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Charles I of Hungary

April 11, 2023

"Carol Robert" redirects here. Not to be confused with Carol Roberts.

Charles I, also known as Charles Robert (Hungarian: Károly Róbert; Croatian: Karlo Robert; Slovak: Karol Róbert; 1288 – 16 July 1342) was King of Hungary and Croatia from 1308 to his death. He was a member of the Capetian House of Anjou and the only son of Charles Martel, Prince of Salerno. His father was the eldest son of Charles II of Naples and Mary of Hungary. Mary laid claim to Hungary after her brother, Ladislaus IV of Hungary, died in 1290, but the Hungarian prelates and lords elected her cousin, Andrew III, king. Instead of abandoning her claim to Hungary, she transferred it to her son, Charles Martel, and after his death in 1295, to her grandson, Charles. On the other hand, her husband, Charles II of Naples, made their third son, Robert, heir to the Kingdom of Naples, thus disinheriting Charles.

Charles I
Charles depicted in the Illuminated Chronicle
King of Hungary and Croatia
contested by Wenceslaus (1301–05)
and by Otto (1305–12)
Reign1301/08 – 1342
Coronationearly 1301
15/16 June 1309
27 August 1310
PredecessorAndrew III or Otto
SuccessorLouis I
Born1288
Died16 July 1342 (aged 53–54)
Visegrád
Burial
Székesfehérvár Basilica
SpouseMaria of Galicia (disputed)
Mary of Bytom
Beatrice of Luxembourg
Elisabeth of Poland
Issue
more...		Catherine, Duchess of Świdnica
Louis I, King of Hungary
Andrew, Duke of Calabria
Stephen, Duke of Slavonia
DynastyCapetian House of Anjou
FatherCharles Martel of Anjou
MotherClemence of Austria
ReligionCatholicism

Charles came to the Kingdom of Hungary upon the invitation of an influential Croatian lord, Paul Šubić, in August 1300. Andrew III died on 14 January 1301, and within four months Charles was crowned king, but with a provisional crown instead of the Holy Crown of Hungary. Most Hungarian noblemen refused to yield to him and elected Wenceslaus of Bohemia king. Charles withdrew to the southern regions of the kingdom. Pope Boniface VIII acknowledged Charles as the lawful king in 1303, but Charles was unable to strengthen his position against his opponent. Wenceslaus abdicated in favor of Otto of Bavaria in 1305. Because it had no central government, the Kingdom of Hungary had disintegrated into a dozen provinces, each headed by a powerful nobleman, or oligarch. One of those oligarchs, Ladislaus III Kán, captured and imprisoned Otto of Bavaria in 1307. Charles was elected king in Pest on 27 November 1308, but his rule remained nominal in most parts of his kingdom even after he was crowned with the Holy Crown on 27 August 1310.

Charles won his first decisive victory in the Battle of Rozgony (at present-day Rozhanovce in Slovakia) on 15 June 1312. After that, his troops seized most fortresses of the powerful Aba family. During the next decade, Charles restored royal power primarily with the assistance of the prelates and lesser noblemen in most regions of the kingdom. After the death of the most powerful oligarch, Matthew Csák, in 1321, Charles became the undisputed ruler of the whole kingdom, with the exception of Croatia where local noblemen were able to preserve their autonomous status. He was not able to hinder the development of Wallachia into an independent principality after his defeat in the Battle of Posada in 1330. Charles's contemporaries described his defeat in that battle as a punishment from God for his cruel revenge against the family of Felician Záh who had attempted to slaughter the royal family.

Charles rarely made perpetual land grants, instead introduced a system of "office fiefs", whereby his officials enjoyed significant revenues, but only for the time they held a royal office, which ensured their loyalty. In the second half of his reign, Charles did not hold Diets and administered his kingdom with absolute power. He established the Order of Saint George, which was the first secular order of knights. He promoted the opening of new gold mines, which made Hungary the largest producer of gold in Europe. The first Hungarian gold coins were minted during his reign. At the congress of Visegrád in 1335, he mediated a reconciliation between two neighboring monarchs, John of Bohemia and Casimir III of Poland. Treaties signed at the same congress also contributed to the development of new commercial routes linking Hungary with Western Europe. Charles's efforts to reunite Hungary, together with his administrative and economic reforms, established the basis for the achievements of his successor, Louis the Great.

Early years

Childhood (1288–1300)

Charles was the only son of Charles Martel, Prince of Salerno, and his wife, Clemence of Austria.[1][2] He was born in 1288; the place of his birth is unknown.[1][2][3] Charles Martel was the firstborn son of Charles II of Naples and Charles II's wife, Mary, who was a daughter of Stephen V of Hungary.[4][5] After the death of her brother, Ladislaus IV of Hungary, in 1290, Queen Mary announced her claim to Hungary, stating that the House of Árpád (the royal family of Hungary) had become extinct with Ladislaus's death.[6] However, her father's cousin, Andrew also laid claim to the throne, although his father, Stephen the Posthumous, had been regarded a bastard by all other members of the royal family.[7] For all that, the Hungarian lords and prelates preferred Andrew against Mary and he was crowned king of Hungary on 23 July 1290.[6][8] She transferred her claim to Hungary to Charles Martel in January 1292.[9] The Babonići, Frankopans, Šubići and other Croatian and Slavonian noble families seemingly acknowledged Charles Martel's claim, but in fact their loyalty vacillated between Charles Martel and Andrew III.[10][11]

