛthvi the five combining to form the empirically perceived material existence Prakṛti 5 8 9 AgniGod of Fire 1 2 Agni upon his mountAffiliationDeva DikpalaAbodeAgnilokaMantraOm Agni VidmaheWeaponAgneyastraMountUrial 3 Personal informationParentsBrahmaConsortSvahaChildrenPavaka Pavamana Suchi Nila AgneyaEquivalentsIndo European equivalenth1n gʷnisIn Vedic literature Agni is a major and oft invoked god along with Indra and Soma 5 10 Agni is considered the mouth of the gods and goddesses and the medium that conveys offerings to them in a homa votive ritual 4 11 12 He is conceptualized in ancient Hindu texts to exist at three levels on earth as fire in the atmosphere as lightning and in the sky as the sun This triple presence accords him as the messenger between the deities and human beings in the Vedic scriptures 5 The relative importance of Agni declined in the post Vedic era 13 as he was internalised 14 and his identity evolved to metaphorically represent all transformative energy and knowledge in the Upanishads and later Hindu literature 15 16 17 Agni remains an integral part of Hindu traditions such as being the central witness of the rite of passage ritual in traditional Hindu weddings called Saptapadi or Agnipradakṣiṇam seven steps and mutual vows in the Upanayana ceremony of rite of passage as well being part of the diya lamp in festivals such as Deepavali and Aarti in Puja 5 Agni Pali Aggi is a term that appears extensively in Buddhist texts 18 and in the literature related to the Senika heresy debate within the Buddhist traditions 19 20 In the ancient Jainism thought Agni fire contains soul and fire bodied beings 21 additionally appears as Agni kumara or fire princes in its theory of rebirth and a class of reincarnated beings 22 and is discussed in its texts with the equivalent term Tejas 23 Contents 1 Etymology meaning and other names 2 Origins 3 Texts 3 1 Vedas 3 2 Upanishads 4 Significance 4 1 Rites of passage Hindu wedding 4 2 Rituals Agnihotra 4 3 Festivals Holi and Diwali 4 4 Forms 4 5 Symbolism 5 Iconography 5 1 History 6 Mythologies 6 1 Epics 6 2 Puranas 7 Relationships 7 1 Wife and children 7 2 Other gods 8 Buddhism 8 1 Canonical texts 8 2 Art 9 Jainism 10 Ancient medicine and food 11 See also 12 Notes 13 References 13 1 Works cited 14 External linksEtymology meaning and other names Edit Agni fire is a part of major rites of passage rituals such as weddings and cremation in Indian religions Sanskrit अग न Agni continues one of two core terms for fire reconstructed to Proto Indo European h n gʷnis other reflexes of which include En or Enji ɛɲi is the reconstructed name of the fire god in the Albanian pagan mythology which continues to be used in the modern Albanian language to refer to Thursday e enjte 24 25 26 Latin ignis the root of English ignite Lithuanian ugnis Kurdish agir Old Slavonian ogn ognĭ 27 and its descendants Russian ogon ogon Serbian oganj Polish ogien etc all meaning fire 28 The ancient Indian grammarians variously derived it from root aj which in Sanskrit means to drive in the sense of nimble agile 29 30 from agri the root of which means first referring to that first in the universe to arise or fire according to Shatapatha Brahmana section 6 1 1 the Brahmana claims this is cryptically called as Agni because everyone including the gods are known to love short nicknames 31 according to the 5th century BCE Sanskrit text Nirukta Nighantu in section 7 14 sage Sakapuṇi states the word Agni is derived from three verbs from going from shining or burning and from leading the letter a अ is from root i which he claims implies to go the letter g ग is from the root anj meaning to shine or dah meaning to burn and the last letter is by itself the root ni न which means to lead 32 None of the three explanations cited above is plausible in the modern scientific sense In the early Vedic literature Agni primarily connotes the fire as a god one reflecting the primordial powers to consume transform and convey 33 34 Yet the term is also used with the meaning of a Mahabhuta constitutive substance one of five that the earliest Vedic thinkers believed to constitute material existence and that later Vedic thinkers such as Kanada and Kapila expanded widely namely Akasha ether space Vayu air Ap water Prithvi earth and Agni fire 35 36 The word Agni is used in many contexts ranging from fire in the stomach the cooking fire in a home the sacrificial fire in an altar the fire of cremation the fire of rebirth the fire in the energetic saps concealed within plants the atmospheric fire in lightning and the celestial fire in the sun 6 33 37 In the Brahmanas layer of the Vedas such as in section 5 2 3 of Shatapatha Brahmana Agni represents all the gods all concepts of spiritual energy that permeates everything in the universe 15 38 In the Upanishads and post Vedic literature Agni additionally became a metaphor for immortal principle in man and any energy or knowledge that consumes and dispels a state of darkness transforms and procreates an enlightened state of existence 16 17 35 Agni is also famously known as 39 Pavaka sanctifier of everything Havyavahana one who carries the sacrificial butter Saptajihvi one with seven tongues flames consumes the sacrificial butter very fast Vahni travelling with wind Anala as one of the Vasus Hutasana Chitrabhanu colourful light Jvalana glowing Vaisvanara Vibhavasu whose light is wealth Other names include Sikhi Pingesa Plavanga Bhuritejaḥ Rudragarva and Hiraṇyakṛt Origins EditAgnipani 100 BCE Front Back of head with flame tongues Agnipani Fire holder 100 BCE Behind its turban the statue has a flame shaped aureole incised with flame tongues Mathura Museum GMM 87 146 There are many theories about the origins of the god Agni some tracing it to Indo European mythologies others tracing to mythologies within the Indian tradition 40 41 The origin myth found in many Indo European cultures is one of a bird or bird like being that carries or brings fire from the gods to mankind Alternatively this messenger brings an elixir of immortality from heaven to earth In either case the bird returns everyday with sacrificial offerings for the gods but sometimes the bird hides or disappears without trace Agni is molded in similar mythical themes in some hymns with the phrase the heavenly bird that flies 41 42 The earliest layers of the Vedic texts of Hinduism such as section 6 1 of Kaṭhaka Saṃhita and section 1 8 1 of Maitrayaṇi Saṃhita state that the universe began with nothing neither night nor day existed what existed was just Prajapati also referred to as Brahman 40 Agni originated from the forehead of Prajapati assert these texts With the creation of Agni came light and with that were created day and night Agni state these Saṃhitas is the same as the Brahman the truth the eye of the manifested universe 40 These mythologies develop into more complex stories about Agni s origins in the later layers of Vedic texts such as in section 2 1 2 of the Taittiriya Brahmana and sections 2 2 3 4 of