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Hungarian conquest of the Carpathian Basin

February 16, 2024

The Hungarian conquest of the Carpathian Basin,[1] also known as the Hungarian conquest[2] or the Hungarian land-taking[3] (Hungarian: honfoglalás, lit. 'taking/conquest of the homeland'),[4] was a series of historical events ending with the settlement of the Hungarians in Central Europe in the late 9th and early 10th century. Before the arrival of the Hungarians, three early medieval powers, the First Bulgarian Empire, East Francia, and Moravia, had fought each other for control of the Carpathian Basin. They occasionally hired Hungarian horsemen as soldiers. Therefore, the Hungarians who dwelt on the Pontic-Caspian Steppe east of the Carpathian Mountains were familiar with what would become their homeland when their conquest started.

Hungarian conquest (of the Carpathian Basin) – painting by Mihály Munkácsy

The Hungarian conquest started in the context of a "late or 'small' migration of peoples".[1] The Hungarians took possession of the Carpathian Basin in a pre-planned manner, with a long move-in between 862–895.[5] Other theories assert that the Hungarians crossed the Carpathian Mountains following a joint attack by the Pechenegs and Bulgarians in 894 or 895. They first took control over the lowlands east of the river Danube and attacked and occupied Pannonia (the region to the west of the river) in 900. They exploited internal conflicts in Moravia and annihilated this state sometime between 902 and 906.

The Hungarians strengthened their control over the Carpathian Basin by defeating the Bavarian army in a battle fought at Brezalauspurc on 4 July 907. They launched a series of campaigns to Western Europe between 899 and 955 and also targeted the Byzantine Empire between 943 and 971. However, they gradually settled in the basin and established a Christian monarchy, the Kingdom of Hungary, around 1000.

Hungarian Conquest of the Carpathian Basin

Background edit

Pre-conquest Hungarians edit

Main article: Hungarian prehistory
 
Map of the presumptive Hungarian prehistory
 
River Dniester at Dzvenyhorod (Chortkiv Raion, Ternopil Oblast, Ukraine)

The Hungarians arrived in the Carpathian Basin, in a geographically unified but politically divided land, after acquiring thorough local knowledge of the area from the 860s onwards.[6][7][8][9][10][11][12] After the end of the Avar Kaganate (c. 822), the Eastern Franks asserted their influence in Transdanubia, the Bulgarians to a small extent in the Southern Transylvania and the interior regions housed the surviving Avar population in their stateless state.[7][13] According to one theory the archaeological evidence, the Avar population survived the time of the Hungarian conquest of the Carpathian Basin.[14][7][11] In this power vacuum, The Hungarian conqueror elite took the system of the former Avar Kaganate, there is no trace of massacres and mass graves, it is believed to have been a peaceful transition for local residents in the Carpathian Basin.[14] Other scholars dismiss the continuity between late Avar and Hungarian Conquerors and/or the "double-conquest" (kettős honfoglalás) of the Carpathian basin.[15] According to historian Bálint Csanád "Not one single element (of the original theory) is tenable" and that a "compelling piece of evidence is that a genuine similarity between the Avar- and Conquest-period skeletal material could only be demonstrated in 4.5% of the theoretically potential cases".[16]

The Continuation of the Chronicle by George the Monk contains the earliest certain[17] reference to the Hungarians.[18] It states that Hungarian warriors intervened in a conflict between the Byzantine Empire and the Bulgarians on the latter's behalf in the Lower Danube region in 836 or 837.[19] The first known Hungarian raid in Central Europe was recorded in the Annals of St. Bertin,[20] which writes of "enemies, called Hungarians, hitherto unknown"[21] who ravaged King Louis the German's realm in 862.[20] Victor Spinei and other historians argue that Rastislav of Moravia, at war with Louis the German, hired Hungarians to invade East Francia.[20][22] Archbishop Theotmar of Salzburg clearly states in his letter of around 900 that the Moravians often allied with the Hungarians against the Germans.[22]

For many years [the Moravians] have in fact perpetrated the very crime of which they have only once falsely accused us. They themselves have taken in a large number of Hungarians and have shaved their own heads according to their heathen customs and they have sent them against our Christians, overcoming them, leading some away as captives, killing others, while still others, imprisoned, perished of hunger and thirst.

— Letter of Archbishop Theotmar of Salzburg and his suffragans to Pope John IX from around 900[23]

Porphyrogenitus mentions that the Hungarians dwelled in a territory that they called "Atelkouzou" until their invasion across the Carpathians.[24][25][26] He adds that it was located in the territory where the rivers Barouch, Koubou, Troullos, Broutos and Seretos[27] run.[28][29] Although the identification of the first two rivers with the Dnieper and the Southern Bug is not unanimously accepted, the last three names without doubt refer to the rivers Dniester, Prut and Siret.[29] In the wider region, at Subotsi on the river Adiamka, three graves (one of them belonging to a male buried with the skull and legs of his horse) are attributed to pre-conquest Hungarians.[29] However, these tombs may date to the 10th century.[30]

 
Heads of the seven Hungarian tribes, depicted in the Illuminated Chronicle

The Hungarians were organized into seven tribes that formed a confederation.[31] Constantine Porphyrogenitus mentions this number.[32] Anonymous seems to have preserved the Hungarian "Hetumoger" ("Seven Hungarians") denomination of the tribal confederation, although he writes of "seven leading persons"[33] jointly bearing this name instead of a political organization.[32]

The Hetumoger confederation was strengthened by the arrival of the Kabars,[31] who (according to Constantine) joined the Hungarians following their unsuccessful riot against the Khazar Khaganate.[34] The Hungarians and the Kabars are mentioned in the longer version of the Annals of Salzburg,[35] which relates that the Hungarians fought around Vienna, while the Kabars fought nearby at Culmite in 881.[36] Madgearu proposes that Kavar groups were already settled in the Tisza plain within the Carpathian Basin around 881, which may have given rise to the anachronistic reference to Cumans in the Gesta Hungarorum at the time of the Hungarian conquest.[37]

The Hetumoger confederation was under a dual leadership, according to Ibn Rusta and Gardizi (two Muslim scholars from the 10th and 11th centuries, respectively, whose geographical books preserved texts from an earlier work written by Abu Abdallah al-Jayhani from Bukhara).[38][39][40] The Hungarians' nominal or sacred leader was styled kende, while their military commander bore the title gyula.[39][41] The same authors add that the gyula commanded an army of 20,000 horsemen,[42] but the reliability of this number is uncertain.[43]

Regino of Prüm and other contemporary authors portray the 9th-century Hungarians as nomadic warriors.[44] Emperor Leo the Wise underlines the importance of horses to their military tactics.[45] Analysis of horse skulls found in Hungarian warriors graves has not revealed any significant difference between these horses and Western breeds.[46] Regino of Prüm states that the Hungarians knew "nothing about fighting hand-to-hand in formation or taking besieged cities",[47] but he underlines their archery skills.[48] Remains indicate that composite bows were the Hungarians' most important weapons.[49] In addition, slightly curved sabres were unearthed in many warrior tombs from the period.[50] Regino of Prüm noted the Hungarians' preference for deceptions such as apparent retreat in battle.[48] Contemporaneous writers also recounted their viciousness, represented by the slaughter of adult males in settlement raids.[51]

[The Hungarians] are armed with swords, body armor, bows and lances. Thus, in battles most of them bear double arms, carrying the lances high on their shoulders and holding the bows in their hands. They make use of both as need requires, but when pursued they use their bows to great advantage. Not only do they wear armor themselves, but the horses of their illustrious men are covered in front with iron or quilted material. They devote a great deal of attention and training to archery on horse-back. A huge herd of horses, ponies and mares, follows them, to provide both food and milk and, at the same time, to give the impression of a multitude.

— Leo the Wise: Tactics[52]

Inhabitants of the Carpathian Basin edit

Based on extant Hungarian chronicles, it is clear that more than one (occasionally extended) list existed of the peoples inhabiting the Carpathian Basin at the time of the Hungarian landtaking.[53] Anonymus, for instance, first writes of the "Slavs, Bulgarians, Vlachs and the shepherds of the Romans"[54] as inhabiting the territory,[55][56] but later he refers to "a people called Kozar"[57] and to the Székelys.[53] Similarly, Simon of Kéza first lists the "Slavs, Greeks, Germans, Moravians and Vlachs",[58][59] but later he adds that the Székelys also lived in the territory.[60] According to Macartney, those lists were based on multiple sources and do not document the real ethnic conditions of the Carpathian Basin around 900.[61] Ioan-Aurel Pop says that Simon of Kéza listed the peoples who inhabited the lands that the Hungarian conquered and the nearby territories.[62]

The Hungarians adopted the ancient (Celtic, Dacian or Germanic) names of the longest rivers in the Carpathian Basin from a Slavic-speaking population.[63] For instance, the Hungarian names of the rivers Danube (Duna), Dráva, Garam, Maros, Olt, Száva, Tisza and Vág were borrowed from Slavs.[63][64] The Hungarians also adopted a great number of hydronyms of Slavic origin, including Balaton ("swamp"), Beszterce ("swift river"), Túr ("aurochs' stream") and Zagyva ("sooty river").[63][65][66] Place names of Slavic origin abound across the Carpathian Basin.[67] For instance, Csongrád ("black fortress"), Nógrád ("new fortress"), Visegrád ("citadel") and other early medieval fortresses bore a Slavic name, while the name of Keszthely preserved the Latin word for fortress (castellum), with Slavic mediation.[67][68]

Besides the Slavs, the presence of a German-speaking population can be demonstrated, based on toponyms.[69] For example, the Hungarians adopted the Germanized form of the name of the river Vulka (whose name is of Slavic origin) and the document known as the Conversion of the Bavarians and the Carantanians from around 870 lists Germanic place names in Pannonia, including Salapiugin ("bend of the Zala") and Mosaburc ("fortress in the marshes").[70] The name of the Barca, Barót and other rivers could be either Turkic[66] or Slavic in origin.[71]

According to Béla Miklós Szőke's theory, the detailed description of the Magyars by western contemporary sources and the immediate Hungarian intervention in local wars suggest that the Hungarians had already lived on the eastern territories of the Carpathian Basin since the middle of the 9th century.[72][73] Regarding the right location of early Hungarian settlements, the Arabic geographer al-Jayhani (only snippets of his work survived in other Muslim authors' papers)[74] in the 870s placed the Hungarians between the Don and Danube rivers.[72] Szőke identifies al-Jayhani's Danube with the middle Danube region, as opposed to the previously assumed lower Danube region because, following al-Jayhani's description, the Christian Moravians were the western neighbors of the Magyars.[72]

Borderland of empires edit

See also: East Francia, First Bulgarian Empire, and Great Moravia
 
Central and Southeastern Europe around 850

The Carpathian Basin was controlled from the 560s by the Avars,[75] a Turkic-speaking people.[76] Upon their arrival in the region, they imposed their authority over the Gepids, who had dominated the territories east of the river Tisza.[77] However, the Gepids survived up until the second half of the 9th century, according to a reference in the Conversion of the Bavarians and the Carantanians to their groups dwelling in Lower Pannonia around 870.[69]

The Avars were initially nomadic horsemen, but both large cemeteries used by three or four generations and a growing number of settlements attest to their adoption of a sedentary (non-nomadic) way of life from the 8th century.[78][79] The Avars' power was destroyed between 791 and 795 by Charlemagne,[80] who occupied Transdanubia and attached it to his empire.[81] Archaeological investigation of early medieval rural settlements at Balatonmagyaród, Nemeskér and other places in Transdanubia demonstrate that their main features did not change with the fall of the Avar Khaganate.[82] New settlements appeared in the former borderlands with cemeteries characterised by objects with clear analogues in contemporary Bavaria, Bulgaria, Croatia, Moravia and other distant territories.[82] A manor defended by timber walls (similar to noble courts of other parts of the Carolingian Empire) was unearthed at Zalaszabar.[82]

Avar groups who remained under the rule of their khagan were frequently attacked by Slav warriors.[83] Therefore, the khagan asked Charlemagne to let his people settle in the region between Szombathely and Petronell in Pannonia.[84] His petition was accepted in 805.[84] The Conversion of the Bavarians and the Carantanians lists the Avars among the peoples under the ecclesiastic jurisdiction of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Salzburg around 870.[85] According to Pohl, it "simply proved impossible to keep up an Avar identity after Avar institutions and the high claims of their tradition had failed."[86] The growing number of archaeological evidence in Transdanubia also presumes Avar population in the Carpathian Basin at the eve of the 10th century.[87] Archaeological findings suggesting that there is a substantial late Avar presence on the Great Hungarian Plain, but it is difficult to determine the proper chronology.[87]

A charter issued in 860 by King Louis the German for the Mattsee Abbey may well attest that the Onogurs (another people of Turkic origin) were also present in the territory.[88] The charter refers to the "Marches of the Wangars" (marcha uuangariourum) situated in the westernmost regions of the Carpathian Basin.[89] The Wangar denomination seems to reflect the Slavic form of the Onogurs' ethnonym.[88]

 
Ruins of the 9th-century church at Zalavár

The territories attached to the Frankish Empire were initially governed by royal officers and local chieftains.[90] A Slavic prince named Pribina received large estates along the river Zala around 840.[91] He promoted the colonisation of his lands[92] and also erected Mosaburg, a fortress in the marshes.[91] Initially defended by timber walls, this "castle complex"[93] (András Róna-Tas) became an administrative center. It was strengthened by drystone walls at the end of the century. Four churches surrounded by cemeteries were unearthed in and around the settlement. At least one of them continued to be used up to the 11th century.[94]

Pribina died fighting the Moravians in 861, and his son Kocel inherited his estates.[95] Kocel was succeeded around 876 by Arnulf, a natural son of Carloman, king of East Francia.[96] Under his rule, Moravian troops interved into the conflict known as the "Wilhelminer War" and "laid waste from the Raab eastward" between 882 and 884, according to the Annals of Fulda.[97][98]

 
Europe around 900

Moravia emerged in the 820s[99] under its first known ruler, Mojmir I.[91] His successor, Rastislav, developed Moravia's military strength. He promoted the proselytizing activities of the Byzantine brothers, Constantine and Methodius in an attempt to seek independence from East Francia.[91][100] Moravia reached its "peak of importance" under Svatopluk I[101] who expanded its frontiers in all directions.[102]

Moravia's core territory is located in the regions on the northern Morava river, in the territory of the present-day Czech Republic and Slovakia.[103] However, Constantine Porphyrogenitus places "great Moravia, the unbaptized"[104] somewhere in the regions beyond Belgrade and Sirmium (Sremska Mitrovica, Serbia).[105] His report supported further theories on Moravia's location.[106] For instance, Kristó and Senga propose the existence of two Moravias (one in the north and other one in the south),[107] while Boba, Bowlus and Eggers argue that Moravia's core territory is in the region of the southern Morava river, in present-day Serbia.[108] The existence of a southern Moravian realm is not supported by artifacts, while strongholds unearthed at Mikulcice, Pohansko and other areas to the north of the middle Danube point at the existence of a power center in those regions.[109]

In addition to East Francia and Moravia, the First Bulgarian Empire was also deeply involved in the Carpathian Basin in the 9th century.[110] A late 10th-century Byzantine lexicon known as Suda adds that Krum of Bulgaria attacked the Avars from the southeast around 803.[111] The Royal Frankish Annals narrates that the Abodrites inhabiting "Dacia on the Danube",[112] most probably along the lower courses of the river Tisza, sought the assistance of the Franks against the Bulgars in 824.[113] Bulgarian troops also invaded Pannonia, "expelled the Slavic chieftains and appointed Bulgar governors instead"[114] in 827.[115][116] An inscription at Provadia refers to a Bulgarian military leader named Onegavonais drowning in the Tisza around the same time.[117] The emerging power of Moravia brought about a rapprochement between Bulgaria and East Francia in the 860s.[118] King Arnulf of East Francia sent an embassy to the Bulgarians in 892 in order "to renew the former peace and to ask that they should not sell salt to the Moravians".[119] The latter request suggests that the route from the salt mines of the eastern Carpathians to Moravia was controlled around that time by the Bulgarians.[120][121]

The anonymous author of the Gesta Hungarorum, instead of Svatopluk I of Moravia and other rulers known from contemporary sources, writes of personalities and polities that are not mentioned by chroniclers working at the end of the 9th century.[122] For instance, he refers to Menumorut residing in the castle of Bihar (Biharia, Romania), to Zobor "duke of Nitra by the grace of the Duke of the Czechs",[123] and to Gelou "a certain Vlach"[124] ruling over Transylvania.[122] According to historian Ryszard Grzesik, the reference to Gelou and his Vlachs evidences that the Vlachs had already settled in Transylvania by the time the Gesta was completed, while the stories about Zobor and Menumorut preserved the memory of the Hungarians' fight against the Moravians.[125] Translating Menumorut's name as "Great Moravian", Grzesik associates him with Svatopluk I and refutes the report of Menumorut's rule in Bihar.[126] Early medieval fortresses were unearthed at Bihar and other places east of the Tisza, but none of them definitively date to the 9th century.[127] In the case of Doboka (Dăbâca), two pairs of bell-shaped pendants with analogues in sites in Austria, Bulgaria and Poland have been unearthed, but Florin Curta dates them to the 9th century, while Alexandru Madgearu to the period between 975 and 1050.[128][129]

Conquest edit

Prelude (862–895) edit

 
The Hungarian land-taking

Three main theories attempt to explain the reasons for the "Hungarian land-taking".[130] One argues that it was an intended military operation, prearranged following previous raids, with the express purpose of occupying a new homeland.[130] This view (expounded, for example, by Bakay and Padányi) mainly follows the narration of Anonymus and later Hungarian chronicles.[131] The Hungarians took possession of the Carpathian Basin in a pre-planned manner, with a long move-in between 862–895.[132][133][134][135][136][137][138][139][140] This is confirmed by the archaeological findings, in the 10th century Hungarian cemeteries, the graves of women, children and elderly people are located next to the warriors, they were buried according to the same traditions, wore the same style of ornaments, and belonged to the same anthropological group. The Hungarian military events of the following years prove that the Hungarian population that settled in the Carpathian Basin was not a weakened population without a significant military power.[138] The opposite view maintains that a joint attack by the Pechenegs and the Bulgarians forced the Hungarians' hand.[141] Kristó, Tóth and the theory's other adherents refer to the unanimous testimony provided by the Annals of Fulda, Regino of Prüm and Porphyrogenitus on the connection between the Hungarians' conflict with the Bulgar-Pecheneg coalition and their withdrawal from the Pontic steppes.[142][143] An intermediate theory proposes that the Hungarians had for decades been considering a westward move when the Bulgarian-Pecheneg attack accelerated their decision to leave the Pontic-Caspian steppe.[144] For instance Róna-Tas argues, "[the] fact that, despite a series of unfortunate events, the Magyars managed to keep their heads above water goes to show that they were indeed ready to move on" when the Pechenegs attacked them.[145]

In fact, following a break of eleven years, the Hungarians returned to the Carpathian Basin in 892.[34] They came to assist Arnulf of East Francia against Svatopluk I of Moravia.[34][146] Widukind of Corvey and Liutprand of Cremona condemned the Frankish monarch for destroying the defense lines built along the empire's borders, because this also enabled the Hungarians to attack East Francia within a decade.[147]

Meanwhile Arnulf…could not overcome Sviatopolk, duke of the Moravians…and – alas! – having dismantled those very well fortified barriers which…are called "closures" by the populace. Arnulf summoned to his aid the nation of the Hungarians, greedy, rash, ignorant of almighty God but well versed in every crime, avid only for murder and plunder.