Charles Martel died in autumn 1295, and his seven-year-old son, Charles, inherited his claim to Hungary.[12][3] Charles would have also been the lawful heir to his grandfather, Charles II of Naples, in accordance with the principles of primogeniture.[12][13] However, Charles II, who preferred his third son, Robert, to his grandson, bestowed the rights of a firstborn son upon Robert on 13 February 1296.[14] Pope Boniface VIII confirmed Charles II's decision on 27 February 1296, excluding the child Charles from succeeding his grandfather in the Kingdom of Naples.[14] Dante Alighieri wrote of "the schemes and frauds that would attack"[15] Charles Martel's family in reference to Robert's alleged manoeuvres to acquire the right to inherit Naples.[16] The 14th-century historian Giovanni Villani also noted that his contemporaries were of the opinion that Robert's claim to Naples was weaker than his nephew's.[16] The jurist Baldus de Ubaldis refrained from setting out his position on the legitimacy of Robert's rule.[16]

Struggle for Hungary (1300–1308)

Further information: Matthew III Csák, Ladislaus Kán, and Amade Aba
 
Charles's arrival in Hungary, depicted in the Illuminated Chronicle
 
The provinces ruled by the oligarchs (powerful lords) in the early 14th century

Andrew III of Hungary made his maternal uncle, Albertino Morosini, Duke of Slavonia, in July 1299, stirring up the Slavonian and Croatian noblemen to revolt.[17][18] A powerful Croatian baron, Paul Šubić, sent his brother, George, to Italy in early 1300 to convince Charles II of Naples to send his grandson to Hungary to claim the throne in person.[18] The king of Naples accepted the proposal and borrowed 1,300 ounces of gold from Florentine bankers to finance Charles's journey.[9][19] A Neapolitan knight of French origin, Philip Drugeth, accompanied the twelve-year-old Charles to Hungary.[20] They landed at Split in Dalmatia in August 1300.[9][21] From Split, Paul Šubić escorted him to Zagreb where Ugrin Csák swore loyalty to Charles.[22] Charles's opponent, Andrew III of Hungary, died on 14 January 1301.[23] Charles hurried to Esztergom where the Archbishop-elect, Gregory Bicskei, crowned him with a provisional crown before 13 May.[24][25] However, most Hungarians considered Charles's coronation unlawful because customary law required that it should have been performed with the Holy Crown of Hungary in Székesfehérvár.[24][22]

Charles counted his regnal years from this coronation, but Hungary had actually disintegrated into about a dozen independent provinces, each ruled by a powerful lord, or oligarch.[26][27][28] Among them, Matthew Csák dominated the northwestern parts of Hungary (which now form the western territories of present-day Slovakia), Amadeus Aba controlled the northeastern lands, Ivan Kőszegi ruled Transdanubia, and Ladislaus Kán governed Transylvania.[29] Most of those lords refused to accept Charles's rule and proposed the crown to Wenceslaus II of Bohemia's son and namesake, Wenceslaus, whose bride, Elisabeth, was Andrew III's only daughter.[5][30] Although Wenceslaus was crowned with the Holy Crown in Székesfehérvár, the legitimacy of his coronation was also questionable because John Hont-Pázmány, Archbishop of Kalocsa, put the crown on Wenceslaus's head, although customary law authorized the Archbishop of Esztergom to perform the ceremony.[25]

After Wenceslaus's coronation, Charles withdrew to Ugrin Csák's domains in the southern regions of the kingdom.[31] Pope Boniface sent his legate, Niccolo Boccasini, to Hungary.[31] Boccasini convinced the majority of the Hungarian prelates to accept Charles's reign.[31] However, most Hungarian lords continued to oppose Charles because, according to the Illuminated Chronicle,[32] they feared that "the free men of the kingdom should lose their freedom by accepting a king appointed by the Church".[33] Charles laid siege to Buda, the capital of the kingdom, in September 1302, but Ivan Kőszegi relieved the siege.[25] Charles's charters show that he primarily stayed in the southern parts of the kingdom during the next years although he also visited Amadeus Aba in the fortress of Gönc.[26]

Pope Boniface who regarded Hungary as a fief of the Holy See declared Charles the lawful king of Hungary on 31 May 1303.[34][35] He also threatened Wenceslaus with excommunication if he continued to style himself king of Hungary.[36] Wenceslaus, left Hungary in summer 1304, taking the Holy Crown with him.[31] Charles met his cousin, Rudolph III of Austria, in Pressburg (now Bratislava in Slovakia) on 24 August.[31][37] After signing an alliance, they jointly invaded Bohemia in the autumn.[31][38] Wenceslaus who had succeeded his father in Bohemia renounced his claim to Hungary in favor of Otto III, Duke of Bavaria on 9 October 1305.[39]

Otto was crowned with the Holy Crown in Székesfehérvár on 6 December 1305 by Benedict Rád, Bishop of Veszprém, and Anton, Bishop of Csanád.[39][40][38] He was never able to strengthen his position in Hungary, because only the Kőszegis and the Transylvanian Saxons supported him.[31] Charles seized Esztergom and many fortresses in the northern parts of Hungary (now in Slovakia) in 1306.[41][38] His partisans also occupied Buda in June 1307.[41] Ladislaus Kán, Voivode of Transylvania, seized and imprisoned Otto in Transylvania.[39][42] An assembly of Charles's partisans confirmed Charles's claim to the throne on 10 October, but three powerful lords—Matthew Csák, Ladislaus Kán, and Ivan Kőszegi—were absent from the meeting.[41][38] In 1308, Ladislaus Kán released Otto, who then left Hungary.[42] Otto never ceased styling himself King of Hungary, but he never returned to the country.[41]