Shatapatha Brahmana 40 Agni is originally conceptualized as the ultimate source of the creator maintainer destroyer triad then one of the trinities as the one who ruled the earth His twin brother Indra ruled the atmosphere as the god of storm rain and war while Surya ruled the sky and heavens 13 a His position and importance evolves over time in the creator maintainer destroyer aspects of existence in Hindu thought 44 b The Shatapatha Brahmana mentions there have been three previous Agnis and current one is the fourth in the series 47 Fourfold namely was Agni fire at first Now that Agni whom they at first chose for the office of Hotri priest passed away He also whom they chose the second time passed away He also whom they chose the third time passed away Thereupon the one who still constitutes the fire in our own time concealed himself from fear He entered into the waters Him the gods discovered and brought forcibly away from the waters 1 2 3 1Texts EditVedas Edit A pre 3rd century CE Kushan Empire era red stone Agni statue Art of Mathura In the Vedic pantheon Agni occupies after Indra the most important position 6 Agni is prominent in the hymns of the Vedas and particularly the Brahmanas In the ṚgVeda there are over 200 hymns that praise Agni His name or synonyms appear in nearly a third of 1 028 hymns in the ṚgVeda 48 The ṚgVeda opens with a hymn inviting Agni who is then addressed later in the hymn as the guardian of Ṛta Dharma 49 50 c The Vedas describe the parents of Agni as two kindling fire sticks whose loving action creates him Just born he is poetically presented as a tender baby who needs loving attention lest he vanishes With care he sparks and smokes then flames and grows stronger than his parents finally so strong that he devours what created him 52 The hymns in these ancient texts refer to Agni with numerous epithets and synonyms such as Jatavedas he who knows all generations Vaisvanara relating to all men Tanunapat son of himself self made Narasaṃsa who embodies men s praise Tripatsya with three dwellings and many others 52 53 In Vedic mythologies Agni is also presented as one who is mysterious with a tendency to play hide and seek not just with humans but with the gods He hides in strange places such as waters where in one myth he imbues life force into living beings that dwell therein and in another where the fishes report his presence to the gods 54 Agni is in hymn 10 124 of the ṚgVeda a Rishi sage poet composer and along with Indra and Surya makes up the Vedic triad of deities 55 Agni is considered equivalent to and henotheistically identified with all the gods in the Vedic thought which formed the foundation for the various non dualistic and monistic theologies of Hinduism 48 These theme of equivalence is repeatedly presented in the Vedas such as with the following words in the Maṇḍala 1 of the ṚgVeda They call it Indra Mitra Varuna Agni and he is heavenly winged Garutman To what is One sages give many a title they call it Agni Yama Matarisvan ṚgVeda 1 164 46 Translator Klaus Klostermaier 56 57 58 Upanishads Edit Agni with an aura of flames seated on ram Agni features prominently in the major and minor Upanishads of Hinduism Among the earliest mention is the legend of a boy named Satyakama Jabala of uncertain parentage from an unwed mother in chapter 4 of the Chhandogya Upanishad 700 BCE He honestly admits his poverty and that his mother does not know who his father was an honesty that earns him a spot in a Vedic school gurukul 59 60 During his studies the boy meets Agni who then becomes the metaphor for him as a cardinal direction world body eye and knowledge and the abstract principle of Brahman which the Upanishad states is in everything and is everywhere 59 61 62 Agni appears in section 1 13 of Chandogya Upanishad as well 63 In verse 18 of the Isha Upanishad Agni is invoked with O Agni you know all the paths lead me on to success by the good path keep me away from the wrong path of sin 64 65 d In sections 4 5 6 of the Maitri Upanishad students ask their Vedic Guru teacher about which god is best among gods they name a list that includes Agni 67 68 The Guru replies that they are all supreme all merely forms of the Brahman the whole world is Brahman So pick anyone suggests the Upanishad meditate and adore that one then meditate over them all then deny and discard the individuality of every one of these gods including of Agni thus journey unto the universal for a communion with the Purusha the Atman 69 70 Sections 3 and 4 of Kena Upanishad another major ancient Upanishad present an allegorical story which includes gods Agni Vayu Indra and goddess Uma 71 After a battle between good gods and evil demons where Brahman helps the good gain victory the gods wonder what is this Brahman a wonderful being Agni goes first to find out but fails Vayu too fails 71 Then Indra tries but meets the goddess who already understands Brahman explains what Brahman is and how the good reached victory through the nature of Brahman 72 73 Indra shares this knowledge with Agni and Vayu The Kena Upanishad closes these sections by stating that Agni Vayu and Indra are revered first because they were the first among gods to realize Brahman 71 72 The allegorical legend states Paul Deussen aims to teach that all the Vedic gods and natural phenomenon have their basis in the timeless universal monistic principle called Brahman 71 Another ancient major Hindu scripture named Prashna Upanishad mentions Agni in its second Prashna question section 74 The section states that Agni and other deities manifest as five gross constituents that combine to make the entire universe and that all the deities are internalized in the temple of a living body with Agni as the eyes 75 76 Agni is mentioned in many minor Upanishads such as the Pranagnihotra Upanishad the Yogatattva Upanishad the Yogashikha Upanishad the Trishikhibrahmana Upanishad and others 77 The syncretic and monistic Shaivism text namely Rudrahridaya Upanishad states that Rudra is same as Agni and Uma is same as Svaha 78 79 Mundaka Upanishad 2 4 mentioned the seven tongues of Agni as kali karali manojava sulohita sudhamravarṇa sphuliṅgini and visvaruci 80 Significance EditVedic rituals involve Agni He is a part of many Hindu rites of passage ceremonies such as celebrating a birth lighting a lamp prayers aarti lamp at weddings the yajna where the bride and groom circle the fire seven times and at death cremation According to Atharvaveda it is Agni that conveys the soul of the dead from the pyre to be reborn in the next world or life 13 However this role was in post Vedic texts subsumed in the role of god Yama 13 Agni has been important in temple architecture is typically present in the southeast corner of a Hindu temple Saptapadi a Hindu wedding ritual around Agni in progress Rites of passage Hindu wedding Edit Main article Hindu wedding The most important ritual of Hindu weddings is performed around Agni It is called the Saptapadi Sanskrit for seven steps feet or Sat Phere