— Liutprand of Cremona: Retribution[148]

A late source,[149] Aventinus adds that Kurszán (Cusala), "king of the Hungarians" stipulated that his people would only fight the Moravians if they received the lands they were to occupy.[146] Accordingly, Aventinus continues, the Hungarians took possession of "both Dacias on this side and beyond" the Tisza east of the rivers Danube and Garam already in 893.[146] Indeed, the Hungarian chronicles unanimously state that the Székelys had already been present in the Carpathian Basin when the Hungarians moved in.[150] Kristó argues that Aventinus and the Hungarian historical tradition together point to an early occupation of the eastern territories of the Carpathian Basin by auxiliary troops of the Hungarian tribal confederation.[150]

 
Svatopluk I of Moravia disguised as a monk in Arnulf of East Francia's court in the Chronicle of Dalimil

The Annals of Fulda narrated in 894 that the Hungarians crossed the Danube into Pannonia where they "killed men and old women outright and carried off the young women alone with them like cattle to satisfy their lusts and reduced the whole" province "to desert".[151][152] Although the annalist writes of this Hungarian attack after the passage narrating Svatopluk I's death,[151] Györffy, Kristó,[153] Róna-Tas[154] and other historians suppose that the Hungarians invaded Pannonia in alliance with the Moravian monarch.[155] They argue that the "Legend of the White Horse" in the Hungarian chronicles preserved the memory of a treaty the Hungarians had made with Svatopluk I according to pagan customs.[156] The legend narrates that the Hungarians purchased their future homeland in the Carpathian Basin from Svatopluk for a white horse harnessed with gilded saddle and reins.[153]

Then [Kusid] came to the leader of the region who reigned after Attila and whose name was Zuatapolug, and saluted him in the name of his people [...]. On hearing this, Zuatapolug rejoiced greatly, for he thought that they were peasant people who would come and till his land; and so he dismissed the messenger graciously. [...] Then by a common resolve [the Hungarians] despatched the same messenger again to the said leader and sent to him for his land a big horse with a golden saddle adorned with the gold of Arabia and a golden bridle. Seeing it, the leader rejoiced all the more, thinking that they were sending gifts of homage in return for land. When therefore the messenger asked of him land, grass and water, he replied with a smile, "In return for the gift let them have as much as they desire." ...Then [the Hungarians] sent another messenger to the leader and this was the message which he delivered: "Arpad and his people say to you that you may no longer stay upon the land which they bought of you, for with the horse they bought your earth, with the bridle the grass, and with the saddle the water. And you, in your need and avarice, made to them a grant of land, grass and water." When this message was delivered to the leader, he said with a smile: "Let them kill the horse with a wooden mallet, and throw the bridle on the field, and throw the golden saddle into the water of the Danube." To which the messenger replied: "And what loss will that be to them, lord? If you kill the horse, you will give food for their dogs; if you throw the bridle on the field, their men will find the gold of the bridle when they mow the hay; if you throw the saddle into the Danube, their fishermen will lay out the gold of the saddle upon the bank and carry it home. If they have earth, grass and water, they have all."

— Illuminated Chronicle[157]

Ismail Ibn Ahmed, the emir of Khorasan, raided "the land of the Turks"[158] (the Karluks) in 893. Later he caused a new movement of peoples who one by one invaded the lands of their western neighbors in the Eurasian Steppe.[159][160] Al-Masudi clearly connects the westward movement of the Pechenegs and the Hungarians to previous fights between the Karluks, Ouzes and Kimeks.[161] Porphyrogenitus writes of a joint attack by the Khazars and Ouzes that compelled the Pechenegs to cross the Volga River sometime between 893 and 902[162] (most probably around 894).[160]

Originally, the Pechenegs had their dwelling on the river [Volga] and likewise on the river [Ural] (…). But fifty years ago the so-called Uzes made common cause with the Chazars and joined battle with the Pechenegs and prevailed over them and expelled them from their country (…).

— Constantine Porphyrogenitus: De Administrando Imperio[163]
 
Leo the Wise and his son, Constantine Porphyrogenitus on a Byzantine golden solidus
 
Seal of Simeon I of Bulgaria

The relationship between Bulgaria and the Byzantine Empire sharpened in 894, because Emperor Leo the Wise forced the Bulgarian merchants to leave Constantinople and settle in Thessaloniki.[164] Subsequently, Tzar Simeon I of Bulgaria invaded Byzantine territories[165] and defeated a small imperial troop.[166] The Byzantines approached the Hungarians to hire them to fight the Bulgarians.[165] Nicetas Sclerus, the Byzantine envoy, concluded a treaty with their leaders, Árpád and Kurszán (Kusan),[167] and Byzantine ships transferred Hungarian warriors across the Lower Danube.[165] The Hungarians invaded Bulgaria, forced Tzar Simeon to flee to the fortress of Dristra (now Silistra, Bulgaria) and plundered Preslav.[166] An interpolation in Porphyrogenitus's work states that the Hungarians had a prince named "Liountikas, son of Arpad"[104] at that time, which suggests that he was the commander of the army, but he might have been mentioned in the war context by chance.[168]

Simultaneously with the Hungarian attack from the north, the Byzantines invaded Bulgaria from the south. Tzar Simeon sent envoys to the Byzantine Empire to propose a truce. At the same time, he sent an embassy to the Pechenegs to incite them against the Hungarians.[166] He succeeded, and the Pechenegs broke into Hungarian territories from the east, forcing the Hungarian warriors to withdraw from Bulgaria.[169] The Bulgarians, according to Constantine Porphyrogenitus, attacked and routed the Hungarians.[165][170]

The Pechenegs destroyed the Hungarians' dwelling places.[165] Those who survived the double attack left the Pontic steppes and crossed the Carpathians in search of a new homeland.[165] The memory of the destruction brought by the Pechenegs seems to have been preserved by the Hungarians.[171] The Hungarian name of the Pechenegs (besenyő) corresponds to the old Hungarian word for eagle (bese). Thus the 14th-century Hungarian chronicles' story of eagles compelling the Hungarians' ancestors to cross the Carpathians most probably refers to the Pechenegs' attack.[171]

The Hungarians were (…) driven from their home (…) by a neighboring people called the Petchenegs, because they were superior to them in strength and number and because (…) their own country was not sufficient to accommodate their swelling numbers. After they had been forced to flee by the violence of the Petchenegs, they said goodbye to their homeland and set out to look for lands where they could live and establish settlements.

— Regino of Prüm: Chronicle[172]

[At] the invitation of Leo, the Christ-loving and glorious emperor [the Hungarians] crossed over and fought Symeon and totally defeated him, (…) and they went back to their own county. (…) But after Symeon (…) sent to the Pechenegs and made an agreement with them to attack and destroy [the Hungarians] And when [the latter] had gone off on a military expedition, the Pechenegs with Symeon came against [them] and completely destroyed their families and miserably expelled thence [those] who were guarding their country. When [the Hungarians] came back and found their country thus desolate and utterly ruined, they settled in the land where they live today (…).

— Constantine Porphyrogenitus: De Administrando Imperio[104]

Passing through the kingdom of the Bessi and the Cumani Albi and Susdalia and the city named Kyo, they crossed the mountains and came into a region where they saw innumerable eagles; and because of the eagles they could not stay in that place, for the eagles came down from the trees like flies and devoured both their herds and their horses. For God intended that they should go down more quickly into Hungary. During three months they made their descent from the mountains, and they came to the boundaries of the kingdom of Hungary, that is to Erdelw [...].

— Illuminated Chronicle[173]

First phase (c. 895–899) edit

 
The Hungarians' arrival in the Carpathian Basin depicted in the Illuminated Chronicle
 
Hungarian Conquest memorial at the Verecke Pass (Ukraine)

The date of the Hungarian invasion varies according to the source.[174] The earliest date (677) is preserved in the 14th-century versions of the "Hungarian Chronicle", while Anonymus gives the latest date (902).[175] Contemporaneous sources suggest that the invasion followed the 894 Bulgarian-Byzantine war.[176] The route taken across the Carpathians is also contested.[177][2] Anonymus and Simon of Kéza have the invading Hungarians crossing the northeastern passes, while the Illuminated Chronicle writes of their arrival in Transylvania.[178]

 
Berengar I of Italy

Regino of Prüm states that the Hungarians "roamed the wildernesses of the Pannonians and the Avars and sought their daily food by hunting and fishing"[47] following their arrival in the Carpathian Basin.[179] Their advance towards the Danube seems to have stimulated Arnulf, who was crowned emperor to entrust Braslav (the ruler of the region between the rivers Drava and Sava)[180] with the defense of all Pannonia in 896.[181] In 897 or 898 a civil war broke out between Mojmir II and Svatopluk II (two sons of the late Moravian ruler, Svatopluk I), in which Emperor Arnulf also intervened.[182][183][184] There is no mention of the Hungarians' activities in those years.[185]

The next event recorded in connection with the Hungarians is their raid against Italy in 899 and 900.[186] The letter of Archbishop Theotmar of Salzburg and his suffragans suggests that Emperor Arnulf incited them to attack King Berengar I of Italy.[187] They routed the Italian troops on 2 September at the river Brenta in a great battle[188] and plundered the region of Vercelli and Modena in the winter,[189] but the doge of Venice, Pietro Tribuno, defeated them at Venice on 29 June 900.[187] They returned from Italy when they learned of the death of Emperor Arnulf at the end of 899.[190]

According to Anonymous, the Hungarians fought with Menumorut before conquering Gelou's Transylvania.[191][192] Subsequently, the Hungarians turned against Salan,[193] the ruler of the central territories, according to this narrative.[194] In contrast with Anonymus, Simon of Kéza writes of the Hungarians' fight with Svatopluk following their arrival.[2] According to the Illuminated Chronicle, the Hungarians "remained quietly in Erdelw and rested their herds"[195] there after their crossing because of an attack by eagles.[2]

The Hungarian chronicles preserved two separate lists of the Hungarians' leaders at the time of the conquest.[196] Anonymus mentions Álmos, Előd, Künd, Ónd, Tas, Huba and Tétény,[197] while Simon of Kéza and the Illuminated Chronicle list Árpád, Szabolcs, Gyula, Örs, Künd, Lél and Vérbulcsú.[196][198] Contemporaneous or nearly contemporaneous sources make mention of Álmos (Constantine Porphyrogenitus), of Árpád (Continuation of the Chronicle by George the Monk and Constantine Porphyrogenitus), of Liountikas (Constantine Porphyrogenitus) and of Kurszán (Continuation of the Chronicle by George the Monk).[199]

According to the Illuminated Chronicle, Álmos, Árpád's father "could not enter Pannonia, for he was killed in Erdelw".[195][2] The episode implies that Álmos was the kende, the sacred ruler of the Hungarians, at the time of their destruction by the Pechenegs, which caused his sacrifice.[200] If his death was in fact the consequence of a ritual murder, his fate was similar to that of the Khazar khagans who were executed, according to Ibn Fadlan and al-Masudi, in the case of disasters affecting their whole people.[2]

Second phase (900–902) edit

The death of Arnulf released the Hungarians from their alliance with East Francia.[189] On their way back from Italy they expanded their rule over Pannonia.[201] According to Liutprand of Cremona, the Hungarians "claimed for themselves the nation of the Moravians, which King Arnulf had subdued with the aid of their might"[202] at the coronation of Arnulf's son, Louis the Child in 900.[203] The Annals of Grado relates that the Hungarians defeated the Moravians after their withdrawal from Italy.[204] Thereafter the Hungarians and the Moravians made an alliance and jointly invaded Bavaria, according to Aventinus.[205] However, the contemporary Annals of Fulda only refers to Hungarians reaching the river Enns.[206]

One of the Hungarian contingents crossed the Danube and plundered the territories on the river's north bank, but Luitpold, Margrave of Bavaria gathered troops and routed them between Passau and Krems an der Donau[207] on 20 November 900.[205] He had a strong fortress erected against them on the Enns.[208] Nevertheless, the Hungarians became the masters of the Carpathian Basin by the occupation of Pannonia.[205] The Russian Primary Chronicle may also reflect the memory of this event when relating how the Hungarians expelled the "Volokhi" or "Volkhi" who had earlier subjugated the Slavs' homeland in Pannonia, according to scholars who identify the Volokhi and Volkhi as Franks.[203][209] Other historians associate them either with Vlachs (Romanians),[210] or with ancient Romans.[211][209]

Over a long period the Slavs settled beside the Danube, where the Hungarian and Bulgarian lands now lie. From among these Slavs, parties scattered throughout the country and were known by appropriate names, according to the places where they settled. (...) [T]he [Volkhi][212] attacked the Danubian Slavs, settled among them, and did them violence... The Magyars passed by Kiev over the hill now called Hungarian and on arriving at the Dnieper, they pitched camp. They were nomads like the Polovcians. Coming out of the east, they struggled across the great mountains and began to fight against the neighboring [Volokhi][213] and Slavs. For the Slavs had settled there first, but the [Volokhi][213] had seized the territory of the Slavs. The Magyars subsequently expelled the [Volkhi],[213] took their land and settled among the Slavs, whom they reduced to submission. From that time the territory was called Hungarian.

— Russian Primary Chronicle[214]

King Louis the Child held a meeting at Regensburg in 901 to introduce further measures against the Hungarians.[208] Moravian envoys proposed peace between Moravia and East Francia, because the Hungarians had in the meantime plundered their country.[208] A Hungarian army invading Carinthia was defeated[215] in April 901, and Aventinus describes a defeat of the Hungarians by Margrave Luitpold at the river Fischa in the same year.[216]

Consolidation (902–907) edit

 
Ruins of the Moravian fortress at Ducové (Slovakia)

The date when Moravia ceased to exist is uncertain, because there is no clear evidence either of the "existence of Moravia as a state" after 902 (Spinei) or of its fall.[201] A short note in the Annales Alamannici refers to a "war with the Hungarians in Moravia" in 902, during which the "land (patria) succumbed", but this text is ambiguous.[217] Alternatively, the so-called Raffelstetten Customs Regulations mentions the "markets of the Moravians" around 905.[183] The Life of Saint Naum relates that the Hungarians occupied Moravia, adding that the Moravians who "were not captured by the Hungarians, ran to the Bulgars". Constantine Porphyrogenitus also connects the fall of Moravia to its occupation by the Hungarians.[218] The destruction of the early medieval urban centers and fortresses at Szepestamásfalva (Spišské Tomášovce), Dévény and other places in modern Slovakia is dated to the period around 900.[219]

After the death of (...) [Svatopluk I, his sons] remained at peace for a year and then strife and rebellion fell upon them and they made a civil war against one another and the [Hungarians] came and utterly ruined them and possessed their country, in which even now [the Hungarians] live. And those of the folk who were left were scattered and fled for refuge to the adjacent nations, to the Bulgarians and [Hungarians] and Croats and to the rest of the nations.