Pope Clement V sent a new papal legate, Gentile Portino da Montefiore, to Hungary.[41][43] Montefiore arrived in the summer of 1308.[41] In the next few months, he persuaded the most powerful lords one by one to accept Charles's rule.[41] At the Diet, which was held in the Dominican monastery in Pest, Charles was unanimously proclaimed king on 27 November 1308.[43][44] The delegates sent by Matthew Csák and Ladislaus Kán were also present at the assembly.[44]

Reign

Wars against the oligarchs (1308–1323)

Further information: Battle of Rozgony
 
King Charles Robert as depicted in the Chronica Hungarorum
 
The Battle of Rozgony depicted in the Illuminated Chronicle: in this battle, Charles defeated the sons of Amadeus Aba on 15 June 1312

The papal legate convoked the synod of the Hungarian prelates, who declared the monarch inviolable in December 1308.[43][44] They also urged Ladislaus Kán to hand over the Holy Crown to Charles.[44] After Kán refused to do so, the legate consecrated a new crown for Charles.[43] Thomas II, Archbishop of Esztergom crowned Charles king with the new crown in the Church of Our Lady in Buda on 15 or 16 June 1309.[43][45] However, most Hungarians regarded his second coronation invalid.[41] The papal legate excommunicated Ladislaus Kán, who finally agreed to give the Holy Crown to Charles.[43] On 27 August 1310, Archbishop Thomas of Esztergom put the Holy Crown on Charles's head in Székesfehérvár; thus, Charles's third coronation was performed in full accordance with customary law.[41][46][45] However, his rule remained nominal in most parts of his kingdom.[41]

Matthew Csák laid siege Buda in June 1311, and Ladislaus Kán declined to assist the king.[47][46] Charles sent an army to invade Matthew Csák's domains in September, but it achieved nothing.[48] In the same year, Ugrin Csák died, enabling Charles to take possession of the deceased lord's domains, which were situated between Požega in Slavonia and Temesvár (present-day Timișoara in Romania).[49][50] The burghers of Kassa (now Košice in Slovakia) assassinated Amadeus Aba in September 1311.[51] Charles's envoys arbitrated an agreement between Aba's sons and the town, which also prescribed that the Abas withdraw from two counties and allow the noblemen inhabiting their domains to freely join Charles.[51] However, the Abas soon entered into an alliance with Matthew Csák against the king.[49] The united forces of the Abas and Matthew Csák besieged Kassa, but Charles routed them in the Battle of Rozgony (now Rozhanovce in Slovakia) on 15 June 1312.[52][45] Almost half of the noblemen who had served Amadeus Aba fought on Charles's side in the battle.[53] In July, Charles captured the Abas' many fortresses in Abaúj, Torna and Sáros counties, including Füzér, Regéc, and Munkács (now Mukacheve in Ukraine).[54] Thereafter he waged war against Matthew Csák, capturing Nagyszombat (now Trnava in Slovakia) in 1313 and Visegrád in 1315, but was unable to win a decisive victory.[49]

Charles transferred his residence from Buda to Temesvár in early 1315.[55][49] Ladislaus Kán died in 1315, but his sons did not yield to Charles.[56][47] Charles launched a campaign against the Kőszegis in Transdanubia and Slavonia in the first half of 1316.[57][58] Local noblemen joined the royal troops, which contributed to the quick collapse of the Kőszegis' rule in southern parts of their domains.[57] Meanwhile, James Borsa made an alliance against Charles with Ladislaus Kán's sons and other lords, including Mojs Ákos and Peter, son of Petenye.[47] They offered the crown to Andrew of Galicia.[47][57] Charles's troops, which were under the command of a former supporter of the Borsas, Dózsa Debreceni, defeated the rebels' united troops at Debrecen at the end of June.[58][59] In the next two months, many fortresses of Borsa and his allies fell to the royal troops in Bihar, Szolnok, Borsod and Kolozs counties.[58] No primary source has made reference to Charles's bravery or heroic acts, suggesting that he rarely fought in person in the battles and sieges.[55] However, he had excellent strategic skills: it was always Charles who appointed the fortresses to be besieged.[55]

Stefan Dragutin, who controlled the Szerémség, Macsó and other regions along the southern borders of Hungary, died in 1316.[58][60] Charles confirmed the right of Stefan Dragutin's son, Vladislav, to succeed his father and declared Vladislav the lawful ruler of Serbia against Stefan Uroš II Milutin.[58] However, Stefan Uroš II captured Vladislav and invaded the Szerémség.[61][57] Charles launched a counter-campaign across the river Száva and seized the fortress of Macsó.[57] In May 1317, Charles's army suppressed the Abas' revolt, seizing Ungvár and Nevicke Castle (present-day Uzhhorod and Nevytsky Castle in Ukraine) from them.[62] After that, Charles invaded Matthew Csák's domains and captured Komárom (now Komárno in Slovakia) on 3 November 1317.[62] After his uncle, King Robert of Naples, granted the Principality of Salerno and the domain of Monte Sant'Angelo to his brother (Charles's younger uncle), John, Charles protested and laid claim to those domains, previously held by his father.[63][64]