and it represents the legal part of Hindu marriage 81 82 The ritual involves a couple completing seven actual or symbolic circuits around the Agni which is considered a witness to the vows they make to each other e Each circuit of the consecrated fire is led by either the bride or the groom varying by community and region With each circuit the couple makes a specific vow to establish some aspect of a happy relationship and household for each other with Agni as the divine witness to those mutual vows 84 In Central India and Suriname the bride leads the first three or four circuits 83 Rituals Agnihotra Edit Main articles Agnihotra Yajna and Srauta The Agnihotra involves fire and the term refers to the ritual of keeping fire at home and in some cases making sacrificial offerings such as milk and seeds to this fire 85 The Srauta texts state that it is the duty of man to perform Agnihotra A wide range of Agnihotra procedures are found in the Brahmana layer of the Vedas ranging from the most common simple keeping of sacred fire and its symbolism to more complicated procedures for the expiation of guilt to rituals claimed to grant immortality to the performer 86 According to the Jaiminiya Brahmana for example an Agnihotra sacrifice frees the performer from evil and death 87 In contrast states the Shatapatha Brahmana Agnihotra is a symbolic reminder and equivalent to the Sun where the fire keeper is reminded of the heat that creates life the fire in beings the heat in the womb behind the cycle of life 88 Festivals Holi and Diwali Edit Main articles Holi and Diwali Agni is a part of the ritual grammar in many Hindu festivals Above Holika for Holi includes Agni 89 Two major festivals in Hinduism namely Holi festival of colors and Diwali festival of lights incorporate Agni in their ritual grammar as a symbol of divine energy 90 91 During the autumn celebrations of Diwali traditional small fire lamps called Diya are included to mark the festivities For Holi Hindus burn bonfires as Holika on the night before the spring festival The bonfire marks god Agni and in rural India mothers carry their babies around the fire clockwise on Holika in Agni s remembrance 89 Forms Edit Agni has two forms Jataveda and Kravyada Jataveda is the fire that carries the quid pro quo offerings to the gods in which case Agni is light identified with knowledge and with Brahman In the Jataveda form He who knows all creatures Agni acts as the divine model for the priest He is the messenger who carries the oblation from humans to the gods bringing the Gods to sacrifice and intercedes between gods and humans Rig Veda I 26 3 Together with Indra and Soma Agni is invoked in the Rig Veda more than any other gods 92 Kravyad क रव य द is the form of Agni which cremates corpses the fire of the funeral pyre that triggers the recycling of matter and spirit 93 In this way states Shatapatha Brahmana in verse 2 2 4 8 after one s death and at the time of cremation Agni heats up and burns only the body yet by its heat one is reborn 94 Symbolism Edit Agni is symbolism for psychological and physiological aspects of life states Maha Purana clarification needed section LXVII 202 203 There are three kinds of Agni inside every human being states this text the krodha agni or fire of anger the kama agni or fire of passion and desire and the udara agni or fire of digestion These respectively need introspective and voluntary offerings of forgiveness detachment and fasting if one desires spiritual freedom and liberation 43 Agni variously denotes the natural element fire the supernatural deity symbolized by fire and the inner natural will aspiring for the highest knowledge 95 96 97 Heat combustion and energy is the realm of Agni which symbolizes the transformation of the gross to the subtle Agni is the life giving energy 98 Agnibija is the consciousness of tapas proto cosmic energy agni the energizing principle the sun representing the Reality Brahman and the Truth Satya is Rta the order the organizing principle of everything that is 99 Agni who is addressed as Atithi guest is also called Jatavedasam ज तव दसम meaning the one who knows all things that are born created or produced 100 He symbolizes will power united with wisdom 101 Agni is the essence of the knowledge of Existence Agni destroys ignorance and all delusions removes nescience The Kanvasatpathabrahmanam SB IV i iv 11 calls Agni wisdom म ध य मनस ऽग नय स व ह त 102 Agni is symbolism for the mind swiftest among all those that fly 103 Iconography Edit The icons for Agni show wide regional variations Left Agni on ram Right Agni with goddess Svaha The iconography of Agni varies by region 104 The design guidelines and specifications of his iconography are described in the Hindu Agama texts He is shown with one to three heads two to four arms is typically red complexioned or smoky grey complexioned standing next to or riding a ram with a characteristic dramatic halo of flames leaping upwards from his crown 105 106 He is shown as a strong looking man sometimes bearded with a large belly because he eats everything offered into his flames with golden brown hair eyes and mustache to match the color of fire 107 Agni holds a rosary in one hand to symbolize his prayer related role and a sphere in another hand in eastern states of India In other regions his four arms hold an ax torch spoon or fan and a flaming spear or rosary 107 Seven rays of light or flames emit from his body One of his names is Saptajihva the one having seven tongues to symbolize how rapidly he consumes sacrificial butter 108 Occasionally Agni iconography is shown in Rohitasva form which has no ram as his vahana but where he is pulled in a chariot with seven red horses and the symbolic wind that makes fire move as the wheels of the chariot 107 In Khmer art Agni has been depicted with a rhinoceros as his vahana 109 110 The number seven symbolizes his reach in all seven mythical continents in ancient Hindu cosmology or colors of a rainbow in his form as the sun 111 Agni has three forms namely fire lightning and the Sun forms sometimes symbolized by giving his icon three heads or three legs He sometimes is shown wearing a garland of fruits or flowers symbolic of the offerings made into the fire 111 History Edit Agni god in southeast corner of the 11th century Rajarani Temple in Bhubaneshwar Odisha The ram is carved below him The earliest surviving artwork of Agni have been found at archaeological sites near Mathura Uttar Pradesh and these date from 1st century BCE 112 215 366 367 xix with caption for Figure 86 In the collection at Bharat Kala Bhavan there is a red sandstone sculpture from around the start of the common era but no later than 1st century CE identifiable as Agni shown in the garb of a Brahmin very much like sage Kashyapa In the Panchala coins of Agnimitra a deity is always present with a halo of flames In Gupta sculptures Agni is found with a halo of flames round the body the sacred thread across his chest a beard pot bellied and holding in his