— Constantine Porphyrogenitus: De Administrando Imperio[220]

According to Anonymus, who does not write of Moravia, the Hungarians invaded the region of Nyitra (Nitra, Slovakia) and defeated and killed Zobor, the local Czech ruler, on Mount Zobor near his seat.[221] Thereafter, as Anonymus continues, the Hungarians first occupied Pannonia from the "Romans" and next battled with Glad and his army, which was composed of Bulgarians, Vlachs and Pechenegs from Banat.[56] Glad ceded few towns from his duchy.[222] Finally, Anonymus writes of a treaty between the Hungarians and Menumorut,[193] stipulating that the local ruler's daughter was to be given in marriage to Árpád's son, Zolta.[223] Macartney[224] argues that Anonymus's narration of both Menumorut and of Glad is basically a transcription of a much later report of the early 11th-century Achtum, Glad's alleged descendant.[225] In contrast, for instance, Madgearu maintains that Galad, Kladova, Gladeš and other place names recorded in Banat in the 14th century and 16th century attest to the memory of a local ruler named Glad.[226]

[The Hungarians] reached the region of Bega, and stayed there for two weeks while they conquered all the inhabitants of that land from the Mures to the Timis River and they received their sons as hostages. Then, moving the army on, they came to the Timis River and encamped beside the ford of Foeni and when they sought to cross the Timis's flow, there came to oppose them Glad, (...) the prince of that country, with a great army of horsemen and foot soldiers, supported by Cumans, Bulgarians and Vlachs. (...) God with His grace went before the Hungarians, He gave them a great victory and their enemies fell before them as bundles of hay before reapers. In that battle two dukes of the Cumans and three kneses of the Bulgarians were slain and Glad, their duke escaped in flight but all his army, melting like wax before flame, was destroyed at the point of the sword. (...) Prince Glad, having fled, as we said above, for fear of the Hungarians, entered the castle of Kovin. (...) [He] sent to seek peace with [the Hungarians] and of his own will delivered up the castle with diverse gifts.

— Anonymous: Gesta Hungarorum[227]

An important event following the conquest of the Carpathian Basin, the Bavarians' murder of Kurszán, was recorded by the longer version of the Annals of Saint Gall, the Annales Alamannici and the Annals of Einsiedeln.[228] The first places the event in 902, while the others date it to 904.[228][229] The three chronicles unanimously state that the Bavarians invited the Hungarian leader to a dinner on the pretext of negotiating a peace treaty and treacherously assassinated him.[230] Kristó and other Hungarian historians argue that the dual leadership over the Hungarians ended with Kurszán's death.[231][232]

The Hungarians invaded Italy using the so-called "Route of the Hungarians" (Strada Ungarorum), leading from Pannonia to Lombardy, in 904.[233] They arrived as King Berengar I's allies[229] against his rival, King Louis of Provance. The Hungarians devastated the territories occupied earlier by King Louis along the river Po, which ensured Berengar's victory. The victorious monarch allowed the Hungarians to pillage all the towns that had earlier accepted his opponent's rule,[233] and agreed to pay a yearly tribute of about 375 kilograms (827 lb) of silver.[229]

The longer version of the Annals of Saint Gall reports that Archbishop Theotmar of Salzburg fell, along with Bishops Uto of Freising and Zachary of Säben, in a "disastrous battle" fought against the Hungarians at Brezalauspurc on 4 July 907.[234] Other contemporary sources[clarification needed] add that Margrave Luitpold of Bavaria and 19 Bavarian counts[229] also died in the battle.[234] Most historians (including Engel,[188] Makkai,[235] and Spinei) identify Brezalauspurc with Pressburg (Bratislava, Slovakia), but some researchers (for instance Boba and Bowlus) argue that it can refer to Mosaburg, Braslav's fortress on the Zala in Pannonia.[236][237] The Hungarians' victory hindered any attempts of eastward expansion by East Francia for the following decades[236] and opened the way for the Hungarians to freely plunder vast territories of that kingdom.[188]

Consequences edit

See also: Hungarian invasions of Europe and Principality of Hungary
 
Settlements bearing the name of a Hungarian tribe in the Carpathian Basin (after Sándor Török). They may point at the places where the Hungarians lived amongst other peoples and help in reconstructing where the tribes settled.

The Hungarians settled in the lowlands of the Carpathian Basin along the rivers Danube, Tisza and their tributaries,[238] where they could continue their semi-nomadic lifestyle.[239] As an immediate consequence, their arrival "drove a non-Slavic wedge between the West Slavs and South Slavs."[169] Fine argues that the Hungarians' departure from the western regions of the Pontic steppes weakened their former allies, the Khazars, which contributed to the collapse of the Khazar Empire.[169]

Some decades after the Hungarian conquest, a new synthesis of earlier cultures, the "Bijelo Brdo culture" spread in all over the Carpathian Basin, with its characteristic jewellery, including S-shaped earrings.[240][241] The lack of archaeological finds connected to horses in "Bijelo Brdo" graves is another feature of these cemeteries.[242] The earliest "Bijelo Brdo" assemblages are dated via unearthed coins to the rule of Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus in the middle of the 10th century.[243] Early cemeteries of the culture were unearthed, for instance, at Beremend and Csongrád in Hungary, at Devín and Bešenovo in Slovakia, at Pilu and Moldoveneşti in Romania and at Vukovar and Kloštar Podravski in Croatia.[244]

 
Common Corncockle: its Hungarian name (konkoly) is of Slavic origin[245]
 
A 19th century illustration of seminomadic pastoralism preserved in Hortobágy: "In fine weather these shepherds and cowboys wander about from place to place, sleeping in the open air, their bed being the bunda, a long sheepskin coat. Spread all over the Puszta you will find little straw-built huts where they and their flocks and herds take refuge in rainy and stormy weather, and where they all congregate on special fete days. These huts are called 'karám."

Hungarian society experienced fundamental changes in many fields (including animal husbandry, agriculture and religion) in the centuries following the "land-taking". These changes are reflected in the significant number of terms borrowed from local Slavs.[246][247] About 20% of the Hungarian vocabulary is of Slavic origin,[242] including the Hungarian words for sheep-pen (akol), yoke (iga) and horseshoe (patkó).[245] Similarly, the Hungarian name of vegetables, fruits and other cultivated plants, as well as many Hungarian terms connected to agriculture are Slavic loanwords, including káposzta ("cabbage"), szilva ("plum"), zab ("oats"), széna ("hay") and kasza ("scythe").[245][247][248]

The Hungarians left wide marches (the so-called gyepű) in the borderlands of their new homeland uninhabited for defensive purposes.[249] In this easternmost territory of the Carpathian Basin, the earliest graves attributed to Hungarian warriors—for instance, at Sic, Turda and Ocna Sibiului—are concentrated around the Transylvanian salt mines in the valley of the rivers Someșul Mic and Mureş.[250] All the same, warriors were also stationed in outposts east of the Carpathians, as suggested by 10th-century graves unearthed at Krylos, Przemyśl, Sudova Vyshnia, Grozeşti, Probota and Tei.[251] The Hungarians' fear of their eastern neighbors, the Pechenegs, is demonstrated by Porphyrogenitus's report on the failure of a Byzantine envoy to persuade them to attack the Pechenegs.[252] The Hungarians clearly stated that they could not fight against the Pechenegs because "their people are numerous and they are the devil's brats".[252][253]

Instead of attacking the Pechenegs and the Bulgarians in the east, the Hungarians made several raids into Western Europe.[235] For instance, they plundered Thuringia and Saxony in 908, Bavaria and Swabia in 909 and 910 and Swabia, Lorraine and West Francia in 912.[236] Although a Byzantine hagiography of Saint George refers to a joint attack of Pechenegs, "Moesians" and Hungarians against the Byzantine Empire in 917, its reliability is not established.[254] The Hungarians seem to have raided the Byzantine Empire for the first time in 943.[255] However, their defeat in the Battle of Lechfeld in 955 "put an end to the raids in the West" (Kontler), while they stopped plundering the Byzantines following their defeat in the Battle of Arkadiopolis in 970.[256]

The Hungarian leaders decided that their traditional lifestyle, partly based on plundering raids against sedentary peoples, could not be continued.[99] The defeats at the Lechfeld and Arkadiopolis accelerated the Hungarians' adoption of a sedentary way of life.[256] This process culminated in the coronation of the head of the Hungarians, Stephen the first king of Hungary in 1000 and 1001.[257]

Sources edit

Written sources edit

Byzantine authors were the first to record these events.[258] The earliest work is Emperor Leo the Wise's Tactics, finished around 904, which recounts the Bulgarian-Byzantine war of 894–896, a military conflict directly preceding the Hungarians' departure from the Pontic steppes.[259] Nearly contemporary narration[258] can be read in the Continuation of the Chronicle by George the Monk.[260] However, De Administrando Imperio ("On Governing the Empire") provides the most detailed account.[261] It was compiled under the auspices of Emperor Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus in 951 or 952.[262]

 
The first page of the Chronicon Pictum

Works written by clergymen in the successor states of the Carolingian Empire narrate events closely connected to the conquest.[258] The Annals of Fulda which ends in 901 is the earliest among them.[263] A letter from Archbishop Theotmar of Salzburg to Pope John IX in 900 also refers to the conquering Hungarians, but it is often regarded as a fake document.[264] Abbot Regino of Prüm who compiled his World Chronicle around 908,[265] sums up his knowledge on the Hungarians in a sole entry under "the year 889".[264] Another valuable source is Bishop Liutprand of Cremona's Antapodosis ("Retribution") from around 960.[179][266] Aventinus, a 16th-century historian, provides information that is not known by the other works[267] which suggests that he used now-lost sources.[267][268] However, his work is not considered to be a reliable source.[149]

An Old Church Slavonic compilation of Lives of saints preserved an eyewitness account on the Bulgarian-Byzantine war of 894–896.[269][270] The first[218] Life of Saint Naum, written around 924, contains nearly contemporary information on the fall of the Great Moravia caused by Hungarian invasions, although its earliest extant copy is from the 15th century.[270] Similarly late manuscripts (the oldest of which was written in the 14th century) offer the text of the Russian Primary Chronicle, a historical work completed in 1113.[271] It provides information based on earlier Byzantine and Moravian[272] sources.[271]

The Hungarians initially preserved the memory of the major events in "the form of folk songs and ballads", according to C.A. Macartney.[273] The earliest local chronicle was compiled in the late 11th century.[274] It exists in more than one variant, its original version having been extended and rewritten several times during the Middle Ages.[275][276] For instance, the 14th-century Illuminated Chronicle contains texts from the 11th-century chronicle.[275][277]

An anonymous author's Gesta Hungarorum ("Deeds of the Hungarians"), written before 1200,[278] is the earliest extant local chronicle.[277][279] However, according to Macartney, this "most misleading" example "of all the early Hungarian texts" contains much information that cannot be confirmed based on the contemporaneous sources.[280] Around 1283 Simon of Kéza, a priest at the Hungarian royal court, wrote the next surviving chronicle.[277] He claims that the Hungarians were closely related to the Huns, earlier conquerors of the Carpathian Basin that emigrated from the Asian steppes.[281] Accordingly, in his narration, the Hungarian invasion is in fact a second conquest of the same territory by the same people.[277]

Archaeology edit

 
Map showing the basic territory of Bijelo Brdo culture (10th–12th century), according to the book of Russian archaeologist Valentin Vasilyevich Sedov. By this view, the area of the village of Bijelo Brdo itself is excluded from this territory.

Graves of the first generations of the conquering Hungarians were identified in the Carpathian Basin, but fewer than ten definitively Hungarian cemeteries have been unearthed in the Pontic steppes.[282] Most Hungarian cemeteries include 25 or 30 inhumation graves, but isolated burials were common.[283][284] Adult males (and sometimes women and children)[285] were buried together with either parts of their horses or with harness and other objects symbolizing a horse.[51][286] The graves also yielded decorated silver belts, sabretaches furnished with metal plates, pear-shaped stirrups and other metal works.[287] Many of these objects had close analogues in the contemporaneous archaeological cultures (e.g. Kushnarenkovo culture) from Cis-Ural and Trans-Ural region,[288] and multiethnic "Saltovo-Mayaki culture"[285] of the Pontic steppes.[289] Most cemeteries from the 9th and 10th centuries are concentrated in the Upper Tisza region and in the plains along the rivers Rába and Vág,[290] but early small cemeteries were also unearthed at Kolozsvár (Cluj-Napoca), Marosgombás (Aiud) and other Transylvanian sites.[291]

Genetic evidence edit

See also: Srubnaya culture § Genetics, Scythians § Genetics, Xiongnu § Genetics, Huns § Genetics, and Pannonian Avars § Genetics

A genetic study published in the Annals of Human Genetics in March 2008 analyzed 4 samples from the 10th century, and two carried North Eurasian Y-DNA haplogroup N1a1-Tat ("previously called Tat or N1c", M46).[292] A 2009 study also examined mtDNA variation in 31 ancient horses from the Pannonian Basin, 17 from Avar and 14 from Hungarian conquest period, and "Avar sequences were genetically heterogeneous, closely related to Eastern breeds including the north Russian Tuva and Vyatskaya groups ... by contrast, the early Hungarian horses showed a relatively close relationship with the Akhal-Teke and Norwegian Ffjord breeds [and] at least at the level of high quality horses, our results show that the ethnic changes induced by the Hungarian Conquest in the late 9th century were accompanied by a similar change in the stables of the Carpathian Basin".[293] A 2011 study on lactase persistence polymorphism of 23 elite and commoner samples from the 10-11th century found that their low prevalence of lactase persistence "corresponds well with those of present-day populations of the Uralic linguistic family, such as the Khantys, Mansis and Maris, and certain Central-Asian and Turkish populations" and "additional mtDNA testing identified six major mtDNA haplogroups (H, U, T, N1a, JT, X) among Hungarian conquerors, six among commoners from the time of the conquest (H, HV, M, R, T, U)", including those of Asian origin (like N, M and U4).[294]

 
"Comparison of the major Hg distributions from ancient Hungarian populations ... Brackets mark east Eurasian Hgs", by Maár et al. 2021

A comprehensive archaeogenetic study published in Scientific Reports in September 2016 examined mtDNA of 76 Hungarian-conquest period samples, and "West-Eurasian haplogroups (H, HV, I, J, K, N1a, R, T, U, V, X, W) were present at a frequency of 77%, and Central and East-Eurasian haplogroups (A, B, C, D, F, G, M) at 23%". In conclusion, "both the linguistically recorded Finno-Ugric roots and historically documented Turkic and Central Asian influxes had possible genetic imprints in the conquerors' genetic composition".[295] In the same year, Molecular Genetics and Genomics was published, a study of 17 samples of first generation Hungarian conqueror cemeteries, revealing that "the most frequent [mtDNA] Hg was B, which together with Hg A indicate that about 30% of the Karos population is genetically connected to Central and East Asia. The majority of Hg-s (H, U, T, J, X) are of Eurasian origin, however, it is remarkable that two individuals belong to subhaplogroup H6, which may also indicate Asian connection ... The single X2f maternal haplotype of the chief (sample 11) is of particular interest, as this haplotype is most probably of south Caucasian origin...", while only four had a Y-DNA Hg (typical European 2x I2a and R1b).[296] A genetic study published in PLOS One in October 2018 examined the mtDNA of individuals from 10th-century graves associated with the Hungarian conquerors of the Basin. The majority of their maternal lineages were traced back to the Potapovka, Srubnaya and Poltavka cultures of the Pontic–Caspian steppe, while one-third of their maternal lineages could be traced back to Inner Asia, probably being derived from Asian Scythians and the Xiongnu (Asian Huns). The mtDNA of the conquerors was found to be most closely related to the Onoğur-Bulgar ancestors of the Volga Tatars. The conquerors did not display significant genetic relations to other Finno-Ugric peoples. The evidence implied that the conquerors did not contribute significantly to the gene pool of modern Hungarians.[297] A 2021 study analyzed maternal lineages from 202 10-11th century commoners from Carpathian Basin and compared them to conqueror elite, finding that "the haplogroup composition of the commoner population markedly differs from that of the elite, and, in contrast to the elite, commoners cluster with European populations. Alongside this, detectable sub-haplogroup sharing indicates admixture between the elite and the commoners. The majority of the 10–11th century commoners most likely represent local populations of the Carpathian Basin, which admixed with the eastern immigrant groups (which included conquering Hungarians)".[298]