After Charles neglected to reclaim Church property that Matthew Csák had seized by force, the prelates of the realm made an alliance in early 1318 against all who would jeopardize their interests.[65] Upon their demand, Charles held a Diet in summer, but refused to confirm the Golden Bull of 1222.[66][58] Before the end of the year, the prelates made a complaint against Charles because he had taken possession of Church property.[58] In 1319, Charles fell so seriously ill that the pope authorized Charles's confessor to absolve him from his all sins before he died, but Charles recovered.[67] In the same year, Dózsa Debreceni, whom Charles had made voivode of Transylvania, launched successful expeditions against Ladislaus Kán's sons and their allies, and Charles's future Judge royal, Alexander Köcski, seized the Kőszegis' six fortresses.[68] In summer, Charles launched an expedition against Stefan Uroš II Milutin, during which he retook Belgrade and restored the Banate of Macsó.[61] The last Diet during Charles's reign was held in 1320; following that, he failed to convoke the yearly public judicial sessions, contravening the provisions of the Golden Bull.[69]

Matthew Csák died on 18 March 1321.[70] The royal army invaded the deceased lord's province, which soon disintegrated because most of his former castellans yielded without resistance.[71][72] Charles personally led the siege of Csák's former seat, Trencsén (now Trenčín in Slovakia), which fell on 8 August.[71][72] About three months later, Charles's new voivode of Transylvania, Thomas Szécsényi, seized Csicsó (present-day Ciceu-Corabia in Romania), the last fortress of Ladislaus Kán's sons.[71][47]

In January 1322, two Dalmatian towns, Šibenik and Trogir, rebelled against Mladen II Šubić, who was a son of Charles's one-time leading partisan, Paul Šubić.[73] The two towns also accepted the suzerainty of the Republic of Venice although Charles had urged Venice not to intervene in the conflict between his subjects.[71] Many Croatian lords (including his own brother, Paul II Šubić) also turned against Mladen, and their coalition defeated him at Klis.[74] In September, Charles marched to Croatia where all the Croatian lords who were opposed to Mladen Šubić yielded to him in Knin.[74] Mladen Šubić also visited Charles, but the king had the powerful lord imprisoned.[74]

Consolidation and reforms (1323–1330)

 
Coats of Arms of Charles I of Anjou, King of Hungary

As one of his charters concluded, Charles had taken "full possession" of his kingdom by 1323.[75] In the first half of the year, he moved his capital from Temesvár to Visegrád in the centre of his kingdom.[57][76] In the same year, the Dukes of Austria renounced Pressburg (now Bratislava in Slovakia), which they had controlled for decades, in exchange for the support they had received from Charles against Louis IV, Holy Roman Emperor, in 1322.[77]

Royal power was only nominally restored in the lands between the Carpathian Mountains and the Lower Danube, which had been united under a voivode, known as Basarab, by the early 1320s.[78] Although Basarab was willing to accept Charles's suzerainty in a peace treaty signed in 1324, he refrained from renouncing control of the lands he had occupied in the Banate of Severin.[78] Charles also attempted to reinstate royal authority in Croatia and Slavonia.[79] He dismissed the Ban of Slavonia, John Babonić, replacing him with Mikcs Ákos in 1325.[79][80] Ban Mikcs invaded Croatia to subjugate the local lords who had seized the former castles of Mladen Subić without the king's approval, but one of the Croatian lords, Ivan I Nelipac, routed the ban's troops in 1326.[79] Consequently, royal power remained only nominal in Croatia during Charles's reign.[79][81] The Babonići and the Kőszegis rose up in open rebellion in 1327, but Ban Mikcs and Alexander Köcski defeated them.[81] In retaliation, at least eight fortresses of the rebellious lords were confiscated in Slavonia and Transdanubia.[82]

Through his victory over the oligarchs, Charles acquired about 60% of the Hungarian castles, along with the estates belonging to them.[83] In 1323, he set about revising his previous land grants, which enabled him to reclaim former royal estates.[84] During his reign, special commissions were set up to detect royal estates that had been unlawfully acquired by their owners.[85] Charles refrained from making perpetual grants to his partisans.[84] Instead, he applied a system of "office fiefs" (or honors), whereby his officials were entitled to enjoy all revenues accrued from their offices, but only for the time they held those offices.[86][87] That system assured the preponderance of royal power, enabling Charles to rule "with the plenitude of power", as he emphasized in one of his charters of 1335.[86][69] He even ignored customary law: for instance, "promoting a daughter to a son", which entitled her to inherit her father's estates instead of her male cousins.[88] Charles also took control of the administration of the Church in Hungary.[89] He appointed the Hungarian prelates at will, without allowing the cathedral chapters to elect them.[89]

 
A gold forint of Charles, based on the Italian florin made popular by the Republic of Florence in the 13th century

He promoted the spread of chivalrous culture in his realms.[90] He regularly held tournaments and introduced the new ranks of "page of the royal court" and "knight of the royal court".[90][91] Charles was the first monarch to create a secular order of knighthood by establishing the Order of Saint George in 1326.[92][93] He was the first Hungarian king to grant helmet crests to his faithful followers to distinguish them from others "by means of an insignium of their own", as he emphasized in one of his charters.[90][94]