right hand a amrtaghata nectar pot 112 215 216 Many of these early carvings and early statues show just one head but elaborate details such as ear rings made of three fruits a detailed necklace a slightly smiling face wearing a crown and flames engraved into the hairs at the back of Agni s statue 112 215 The iconographic statues and reliefs of god Agni are typically present in the southeast corners of a Hindu temple However in rare temples where Agni is envisioned as a presiding astrological divinity according to texts such as the Samarangana Sutradhara he is assigned the northeast corner 113 Agni is historically considered to be present in every grihastha home and therein presented in one of three forms garhapatya for general domestic usage ahavaniya for inviting and welcoming a personage or deity and dakshinagni for fighting against all evil 114 Yaska states that his predecessor Sakapuṇi regarded the threefold existence of Agni as being in earth air and heaven as stated by the Rig Veda but a Brahmana considered the third manifestation to be the Sun Mythologies Edit Agni seated on a ram 14th 15th century Indonesia A sage of the Ṛg Veda Sukta IV iii 11 states that the Sun became visible when Agni was born 115 Epics Edit Offended by Agni Bhṛgu had cursed Agni to become the devourer of all things on this earth but Brahma modified that curse and made Agni the purifier of all things he touched 116 In the Khaṇḍava daha Parva Mahabharata CCXXV Agni in disguise approaches Krishna and Arjuna seeking sufficient food for gratification of his hunger and on being asked about the kind of food which would gratify Agni expressed the desire to consume the forest of Khaṇḍava protected by Indra for the sake of Takṣaka the chief of the Nagas Aided by Krishna and Arjuna Agni consumes the Khaṇḍava Forest which burnt for fifteen days sparing only Aswasena Maya and the four birds called sarangakas later as a boon Arjuna got all his weapons from Indra and also the bow Gaṇḍiva from Varuṇa 117 There is the story about King Shibi who was tested by Agni assuming the form of a pigeon and by Indra assuming the form of a hawk Shibi offered his own flesh to the hawk in exchange of pigeon s life The pigeon which had sought Shibi s shelter was thus saved by the king s sacrifice 118 Agniparikṣa or the Fire test has Agni as the witness In the Ramayaṇa Sita voluntarily goes through this ordeal to prove her virtue Puranas Edit Agni is the eldest son of Brahma In the Viṣṇu Puraṇa Agni called Abhimani is said to have sprung from the mouth of the Virat Puruṣa the Cosmic Man In another version Agni emerged from the ritual fire produced by the wife of Dharma eternal law named Vasubharya literally daughter of Light 119 According to the Puranic mythology Agni married Svaha invocation offering and fathered three sons Pavaka purifier Pavamana purifying and Suchi purity From these sons he has forty five grandchildren which are symbolic names of different aspects of a fire 119 120 In some texts Medha intelligence is Agni s sister 119 Relationships Edit Agni right with his son Skanda Karttikeya about 1st century CE Wife and children Edit Goddess Svaha is Agni s wife Her name is pronounced with offerings such as butter and seeds poured into the fire during ceremonies However like many names in Hindu traditions the name Svaha embeds symbolic meanings through its relationship with the Vedic word Svadha found in the hymns of the ṚgVeda Thomas Coburn states that the term Svadha refers to one s own particular nature or inclination and the secondary sense of a customary pleasure or enjoyment a refreshment that nourishes 121 Svaha is also found in the hymns of the Vedic literature in the sense of welcome praise to you This salutation is a remembrance of Agni as an aspect of that which is the source of all beings 121 As a goddess and wife of Agni Svaha represents this Shakti 122 In the text Devi Mahatmya of the goddess tradition of Hinduism Shaktism and in the Hindu mythologies Svaha is the daughter of Daksha Svaha has a crush for Agni She seduces him by successively impersonating six of seven women at a gurukul school that Agni desired for and thus with him has a baby who grows to become god Skanda the god of war Other chapters suggest he was the son of the god Shiva 122 The Mahabharata also mentions that when Agni was residing at Mahishmati he fell in love with the daughter of king Nila In the guise of a Brahmana he asked for the hand of the princess but the king refused and was about to punish him Agni revealed his true form and flamed up in wrath The frightened king apologized and bestowed his daughter on Agni In return Agni promised protection of the city during any invasion 123 Other gods Edit Agni is identified with same characteristics equivalent personality or stated to be identical as many major and minor gods in different layers of the Vedic literature including Vayu Soma Rudra Shiva Varuṇa and Mitra 124 125 In hymn 2 1 of the ṚgVeda in successive verses Agni is identified to be the same as twelve gods and five goddesses 125 Some of the gods that Agni is identified with Prajapati The vedic text Shatapatha Brahmana in section 6 1 2 describes how and why Prajapati is the father of Agni and also the son of Agni because they both are the image of the one Atman Soul Self that was is and will be the true eternal identity of the universe 126 The Prajapati cosmic Purusha and Agni are stated to be the same in sections 6 1 1 and 6 2 1 of Shatapatha Brahmana 127 Varuṇa and Mitra when Agni is born he is Varuṇa when he is kindled he is Mitra 125 He is also stated to become Varuṇa in the evening and he is Mitra when he rises in the morning 125 Indra Agni is generally presented as Indra s twin they both go and appear together 128 In chapter 13 3 of the Atharvaveda Agni is said to become Indra when he illumines the sky 125 Agni is also called Vishva Vedah f dawn which refers both to Indra the Protector and to the all knowing Agni 129 Rudra in the ṚgVeda Agni is addressed as having the same fierce nature as Rudra 130 g The Shiva linga represents that pillar of fire which is Agni 131 132 a Skambha symbolism borrowed in some Buddhist artworks 133 The verses 8 through 18 in section 6 1 3 of the Shatapatha Brahmana state Rudra is same as Agni who is known by many other names 134 Later in section 9 1 1 the Shatapatha Brahmana states this entire Agni fire altar has now been completed he is now this god Rudra 134 Savitr Sun Agni is same as Savitr during the day as he traverses the space delivering light and energy to all living beings 125 Vayu and Soma in the Vedas Agni or fire light and heat Vayu or air energy and action and Soma or water are major deities who cooperate to empower all life In some passages they are stated to be aspects of the same energy and principle that transforms 124 135 Gayatri is identified with Agni in Aitareya Brahmana section 1 1 Jaiminiya Brahmana section 3 184 and Taittiriya Brahmana section 7 8 and the most revered Gayatri meter in the Sanskrit