A genetic study published in Scientific Reports in November 2019 examined the remains of 29 Hungarian conquerors of the Carpathian Basin. The majority of them carried Y-DNA of West Eurasian origin, but at least 30% of East Eurasian & broadly Eurasian (N1a-M2004, N1a-Z1936, Q1a and R1a-Z2124). They carried a higher amount of West Eurasian paternal ancestry than West Eurasian maternal ancestry. Among modern populations, their paternal ancestry was the most similar to Bashkirs. Haplogroup I2a1a2b was observed among several conquerors of particularly high rank. This haplogroup is of European origin and is today particularly common among South Slavs. A wide variety of phenotypes were observed, with several individuals having blond hair and blue eyes, and some had East Asian admixture. The study also analyzed three Hunnic samples from the Carpathian Basin in the 5th century, and these displayed genetic similarities to the conquerors. The Hungarian conquerors appeared to be a recently assembled heterogenous group incorporating both European, Asian and Eurasian elements.[299] In the same year the journal published an analysis of N3a4-Z1936 which is still found in very rare frequencies in modern Hungarians, and showed that Hungarian "sub-clade [N-B539/Y13850] splits from its sister-branch N3a4-B535, frequent today among Northeast European Uralic speakers, 4000-5000 ya, which is in the time-frame of the proposed divergence of Ugric languages", while on N-B539/Y13850+ sub-clade level confirmed shared paternal lineages with modern Ugric (Mansis and Khantys via N-B540/L1034) and Turkic speakers (Bashkirs and Volga Tatars via N-B540/L1034 and N-B545/Y24365).[300]

 
"The frequency of paternal haplogroups in the Hungarian Conqueror samples", by Fóthi et al. 2020

A genetic study published in the Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences in January 2020 examined the remains of 19 male Hungarian conquerors. These conquerors were found to be carriers of a diverse set of haplogroups, and displayed genetic links to Turkic peoples, Finno-Ugric peoples and Slavs. More than 37% of them carried types of haplogroup N3a-L708 (mainly N3a4-Z1936, N3a4-Z1936 > Y13850, N3a4-Z1936 > Y13850 > L1034; less N3a2-M2118, present in Yakuts). This evidence suggested that the conquerors were of Ob-Ugric descent and spoke a Ugric language.[301] A 2020 archaeogenetic and archaeological study published in Scientific Reports of 36 samples from Cis-Ural region and 9 Hungarian conquerors confirmed connection of paternal Hg N-Z1936 (> N-B545/Y24365) and maternal Hg N1a1 via common ancient population in addition to archaeological, historical and linguistic sources, implying the Hungarian homeland was "probably in the southern Trans-Ural region, where the Kushnarenkovo culture was disseminated [where] Lomovatovo and Nevolino cultures are archaeologically related to ancient Hungarians".[288]

A genetic study published in the European Journal of Human Genetics in July 2020 examined the skeletal remains of Árpád dynasty descendant and King Béla III of Hungary and unknown Árpád member named as "II/52" / "HU52" from the Royal Basilica of Székesfehérvár. It was established that the male lineage of the Árpáds belonged to the Y-haplogroup R1a subclade R-Z2125 > R-Z2123 > R-Y2632 > R-Y2633 > R-SUR51. The subclade was also found in nearest contemporary matches of 48 Bashkirs from the Burzyansky and Abzelilovsky districts of the Republic of Bashkortostan in the Volga-Ural region, and 1 individual from the region of Vojvodina, Serbia. The Árpád members and one individual from Serbia share additional private SNPs making a novel subclade R-SUR51 > R-ARP, and as the mentioned individual has additional private SNPs it branches from the medieval Árpáds forming R-ARP > R-UVD. Based on the data of the distribution, appearance and coalescence estimation of R-Y2633, the dynasty traces ancient origin near northern Afghanistan about 4,500 years ago, with a separation date of R-ARP from the closest kin Bashkirs from the Volga-Ural region to 2,000 years ago, while the individual from Serbia (R-UVD) descends from the Árpáds about 900 years ago. As the separation of haplogroup N-B539 between the Hungarians and Bashkirs is estimated to have occurred 2,000 years ago, it implies that the ancestors of Hungarians having Ugric and Turkic ancestry left the Volga Ural region about 2,000 years ago, and started a migration that eventually culminated in settlement in the Carpathian Basin.[302]

An archaeogenetic study published in scientific journal Current Biology in May 2022 examined "48 from 10th century Conquering Hungarian elite cemeteries, 65 from commoner cemeteries of the Hungarian conquer-early Árpádian Period (10-11th centuries)". According to autosomal analysis, the Hungarian elite core can be modeled as ~50% Mansi-like, ~35% Sarmatian-like, and ~15% Hun/Xiongnu-like, and the Mansi-Sarmatian admixture event is suggested to have taken place in the Southern Ural region at 643–431 BCE, while Mansi-Hun around 217-315 CE. However, most individuals can be modeled as two-way admixtures of "Conq_Asia_Core" and "Eur_Core". The elite males carried, among others, East Eurasian Y-DNA haplogroups N1a, D1a, C2a, with Q1a and R1a-Z94 being sign of Hun-related ancestry, "generally accompanied by Asian maternal lineages". Notably, almost exclusively in the elite were present I2-Y3120 subclades, "very often accompanied by Asian maternal lineages, indicating that I2a1a2b1a1a could be more typical for the immigrants than to the local population". The study also showed "that a common 'proto-Ugric' gene pool appeared in the Bronze Age from the admixture of Mezhovskaya and Nganasan people, supporting genetic and linguistic data".[303]

Another study published in 2022, taking into account the genetic data originating from ancient proto-Ob-Ugric people from Western Siberia (6th–13th century), the pre-Conquest period and subsisting Hungarians from the Volga-Ural region (6th–14th century) and their neighbours, emphasises the connection of Hungarian Conquerors with Iron Age Sargat culture. The earliest traces of their ancestors' settlements can be found in the territory bordered by the Rivers Tobol, Irtysh and Ishim in the Trans-Urals and the western zone of south-western Siberia from where they crossed the River Volga and moved to the territory lying to the north of the Black Sea, at the beginning of the 9th century. According to the study there was "little or no biological connection between the ancestors of Hungarians and proto-Ob-Ugric groups in Western Siberia, despite their close geographical proximity for 1500–2000 years after their split estimated by linguistic models and chronology." and that "In the Carpathian Basin, the new settlers and the local population started admixing only in the second half of the 10th century". The study also concludes that man and women came together in the Carpathian Basin with some maternal lineages originating in the east also surviving in the area. The main paternal lineages of the Hungarian conquerors belong to the haplogroup N, at a total of 36.8%, with variable amounts (from 6.1% to 1%) still found in the modern Hungarian population.[304]

Artistic representation edit

 
The seven chieftains of the Hungarians, a detail of the Feszty Panorama

The most famous perpetuation of the events is the Arrival of the Hungarians or Feszty Panorama which is a large cyclorama (a circular panoramic painting) by Hungarian painter Árpád Feszty and his assistants. It was completed in 1894 for the 1,000th anniversary of the event.[305] Since the 1,100th anniversary of the event in 1995, the painting has been displayed in the Ópusztaszer National Heritage Park, Hungary. Mihály Munkácsy also depicted the event under the name of Conquest for the Hungarian Parliament Building in 1893.[citation needed]

See also edit

Footnotes edit

  1. ^ a b Kontler 1999, p. 42.
  2. ^ a b c d e f Kristó 1996a, p. 191.
  3. ^ Tóth 1999, note 2 on p. 23.
  4. ^ Roman 2003, p. 145.
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Further reading edit

  • Fodor, István (1982). In Search of a New Homeland: The Prehistory of the Hungarian People and the Conquest. Corvina Kiadó. ISBN 963-1311-260.
  • Horedt, Kurt (1986). Siebenbürgen im Frühmittelalter [Transylvania in the Early Middle Ages] (in German). Habelt. ISBN 3-7749-2195-4.
  • Nägler, Thomas (2005). "Transylvania between 900 and 1300". In Pop, Ioan-Aurel; Nägler, Thomas (eds.). The History of Transylvania, Vol. I. (Until 1541). Romanian Cultural Institute (Center for Transylvanian Studies). pp. 199–231. ISBN 973-7784-00-6.

External links edit

  • "The Carpathian Basin before the Hungarian Conquest in the 9th Century"
  • "Honfoglalás: The Time of the Hungarian Conquest (a video on YouTube)"