Charles reorganized and improved the administration of royal revenues.[95] During his reign, five new "chambers" (administrative bodies headed by German, Italian or Hungarian merchants) were established for the control and collection of royal revenues from coinage, monopolies and custom duties.[96] In 1327, he partially abolished the royal monopoly of gold mining, giving one third of the royal revenues from the gold extracted from a newly opened mine to the owner of the land where that mine was discovered.[97] In the next few years, new gold mines were opened at Körmöcbánya (now Kremnica in Slovakia), Nagybánya (present-day Baia Mare in Romania) and Aranyosbánya (now Baia de Arieș in Romania).[95][98] Hungarian mines yielded about 1,400 kilograms (3,100 lb) of gold around 1330, which made up more than 30% of the world's total production.[87] The minting of gold coins began under Charles's auspices in the lands north of the Alps in Europe.[97] His florins, which were modelled on the gold coins of Florence, were first issued in 1326.[97][99]

 
The attempt of Felician Záh on the royal family, depicted in the Illuminated Chronicle

Internal peace and increasing royal revenues strengthened the international position of Hungary in the 1320s.[100][101] On 13 February 1327, Charles and John of Bohemia signed an alliance in Nagyszombat (present-day Trnava in Slovakia) against the Habsburgs, who had occupied Pressburg.[70] In the summer of 1328 Hungarian and Bohemian troops invaded Austria and routed the Austrian army on the banks of the Leitha River.[102] On 21 September 1328, Charles signed a peace treaty with the three dukes of Austria (Frederick the Fair, Albert the Lame, and Otto the Merry), who renounced Pressburg and the Muraköz (now Međimurje in Croatia).[77][103] The following year, Serbian troops laid siege to Belgrade, but Charles relieved the fortress.[81]

Alliance with his father-in-law, Władysław I the Elbow-high, King of Poland, became a permanent element of Charles's foreign policy in the 1320s.[77] After being defeated by the united forces of the Teutonic Knights and John of Bohemia, Władysław I sent his son and heir, Casimir, to Visegrád in late 1329 to seek assistance from Charles.[104] During his stay in Charles's court, the nineteen-year-old Casimir seduced Clara Záh, who was a lady-in-waiting of Charles's wife, Elisabeth of Poland, according to an Italian writer.[105][106][107] On 17 April 1330, the young lady's father, Felician Záh, stormed into the dining room of the royal palace at Visegrád with a sword in his hand and attacked the royal family.[108] Záh wounded both Charles and the queen on their right hand and attempted to kill their two sons, Louis and Andrew, before the royal guards killed him.[109] Charles's revenge was brutal: with the exception of Clara, Felician Záh's children were tortured to death; Clara's lips and all eight fingers were cut before she was dragged by a horse through the streets of many towns; all of Felician's other relatives within the third degree of kinship (including his sons-in-law and sisters) were executed, and those within the seventh degree were condemned to perpetual serfdom.[110][107]

Active foreign policy (1330–1339)

 
Battle of Posada: Wallachian (Romanian) warriors ambushed and defeated the Hungarian mounted knights in a narrow valley.

In September 1330, Charles launched a military expedition against Basarab I of Wallachia who had attempted to get rid of his suzerainty.[111][81] After seizing the fortress of Severin (present-day Drobeta-Turnu Severin in Romania), he refused to make peace with Basarab and marched towards Curtea de Argeș, which was Basarab's seat.[111] The Wallachians applied scorched earth tactics, compelling Charles to make a truce with Basarab and withdraw his troops from Wallachia.[111] While the royal troops were marching through a narrow pass across the Southern Carpathians on 9 November, the Wallachians ambushed them.[112] During the next four days, the royal army was decimated; Charles could only escape from the battlefield after changing his clothes with one of his knights, Desiderius Hédervári, who sacrificed his life to enable the king's escape.[112][77] Charles did not attempt a new invasion of Wallachia, which subsequently developed into an independent principality.[112][77]

In September 1331, Charles made an alliance with Otto the Merry, Duke of Austria, against Bohemia.[113] He also sent reinforcements to Poland to fight against the Teutonic Knights and the Bohemians.[114] In 1332 he signed a peace treaty with John of Bohemia and mediated a truce between Bohemia and Poland.[113][115] In 1332 Charles allowed the collection of the papal tithe (the tenth part of the Church revenues) in his realms only after the Holy See agreed to give one third of the money collected to him.[89] After years of negotiations, Charles visited his uncle, Robert, in Naples in July 1333.[116][117] Two months later, Charles's son, Andrew, was betrothed to Robert's granddaughter, Joanna, who had been made her grandfather's heir.[117][118] Charles returned to Hungary in early 1334.[119] In retaliation for a previous Serbian raid, he invaded Serbia and captured the fortress of Galambóc (now Golubac in Serbia).[81]

In summer 1335, the delegates of John of Bohemia and the new King of Poland, Casimir III, entered into negotiations in Trencsén to put an end to the conflicts between the two countries.[120] With Charles's mediation, a compromise was reached on 24 August: John of Bohemia renounced his claim to Poland and Casimir of Poland acknowledged John of Bohemia's suzerainty in Silesia.[120][121] On 3 September, Charles signed an alliance with John of Bohemia in Visegrád, which was primarily formed against the Dukes of Austria.[122] Upon Charles's invitation, John of Bohemia and Casimir of Poland met in Visegrád in November.[121] During the Congress of Visegrád, the two rulers confirmed the compromise that their delegates had worked out in Trencsén.[123] Casimir III also promised to pay 400,000 groschen to John of Bohemia, but a part of this indemnification (120,000 groschen) was finally paid off by Charles instead of his brother-in-law.[123] The three rulers agreed upon a mutual defence union against the Habsburgs, and a new commercial route was set up to enable merchants travelling between Hungary and the Holy Roman Empire to bypass Vienna.[121]