prosody and Hindu traditions is associated with Agni 127 Vac goddess of speech and Praṇa life force are identified with Agni in Jaiminiya Brahmana sections 1 1 and 2 54 Shatapatha Brahmana sections 2 2 2 and 3 2 2 127 Sarama in a hymn in praise of Agni h Rishi Parasara Saktya speaks of Sarama the goddess of Intuition the forerunner of the dawn of Truth in the Human mind who finds the Truth which is lost i It is Sarama who is a power of the Truth whose cows are the rays of the dawn of illumination and who awakens man who finds Agni standing in the supreme seat and goal 136 Buddhism EditCanonical texts Edit Left Agni sitting on a red goat as medicine Buddha in 15th century Tibetan Buddhist art Right Four armed Katen 火天 in 17th century Japan Agni Sanskrit Pali Aggi appears in many Buddhist canonical texts as both a god as well as a metaphor for the element of heart or fire In Pali literature he is also called Aggi Bhagava Jataveda and Vessanara 137 The Aggi Vacchagotta Sutta presents a philosophical exchange between Buddha and a wandering ascetic named Sreṇika Vatsagotra Sanskrit Pali Senika Vacchagotta 19 138 The conversation between Buddha and Sreṇika have remained a part of a debate that continues in modern Buddhism 19 139 It is called the Sreṇika heresy Traditional Chinese 先尼外道 Pinyin Xianni waidao Romaji Sennigedō 先尼外道 19 140 Sreṇika suggested that there is an eternal Self Atman that lives in a temporary physical body and is involved in rebirth In the Buddhist traditions the Buddha taught there is rebirth and Anatman or that there is no eternal Self The Pali texts state that Sreṇika disagreed and asked the Buddha many questions which the Buddha refused to answer calling his questions as indeterminate The Buddha clarified that were he to answer Sreṇika s questions it would entangle him 19 The Buddha explains the Dharma with Agni as a metaphor stating that just like fire is extinguished and no longer exists after it is extinguished in the same way all skandha that constitute a human being are extinguished after death Different versions of this debate appear throughout scripture across traditions such as the Mahaparinibbaṇa Sutta and the Mahaprajnaparamitōpadesa In some versions Sreṇika offers his own simile of Agni to further his views 19 Scholars such as Nagarjuna have extensively commented on the Sreṇika heresy 138 In a manner similar to the Hindu texts the Buddhist texts also treat Agni referred to as the fire element Tejas as a fundamental material and building block of nature For example in section 11 31 of the Visuddhimagga as well as the Rupakaṇḍa section of the Dhammasangani Agni and Tejas are credited as that which warms ages burns and digests food and life processes 43 Art Edit Agni is featured prominently in the art of the Mahayana tradition In Tibet he is one of the fifty one Buddhist deities found in the mandala of medicine Buddha 141 142 He appears in Tibetan Manjushri s mandalas as well where he is depicted with Brahma and Indra 143 The Tibetan iconography for Agni strongly resembles that found in the Hindu tradition with elements such as red colored skin a goat vehicle conical hair and crown a beard and wielding a pot of water or fire in one hand and rosary beads in the other Such art will often include Buddhist themes such as the dharma wheel white conch golden fish elephant the endless knot 141 In Theravada traditions such as that found in Thailand Agni is a minor deity Agni is called Phra Phloeng also spelled Phra Plerng literally holy flames 144 145 He is commonly depicted with two faces eight arms red in color wearing a headdress in the shape of a gourd and emitting flames Medieval era Thai literature describes him as a deity with seven tongues a purple crown of smoke and fiery complexion He rides a horse chariot a rhinoceros or a ram 144 Phra Phloeng s wife in these texts is stated to be Subanee Garudee or Swaha 144 Some Thai texts state Nilanon to be their son 146 The Buddhist Fire God Katen 火天 in Japanese art Dated 1127 CE Kyoto National Museum In East Asian Buddhism Agni is a dharmapala and often classed as one of a group of twelve deities Japanese Juniten 十二天 grouped together as directional guardians 147 In Japan he is called Katen 火天 He is included with the other eleven devas which include Taishakuten Sakra Indra Futen Vayu Emmaten Yama Rasetsuten Nirṛti Rakṣasa Ishanaten isana Bishamonten Vaisravaṇa Kubera Suiten Varuṇa Bonten Brahma Jiten Pṛthivi Nitten Surya Aditya and Gatten Candra 148 While iconography varies he is often depicted as an elderly mountain ascetic with two or three legs and two or four arms Jainism EditThe word Agni in Jainism refers to fire but not in the sense of Vedic ideas Agni appears in Jain thought as a guardian deity and in its cosmology He is one of the eight dikpalas or directional guardian deities in Jain temples along with these seven Indra Yama Nirrti Varuna Vayu Kubera and Isana They are typically standing with their iconography is similar to those found in Hindu and Buddhist temple pantheon 149 150 151 In ancient Jain thought living beings have souls and exist in myriad of realms and within the earth realm shared by human beings there are two kinds of beings mobile and immobile 152 153 The mobile beings which includes tiny insects birds aquatic life animals and human beings have two or more senses while the immobile beings have only a single sense ekenderiya 43 154 Among the single sense beings are plant beings air beings whirlwind j earth beings clay water beings dew drop and fire beings burning coal meteor lightning The last class of beings are Agni bodies and these are believed to contain soul and fire bodied beings 21 152 Ahimsa or non violence is the highest precept in Jainism In their spiritual pursuits Jain monks go to great lengths to practice Ahimsa they neither start Agni nor extinguish Agni because doing so is considered violent to fire beings and an act that creates harmful Karma 43 156 Agni kumara or fire princes are a part of Jain theory of rebirth and a class of reincarnated beings 22 Agni or Tejas are terms used to describe substances and concepts that create beings and in which transmigrating soul gets bound according to Jainism theology 157 Ancient medicine and food EditMain article Agni Ayurveda Agni as constitutive principle of fire or heat was incorporated in Hindu texts of ancient medicine such as the Charaka Samhita and Sushruta Samhita It is along with Soma the two classification premises in the pre 4th century CE medical texts found in Hinduism and Buddhism Agni related category states Dominik Wujastyk included that of hot fiery dry or parched types while Soma related category included moist nourishing soothing and cooling types This classification system was a basis of grouping medicinal herbs seasons of the year tastes and foods empirical diagnosis of human illnesses veterinary medicine and many other aspects of health and lifestyle 158 159 160 Agni was viewed as the life force in a healthy body the power to digest