February 16, 2024
hungarian, conquest, carpathian, basin, also, known, hungarian, conquest, hungarian, land, taking, hungarian, honfoglalás, taking, conquest, homeland, series, historical, events, ending, with, settlement, hungarians, central, europe, late, early, 10th, century. The Hungarian conquest of the Carpathian Basin 1 also known as the Hungarian conquest 2 or the Hungarian land taking 3 Hungarian honfoglalas lit taking conquest of the homeland 4 was a series of historical events ending with the settlement of the Hungarians in Central Europe in the late 9th and early 10th century Before the arrival of the Hungarians three early medieval powers the First Bulgarian Empire East Francia and Moravia had fought each other for control of the Carpathian Basin They occasionally hired Hungarian horsemen as soldiers Therefore the Hungarians who dwelt on the Pontic Caspian Steppe east of the Carpathian Mountains were familiar with what would become their homeland when their conquest started Hungarian conquest of the Carpathian Basin painting by Mihaly MunkacsyThe Hungarian conquest started in the context of a late or small migration of peoples 1 The Hungarians took possession of the Carpathian Basin in a pre planned manner with a long move in between 862 895 5 Other theories assert that the Hungarians crossed the Carpathian Mountains following a joint attack by the Pechenegs and Bulgarians in 894 or 895 They first took control over the lowlands east of the river Danube and attacked and occupied Pannonia the region to the west of the river in 900 They exploited internal conflicts in Moravia and annihilated this state sometime between 902 and 906 The Hungarians strengthened their control over the Carpathian Basin by defeating the Bavarian army in a battle fought at Brezalauspurc on 4 July 907 They launched a series of campaigns to Western Europe between 899 and 955 and also targeted the Byzantine Empire between 943 and 971 However they gradually settled in the basin and established a Christian monarchy the Kingdom of Hungary around 1000 Hungarian Conquest of the Carpathian BasinContents 1 Background 1 1 Pre conquest Hungarians 1 2 Inhabitants of the Carpathian Basin 1 3 Borderland of empires 2 Conquest 2 1 Prelude 862 895 2 2 First phase c 895 899 2 3 Second phase 900 902 2 4 Consolidation 902 907 3 Consequences 4 Sources 4 1 Written sources 4 2 Archaeology 4 3 Genetic evidence 5 Artistic representation 6 See also 7 Footnotes 8 References 8 1 Primary sources 8 2 Secondary sources 9 Further reading 10 External linksBackground editPre conquest Hungarians edit Main article Hungarian prehistory nbsp Map of the presumptive Hungarian prehistory nbsp River Dniester at Dzvenyhorod Chortkiv Raion Ternopil Oblast Ukraine The Hungarians arrived in the Carpathian Basin in a geographically unified but politically divided land after acquiring thorough local knowledge of the area from the 860s onwards 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 After the end of the Avar Kaganate c 822 the Eastern Franks asserted their influence in Transdanubia the Bulgarians to a small extent in the Southern Transylvania and the interior regions housed the surviving Avar population in their stateless state 7 13 According to one theory the archaeological evidence the Avar population survived the time of the Hungarian conquest of the Carpathian Basin 14 7 11 In this power vacuum The Hungarian conqueror elite took the system of the former Avar Kaganate there is no trace of massacres and mass graves it is believed to have been a peaceful transition for local residents in the Carpathian Basin 14 Other scholars dismiss the continuity between late Avar and Hungarian Conquerors and or the double conquest kettos honfoglalas of the Carpathian basin 15 According to historian Balint Csanad Not one single element of the original theory is tenable and that a compelling piece of evidence is that a genuine similarity between the Avar and Conquest period skeletal material could only be demonstrated in 4 5 of the theoretically potential cases 16 The Continuation of the Chronicle by George the Monk contains the earliest certain 17 reference to the Hungarians 18 It states that Hungarian warriors intervened in a conflict between the Byzantine Empire and the Bulgarians on the latter s behalf in the Lower Danube region in 836 or 837 19 The first known Hungarian raid in Central Europe was recorded in the Annals of St Bertin 20 which writes of enemies called Hungarians hitherto unknown 21 who ravaged King Louis the German s realm in 862 20 Victor Spinei and other historians argue that Rastislav of Moravia at war with Louis the German hired Hungarians to invade East Francia 20 22 Archbishop Theotmar of Salzburg clearly states in his letter of around 900 that the Moravians often allied with the Hungarians against the Germans 22 For many years the Moravians have in fact perpetrated the very crime of which they have only once falsely accused us They themselves have taken in a large number of Hungarians and have shaved their own heads according to their heathen customs and they have sent them against our Christians overcoming them leading some away as captives killing others while still others imprisoned perished of hunger and thirst Letter of Archbishop Theotmar of Salzburg and his suffragans to Pope John IX from around 900 23 Porphyrogenitus mentions that the Hungarians dwelled in a territory that they called Atelkouzou until their invasion across the Carpathians 24 25 26 He adds that it was located in the territory where the rivers Barouch Koubou Troullos Broutos and Seretos 27 run 28 29 Although the identification of the first two rivers with the Dnieper and the Southern Bug is not unanimously accepted the last three names without doubt refer to the rivers Dniester Prut and Siret 29 In the wider region at Subotsi on the river Adiamka three graves one of them belonging to a male buried with the skull and legs of his horse are attributed to pre conquest Hungarians 29 However these tombs may date to the 10th century 30 nbsp Heads of the seven Hungarian tribes depicted in the Illuminated ChronicleThe Hungarians were organized into seven tribes that formed a confederation 31 Constantine Porphyrogenitus mentions this number 32 Anonymous seems to have preserved the Hungarian Hetumoger Seven Hungarians denomination of the tribal confederation although he writes of seven leading persons 33 jointly bearing this name instead of a political organization 32 The Hetumoger confederation was strengthened by the arrival of the Kabars 31 who according to Constantine joined the Hungarians following their unsuccessful riot against the Khazar Khaganate 34 The Hungarians and the Kabars are mentioned in the longer version of the Annals of Salzburg 35 which relates that the Hungarians fought around Vienna while the Kabars fought nearby at Culmite in 881 36 Madgearu proposes that Kavar groups were already settled in the Tisza plain within the Carpathian Basin around 881 which may have given rise to the anachronistic reference to Cumans in the Gesta Hungarorum at the time of the Hungarian conquest 37 The Hetumoger confederation was under a dual leadership according to Ibn Rusta and Gardizi two Muslim scholars from the 10th and 11th centuries respectively whose geographical books preserved texts from an earlier work written by Abu Abdallah al Jayhani from Bukhara 38 39 40 The Hungarians nominal or sacred leader was styled kende while their military commander bore the title gyula 39 41 The same authors add that the gyula commanded an army of 20 000 horsemen 42 but the reliability of this number is uncertain 43 Regino of Prum and other contemporary authors portray the 9th century Hungarians as nomadic warriors 44 Emperor Leo the Wise underlines the importance of horses to their military tactics 45 Analysis of horse skulls found in Hungarian warriors graves has not revealed any significant difference between these horses and Western breeds 46 Regino of Prum states that the Hungarians knew nothing about fighting hand to hand in formation or taking besieged cities 47 but he underlines their archery skills 48 Remains indicate that composite bows were the Hungarians most important weapons 49 In addition slightly curved sabres were unearthed in many warrior tombs from the period 50 Regino of Prum noted the Hungarians preference for deceptions such as apparent retreat in battle 48 Contemporaneous writers also recounted their viciousness represented by the slaughter of adult males in settlement raids 51 The Hungarians are armed with swords body armor bows and lances Thus in battles most of them bear double arms carrying the lances high on their shoulders and holding the bows in their hands They make use of both as need requires but when pursued they use their bows to great advantage Not only do they wear armor themselves but the horses of their illustrious men are covered in front with iron or quilted material They devote a great deal of attention and training to archery on horse back A huge herd of horses ponies and mares follows them to provide both food and milk and at the same time to give the impression of a multitude Leo the Wise Tactics 52 Inhabitants of the Carpathian Basin edit Based on extant Hungarian chronicles it is clear that more than one occasionally extended list existed of the peoples inhabiting the Carpathian Basin at the time of the Hungarian landtaking 53 Anonymus for instance first writes of the Slavs Bulgarians Vlachs and the shepherds of the Romans 54 as inhabiting the territory 55 56 but later he refers to a people called Kozar 57 and to the Szekelys 53 Similarly Simon of Keza first lists the Slavs Greeks Germans Moravians and Vlachs 58 59 but later he adds that the Szekelys also lived in the territory 60 According to Macartney those lists were based on multiple sources and do not document the real ethnic conditions of the Carpathian Basin around 900 61 Ioan Aurel Pop says that Simon of Keza listed the peoples who inhabited the lands that the Hungarian conquered and the nearby territories 62 The Hungarians adopted the ancient Celtic Dacian or Germanic names of the longest rivers in the Carpathian Basin from a Slavic speaking population 63 For instance the Hungarian names of the rivers Danube Duna Drava Garam Maros Olt Szava Tisza and Vag were borrowed from Slavs 63 64 The Hungarians also adopted a great number of hydronyms of Slavic origin including Balaton swamp Beszterce swift river Tur aurochs stream and Zagyva sooty river 63 65 66 Place names of Slavic origin abound across the Carpathian Basin 67 For instance Csongrad black fortress Nograd new fortress Visegrad citadel and other early medieval fortresses bore a Slavic name while the name of Keszthely preserved the Latin word for fortress castellum with Slavic mediation 67 68 Besides the Slavs the presence of a German speaking population can be demonstrated based on toponyms 69 For example the Hungarians adopted the Germanized form of the name of the river Vulka whose name is of Slavic origin and the document known as the Conversion of the Bavarians and the Carantanians from around 870 lists Germanic place names in Pannonia including Salapiugin bend of the Zala and Mosaburc fortress in the marshes 70 The name of the Barca Barot and other rivers could be either Turkic 66 or Slavic in origin 71 According to Bela Miklos Szoke s theory the detailed description of the Magyars by western contemporary sources and the immediate Hungarian intervention in local wars suggest that the Hungarians had already lived on the eastern territories of the Carpathian Basin since the middle of the 9th century 72 73 Regarding the right location of early Hungarian settlements the Arabic geographer al Jayhani only snippets of his work survived in other Muslim authors papers 74 in the 870s placed the Hungarians between the Don and Danube rivers 72 Szoke identifies al Jayhani s Danube with the middle Danube region as opposed to the previously assumed lower Danube region because following al Jayhani s description the Christian Moravians were the western neighbors of the Magyars 72 Borderland of empires edit See also East Francia First Bulgarian Empire and Great Moravia nbsp Central and Southeastern Europe around 850The Carpathian Basin was controlled from the 560s by the Avars 75 a Turkic speaking people 76 Upon their arrival in the region they imposed their authority over the Gepids who had dominated the territories east of the river Tisza 77 However the Gepids survived up until the second half of the 9th century according to a reference in the Conversion of the Bavarians and the Carantanians to their groups dwelling in Lower Pannonia around 870 69 The Avars were initially nomadic horsemen but both large cemeteries used by three or four generations and a growing number of settlements attest to their adoption of a sedentary non nomadic way of life from the 8th century 78 79 The Avars power was destroyed between 791 and 795 by Charlemagne 80 who occupied Transdanubia and attached it to his empire 81 Archaeological investigation of early medieval rural settlements at Balatonmagyarod Nemesker and other places in Transdanubia demonstrate that their main features did not change with the fall of the Avar Khaganate 82 New settlements appeared in the former borderlands with cemeteries characterised by objects with clear analogues in contemporary Bavaria Bulgaria Croatia Moravia and other distant territories 82 A manor defended by timber walls similar to noble courts of other parts of the Carolingian Empire was unearthed at Zalaszabar 82 Avar groups who remained under the rule of their khagan were frequently attacked by Slav warriors 83 Therefore the khagan asked Charlemagne to let his people settle in the region between Szombathely and Petronell in Pannonia 84 His petition was accepted in 805 84 The Conversion of the Bavarians and the Carantanians lists the Avars among the peoples under the ecclesiastic jurisdiction of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Salzburg around 870 85 According to Pohl it simply proved impossible to keep up an Avar identity after Avar institutions and the high claims of their tradition had failed 86 The growing number of archaeological evidence in Transdanubia also presumes Avar population in the Carpathian Basin at the eve of the 10th century 87 Archaeological findings suggesting that there is a substantial late Avar presence on the Great Hungarian Plain but it is difficult to determine the proper chronology 87 A charter issued in 860 by King Louis the German for the Mattsee Abbey may well attest that the Onogurs another people of Turkic origin were also present in the territory 88 The charter refers to the Marches of the Wangars marcha uuangariourum situated in the westernmost regions of the Carpathian Basin 89 The Wangar denomination seems to reflect the Slavic form of the Onogurs ethnonym 88 nbsp Ruins of the 9th century church at ZalavarThe territories attached to the Frankish Empire were initially governed by royal officers and local chieftains 90 A Slavic prince named Pribina received large estates along the river Zala around 840 91 He promoted the colonisation of his lands 92 and also erected Mosaburg a fortress in the marshes 91 Initially defended by timber walls this castle complex 93 Andras Rona Tas became an administrative center It was strengthened by drystone walls at the end of the century Four churches surrounded by cemeteries were unearthed in and around the settlement At least one of them continued to be used up to the 11th century 94 Pribina died fighting the Moravians in 861 and his son Kocel inherited his estates 95 Kocel was succeeded around 876 by Arnulf a natural son of Carloman king of East Francia 96 Under his rule Moravian troops interved into the conflict known as the Wilhelminer War and laid waste from the Raab eastward between 882 and 884 according to the Annals of Fulda 97 98 nbsp Europe around 900Moravia emerged in the 820s 99 under its first known ruler Mojmir I 91 His successor Rastislav developed Moravia s military strength He promoted the proselytizing activities of the Byzantine brothers Constantine and Methodius in an attempt to seek independence from East Francia 91 100 Moravia reached its peak of importance under Svatopluk I 101 who expanded its frontiers in all directions 102 Moravia s core territory is located in the regions on the northern Morava river in the territory of the present day Czech Republic and Slovakia 103 However Constantine Porphyrogenitus places great Moravia the unbaptized 104 somewhere in the regions beyond Belgrade and Sirmium Sremska Mitrovica Serbia 105 His report supported further theories on Moravia s location 106 For instance Kristo and Senga propose the existence of two Moravias one in the north and other one in the south 107 while Boba Bowlus and Eggers argue that Moravia s core territory is in the region of the southern Morava river in present day Serbia 108 The existence of a southern Moravian realm is not supported by artifacts while strongholds unearthed at Mikulcice Pohansko and other areas to the north of the middle Danube point at the existence of a power center in those regions 109 In addition to East Francia and Moravia the First Bulgarian Empire was also deeply involved in the Carpathian Basin in the 9th century 110 A late 10th century Byzantine lexicon known as Suda adds that Krum of Bulgaria attacked the Avars from the southeast around 803 111 The Royal Frankish Annals narrates that the Abodrites inhabiting Dacia on the Danube 112 most probably along the lower courses of the river Tisza sought the assistance of the Franks against the Bulgars in 824 113 Bulgarian troops also invaded Pannonia expelled the Slavic chieftains and appointed Bulgar governors instead 114 in 827 115 116 An inscription at Provadia refers to a Bulgarian military leader named Onegavonais drowning in the Tisza around the same time 117 The emerging power of Moravia brought about a rapprochement between Bulgaria and East Francia in the 860s 118 King Arnulf of East Francia sent an embassy to the Bulgarians in 892 in order to renew the former peace and to ask that they should not sell salt to the Moravians 119 The latter request suggests that the route from the salt mines of the eastern Carpathians to Moravia was controlled around that time by the Bulgarians 120 121 The anonymous author of the Gesta Hungarorum instead of Svatopluk I of Moravia and other rulers known from contemporary sources writes of personalities and polities that are not mentioned by chroniclers working at the end of the 9th century 122 For instance he refers to Menumorut residing in the castle of Bihar Biharia Romania to Zobor duke of Nitra by the grace of the Duke of the Czechs 123 and to Gelou a certain Vlach 124 ruling over Transylvania 122 According to historian Ryszard Grzesik the reference to Gelou and his Vlachs evidences that the Vlachs had already settled in Transylvania by the time the Gesta was completed while the stories about Zobor and Menumorut preserved the memory of the Hungarians fight against the Moravians 125 Translating Menumorut s name as Great Moravian Grzesik associates him with Svatopluk I and refutes the report of Menumorut s rule in Bihar 126 Early medieval fortresses were unearthed at Bihar and other places east of the Tisza but none of them definitively date to the 9th century 127 In the case of Doboka Dăbaca two pairs of bell shaped pendants with analogues in sites in Austria Bulgaria and Poland have been unearthed but Florin Curta dates them to the 9th century while Alexandru Madgearu to the period between 975 and 1050 128 129 Conquest editPrelude 862 895 edit nbsp The Hungarian land takingThree main theories attempt to explain the reasons for the Hungarian land taking 130 One argues that it was an intended military operation prearranged following previous raids with the express purpose of occupying a new homeland 130 This view expounded for example by Bakay and Padanyi mainly follows the narration of Anonymus and later Hungarian chronicles 131 The Hungarians took possession of the Carpathian Basin in a pre planned manner with a long move in between 862 895 132 133 134 135 136 137 138 139 140 This is confirmed by the archaeological findings in the 10th century Hungarian cemeteries the graves of women children and elderly people are located next to the warriors they