 
Romantic painting Charles' army wear hussar clothes of the 17th century, by József Molnár

The Babonići and the Kőszegis made an alliance with the Dukes of Austria in January 1336.[101][124] John of Bohemia, who claimed Carinthia from the Habsburgs, invaded Austria in February.[124][125] Casimir III of Poland came to Austria to assist him in late June.[125] Charles soon joined them at Marchegg.[125] The dukes sought reconciliation and signed a peace treaty with John of Bohemia in July.[124] Charles signed a truce with them on 13 December, and launched a new expedition against Austria early the next year.[126] He forced the Babonići and the Kőszegis to yield, and the latter were also compelled to hand over to him their fortresses along the frontier in exchange for faraway castles.[101][127] Charles's peace treaty with Albert and Otto of Austria, which was signed on 11 September 1337, forbade both the dukes and Charles to give shelter to the other party's rebellious subjects.[127]

Charles continued the reform of coinage in the late 1330s.[98] In 1336, he abolished the compulsory exchange of old coins for newly issued coins for villagers, but introduced a new tax, the chamber's profit, to compensate the loss of royal revenues.[128][98] Two years later, Charles ordered the minting of a new silver penny and prohibited payments made in foreign coins or silver bars.[98]

John of Bohemia's heir, Charles, Margrave of Moravia, visited Charles in Visegrád in early 1338.[129] The margrave acknowledged the right of Charles's son, Louis, to inherit Poland if Casimir III died without a son in exchange for Charles's promise to persuade Casimir III not to invade Silesia.[130] Two leading Polish lords, Zbigniew, chancellor of Cracow, and Spycimir Leliwita, also supported this plan and persuaded Casimir III, who lost his first wife on 26 May 1339, to start negotiations with Charles.[130] In July, Casimir came to Hungary and designated his sister (Charles's wife), Elizabeth, and her sons as his heirs.[131][132] On his sons' behalf, Charles promised that they would make every effort to reconquer all lands that Poland had lost and that they would refrain from employing foreigners in Poland.[131][132]

 
Bač Fortress, founded by Charles I

Last years (1339–1342)

Charles obliged the Kőszegis to renounce their last fortresses along the western borders of the kingdom in 1339 or 1340.[84] He divided the large Zólyom County (now in Slovakia), which had been dominated by a powerful local lord, Donch, into three smaller counties in 1340.[80] The following year, Charles also forced Donch to renounce his two fortresses in Zólyom in exchange for one castle in the distant Kraszna County (in present-day Romania).[133] Around the same time, Stephen Uroš IV Dušan of Serbia, invaded Sirmium and captured Belgrade.[81][134]

Charles was ailing during the last years of his life.[135] He died in Visegrád on 16 July 1342.[136] His corpse was first delivered to Buda where a Mass was said for his soul.[136] From Buda, his corpse was taken to Székesfehérvár.[136] He was buried in the Székesfehérvár Basilica a month after his death.[108] His brother-in-law, Casimir III of Poland, and Charles, Margrave of Moravia, were present at his funeral, an indication of Charles's international prestige.[108]

Family

The Anonymi descriptio Europae orientalis ("An Anonymous' Description of Eastern Europe") wrote, in the first half of 1308, that "the daughter of the strapping Duke of Ruthenia, Leo, has recently married Charles, King of Hungary".[141][142] Charles also stated in a charter of 1326 that he once travelled to "Ruthenia" (or Halych-Lodomeria) in order to bring his first wife back to Hungary.[143][142] A charter issued on 23 June 1326 referred to Charles's wife, Queen Mary.[144] Historian Gyula Kristó says, the three documents show that Charles married a daughter of Leo II of Galicia in late 1305 or early 1306.[145] Historian Enikő Csukovits accepts Kristó's interpretation, but she writes that Mary of Galicia most probably died before the marriage.[146] The Polish scholar, Stanisław Sroka, rejects Kristó's interpretation, stating that Leo I—who was born in 1292, according to him—could hardly have fathered Charles's first wife.[147] In accordance with previous academic consensus, Sroka says that Charles's first wife was Mary of Bytom from the Silesian branch of the Piast dynasty.[148]

The Illuminated Chronicle stated that Charles's "first consort, Maria ... was of the Polish nation" and she was "the daughter of Duke Casimir".[149][141] Sroka proposes that Mary of Bytom married Charles in 1306, but Kristó writes that their marriage probably took place in the first half of 1311.[150][151] The Illuminated Chronicle recorded that she died on 15 December 1317, but a royal charter issued on 12 July 1318 stated that her husband made a land grant with her consent.[152] Charles's next—second or third—wife was Beatrice of Luxembourg, who was a daughter of Henry VII, Holy Roman Emperor, and the sister of John, King of Bohemia.[152] Their marriage took place before the end of February 1319.[153] She died in childbirth in early November in the same year.[153] Charles's last wife, Elisabeth, daughter of Władysław I, King of Poland,[154] was born around 1306.[154] Their marriage took place on 6 July 1320.[154]