foods and innate in food 161 162 In Ayurveda states Fleischman the amount of Agni determines the state of health 163 Agni is an important entity in Ayurveda Agni is the fiery metabolic energy of digestion allows assimilation of food while ridding the body of waste and toxins and transforms dense physical matter into subtle forms of energy the body needs Jathar agni determines the production of hydrochloric acid in the stomach Bhuta agni determines the production of bile in the liver Kloma agni determines the production of sugar digesting pancreatic enzymes and so forth The nature and quality of these agnis depend on one s dosha which can be vata pitta or kapha 164 Agni is also known as Vaisvanara Just as the illuminating power in the fire is a part of Agni s own effulgence even so the heating power in the foods digestive and appetizing power is also a part of Agni s energy or potency 165 See also EditAgneya Agni s daughter Atar Zoroastrian yazata of fire Ugnis fire in Lithuanian etymology Eternal flame Hestia Greek goddess of the hearth Kamui Fuchi Ainu fire goddess Matarisvan Vahagn Armenian god of fire and war Vesta Roman goddess of the hearthNotes Edit The Vedic idea that the sun lightning and fire were different manifestation of the same element and principle is summarized in many Hindu texts such as the ancient Bṛhaddevata 43 The Trimurti idea of Hinduism states Jan Gonda seems to have developed from ancient cosmological and ritualistic speculations about the triple character of an individual god in the first place of Agni whose births are three or threefold and who is threefold light has three bodies and three stations 45 218 219 Other trinities beyond the more common Brahma Vishnu Shiva mentioned in ancient and medieval Hindu texts include Indra Vishnu Brahmanaspati Agni Indra Surya Agni Vayu Aditya Mahalakshmi Mahasarasvati and Mahakali and others 45 212 226 46 Other hymns of the Rigveda link Ṛta cosmic harmony to other Vedic deities such as verse 10 133 6 calls on Indra for guidance on Ṛta 51 This prayer to Agni appears in Rigveda verse 1 89 1 composed before 1200 BCE 66 The two rake the holy vow in the presence of Agni In the first four rounds the bride leads and the groom follows and in the final three the groom leads and the bride follows While walking around the fire the bride places her right palm on the groom s right palm and the bride s brother pours some unhusked rice or barley into their hands and they offer it to the fire 83 व श वव द appearing in the Taittiriya Samhita IV iii 2 10 अभ न मम स मत व श वव द आष ट प रत ष ठ मव दद ध ग धम and in the Rig Veda य प यव म मत य त अग न पश यन त अन ध द र त दरक षन In a prayer R V I 27 10 addressed to Agni the sage prays जर ब ध तद व व ड ढ व श व श यज ञ य य स व ध य द व आ सप त यह व र य Rig Veda I 72 8 He says व दद गव य सरम द हम र वम य न न क म न ष भ जत व ट Sarama discovered the strong and wide places of the hidden knowledge this discovery brings happiness to all human beings For other examples from Uttaradhyayana Sutra text of Jainism see Chapple 155 References Edit Williams George M 2008 Handbook of Hindu Mythology Oxford University Press p 48 ISBN 978 0 19 533261 2 O Flaherty Wendy Doniger 1994 Hindu Myths 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of the Principal Myths and Religions of the World ISBN 1 84056 070 3 Payne Richard 2015 Witzel Michael ed Homa Variations The study of ritual change across the longue duree Oxford University Press pp 1 3 ISBN 978 0 19 935158 9 Michaels Axel 2016 Homo Ritualis Hindu hitual and its significance for ritual theory Oxford University Press pp 237 248 ISBN 978 0 19 026263 1 a b c d Williams George M 2008 Handbook of Hindu Mythology Oxford University Press pp 48 51 ISBN 978 0 19 533261 2 Skorupski Tadeusz 2015 Witzel Michael ed Homa Variations The study of ritual change across the longue duree Oxford University Press pp 78 84 ISBN 978 0 19 935158 9 a b N J Shende 1965 Agni in the Brahmanas of the Ṛgveda Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute Volume 46 Number 1 4 pages 1 28 a b Hopkins Edward Washburn 1968 Epic Mythology Biblo amp Tannen pp 97 99 ISBN 978 0 8196 0228 2 a b Bettina Baumer Kapila Vatsyayan 1988 Kalatattvakosa A Lexicon of Fundamental Concepts of the Indian Arts Motilal Banarsidass pp 203 204 ISBN 978 81 208 1402 8 Davids T W Rhys Stede William 1905 The Pali English Dictionary Asian Educational Services pp 4 5 ISBN 978 81 206 1273 0 a b c d e f Buswell Robert E Jr Lopez Donald S Jr 2013 The Princeton Dictionary of Buddhism Princeton University Press pp 852 962 ISBN 978 1 4008 4805 8 Abe Masao Heine Steven 1992 A Study of Dogen His philosophy and religion State University of New York Press pp 158 162 ISBN 978 0 7914 0837 7 a b Chapple Christopher Key 2006 Jainism and Ecology Nonviolence in the Web of Life Motilal Banarsidass pp 31 43 44 56 173 175 ISBN 978 81 208 2045 6 a b von Glasenapp Helmuth 1999 Jainism An Indian Religion of Salvation Motilal Banarsidass pp 263 264 ISBN 978 81 208 1376 2 Baumer Bettina Vatsyayan Kapila 1988 Kalatattvakosa A Lexicon of Fundamental Concepts of the Indian Arts Motilal Banarsidass pp 226 227 ISBN 978 81 208 1402 8 Tagliavini 1963 p 103 Orel 1998 p 88 Lurker 2005 p 57 Phillips Maurice 1895 The Teaching of the 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Surendranath 1933 A History of Indian Philosophy Cambridge University Press pp 73 76 ISBN 978 0 521 04779 1 Monier Williams Sir Monier ed 1899 अग न A Sanskrit English Dictionary Reprint 2005 Delhi Montilal Banarsidass Publishers ISBN 9788120831056 via Google Books Gonda Jan 1980 Deities and their position and function Handbuch Der Orientalistik Indien Zweite Abteilung BRILL Academic pp 301 302 ISBN 978 90 04 06210 8 Mahabharata Sabha Parva Digvijaya Parva XXXI prayer of Sahadeva a b c d Bodewitz H W 1976 The Daily Evening and Morning Offering Agnihotra According to the Brahmanas Motilal Banarsidass pp 14 19 ISBN 978 81 208 1951 1 a b O Flaherty Wendy Doniger 1994 Hindu Myths Penguin Books pp 97 98 ISBN 978 0 14 400011 1 Doniger Wendy 1981 The Rig Veda An Anthology One Hundred and Eight Hymns Selected Translated and Annotated Penguin Books pp 80 97 ISBN 978 0 14 044402 5 a b c d e Baumer Bettina Vatsyayan Kapila 1988 Kalatattvakosa A Lexicon of Fundamental Concepts of the Indian Arts Motilal Banarsidass pp 225 226 ISBN 978 81 208 1402 8 Danielou Alain 1991 The Myths and Gods of India The Classic Work on Hindu Polytheism from the Princeton Bollingen Series Inner Traditions pp 106 107 ISBN 978 0 89281 354 4 a b Gonda Jan 1969 The Hindu Trinity Anthropos Bd 63 64 H 1 2 212 226 JSTOR 40457085 White David 2006 Kiss of the Yogini University of Chicago Press pp 4 29 ISBN 978 0 226 89484 3 Satapatha Brahmana Part 1 SBE12 sacred texts com First Kan da I 2 3 Third Brahmana a b Fowler Merv 1999 Buddhism Beliefs and practices Sussex Academic Press pp 6 7 ISBN 978 1 898723 66 0 Doniger Wendy 1988 Textual Sources for the Study of Hinduism Manchester University Press pp 6 7 ISBN 978 0 7190 1866 4 Mahony William