were buried according to the same traditions wore the same style of ornaments and belonged to the same anthropological group The Hungarian military events of the following years prove that the Hungarian population that settled in the Carpathian Basin was not a weakened population without a significant military power 138 The opposite view maintains that a joint attack by the Pechenegs and the Bulgarians forced the Hungarians hand 141 Kristo Toth and the theory s other adherents refer to the unanimous testimony provided by the Annals of Fulda Regino of Prum and Porphyrogenitus on the connection between the Hungarians conflict with the Bulgar Pecheneg coalition and their withdrawal from the Pontic steppes 142 143 An intermediate theory proposes that the Hungarians had for decades been considering a westward move when the Bulgarian Pecheneg attack accelerated their decision to leave the Pontic Caspian steppe 144 For instance Rona Tas argues the fact that despite a series of unfortunate events the Magyars managed to keep their heads above water goes to show that they were indeed ready to move on when the Pechenegs attacked them 145 In fact following a break of eleven years the Hungarians returned to the Carpathian Basin in 892 34 They came to assist Arnulf of East Francia against Svatopluk I of Moravia 34 146 Widukind of Corvey and Liutprand of Cremona condemned the Frankish monarch for destroying the defense lines built along the empire s borders because this also enabled the Hungarians to attack East Francia within a decade 147 Meanwhile Arnulf could not overcome Sviatopolk duke of the Moravians and alas having dismantled those very well fortified barriers which are called closures by the populace Arnulf summoned to his aid the nation of the Hungarians greedy rash ignorant of almighty God but well versed in every crime avid only for murder and plunder Liutprand of Cremona Retribution 148 A late source 149 Aventinus adds that Kurszan Cusala king of the Hungarians stipulated that his people would only fight the Moravians if they received the lands they were to occupy 146 Accordingly Aventinus continues the Hungarians took possession of both Dacias on this side and beyond the Tisza east of the rivers Danube and Garam already in 893 146 Indeed the Hungarian chronicles unanimously state that the Szekelys had already been present in the Carpathian Basin when the Hungarians moved in 150 Kristo argues that Aventinus and the Hungarian historical tradition together point to an early occupation of the eastern territories of the Carpathian Basin by auxiliary troops of the Hungarian tribal confederation 150 nbsp Svatopluk I of Moravia disguised as a monk in Arnulf of East Francia s court in the Chronicle of DalimilThe Annals of Fulda narrated in 894 that the Hungarians crossed the Danube into Pannonia where they killed men and old women outright and carried off the young women alone with them like cattle to satisfy their lusts and reduced the whole province to desert 151 152 Although the annalist writes of this Hungarian attack after the passage narrating Svatopluk I s death 151 Gyorffy Kristo 153 Rona Tas 154 and other historians suppose that the Hungarians invaded Pannonia in alliance with the Moravian monarch 155 They argue that the Legend of the White Horse in the Hungarian chronicles preserved the memory of a treaty the Hungarians had made with Svatopluk I according to pagan customs 156 The legend narrates that the Hungarians purchased their future homeland in the Carpathian Basin from Svatopluk for a white horse harnessed with gilded saddle and reins 153 Then Kusid came to the leader of the region who reigned after Attila and whose name was Zuatapolug and saluted him in the name of his people On hearing this Zuatapolug rejoiced greatly for he thought that they were peasant people who would come and till his land and so he dismissed the messenger graciously Then by a common resolve the Hungarians despatched the same messenger again to the said leader and sent to him for his land a big horse with a golden saddle adorned with the gold of Arabia and a golden bridle Seeing it the leader rejoiced all the more thinking that they were sending gifts of homage in return for land When therefore the messenger asked of him land grass and water he replied with a smile In return for the gift let them have as much as they desire Then the Hungarians sent another messenger to the leader and this was the message which he delivered Arpad and his people say to you that you may no longer stay upon the land which they bought of you for with the horse they bought your earth with the bridle the grass and with the saddle the water And you in your need and avarice made to them a grant of land grass and water When this message was delivered to the leader he said with a smile Let them kill the horse with a wooden mallet and throw the bridle on the field and throw the golden saddle into the water of the Danube To which the messenger replied And what loss will that be to them lord If you kill the horse you will give food for their dogs if you throw the bridle on the field their men will find the gold of the bridle when they mow the hay if you throw the saddle into the Danube their fishermen will lay out the gold of the saddle upon the bank and carry it home If they have earth grass and water they have all Illuminated Chronicle 157 Ismail Ibn Ahmed the emir of Khorasan raided the land of the Turks 158 the Karluks in 893 Later he caused a new movement of peoples who one by one invaded the lands of their western neighbors in the Eurasian Steppe 159 160 Al Masudi clearly connects the westward movement of the Pechenegs and the Hungarians to previous fights between the Karluks Ouzes and Kimeks 161 Porphyrogenitus writes of a joint attack by the Khazars and Ouzes that compelled the Pechenegs to cross the Volga River sometime between 893 and 902 162 most probably around 894 160 Originally the Pechenegs had their dwelling on the river Volga and likewise on the river Ural But fifty years ago the so called Uzes made common cause with the Chazars and joined battle with the Pechenegs and prevailed over them and expelled them from their country Constantine Porphyrogenitus De Administrando Imperio 163 nbsp Leo the Wise and his son Constantine Porphyrogenitus on a Byzantine golden solidus nbsp Seal of Simeon I of BulgariaThe relationship between Bulgaria and the Byzantine Empire sharpened in 894 because Emperor Leo the Wise forced the Bulgarian merchants to leave Constantinople and settle in Thessaloniki 164 Subsequently Tzar Simeon I of Bulgaria invaded Byzantine territories 165 and defeated a small imperial troop 166 The Byzantines approached the Hungarians to hire them to fight the Bulgarians 165 Nicetas Sclerus the Byzantine envoy concluded a treaty with their leaders Arpad and Kurszan Kusan 167 and Byzantine ships transferred Hungarian warriors across the Lower Danube 165 The Hungarians invaded Bulgaria forced Tzar Simeon to flee to the fortress of Dristra now Silistra Bulgaria and plundered Preslav 166 An interpolation in Porphyrogenitus s work states that the Hungarians had a prince named Liountikas son of Arpad 104 at that time which suggests that he was the commander of the army but he might have been mentioned in the war context by chance 168 Simultaneously with the Hungarian attack from the north the Byzantines invaded Bulgaria from the south Tzar Simeon sent envoys to the Byzantine Empire to propose a truce At the same time he sent an embassy to the Pechenegs to incite them against the Hungarians 166 He succeeded and the Pechenegs broke into Hungarian territories from the east forcing the Hungarian warriors to withdraw from Bulgaria 169 The Bulgarians according to Constantine Porphyrogenitus attacked and routed the Hungarians 165 170 The Pechenegs destroyed the Hungarians dwelling places 165 Those who survived the double attack left the Pontic steppes and crossed the Carpathians in search of a new homeland 165 The memory of the destruction brought by the Pechenegs seems to have been preserved by the Hungarians 171 The Hungarian name of the Pechenegs besenyo corresponds to the old Hungarian word for eagle bese Thus the 14th century Hungarian chronicles story of eagles compelling the Hungarians ancestors to cross the Carpathians most probably refers to the Pechenegs attack 171 The Hungarians were driven from their home by a neighboring people called the Petchenegs because they were superior to them in strength and number and because their own country was not sufficient to accommodate their swelling numbers After they had been forced to flee by the violence of the Petchenegs they said goodbye to their homeland and set out to look for lands where they could live and establish settlements Regino of Prum Chronicle 172 At the invitation of Leo the Christ loving and glorious emperor the Hungarians crossed over and fought Symeon and totally defeated him and they went back to their own county But after Symeon sent to the Pechenegs and made an agreement with them to attack and destroy the Hungarians And when the latter had gone off on a military expedition the Pechenegs with Symeon came against them and completely destroyed their families and miserably expelled thence those who were guarding their country When the Hungarians came back and found their country thus desolate and utterly ruined they settled in the land where they live today Constantine Porphyrogenitus De Administrando Imperio 104 Passing through the kingdom of the Bessi and the Cumani Albi and Susdalia and the city named Kyo they crossed the mountains and came into a region where they saw innumerable eagles and because of the eagles they could not stay in that place for the eagles came down from the trees like flies and devoured both their herds and their horses For God intended that they should go down more quickly into Hungary During three months they made their descent from the mountains and they came to the boundaries of the kingdom of Hungary that is to Erdelw Illuminated Chronicle 173 First phase c 895 899 edit nbsp The Hungarians arrival in the Carpathian Basin depicted in the Illuminated Chronicle nbsp Hungarian Conquest memorial at the Verecke Pass Ukraine The date of the Hungarian invasion varies according to the source 174 The earliest date 677 is preserved in the 14th century versions of the Hungarian Chronicle while Anonymus gives the latest date 902 175 Contemporaneous sources suggest that the invasion followed the 894 Bulgarian Byzantine war 176 The route taken across the Carpathians is also contested 177 2 Anonymus and Simon of Keza have the invading Hungarians crossing the northeastern passes while the Illuminated Chronicle writes of their arrival in Transylvania 178 nbsp Berengar I of ItalyRegino of Prum states that the Hungarians roamed the wildernesses of the Pannonians and the Avars and sought their daily food by hunting and fishing 47 following their arrival in the Carpathian Basin 179 Their advance towards the Danube seems to have stimulated Arnulf who was crowned emperor to entrust Braslav the ruler of the region between the rivers Drava and Sava 180 with the defense of all Pannonia in 896 181 In 897 or 898 a civil war broke out between Mojmir II and Svatopluk II two sons of the late Moravian ruler Svatopluk I in which Emperor Arnulf also intervened 182 183 184 There is no mention of the Hungarians activities in those years 185 The next event recorded in connection with the Hungarians is their raid against Italy in 899 and 900 186 The letter of Archbishop Theotmar of Salzburg and his suffragans suggests that Emperor Arnulf incited them to attack King Berengar I of Italy 187 They routed the Italian troops on 2 September at the river Brenta in a great battle 188 and plundered the region of Vercelli and Modena in the winter 189 but the doge of Venice Pietro Tribuno defeated them at Venice on 29 June 900 187 They returned from Italy when they learned of the death of Emperor Arnulf at the end of 899 190 According to Anonymous the Hungarians fought with Menumorut before conquering Gelou s Transylvania 191 192 Subsequently the Hungarians turned against Salan 193 the ruler of the central territories according to this narrative 194 In contrast with Anonymus Simon of Keza writes of the Hungarians fight with Svatopluk following their arrival 2 According to the Illuminated Chronicle the Hungarians remained quietly in Erdelw and rested their herds 195 there after their crossing because of an attack by eagles 2 The Hungarian chronicles preserved two separate lists of the Hungarians leaders at the time of the conquest 196 Anonymus mentions Almos Elod Kund ond Tas Huba and Teteny 197 while Simon of Keza and the Illuminated Chronicle list Arpad Szabolcs Gyula Ors Kund Lel and Verbulcsu 196 198 Contemporaneous or nearly contemporaneous sources make mention of Almos Constantine Porphyrogenitus of Arpad Continuation of the Chronicle by George the Monk and Constantine Porphyrogenitus of Liountikas Constantine Porphyrogenitus and of Kurszan Continuation of the Chronicle by George the Monk 199 According to the Illuminated Chronicle Almos Arpad s father could not enter Pannonia for he was killed in Erdelw 195 2 The episode implies that Almos was the kende the sacred ruler of the Hungarians at the time of their destruction by the Pechenegs which caused his sacrifice 200 If his death was in fact the consequence of a ritual murder his fate was similar to that of the Khazar khagans who were executed according to Ibn Fadlan and al Masudi in the case of disasters affecting their whole people 2 Second phase 900 902 edit The death of Arnulf released the Hungarians from their alliance with East Francia 189 On their way back from Italy they expanded their rule over Pannonia 201 According to Liutprand of Cremona the Hungarians claimed for themselves the nation of the Moravians which King Arnulf had subdued with the aid of their might 202 at the coronation of Arnulf s son Louis the Child in 900 203 The Annals of Grado relates that the Hungarians defeated the Moravians after their withdrawal from Italy 204 Thereafter the Hungarians and the Moravians made an alliance and jointly invaded Bavaria according to Aventinus 205 However the contemporary Annals of Fulda only refers to Hungarians reaching the river Enns 206 One of the Hungarian contingents crossed the Danube and plundered the territories on the river s north bank but Luitpold Margrave of Bavaria gathered troops and routed them between Passau and Krems an der Donau 207 on 20 November 900 205 He had a strong fortress erected against them on the Enns 208 Nevertheless the Hungarians became the masters of the Carpathian Basin by the occupation of Pannonia 205 The Russian Primary Chronicle may also reflect the memory of this event when relating how the Hungarians expelled the Volokhi or Volkhi who had earlier subjugated the Slavs homeland in Pannonia according to scholars who identify the Volokhi and Volkhi as Franks 203 209 Other historians associate them either with Vlachs Romanians 210 or with ancient Romans 211 209 Over a long period the Slavs settled beside the Danube where the Hungarian and Bulgarian lands now lie From among these Slavs parties scattered throughout the country and were known by appropriate names according to the places where they settled T he Volkhi 212 attacked the Danubian Slavs settled among them and did them violence The Magyars passed by Kiev over the hill now called Hungarian and on arriving at the Dnieper they pitched camp They were nomads like the Polovcians Coming out of the east they struggled across the great mountains and began to fight against the neighboring Volokhi 213 and Slavs For the Slavs had settled there first but the Volokhi 213 had seized the territory of the Slavs The Magyars subsequently expelled the Volkhi 213 took their land and settled among the Slavs whom they reduced to submission From that time the territory was called Hungarian Russian Primary Chronicle 214 King Louis the Child held a meeting at Regensburg in 901 to introduce further measures against the Hungarians 208 Moravian envoys proposed peace between Moravia and East Francia because the Hungarians had in the meantime plundered their country 208 A Hungarian army invading Carinthia was defeated 215 in April 901 and Aventinus describes a defeat of the Hungarians by Margrave Luitpold at the river Fischa in the same year 216 Consolidation 902 907 edit nbsp Ruins of the Moravian fortress at Ducove Slovakia The date when Moravia ceased to exist is uncertain because there is no clear evidence either of the existence of Moravia as a state after 902 Spinei or of its fall 201 A short note in the Annales Alamannici refers to a war with the Hungarians in Moravia in 902 during which the land patria succumbed but this text is ambiguous 217 Alternatively the so called Raffelstetten Customs Regulations mentions the markets of the Moravians around 905 183 The Life of Saint Naum relates that the Hungarians occupied Moravia adding that the Moravians who were not captured by the Hungarians ran to the Bulgars Constantine Porphyrogenitus also connects the fall of Moravia to its occupation by the Hungarians 218 The destruction of the early medieval urban centers and fortresses at Szepestamasfalva Spisske Tomasovce Deveny and other places in modern Slovakia is dated to the period around 900 219 After the death of Svatopluk I his sons remained at peace for a year and then strife and rebellion fell upon them and they made a civil war against one another and the Hungarians came and utterly ruined them and possessed their country in which even now the Hungarians live And those of the folk who were left were scattered and fled for refuge to the adjacent nations to the Bulgarians and Hungarians and Croats and to the rest of the nations Constantine Porphyrogenitus De Administrando Imperio 220 According to Anonymus who does not write of Moravia the Hungarians invaded the region of Nyitra Nitra Slovakia and defeated and killed Zobor the local Czech ruler on Mount Zobor near his seat 221 Thereafter as Anonymus continues the Hungarians first occupied Pannonia from the Romans and next battled with Glad and his army which was composed of Bulgarians Vlachs and Pechenegs from Banat 56 Glad ceded few towns from his duchy 222 Finally Anonymus writes of a treaty between the Hungarians and Menumorut 193 stipulating that the local ruler s daughter was to be given in marriage to Arpad s son Zolta 223 Macartney 224 argues that Anonymus s narration of both Menumorut and of Glad is basically a transcription of a much later report of the early 11th century Achtum Glad s alleged descendant 225 In contrast for instance Madgearu maintains that Galad Kladova Glades and other place names recorded in Banat in the 14th century and 16th century attest to the memory of a local ruler named Glad 226 The Hungarians reached the region of Bega and stayed there for two weeks while they conquered all the inhabitants of that land from the Mures to the Timis River and they received their sons as hostages Then moving the army on they came to the Timis River and encamped beside the ford of Foeni and when they sought to cross the Timis s flow there came to oppose them Glad the prince of that country with a great army of horsemen and foot soldiers supported by Cumans Bulgarians and Vlachs God with His grace went before the Hungarians He gave them a great victory and their enemies fell before them as bundles of hay before reapers In that battle two dukes of the Cumans and three kneses of the Bulgarians were slain and Glad their duke escaped in flight but all his army melting like wax before flame was destroyed at the point of the sword Prince Glad having fled as we said above for fear of the Hungarians entered the castle of Kovin He sent to seek peace with the Hungarians and of his own will delivered up the castle with diverse gifts Anonymous Gesta Hungarorum 227 An important event following the conquest of the Carpathian Basin the Bavarians murder of Kurszan was recorded by the longer version of the Annals of Saint Gall the Annales Alamannici and the Annals of Einsiedeln 228 The first places the event in 902 while the others date it to 904 228 229 The three chronicles unanimously state that the Bavarians invited the Hungarian leader to a dinner on the pretext of negotiating a peace treaty and treacherously assassinated