Most 14th-century Hungarian chroniclers write that Charles and Elisabeth of Poland had five sons.[155] Their first son, Charles, was born in 1321 and died in the same year according to the Illuminated Chronicle.[156] However, a charter of June 1323 states that the child had died in this month.[157] The second son of Charles and Elisabeth, Ladislaus, was born in 1324.[158] The marriage of Ladislaus and Anne, a daughter of King John of Bohemia, was planned by their parents, but Ladislaus died in 1329.[159] Charles's and Elisabeth's third son, Louis, who was born in 1326, survived his father and succeeded him as King of Hungary.[159] His younger brothers, Andrew and Stephen, who were born in 1327 and 1332, respectively, also survived Charles.[159]

Although no contemporaneous or nearly contemporaneous sources made mention of any further children, Charles may have fathered two daughters, according to historians Zsuzsa Teke and Gyula Kristó.[159][160] Zsuzsa Teke writes that they were born to Mary of Bytom, but the nearly contemporaneous Peter of Zittau wrote that she had died childless.[160][158] Gyula Kristó proposes that a miniature in the Illuminated Chronicle, which depicts Elisabeth of Poland and five children, implies that she gave birth to Charles's two daughters, because Kristó identifies two of the three children standing on her right as daughters.[155] The elder of Charles's two possible daughters, Catherine, who was born in the early 1320s, was the wife of Henry II, Duke of Świdnica.[155] Their only daughter, Anne, grew up in the Hungarian royal court after her parents' death, implying that Charles and Elisabeth of Poland were her grandparents.[161] Historian Kazimierz Jasiński says that Elisabeth, the wife of Boleslaus II of Troppau, was also Charles's daughter.[158] If she was actually Charles's daughter, she must have been born in about 1330, according to Kristó.[158]

Charles also fathered an illegitimate son, Coloman, who was born in early 1317.[150][162] His mother was a daughter of Gurke Csák.[162] Coloman was elected Bishop of Győr in 1336.[163]

Legacy

 
Charles's statue on Heroes' Square in Budapest: the king holds his coat-of-arms which units the Árpád stripes with the Capetians' fleurs-de-lis

Charles often declared that his principal aim was the "restoration of the ancient good conditions" of the kingdom.[164] On his coat-of-arms, he united the "Árpád stripes" with the motifs of the coat-of-arms of his paternal family, which emphasized his kinship with the first royal house of Hungary.[164] During his reign, Charles reunited Hungary and introduced administrative and fiscal reforms.[108] He bequeathed to his son, Louis the Great, a "bulging exchequer and an effective system of taxation", according to scholar Bryan Cartledge.[134] Nevertheless, Louis the Great's achievements overshadowed Charles's reputation.[108]

The only contemporaneous record of Charles's deeds were made by a Franciscan friar who was hostile towards the monarch.[108] Instead of emphasizing Charles's achievements in the reunification of the country, the friar described in detail the negative episodes of Charles's reign.[108] In particular, the unusual cruelty that the king showed after Felician Záh's assassination attempt on the royal family contributed to the negative picture of Charles's personality.[108] The Franciscan friar attributed Charles's defeat by Basarab of Wallachia as a punishment from God for the king's revenge.[108]

References

  1. ^ a b Kristó 2002, p. 24.
  2. ^ a b Csukovits 2012a, p. 112.
  3. ^ a b Dümmerth 1982, p. 220.
  4. ^ Engel 2001, pp. 110, 383.
  5. ^ a b Cartledge 2011, p. 33.
  6. ^ a b Engel 2001, p. 110.
  7. ^ Engel 2001, pp. 98, 110.
  8. ^ Bartl et al. 2002, p. 34.
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  10. ^ Magaš 2007, p. 59.
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  12. ^ a b Kelly 2003, p. 8.
  13. ^ Dümmerth 1982, p. 222–223.
  14. ^ a b Dümmerth 1982, p. 224.
  15. ^ The Divine Comedy, Dante Alighieri (Paradise, 9.3.), p. 667.
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  137. ^ Teke 1994, p. 48.
  138. ^ Dümmerth 1982, pp. 62–63, Appendix.
  139. ^ Kristó & Makk 1996, p. 271, Appendix 5.
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  144. ^ Kristó 2005, p. 17.
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  147. ^ Sroka 1992, p. 262.
  148. ^ Sroka 1992, p. 263.
  149. ^ The Hungarian Illuminated Chronicle: (ch. 197.139), p. 145.
  150. ^ a b Sroka 1992, p. 265.
  151. ^ Kristó 2005, p. 19.
  152. ^ a b Kristó 2005, pp. 19–20.
  153. ^ a b Kristó 2005, p. 22.
  154. ^ a b c Knoll 1972, p. 42.
  155. ^ a b c Kristó 2005, pp. 25–26.
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  157. ^ Kristó 2005, pp. 23–24.
  158. ^ a b c d Kristó 2005, p. 26.
  159. ^ a b c d Kristó 2005, p. 27.
  160. ^ a b Teke 1994, p. 49.
  161. ^ Kristó 2005, p. 25.
  162. ^ a b Szovák 1994, p. 316.
  163. ^ Szovák 1994, p. 317.
  164. ^ a b Kontler 1999, pp. 88–89.