K 1998 The Artful Universe An Introduction to the Vedic Religious Imagination State University of New York Press p 123 verse 8 ISBN 978 0 7914 3580 9 Mahony William K 1998 The Artful Universe An Introduction to the Vedic Religious Imagination State University of New York Press pp 46 55 ISBN 978 0 7914 3580 9 a b Stephanie W Jamison Joel P Brereton 2014 The Rigveda 3 Volume Set Oxford University Press pp 41 42 ISBN 978 0 19 972078 1 MacDonell Arthur Anthony 1898 Vedic Mythology Motilal Banarsidass pp 71 93 95 99 100 ISBN 978 81 208 1113 3 O Flaherty Wendy Doniger 1994 Hindu Myths Penguin Books pp 97 101 ISBN 978 0 14 400011 1 Encyclopaedia of the Hindu World Vol 1 Concept Publishing Company 1992 p 210 ISBN 9788170223740 Klostermaier Klaus K 2010 A Survey of Hinduism Third Edition State University of New York Press pp 103 with footnote 10 on page 529 ISBN 978 0 7914 8011 3 Doniger Wendy 1981 The Rig Veda An Anthology One Hundred and Eight Hymns Selected Translated and Annotated Penguin Books p 80 ISBN 978 0 14 044402 5 Sanskrit इन द र म त र वर णमग न म ह रथ द व य स स पर ण गर त म न एक सद व प र बह ध वदन त यग न यम म तर श व नम ह ४६ ऋग व द स क त १ १६४ Wikisource a b Paul Deussen Sixty Upanishads of the Veda Volume 1 Motilal Banarsidass ISBN 978 81 208 1468 4 pages 122 126 with preface and footnotes Max Muller Chandogya Upanishad 4 4 4 9 The Upanishads Part I Oxford University Press pages 60 64 with footnotes Robert Hume Chandogya Upanishad 4 4 4 9 The Thirteen Principal Upanishads Oxford University Press pages 218 221 Chandogya Upanishad with Shankara Bhashya Ganganath Jha Translator pages 189 198 Robert Hume Chandogya Upanishad 1 13 1 1 13 4 The Thirteen Principal Upanishads Oxford University Press pages 189 190 Vajasaneyi Samhita Isha Upanishad Translated by Muller Max Oxford University Press pp 313 314 Deussen Paul 1990 Sixty Upaniṣads of the Veda Vol Part 2 Motilal Banarsidass p 551 ISBN 978 81 208 0430 2 E Washburn Hopkins 1908 The Mediatorial Office of the Vedic Fire God The Harvard Theological Review Cambridge University Press Volume 1 Number 4 page 509 Maitri Upanishad Sanskrit Text with English Translation permanent dead link EB Cowell Translator Cambridge University Bibliotheca Indica page 254 Hume Robert Ernest 1921 The Thirteen Principal Upanishads Oxford University Press p 422 Muller Max Maitrayana Brahmana Upanishad The Upanishads Vol Part 2 Oxford University Press p 302 Deussen Paul 1980 Sixty Upaniṣads of the Veda Vol Part 1 Motilal Banarsidass pp 343 344 ISBN 978 81 208 1468 4 a b c d Deussen Paul 1980 Sixty Upaniṣads of the Veda Part 1 Motilal Banarsidass pp 207 208 211 213 verses 14 28 ISBN 978 81 208 1468 4 a b Charles Johnston Kena Upanishad in The Mukhya Upanishads Books of Hidden Wisdom 1920 1931 The Mukhya Upanishads Kshetra Books ISBN 978 1 4959 4653 0 Reprinted in 2014 Archive of Kena Upanishad Part 3 as published in Theosophical Quarterly pages 229 232 Kena Upanishad Mantra 12 G Prasadji Translator pages 23 26 Max Muller The Upanishads Part 2 Prasna Upanishad Second Question Verse 2 1 Oxford University Press pages 274 275 Deussen Paul 1990 Sixty Upaniṣads of the Veda Vol Part 2 Motilal Banarsidass pp 592 593 ISBN 978 81 208 0430 2 Robert Hume Prasna Upanishad Thirteen Principal Upanishads Oxford University Press pages 381 382 Ayyangar TR Srinivasa 1938 The Yoga Upanishads The Adyar Library pp 92 314 355 378 Ayyangar TRS 1953 Saiva Upanisads Jain Publishing Co Reprint 2007 p 196 ISBN 978 0 89581 981 9 Hattangadi Sunder 2000 र द रह दय पन षत Rudrahridaya Upanishad PDF in Sanskrit p 2 Retrieved 2 March 2016 Mundaka Upanishad PDF BBC News article on Hinduism amp Weddings Nawal Prinja 24 August 2009 Office of the Registrar General Government of India 1962 v 20 pt 6 no 2 Manager of Publications Government of India On Hindu wedding rituals a b Sinha Shivendra Kumar 2008 Basics of Hinduism ISBN 978 81 7806 155 9 Census of India 1961 Manager of Publications Government of India Report Vol 20 part 6 Office of the Registrar General Government of India 1962 The bride leads in all the first six pheras but follows the bridegroom on the seventh Bodewitz H W 1976 The Daily Evening and Morning Offering Agnihotra According to the Brahmaṇas BRILL Academic pp 1 4 ISBN 978 90 04 04532 3 Bodewitz H W 1976 The Daily Evening and Morning Offering Agnihotra According to the Brahmaṇas BRILL Academic pp 5 14 ISBN 978 90 04 04532 3 Essays in Indian Philosophy Religion and Literature Motilal Banarsidass 2004 pp 54 55 ISBN 9788120819788 Eggeling Julius 1882 The Satapatha Brahmana pp 327 329 a b Fowler Jeaneane D 1997 Hinduism Beliefs and Practices Sussex Academic Press p 71 ISBN 978 1 898723 60 8 Peirce Elizabeth 2003 Multi Faith Activity Assemblies Routledge pp 238 239 ISBN 978 1 134 41163 4 Huyler Stephen P 2002 Meeting God Elements of Hindu Devotion Yale University Press pp 60 64 ISBN 978 0 300 08905 9 Doniger Wendy 2010 The Hindus An Alternative History Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 959334 7 Pbk Feller Danielle 2004 Sanskrit Epics Motilal Banarsidass p 91 ISBN 9788120820081 Kaelber Walter O 1989 Tapta Marga Asceticism and Initiation in Vedic India State University of New York Press pp 36 37 52 ISBN 9780887068133 Grimes John A 1996 A Concise Dictionary of Indian Philosophy SUNY Press p 18 ISBN 9780791430675 Categorisation in Indian Philosophy Ashgate Publishing 1980 p 14 Gupta Bina 19 April 2012 An Introduction to Indian Philosophy Routledge pp 22 24 ISBN 9781136653100 Fowler Jeaneane D 2012 Hinduism Beliefs and Practices Sussex Academic Press p 98 ISBN 9781105817267 Gandhi Kishor ed 2007 The Transition to a Global Consciousness Allied Publishers p 294 ISBN 9788184241945 Rig Veda I xliv 4 Kashyap R L Agni in Rig Veda Sri Aurobindo Kapali Sastry Institute of Vedic Culture p 14 ASIN 817994042X Kanvasatpathabrahmanam Vol 3 Motilal Banarsidas 1994 p 21 ISBN 9788120815490 The Rig Veda Oxford University Press 23 April 2014 p 783 ISBN 9780199720781 Dalal Roshen 2010 Hinduism An Alphabetical Guide Penguin Books p 10 ISBN 978 0 14 341421 6 Dallapiccola Anna Libera 2010 South Indian Paintings A catalogue of the British Museum collection British Museum Press p 145 ISBN 978 0 7141 2424 7 Rao Saligrama Krishna Ramachandra 2005 The compendium on Gaṇesa p 5 a b c Danielou Alain 1991 The Myths and Gods of India The Classic Work on Hindu Polytheism from the Princeton Bollingen Series Inner Traditions pp 88 89 ISBN 978 0 89281 354 4 Jansen Eva Rudy 1993 The Book of Hindu Imagery Gods Manifestations and Their Meaning p 64 Poole Colin M Duckworth John W 2005 A documented 20th century record of Javan Rhinoceros Rhinoceros sondaicus from Cambodia Mammalia 69 3 4 443 444 doi 10 1515 mamm 2005 039 S2CID 85394693 Stonner Heinrich 1925 Erklarung des Nashornreiters auf den Reliefs von Angkor Vat Artibus Asiae 1 2 128 130 doi 10 2307 3248014 JSTOR 3248014 a b Charles Russell Coulter Patricia Turner 2013 Encyclopedia of Ancient Deities Routledge p 26 ISBN 978 1 135 96390 3 a b c Quantanilla Sonya Rhie 2007 History of