him 230 Kristo and other Hungarian historians argue that the dual leadership over the Hungarians ended with Kurszan s death 231 232 The Hungarians invaded Italy using the so called Route of the Hungarians Strada Ungarorum leading from Pannonia to Lombardy in 904 233 They arrived as King Berengar I s allies 229 against his rival King Louis of Provance The Hungarians devastated the territories occupied earlier by King Louis along the river Po which ensured Berengar s victory The victorious monarch allowed the Hungarians to pillage all the towns that had earlier accepted his opponent s rule 233 and agreed to pay a yearly tribute of about 375 kilograms 827 lb of silver 229 The longer version of the Annals of Saint Gall reports that Archbishop Theotmar of Salzburg fell along with Bishops Uto of Freising and Zachary of Saben in a disastrous battle fought against the Hungarians at Brezalauspurc on 4 July 907 234 Other contemporary sources clarification needed add that Margrave Luitpold of Bavaria and 19 Bavarian counts 229 also died in the battle 234 Most historians including Engel 188 Makkai 235 and Spinei identify Brezalauspurc with Pressburg Bratislava Slovakia but some researchers for instance Boba and Bowlus argue that it can refer to Mosaburg Braslav s fortress on the Zala in Pannonia 236 237 The Hungarians victory hindered any attempts of eastward expansion by East Francia for the following decades 236 and opened the way for the Hungarians to freely plunder vast territories of that kingdom 188 Consequences editSee also Hungarian invasions of Europe and Principality of Hungary nbsp Settlements bearing the name of a Hungarian tribe in the Carpathian Basin after Sandor Torok They may point at the places where the Hungarians lived amongst other peoples and help in reconstructing where the tribes settled The Hungarians settled in the lowlands of the Carpathian Basin along the rivers Danube Tisza and their tributaries 238 where they could continue their semi nomadic lifestyle 239 As an immediate consequence their arrival drove a non Slavic wedge between the West Slavs and South Slavs 169 Fine argues that the Hungarians departure from the western regions of the Pontic steppes weakened their former allies the Khazars which contributed to the collapse of the Khazar Empire 169 Some decades after the Hungarian conquest a new synthesis of earlier cultures the Bijelo Brdo culture spread in all over the Carpathian Basin with its characteristic jewellery including S shaped earrings 240 241 The lack of archaeological finds connected to horses in Bijelo Brdo graves is another feature of these cemeteries 242 The earliest Bijelo Brdo assemblages are dated via unearthed coins to the rule of Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus in the middle of the 10th century 243 Early cemeteries of the culture were unearthed for instance at Beremend and Csongrad in Hungary at Devin and Besenovo in Slovakia at Pilu and Moldovenesti in Romania and at Vukovar and Klostar Podravski in Croatia 244 nbsp Common Corncockle its Hungarian name konkoly is of Slavic origin 245 nbsp A 19th century illustration of seminomadic pastoralism preserved in Hortobagy In fine weather these shepherds and cowboys wander about from place to place sleeping in the open air their bed being the bunda a long sheepskin coat Spread all over the Puszta you will find little straw built huts where they and their flocks and herds take refuge in rainy and stormy weather and where they all congregate on special fete days These huts are called karam Hungarian society experienced fundamental changes in many fields including animal husbandry agriculture and religion in the centuries following the land taking These changes are reflected in the significant number of terms borrowed from local Slavs 246 247 About 20 of the Hungarian vocabulary is of Slavic origin 242 including the Hungarian words for sheep pen akol yoke iga and horseshoe patko 245 Similarly the Hungarian name of vegetables fruits and other cultivated plants as well as many Hungarian terms connected to agriculture are Slavic loanwords including kaposzta cabbage szilva plum zab oats szena hay and kasza scythe 245 247 248 The Hungarians left wide marches the so called gyepu in the borderlands of their new homeland uninhabited for defensive purposes 249 In this easternmost territory of the Carpathian Basin the earliest graves attributed to Hungarian warriors for instance at Sic Turda and Ocna Sibiului are concentrated around the Transylvanian salt mines in the valley of the rivers Someșul Mic and Mures 250 All the same warriors were also stationed in outposts east of the Carpathians as suggested by 10th century graves unearthed at Krylos Przemysl Sudova Vyshnia Grozesti Probota and Tei 251 The Hungarians fear of their eastern neighbors the Pechenegs is demonstrated by Porphyrogenitus s report on the failure of a Byzantine envoy to persuade them to attack the Pechenegs 252 The Hungarians clearly stated that they could not fight against the Pechenegs because their people are numerous and they are the devil s brats 252 253 Instead of attacking the Pechenegs and the Bulgarians in the east the Hungarians made several raids into Western Europe 235 For instance they plundered Thuringia and Saxony in 908 Bavaria and Swabia in 909 and 910 and Swabia Lorraine and West Francia in 912 236 Although a Byzantine hagiography of Saint George refers to a joint attack of Pechenegs Moesians and Hungarians against the Byzantine Empire in 917 its reliability is not established 254 The Hungarians seem to have raided the Byzantine Empire for the first time in 943 255 However their defeat in the Battle of Lechfeld in 955 put an end to the raids in the West Kontler while they stopped plundering the Byzantines following their defeat in the Battle of Arkadiopolis in 970 256 The Hungarian leaders decided that their traditional lifestyle partly based on plundering raids against sedentary peoples could not be continued 99 The defeats at the Lechfeld and Arkadiopolis accelerated the Hungarians adoption of a sedentary way of life 256 This process culminated in the coronation of the head of the Hungarians Stephen the first king of Hungary in 1000 and 1001 257 Sources editWritten sources edit Byzantine authors were the first to record these events 258 The earliest work is Emperor Leo the Wise s Tactics finished around 904 which recounts the Bulgarian Byzantine war of 894 896 a military conflict directly preceding the Hungarians departure from the Pontic steppes 259 Nearly contemporary narration 258 can be read in the Continuation of the Chronicle by George the Monk 260 However De Administrando Imperio On Governing the Empire provides the most detailed account 261 It was compiled under the auspices of Emperor Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus in 951 or 952 262 nbsp The first page of the Chronicon PictumWorks written by clergymen in the successor states of the Carolingian Empire narrate events closely connected to the conquest 258 The Annals of Fulda which ends in 901 is the earliest among them 263 A letter from Archbishop Theotmar of Salzburg to Pope John IX in 900 also refers to the conquering Hungarians but it is often regarded as a fake document 264 Abbot Regino of Prum who compiled his World Chronicle around 908 265 sums up his knowledge on the Hungarians in a sole entry under the year 889 264 Another valuable source is Bishop Liutprand of Cremona s Antapodosis Retribution from around 960 179 266 Aventinus a 16th century historian provides information that is not known by the other works 267 which suggests that he used now lost sources 267 268 However his work is not considered to be a reliable source 149 An Old Church Slavonic compilation of Lives of saints preserved an eyewitness account on the Bulgarian Byzantine war of 894 896 269 270 The first 218 Life of Saint Naum written around 924 contains nearly contemporary information on the fall of the Great Moravia caused by Hungarian invasions although its earliest extant copy is from the 15th century 270 Similarly late manuscripts the oldest of which was written in the 14th century offer the text of the Russian Primary Chronicle a historical work completed in 1113 271 It provides information based on earlier Byzantine and Moravian 272 sources 271 The Hungarians initially preserved the memory of the major events in the form of folk songs and ballads according to C A Macartney 273 The earliest local chronicle was compiled in the late 11th century 274 It exists in more than one variant its original version having been extended and rewritten several times during the Middle Ages 275 276 For instance the 14th century Illuminated Chronicle contains texts from the 11th century chronicle 275 277 An anonymous author s Gesta Hungarorum Deeds of the Hungarians written before 1200 278 is the earliest extant local chronicle 277 279 However according to Macartney this most misleading example of all the early Hungarian texts contains much information that cannot be confirmed based on the contemporaneous sources 280 Around 1283 Simon of Keza a priest at the Hungarian royal court wrote the next surviving chronicle 277 He claims that the Hungarians were closely related to the Huns earlier conquerors of the Carpathian Basin that emigrated from the Asian steppes 281 Accordingly in his narration the Hungarian invasion is in fact a second conquest of the same territory by the same people 277 Archaeology edit nbsp Map showing the basic territory of Bijelo Brdo culture 10th 12th century according to the book of Russian archaeologist Valentin Vasilyevich Sedov By this view the area of the village of Bijelo Brdo itself is excluded from this territory Graves of the first generations of the conquering Hungarians were identified in the Carpathian Basin but fewer than ten definitively Hungarian cemeteries have been unearthed in the Pontic steppes 282 Most Hungarian cemeteries include 25 or 30 inhumation graves but isolated burials were common 283 284 Adult males and sometimes women and children 285 were buried together with either parts of their horses or with harness and other objects symbolizing a horse 51 286 The graves also yielded decorated silver belts sabretaches furnished with metal plates pear shaped stirrups and other metal works 287 Many of these objects had close analogues in the contemporaneous archaeological cultures e g Kushnarenkovo culture from Cis Ural and Trans Ural region 288 and multiethnic Saltovo Mayaki culture 285 of the Pontic steppes 289 Most cemeteries from the 9th and 10th centuries are concentrated in the Upper Tisza region and in the plains along the rivers Raba and Vag 290 but early small cemeteries were also unearthed at Kolozsvar Cluj Napoca Marosgombas Aiud and other Transylvanian sites 291 Genetic evidence edit See also Srubnaya culture Genetics Scythians Genetics Xiongnu Genetics Huns Genetics and Pannonian Avars Genetics A genetic study published in the Annals of Human Genetics in March 2008 analyzed 4 samples from the 10th century and two carried North Eurasian Y DNA haplogroup N1a1 Tat previously called Tat or N1c M46 292 A 2009 study also examined mtDNA variation in 31 ancient horses from the Pannonian Basin 17 from Avar and 14 from Hungarian conquest period and Avar sequences were genetically heterogeneous closely related to Eastern breeds including the north Russian Tuva and Vyatskaya groups by contrast the early Hungarian horses showed a relatively close relationship with the Akhal Teke and Norwegian Ffjord breeds and at least at the level of high quality horses our results show that the ethnic changes induced by the Hungarian Conquest in the late 9th century were accompanied by a similar change in the stables of the Carpathian Basin 293 A 2011 study on lactase persistence polymorphism of 23 elite and commoner samples from the 10 11th century found that their low prevalence of lactase persistence corresponds well with those of present day populations of the Uralic linguistic family such as the Khantys Mansis and Maris and certain Central Asian and Turkish populations and additional mtDNA testing identified six major mtDNA haplogroups H U T N1a JT X among Hungarian conquerors six among commoners from the time of the conquest H HV M R T U including those of Asian origin like N M and U4 294 nbsp Comparison of the major Hg distributions from ancient Hungarian populations Brackets mark east Eurasian Hgs by Maar et al 2021A comprehensive archaeogenetic study published in Scientific Reports in September 2016 examined mtDNA of 76 Hungarian conquest period samples and West Eurasian haplogroups H HV I J K N1a R T U V X W were present at a frequency of 77 and Central and East Eurasian haplogroups A B C D F G M at 23 In conclusion both the linguistically recorded Finno Ugric roots and historically documented Turkic and Central Asian influxes had possible genetic imprints in the conquerors genetic composition 295 In the same year Molecular Genetics and Genomics was published a study of 17 samples of first generation Hungarian conqueror cemeteries revealing that the most frequent mtDNA Hg was B which together with Hg A indicate that about 30 of the Karos population is genetically connected to Central and East Asia The majority of Hg s H U T J X are of Eurasian origin however it is remarkable that two individuals belong to subhaplogroup H6 which may also indicate Asian connection The single X2f maternal haplotype of the chief sample 11 is of particular interest as this haplotype is most probably of south Caucasian origin while only four had a Y DNA Hg typical European 2x I2a and R1b 296 A genetic study published in PLOS One in October 2018 examined the mtDNA of individuals from 10th century graves associated with the Hungarian conquerors of the Basin The majority of their maternal lineages were traced back to the Potapovka Srubnaya and Poltavka cultures of the Pontic Caspian steppe while one third of their maternal lineages could be traced back to Inner Asia probably being derived from Asian Scythians and the Xiongnu Asian Huns The mtDNA of the conquerors was found to be most closely related to the Onogur Bulgar ancestors of the Volga Tatars The conquerors did not display significant genetic relations to other Finno Ugric peoples The evidence implied that the conquerors did not contribute significantly to the gene pool of modern Hungarians 297 A 2021 study analyzed maternal lineages from 202 10 11th century commoners from Carpathian Basin and compared them to conqueror elite finding that the haplogroup composition of the commoner population markedly differs from that of the elite and in contrast to the elite commoners cluster with European populations Alongside this detectable sub haplogroup sharing indicates admixture between the elite and the commoners The majority of the 10 11th century commoners most likely represent local populations of the Carpathian Basin which admixed with the eastern immigrant groups which included conquering Hungarians 298 A genetic study published in Scientific Reports in November 2019 examined the remains of 29 Hungarian conquerors of the Carpathian Basin The majority of them carried Y DNA of West Eurasian origin but at least 30 of East Eurasian amp broadly Eurasian N1a M2004 N1a Z1936 Q1a and R1a Z2124 They carried a higher amount of West Eurasian paternal ancestry than West Eurasian maternal ancestry Among modern populations their paternal ancestry was the most similar to Bashkirs Haplogroup I2a1a2b was observed among several conquerors of particularly high rank This haplogroup is of European origin and is today particularly common among South Slavs A wide variety of phenotypes were observed with several individuals having blond hair and blue eyes and some had East Asian admixture The study also analyzed three Hunnic samples from the Carpathian Basin in the 5th century and these displayed genetic similarities to the conquerors The Hungarian conquerors appeared to be a recently assembled heterogenous group incorporating both European Asian and Eurasian elements 299 In the same year the journal published an analysis of N3a4 Z1936 which is still found in very rare frequencies in modern Hungarians and showed that Hungarian sub clade N B539 Y13850 splits from its sister branch N3a4 B535 frequent today among Northeast European Uralic speakers 4000 5000 ya which is in the time frame of the proposed divergence of Ugric languages while on N B539 Y13850 sub clade level confirmed shared paternal lineages with modern Ugric Mansis and Khantys via N B540 L1034 and Turkic speakers Bashkirs and Volga Tatars via N B540 L1034 and N B545 Y24365 300 nbsp The frequency of paternal haplogroups in the Hungarian Conqueror samples by Fothi et al 2020A genetic study published in the Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences in January 2020 examined the remains of 19 male Hungarian conquerors These conquerors were found to be carriers of a diverse set of haplogroups and displayed genetic links to Turkic peoples Finno Ugric peoples and Slavs More than 37 of them carried types of haplogroup N3a L708 mainly N3a4 Z1936 N3a4 Z1936 gt Y13850 N3a4 Z1936 gt Y13850 gt L1034 less N3a2 M2118 present in Yakuts This evidence suggested that the conquerors were of Ob Ugric descent and spoke a Ugric language 301 A 2020 archaeogenetic and archaeological study published in Scientific Reports of 36 samples from Cis Ural region and 9 Hungarian conquerors confirmed connection of paternal Hg N Z1936 gt N B545 Y24365 and maternal Hg N1a1 via common ancient population in addition to archaeological historical and linguistic sources implying the Hungarian homeland was probably in the southern Trans Ural region where the Kushnarenkovo culture was disseminated where Lomovatovo and Nevolino cultures are archaeologically related to ancient Hungarians 288 A genetic study published in the European Journal of Human Genetics in July 2020 examined the skeletal remains of Arpad dynasty descendant and King Bela III of Hungary and unknown Arpad member named as II 52 HU52 from the Royal Basilica of Szekesfehervar It was established that the male lineage of the Arpads belonged to the Y haplogroup R1a subclade R Z2125 gt R Z2123 gt R Y2632 gt R Y2633 gt R SUR51 The subclade was also found in nearest contemporary matches of 48 Bashkirs from the Burzyansky and Abzelilovsky districts of the Republic of Bashkortostan in the Volga Ural region and 1 individual from the region of Vojvodina Serbia The Arpad members and one individual from Serbia share additional private SNPs making a novel subclade R SUR51 gt R ARP and as the mentioned individual has additional private SNPs it branches from the medieval Arpads forming R ARP gt R UVD Based on the data of the distribution appearance and coalescence estimation of R Y2633 the dynasty traces ancient origin near northern Afghanistan about 4 500 years ago with a separation date of R ARP from the closest kin Bashkirs from the Volga Ural region to 2 000 years ago while the individual from Serbia R UVD descends from the Arpads about 900 years ago As the separation of haplogroup N B539 between the Hungarians and Bashkirs is estimated to have occurred 2 000 years ago it implies that the ancestors of Hungarians having Ugric and Turkic ancestry left the Volga Ural region about 2 000 years ago and started a migration that eventually culminated in settlement in the Carpathian Basin 302 An archaeogenetic study published in scientific journal Current Biology in May 2022 examined 48 from 10th century Conquering Hungarian elite cemeteries 65 from commoner cemeteries of the Hungarian conquer early Arpadian Period 10 11th centuries According to autosomal analysis the Hungarian elite core can be modeled as 50 Mansi like 35 Sarmatian like and 15 Hun Xiongnu like and the Mansi Sarmatian admixture event is suggested to have taken place in the Southern Ural region at 643 431 BCE while Mansi Hun around 217 315 CE However most individuals can be modeled as two way admixtures of Conq Asia Core and Eur Core The elite males carried among others East Eurasian Y DNA haplogroups N1a D1a C2a with Q1a and R1a Z94 being sign of Hun related ancestry generally accompanied by Asian maternal lineages Notably almost exclusively in the elite were present I2 Y3120 subclades very often accompanied by Asian maternal lineages indicating that I2a1a2b1a1a could be more typical for the immigrants