Early Stone Sculpture of Mathura BRILL ISBN 978 9004155374 Stella Kramrisch Raymond Burnier 1976 The Hindu Temple Motilal Banarsidass p 33 ISBN 978 81 208 0223 0 Chaturvedi B K Agni Purana Diamond Pocket Books pp 18 21 MacDonell Arthur Anthony 1995 Vedic Mythology Motilal Banarsidass pp 88 99 ISBN 9788120811133 Encyclopaedia of the Hindu World Vol 1 Concept Publishing 1992 pp 210 212 ISBN 9788170223740 The Mahabharata Sacred texts com Vol Book 1 pp 434 447 Eastern Wisdom Wilder Publications April 2008 p 200 ISBN 9781604593051 a b c Danielou Alain December 1991 The Myths and Gods of India Inner Traditions p 88 ISBN 9781594777332 Dowson John 1961 A Classical Dictionary of Hindu Mythology and Religion Geography history and literature Kessinger Publishing ISBN 0 7661 7589 8 a b Coburn Thomas B 1988 Devi Mahatmya The Crystallization of the Goddess Tradition Motilal Banarsidass pp 164 165 ISBN 978 81 208 0557 6 a b Coburn Thomas B 1988 Devi Mahatmya The Crystallization of the Goddess Tradition Motilal Banarsidass pp 165 166 317 318 with footnotes ISBN 978 81 208 0557 6 Mahabharata Sabha Parva Digvijaya Parva Section XXXI a b Smith Frederick M 1985 Names of Agni in the Vedic ritual Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute 66 1 4 219 221 with footnotes JSTOR 41693607 a b c d e f MacDonell Arthur Anthony 1898 Vedic Mythology Motilal Banarsidass p 95 ISBN 978 81 208 1113 3 David Shulman Guy S Stroumsa 2002 Self and Self Transformations in the History of Religions Oxford University Press pp 24 25 ISBN 978 0 19 534933 7 a b c Bettina Baumer Kapila Vatsyayan 1988 Kalatattvakosa A lexicon of fundamental concepts of the Indian arts Motilal Banarsidass p 216 ISBN 978 81 208 1402 8 Muller Friedrich Max 1897 Contributions to the Science of Mythology Longmans Green p 827 Tilak Bal Gangadhar May 2011 The Arctic Home of the Vedas Arktos pp 88 93 ISBN 9781907166341 According to Satarudriya oblation section of the Yajurveda Pattanaik Devdutt 2011 7 Secrets of Shiva Westland pp 11 13 ISBN 9789380658636 Stone statue of Shiva as Lingodbhava British Museum Archived from the original on 6 July 2010 Retrieved 22 July 2016 Shah Umakant Premanand 1987 Jaina Iconography Abhinav Publications p 11 ISBN 978 81 7017 208 6 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orchids of Asia Singapore Springer pp 33 49 ISBN 978 3 319 24272 9 Steven Kossak Jane Casey Singer Robert Bruce Gardner 1998 Sacred Visions Early Paintings from Central Tibet Metropolitan Museum of Art pp 68 69 158 159 ISBN 978 0 87099 862 1 a b c Clontz Jack M 2016 Khon Mask Thailand Heritage MOCA Bangkok p 250 ISBN 978 1 78301 872 7 Justin Thomas McDaniel Lynn Ransom 2015 From Mulberry Leaves to Silk Scrolls New approaches to the study of Asian manuscript traditions University of Pennsylvania Press pp 26 27 35 ISBN 978 0 8122 4736 7 Clontz Jack M 2016 Khon Mask Thailand Heritage MOCA Bangkok p 318 ISBN 978 1 78301 872 7 Twelve heavenly deities devas emuseum jp Japan Nara National Museum Archived from the original on 4 March 2016 Retrieved 31 December 2015 Juuniten 十二天 JAANUS Retrieved 23 January 2019 Kumar Sehdev 2001 A Thousand Petalled Lotus Jain Temples of Rajasthan Architecture amp Iconography Abhinav Publications p 18 ISBN 978 81 7017 348 9 Charles Russell Coulter Patricia Turner 2013 Encyclopedia of Ancient Deities Routledge p 152 ISBN 978 1 135 96390 3 For Osian Jain temple example Kalia Asha 1982 Art of Osian Temples Socio economic and Religious Life in India 8th 12th Centuries A D Abhinav Publications pp 130 131 ISBN 978 0 391 02558 5 a b Cort John E 2001 Jains in the World Religious values and ideology in India Oxford University Press pp 20 21 ISBN 978 0 19 803037 9 Neil Dalal Chloe Taylor 2014 Asian Perspectives on Animal Ethics Rethinking the Nonhuman Routledge p 40 ISBN 978 1 317 74995 0 Chapple Christopher Key 2006 Jainism and Ecology Nonviolence in the Web of Life Motilal Banarsidass pp xiv xviii 3 8 ISBN 978 81 208 2045 6 Chapple Christopher Key 2006 Jainism and Ecology Nonviolence in the Web of Life Motilal Banarsidass p 56 ISBN 978 81 208 2045 6 Chapple Christopher Key 2006 Jainism and Ecology Nonviolence in the Web of Life Motilal Banarsidass pp 46 31 48 ISBN 978 81 208 2045 6 Bettina Baumer Kapila Vatsyayan 1988 Kalatattvakosa A Lexicon of Fundamental Concepts of the Indian Arts Motilal Banarsidass pp 271 274 ISBN 978 81 208 1402 8 Wujastyk D 2004 Agni and Soma A Universal Classification Studia Asiatica Bucharest Romania 4 5 347 369 PMC 2585368 PMID 19030111 Wujastyk D 2003 The Roots of Ayurveda Selections from Sanskrit Medical Writings Penguin pp xviii 74 197 198 ISBN 978 0 14 044824 5 Chopra Arvind Doiphode Vijay V 2002 Ayurvedic medicine core concept therapeutic principles and current relevance Medical Clinics of North America 86 1 75 89 doi 10 1016 s0025 7125 03 00073 7 PMID 11795092 Loukas Marios Lanteri Alexis Ferrauiola Julie et al 2010 Anatomy in ancient India a focus on the Susruta Samhita Journal of Anatomy 217 6 646 650 doi 10 1111 j 1469 7580 2010 01294 x PMC 3039177 PMID 20887391 Zimmermann Francis 1988 The jungle and the aroma of meats An ecological theme in Hindu medicine Social Science amp Medicine 27 3 197 206 doi 10 1016 0277 9536 88 90121 9 PMC 1036075 PMID 3175704 Guha Amala 2006 Ayurvedic Concept of Food and Nutrition Ayurveda Health and Nutrition 4 1 Retrieved 12 October 2016 Fleischman P R 1976 Ayurveda International Journal of Social Psychiatry 22 4 282 287 doi 10 1177 002076407602200406 PMID 799625 S2CID 220642164 Yoga Journal Sep Oct 2003 Active Interest Media September October 2003 p 38 Goyandka Jayadayal Srimadbhagavadagita Tattvavivecani Gita Press page 613 verses BG 15 14 Works cited Edit Lurker Manfred 2005 The Routledge Dictionary of Gods and Goddesses Devils and Demons Routledge Taylor amp Francis ISBN 0 203 64351 8 Orel Vladimir 1998 Albanian etymological dictionary Brill ISBN 978 90 04 11024 3 Tagliavini Carlo 1963 Storia di parole pagane e cristiane attraverso i tempi Brescia Morcelliana External links Edit Wikimedia Commons has media related to Agni God Wikiquote has quotations related to Agni Agni Indian god Encyclopaedia Britannica Agni Suktam PDF Rigveda Ramakṛṣṇa Janasvami University of Massachusetts Archived from the original PDF on 12 November 2020 Retrieved 13 October 2016 Agni the fire altar The Pluralism Project Harvard University Tull Herman Vedic Agni Oxford Bibliographies Agni athirathram org Forizs Laszlo Apaṁ Napat Dirghatamas and Construction of the Brick Altar Analysis of RV 1 143 Vedic Investigations Orig Eds Asko Parpola Masato Fujii and Stanley Insler Papers of the 12Th World Sanskrit Conference 97 126 Helsinki Finland 13 18 July 2003 Eds Asko Parpola and Petteri Koskikallio Delhi Motilal Banarsidass 2016 4277610 Dr K Parvathi Kumar Agni The Symbolism and the Ritual of Fire Dhanishta Publications Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Agni amp oldid 1143496625, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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