than to the local population The study also showed that a common proto Ugric gene pool appeared in the Bronze Age from the admixture of Mezhovskaya and Nganasan people supporting genetic and linguistic data 303 Another study published in 2022 taking into account the genetic data originating from ancient proto Ob Ugric people from Western Siberia 6th 13th century the pre Conquest period and subsisting Hungarians from the Volga Ural region 6th 14th century and their neighbours emphasises the connection of Hungarian Conquerors with Iron Age Sargat culture The earliest traces of their ancestors settlements can be found in the territory bordered by the Rivers Tobol Irtysh and Ishim in the Trans Urals and the western zone of south western Siberia from where they crossed the River Volga and moved to the territory lying to the north of the Black Sea at the beginning of the 9th century According to the study there was little or no biological connection between the ancestors of Hungarians and proto Ob Ugric groups in Western Siberia despite their close geographical proximity for 1500 2000 years after their split estimated by linguistic models and chronology and that In the Carpathian Basin the new settlers and the local population started admixing only in the second half of the 10th century The study also concludes that man and women came together in the Carpathian Basin with some maternal lineages originating in the east also surviving in the area The main paternal lineages of the Hungarian conquerors belong to the haplogroup N at a total of 36 8 with variable amounts from 6 1 to 1 still found in the modern Hungarian population 304 Artistic representation edit nbsp The seven chieftains of the Hungarians a detail of the Feszty PanoramaThe most famous perpetuation of the events is the Arrival of the Hungarians or Feszty Panorama which is a large cyclorama a circular panoramic painting by Hungarian painter Arpad Feszty and his assistants It was completed in 1894 for the 1 000th anniversary of the event 305 Since the 1 100th anniversary of the event in 1995 the painting has been displayed in the opusztaszer National Heritage Park Hungary Mihaly Munkacsy also depicted the event under the name of Conquest for the Hungarian Parliament Building in 1893 citation needed See also edit nbsp Hungary portalList of Hungarian rulers Magyar tribes Origin of the Szekelys Principality of HungaryFootnotes edit a b Kontler 1999 p 42 a b c d e f Kristo 1996a p 191 Toth 1999 note 2 on p 23 Roman 2003 p 145 Tortenelem 5 az altalanos iskolasok szamara History 5 for primary school students PDF in Hungarian Oktatasi Hivatal Hungarian Educational Authority 2020 pp 15 112 116 137 138 141 ISBN 978 615 6178 37 4 Szoke Bela Miklos 2014 The Carolingian Age in the Carpathian Basin PDF Budapest Hungarian National Museum ISBN 978 615 5209 17 8 a b c Szabados Gyorgy 2016 Vazlat a magyar honfoglalas Karpat medencei hattererol Outline of the background of the Hungarian conquest of the Carpathian Basin PDF Nepek es kulturak a Karpat medenceben Peoples and cultures in the Carpathian Basin in Hungarian Magyar Nemzeti Muzeum ISBN 978 615 5209 56 7 Szabados Gyorgy 2018 Folytonossag es vagy talalkozas Avar es magyar a 9 szazadi Karpat medenceben Continuity and or encounter Avar and Hungarian in the 9th century Carpathian Basin in Hungarian Wang Chuan Chao Posth Cosimo Furtwangler Anja Sumegi Katalin Banfai Zsolt Kasler Miklos Krause Johannes Melegh Bela 28 September 2021 Genome wide autosomal mtDNA and Y chromosome analysis of King Bela III of the Hungarian Arpad dynasty Scientific Reports 11 1 19210 doi 10 1038 s41598 021 98796 x PMC 8478946 PMID 34584164 Sudar Balazs Petek Zsolt 2016 Magyar ostortenet 4 Honfoglalas es megtelepedes Hungarian Prehistory 4 Conquest and Settlement PDF Helikon Kiado MTA BTK Magyar Ostorteneti Temacsoport Hungarian Academy of Sciences Hungarian Prehistory Research Team ISBN 978 963 227 755 4 a b Revesz Laszlo 2014 The Era of the Hungarian Conquest PDF Budapest Hungarian National Museum ISBN 9786155209185 Negyesi Lajos Veszpremy Laszlo 2011 Gubcsi Lajos ed 1000 1100 years ago Hungary in the Carpathian Basin PDF Budapest MoD Zrinyi Media Ltd ISBN 978 963 327 515 3 Szabados Gyorgy May 2022 Almostol Szent Istvanig From Almos to Saint Stephen Rubicon Hungarian Historical Information Dissemination in Hungarian a b Endre Neparaczki 28 July 2022 A Magyarsagkutato Intezet azon dolgozik hogy fenyt deritsen valodi szarmazasunkra Magyarsagkutato Intezet Institute of Hungarian Research in Hungarian Dreisziger Nandor 2016 Reflections on the Dual Conquest Theory of Hungarian Origins library ualberta ca Retrieved 12 August 2023 Csanad Balint June 2023 Gyula Laszlo s theory of the two time conquest of the Magyars and the archaeology of the Avars ResearchGate Retrieved 12 August 2023 Kontler 1999 p 39 Engel 2001 pp 10 Curta 2006 p 123 a b c Spinei 2003 p 50 The Annals of St Bertin year 862 p 102 a b Bowlus 1994 p 237 Bowlus 1994 p 338 Kristo 1996a pp 148 156 Spinei 2003 pp 42 43 Constantine Porphyrogenitus De Administrando Imperio ch 38 p 173 Constantine Porphyrogenitus De Administrando Imperio ch 40 p 175 Kristo 1996a p 156 a b c Spinei 2003 p 44 Curta 2006 p 124 a b Makkai 1994 p 10 a b Kristo 1996a pp 116 117 Anonymus Notary of King Bela The Deeds of the Hungarians ch 1 p 11 a b c Spinei 2003 p 51 Rona Tas 1999 p 329 Bowlus 1994 pp 237 238 Madgearu 2005b pp 34 37 Rona Tas 1999 pp 69 72 a b Spinei 2003 p 33 Kristo 1996a pp 101 104 Rona Tas 1999 pp 343 347 Spinei 2003 p 42 Rona Tas 1999 pp 343 353 Engel 2001 p 15 Engel 2001 pp 15 16 Spinei 2003 p 20 a b The Chronicle of Regino of Prum year 889 p 205 a b Spinei 2003 p 19 Rona Tas 1999 p 358 Rona Tas 1999 p 136 a b Engel 2001 p 16 The Taktika of Leo VI 18 47 50 pp 455 457 a b Macartney 1953 pp 64 65 70 Anonymus Notary of King Bela The Deeds of the Hungarians ch 9 p 27 Madgearu 2005b p 45 a b Georgescu 1991 p 15 Anonymus Notary of King Bela The Deeds of the Hungarians ch 11 p 33 Simon of Keza The Deeds of the Hungarians ch 2 23 pp 73 75 Madgearu 2005b pp 46 47 Macartney 1953 p 103 Macartney 1953 pp 70 80 Pop 2013 p 63 a b c Kristo 1996b p 95 Kiss 1983 pp 187 190 233 408 481 532 599 643 Kiss 1983 pp 80 108 661 712 a b Makkai 1994 a b Kristo 1996b p 96 Kiss 1983 pp 166 167 331 465 697 a b Kristo 1996b p 98 Kristo 1996b p 96 98 Kiss 1983 pp 91 92 a b c Bela Miklos Szoke 17 April 2013 A Karpat medence a Karoling korban es a magyar honfoglalas Tudomany es hagyomanyorzes konferencia PDF in Hungarian MTA Bolcseszettudomanyi Kutatokozpont Retrieved 7 December 2013 Gyorgy Szabados 2015 Avar magyar talalkozo Helyszin idopont In in nostra lingua Hringe nominant Tanulmanyok Szentpeteri Jozsef 60 szuletesnapja tiszteletere PDF in Hungarian MTA Bolcseszettudomanyi Kutatokozpont Kecskemeti Katona Jozsef Muzeum pp 121 140 Retrieved 8 July 2017 Engel 2001 p 8 Rona Tas 1999 p 262 Makkai 1994 pp 6 7 Engel 2001 p 2 Kontler 1999 pp 31 32 Curta 2006 p 92 Spiesz Caplovic amp Bolchazy 2006 p 19 Makkai 1994 p 7 a b c Szoke 2003 p 314 Bowlus 1994 pp 57 58 a b Bowlus 1994 p 57 Rona Tas 1999 p 264 Pohl 1998 p 19 a b Olajos 2001 p 55 a b Rona Tas 1999 p 285 286 Kristo 1996b p 97 98 Bowlus 1994 pp 72 73 a b c d Rona Tas 1999 p 243 Barford 2001 p 95 Rona Tas 1999 p 133 Szoke 2003 p 315 Bowlus 1994 p 125 Bowlus 1994 p 202 The Annals of Fulda year 884 p 110 Bowlus 1994 pp 208 213 a b Spiesz Caplovic amp Bolchazy 2006 p 20 Spiesz Caplovic amp Bolchazy 2006 pp 21 22 Kontler 1999 pp 31 33 Spiesz Caplovic amp Bolchazy 2006 pp 24 25 Curta 2006 pp 126 127 a b c Constantine Porphyrogenitus De Administrando Imperio ch 40 p 177 Kristo 1996a p 180 Kristo 1996a pp 180 181 Kristo 1996a p 181 Curta 2006 p 127 Curta 2006 p 130 Engel 2001 p 4 Curta 2006 p 149 Royal Frankish Annals year 824 p 116 Curta 2006 pp 157 159 Royal Frankish Annals year 827 p 122 Fine 1991 p 107 Curta 2006 p 158 Curta 2006 p 159 Fine 1991 p 118 Bowlus 1994 pp 224 225 229 Bowlus 1994 p 229 The Annals of Fulda year 892 p 124 a b Fine 1991 p 11 Anonymus Notary of King Bela The Deeds of the Hungarians ch 35 p 77 Anonymus Notary of King Bela The Deeds of the Hungarians ch 24 p 59 Grzesik 2016 pp 29 32 Grzesik 2016 pp 28 29 Curta 2001 pp 148 149 Madgearu 2005b p 115 Curta 2001 pp 148 a b Toth 1998 p 169 Toth 1998 pp 169 230 231 Tortenelem 5 az altalanos iskolasok szamara History 5 for primary school students PDF in Hungarian Oktatasi Hivatal Hungarian Educational Authority 2020 pp 15 112 116 137 138 141 ISBN 978 615 6178 37 4 Wang Chuan Chao Posth Cosimo Furtwangler Anja Sumegi Katalin Banfai Zsolt Kasler Miklos Krause Johannes Melegh Bela 28 September 2021 Genome wide autosomal mtDNA and Y chromosome analysis of King Bela III of the Hungarian Arpad dynasty Scientific Reports 11 1 19210 doi 10 1038 s41598 021 98796 x PMC 8478946 PMID 34584164 Szabados Gyorgy May 2022 Almostol Szent Istvanig From Almos to Saint Stephen Rubicon Hungarian Historical Information Dissemination in Hungarian Szabados Gyorgy 2016 Vazlat a magyar honfoglalas Karpat medencei hattererol Outline of the background of the Hungarian conquest of the Carpathian Basin PDF Nepek es kulturak a Karpat medenceben Peoples and cultures in the Carpathian Basin in Hungarian Magyar Nemzeti Muzeum ISBN 978 615 5209 56 7 Szoke Bela Miklos 2014 The Carolingian Age in the Carpathian Basin PDF Budapest Hungarian National Museum ISBN 978 615 5209 17 8 Sudar Balazs Petek Zsolt 2016 Magyar ostortenet 4 Honfoglalas es megtelepedes Hungarian Prehistory 4 Conquest and Settlement PDF Helikon Kiado MTA BTK Magyar Ostorteneti Temacsoport Hungarian Academy of Sciences Hungarian Prehistory Research Team ISBN 978 963 227 755 4 a b Revesz Laszlo 2014 The Era of the Hungarian Conquest PDF Budapest Hungarian National Museum ISBN 9786155209185 Negyesi Lajos Veszpremy Laszlo 2011 Gubcsi Lajos ed 1000 1100 years ago Hungary in the Carpathian Basin PDF Budapest MoD Zrinyi Media Ltd ISBN 978 963 327 515 3 Tortenelem tankonyv 9 History School Book PDF Oktatasi Hivatal Hungarian Educational Authority 2020 pp 120 170 ISBN 978 615 6178 22 0 Toth 1998 p 170 Toth 1998 pp 170 226 234 Kristo 1996a pp 181 182 Toth 1998 pp 169 170 Rona Tas 1999 p 336 a b c Kristo 1996a p 175 Bowlus 1994 p 241 Liudprand of Cremona Retribution 1 13 p 56 a b Madgearu 2005b p 91 a b Kristo 1996b p 107 a b Bowlus 1994 p 240 The Annals of Fulda year 894 p 129 a b Kristo 1996a p 177 Rona Tas 1999 p 332 Toth 1998 pp 149 150 Toth 1998 p 150 The Hungarian Illuminated Chronicle ch 28 p 99 The History of al Tabari 38 2138 p 11 Toth 1998 p 178 a b Kristo 1996a p 182 Toth 1998 pp 178 179 Toth 1998 pp 179 180 Constantine Porphyrogenitus De Administrando Imperio ch 37 p 167 Fine 1991 p 137 a b c d e f Curta 2006 p 178 a b c Fine 1991 p 138 Kristo 1996a p 183 Kristo 1996a p 186 a b c Fine 1991 p 139 Engel 2001 p 12 a b Kristo 1996a p 188 The Chronicle of Regino of Prum year 889 pp 204 205 The Hungarian Illuminated Chronicle ch 26 p 98 Toth 1998 p 189 Toth 1998 pp 189 190 Toth 1998 p 191 Spinei 2003 p 55 Spinei 2009 pp 71 72 a b Engel 2003 p 654 Bowlus 1994 pp 214 241 242 Kristo 1996a p 195 Bowlus 1994 p 243 a b Bartl 2002 p 23 Spiesz Caplovic amp Bolchazy 2006 p 25 Kristo 1996a p 197 Kristo 1996a pp 197 198 a b Kristo 1996a p 198 a b c Engel 2003 p 13 a b Spinei 2003 p 68 Bowlus 1994 pp 244 246 Madgearu 2005b pp 22 23 Pop 1996 pp 131 136 a b Madgearu 2005b p 22 Spinei 2003 p 59 a b The Hungarian Illuminated Chronicle ch 28 p 98 a b Spinei 2003 p 31 Anonymus Notary of King Bela The Deeds of the Hungarians ch 6 p 19 Simon of Keza The Deeds of the Hungarians ch 2 27 33 pp 81 85 Toth 1998 p 116 121 125 Kristo 1996a pp 191 192 a b Spinei 2003 p 69 Liudprand of Cremona Retribution 2 2 p 75 a b Kristo 1996a p 200 Bowlus 1994 p 246 a b c Kristo 1996a p 199 Bowlus 1994 p 247 Bowlus 1994 pp 247 248 a b c Bowlus 1994 p 248 a b Grzesik 2016 p 31 Spinei 2009 p 73 Russian Primary Chronicle 1953 note 29 on p 235 Kristo 1983 p 146 a b c Kristo 1983 p 147 The Russian Primary Chronicle Introduction and years 888 898 pp 52 53 62 Bowlus 1994 pp 248 250 Kristo 1996b p 142 Kristo 1996b p 141 a b Kristo 1996a p 193 Barford 2001 pp 109 111 Constantine Porphyrogenitus De Administrando Imperio ch 41 p 181 Bowlus 1994 p 257 Madgearu 2005b pp 22 33 39 Spinei 2003 p 62 Madgearu 2005b p 25 Macartney 1953 pp 71 79 Madgearu 2005b pp 35 36 Anonymus Notary of King Bela The Deeds of the Hungarians ch 44 p 97 a b Kristo 1996a p 201 a b c d Spinei 2003 p 70 Bowlus 1994 p 250 Kristo 1996a p 203 Bowlus 1994 p 251 a b Bowlus 1994 p 254 a b Bowlus 1994 p 258 a b Makkai 1994 p 12 a b c Spinei 2003 p 72 Bowlus 1994 pp 259 265 Spiesz Caplovic amp Bolchazy 2006 p 27 Kontler 1999 p 45 Curta 2006 p 193 Barford 2001 p 231 a b Spinei 2003 p 57 Curta 2001 p 151 Spinei 2003 pp 57 59 a b c Rona Tas 1999 p 111 Rona Tas 1999 pp 110 111 a b Engel 2001 pp 44 57 Hajdu 2004 p 243 Kontler 1999 p 44 Madgearu 2005a pp 110 111 Rona Tas 1999 p 118 a b Kristo 1996b p 145 Constantine Porphyrogenitus De Administrando Imperio ch 8 p 57 Spinei 2003 pp 76 77 Spinei 2003 p 77 a b Kontler 1999 p 47 Spinei 2003 p 84 a b c Engel 2003 p 650 Rona Tas 1999 p 53 Rona Tas 1999 p 55 Rona Tas 1999 pp 51 52 Rona Tas 1999 p 54 Engel 2003 p 652 a b Rona Tas 1999 p 56 Engel 2003 p 653 Rona Tas 1999 p 57 a b Kristo 1996a p 176 Macartney 1953 p 16 Kristo 1996a p 185 a b Rona Tas 1999 p 61 a b Rona Tas 1999 p 62 Madgearu 2005b p 52 Macartney 1953 p 1 Madgearu 2005b p 24 a b Rona Tas 1999 p 58 Szakacs 2006 p 150 a b c d Buranbaeva amp Mladineo 2011 p 113 Madgearu 2005b p 20 Curta 2006 p 350 Macartney 1953 p 59 Kristo 1996a p 71 Rona Tas 1999 pp 117 118 134 Spinei 2003 p 37 Engel 2001 p 17 a b Rona Tas 1999 p 139 Spinei 2003 p 39 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Europe in the Early Middle Ages The University of Michigan Press pp 103 120 ISBN 978 0 472 11498 6 Madgearu Alexandru 2005b The Romanians in the Anonymous Gesta Hungarorum Truth and Fiction Romanian Cultural Institute Center for Transylvanian Studies ISBN 973 7784 01 4 Makkai Laszlo 1994 Hungary before the Hungarian conquest The Hungarians prehistory their conquest of Hungary and their raids to the West to 955 In Sugar Peter F Hanak Peter Frank Tibor eds A History of Hungary Indiana University Press pp 1 14 ISBN 963 7081 01 1 Makkai Laszlo 2001 Transylvania in the Medieval Hungarian Kingdom 896 1526 History of Transylvania Volume I Institute of History of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences ISBN 0 88033 479 7 Maroti Zoltan Neparaczki Endre Schutz Oszkar 25 May 2022 The genetic origin of Huns Avars and conquering Hungarians Current Biology 32 13 2858 2870 e7 doi 10 1016 j cub 2022 04 093 PMID 35617951 S2CID 249050620 Nagy D et al March 2011 Comparison of lactase persistence polymorphism in ancient and present day Hungarian populations American Journal of Physical Anthropology 145 2 262 269 doi 10 1002 ajpa 21490 PMID 21365615 Nagy P L Olasz J Neparaczki E et al 2020 Determination of the phylogenetic origins of the Arpad Dynasty based on Y chromosome sequencing of Bela the Third European Journal of Human Genetics 29 1 164 172 doi 10 1038 s41431 020 0683 z PMC 7809292 PMID 32636469 Neparaczki Endre Juhasz Zoltan Pamjav Horolma Feher Tibor Csanyi Bernadett Zink Albert Maixner Frank Palfi Gyorgy Molnar Erika Pap Ildiko Kustar Agnes Revesz Laszlo Rasko Istvan Torok Tibor November 2016 Genetic structure of the early Hungarian conquerors inferred from mtDNA haplotypes and Y chromosome haplogroups in a small cemetery Molecular Genetics and Genomics 292 1 201 214 doi 10 1007 s00438 016 1267 z PMID 27803981 S2CID 4099313 Neparaczki Endre et al 18 October 2018 Mitogenomic data indicate admixture components of Central Inner Asian and Srubnaya origin in the conquering Hungarians PLOS One PLOS 13 10 e0205920 Bibcode 2018PLoSO 1305920N doi 10 1371 journal pone 0205920 PMC 6851379 PMID 30335830 Neparaczki Endre et al 12 November 2019 Y chromosome haplogroups from Hun Avar and conquering Hungarian period nomadic people of the Carpathian Basin Scientific Reports Nature Research 9 16569 16569 Bibcode 2019NatSR 916569N doi 10 1038 s41598 019 53105 5 PMC 6851379 PMID 31719606 Olajos Terez 2001 Az avar tovabbeles kerdeserol a 9 szazadi avar tortenelem gorog es latin nyelvu forrasai On the survival of the Avars Greek and Latin sources of the 9th century of the Avar history PDF Tiszataj in Hungarian Szeged HU Tiszataj Alapitvany 55 11 50 56 Archived from the original PDF on 5 February 2012 Retrieved 29 September 2013 Pohl Walter 1998 Conceptions of Ethnicity in Early Medieval Studies In Little Lester K Rosenwein Barbara eds Debating the Middle Ages Issues and Readings Blackwell Publishers pp 15 24 ISBN 1 57718 008 9 Pop Ioan Aurel 1996 Romanians and Hungarians from the 9th to the 14th Century The Genesis of the Transylvanian Medieval State Centrul de Studii Transilvane Fundaţia Culturală Romană ISBN 973 577 037 7 Pop Ioan Aurel 2013 De manibus Valachorum scismaticorum Romanians and Power in the Mediaeval Kingdom of Hungary The Thirteenth and Fourteenth Centuries Peter Lang ISBN 978 3 631 64866 7 Post Helen et al May 2019 Y chromosomal connection between Hungarians and geographically distant populations of the Ural Mountain region and West Siberia Scientific Reports 9 1 7786 Bibcode 2019NatSR 9 7786P doi 10 1038 s41598 019 44272 6 PMC 6534673 PMID 31127140 Priskin K et al September 2009 Mitochondrial sequence variation in ancient horses from the Carpathian Basin and possible modern relatives Genetica 138 2 211 218 doi 10 1007 s10709 009 9411 x PMID 19789983 Roman Eric 2003 Austria Hungary amp the Successor States A Reference Guide from the Renaissance to the Present Facts on File ISBN 0 8160 4537 2 Rona Tas Andras 1999 Hungarians and Europe in the Early Middle Ages An Introduction to Early Hungarian History Translated by Nicholas Bodoczky CEU Press ISBN 978 963 9116 48 1 Spiesz Anton Caplovic Dusan Bolchazy Ladislaus J 2006 Illustrated Slovak History A Struggle for Sovereignty in Central Europe Bolchazy Carducci Publishers ISBN 978 0 86516 426 0 Spinei Victor 2003 The Great Migrations in the East and South East of Europe from the Ninth to the Thirteenth Century Translated by Dana Badulescu Romanian Cultural Institute ISBN 973 85894 5 2 Spinei Victor 2009 The Romanians and the Turkic Nomads North of the Danube Delta from the Tenth to the Mid Thirteenth century Koninklijke Brill NV ISBN 978 90 04 17536 5 Szakacs Bela Zsolt 2006 Between Chronicle and Legend Image Cycles of St Ladislaus in Fourteenth Century Hungarian Manuscripts In Kooper Erik ed The Medieval Chronicle IV Rodopi pp 149 176 ISBN 978 90 420 2088 7 Szoke Bela Miklos 2003 A Karoling kor 811 896 Carolingian Age 811 896 In Visy Zsolt Nagy Mihaly B Kiss Zsuzsa eds Magyar regeszet az ezredfordulon Hungarian Archaeology at the Turn of the Millennium PDF in Hungarian Nemzeti Kulturalis Orokseg Miniszteriuma pp 312 317 ISBN 978 963 86291 7 3 Toth Sandor Laszlo 1998 Levediatol a Karpat medenceig From Levedia to the Carpathian Basin in Hungarian Szegedi Kozepkorasz Muhely ISBN 963 482 175 8 Toth Sandor Laszlo 1999 The Territories of the Hungarian Tribal Federation around 950 Some Observations on ConstantineVII s Tourkia In Prinzing Gunter Salamon Maciej eds Byzanz und Ostmitteleuropa 950 1453 Beitrage zu einer table ronde des XIX International Congress of Byzantine Studies Copenhagen 1996 Byzantium and East Central Europe 950 1453 Contributions to the Round table Discussions of the 19th International Congress of Byzantine Studies Copenhagen 1996 Otto Harrassowitz pp 23 34 ISBN 3 447 04146 3 Further reading editFodor Istvan 1982 In Search of a New Homeland The Prehistory of the Hungarian People and the Conquest Corvina Kiado ISBN 963 1311 260 Horedt Kurt 1986 Siebenburgen im Fruhmittelalter Transylvania in the Early Middle Ages in German Habelt ISBN 3 7749 2195 4 Nagler Thomas 2005 Transylvania between 900 and 1300 In Pop Ioan Aurel Nagler Thomas eds The History of Transylvania Vol I Until 1541 Romanian Cultural Institute Center for Transylvanian Studies pp 199 231 ISBN 973 7784 00 6 External links edit The Carpathian Basin before the Hungarian Conquest in the 9th Century Honfoglalas The Time of the Hungarian Conquest a video on YouTube Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Hungarian conquest of the Carpathian Basin amp oldid 1194528270, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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