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Further reading

  • Krstić, Aleksandar R. (2016). "The Rival and the Vassal of Charles Robert of Anjou: King Vladislav II Nemanjić". Banatica. 26 (2): 33–51.
  • Lucherini, Vinni (2013). "The Journey of Charles I, King of Hungary, from Visegrád to Naples (1333): Its Political Implications and Artistic Consequences". Hungarian Historical Review. 2 (2): 341–362.
  • Michaud, Claude (2000). "The kingdoms of Central Europe in the fourteenth century". In Jones, Michael (ed.). The New Cambridge Medieval History, Volume VI: c. 1300-c. 1415. Cambridge University Press. pp. 735–763. ISBN 0-521-36290-3.
  • Rácz, György (2013). "The Congress of Visegrád in 1335: Diplomacy and Representation". Hungarian Historical Review. 2 (2): 261–287.
  • Skorka, Renáta (2013). "With a Little Help from the Cousins: Charles I and the Habsburg Dukes of Austria during the Interregnum". Hungarian Historical Review. 2 (2): 243–260.

External links

 
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Charles I of Hungary.
  • Bain, Robert Nisbet (1911). "Charles I. (King of Hungary)" . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 5 (11th ed.). pp. 922–923.
  • Armorial of the House Anjou-Sicily (in French)
  • House of Anjou-Sicily (in French)
  • His profile in "Medieval Lands" by Charles Cawley
Charles I of Hungary
Cadet branch of the Capetian dynasty
Born: 1288 Died: 16 July 1342
Regnal titles
Preceded by King of Hungary and Croatia
1301 or 1308–1342 		Succeeded by

April 11, 2023
charles, hungary, carol, robert, redirects, here, confused, with, carol, roberts, charles, also, known, charles, robert, hungarian, károly, róbert, croatian, karlo, robert, slovak, karol, róbert, 1288, july, 1342, king, hungary, croatia, from, 1308, death, mem. Carol Robert redirects here Not to be confused with Carol Roberts Charles I also known as Charles Robert Hungarian Karoly Robert Croatian Karlo Robert Slovak Karol Robert 1288 16 July 1342 was King of Hungary and Croatia from 1308 to his death He was a member of the Capetian House of Anjou and the only son of Charles Martel Prince of Salerno His father was the eldest son of Charles II of Naples and Mary of Hungary Mary laid claim to Hungary after her brother Ladislaus IV of Hungary died in 1290 but the Hungarian prelates and lords elected her cousin Andrew III king Instead of abandoning her claim to Hungary she transferred it to her son Charles Martel and after his death in 1295 to her grandson Charles On the other hand her husband Charles II of Naples made their third son Robert heir to the Kingdom of Naples thus disinheriting Charles Charles ICharles depicted in the Illuminated ChronicleKing of Hungary and Croatiacontested by Wenceslaus 1301 05 and by Otto 1305 12 Reign1301 08 1342Coronationearly 130115 16 June 130927 August 1310PredecessorAndrew III or OttoSuccessorLouis IBorn1288Died16 July 1342 aged 53 54 VisegradBurialSzekesfehervar BasilicaSpouseMaria of Galicia disputed Mary of BytomBeatrice of LuxembourgElisabeth of PolandIssuemore Catherine Duchess of SwidnicaLouis I King of HungaryAndrew Duke of CalabriaStephen Duke of SlavoniaDynastyCapetian House of AnjouFatherCharles Martel of AnjouMotherClemence of AustriaReligionCatholicismCharles came to the Kingdom of Hungary upon the invitation of an influential Croatian lord Paul Subic in August 1300 Andrew III died on 14 January 1301 and within four months Charles was crowned king but with a provisional crown instead of the Holy Crown of Hungary Most Hungarian noblemen refused to yield to him and elected Wenceslaus of Bohemia king Charles withdrew to the southern regions of the kingdom Pope Boniface VIII acknowledged Charles as the lawful king in 1303 but Charles was unable to strengthen his position against his opponent Wenceslaus abdicated in favor of Otto of Bavaria in 1305 Because it had no central government the Kingdom of Hungary had disintegrated into a dozen provinces each headed by a powerful nobleman or oligarch One of those oligarchs Ladislaus III Kan captured and imprisoned Otto of Bavaria in 1307 Charles was elected king in Pest on 27 November 1308 but his rule remained nominal in most parts of his kingdom even after he was crowned with the Holy Crown on 27 August 1310 Charles won his first decisive victory in the Battle of Rozgony at present day Rozhanovce in Slovakia on 15 June 1312 After that his troops seized most fortresses of the powerful Aba family During the next decade Charles restored royal power primarily with the assistance of the prelates and lesser noblemen in most regions of the kingdom After the death of the most powerful oligarch Matthew Csak in 1321 Charles became the undisputed ruler of the whole kingdom with the exception of Croatia where local noblemen were able to preserve their autonomous status He was not able to hinder the development of Wallachia into an independent principality after his defeat in the Battle of Posada in 1330 Charles s contemporaries described his defeat in that battle as a punishment from God for his cruel revenge against the family of Felician Zah who had attempted to slaughter the royal family Charles rarely made perpetual land grants instead introduced a system of office fiefs whereby his officials enjoyed significant revenues but only for the time they held a royal office which ensured their loyalty In the second half of his reign Charles did not hold Diets and administered his kingdom with absolute power He established the Order of Saint George which was the first secular order of knights He promoted the opening of new gold mines which made Hungary the largest producer of gold in Europe The first Hungarian gold coins were minted during his reign At the congress of Visegrad in 1335 he mediated a reconciliation between two neighboring monarchs John of Bohemia and Casimir III of Poland Treaties signed at the same congress also contributed to the development of new commercial routes linking Hungary with Western Europe Charles s efforts to reunite Hungary together with his administrative and economic reforms established the basis for the achievements of his successor Louis the Great Contents 1 Early years 1 1 Childhood 1288 1300 1 2 Struggle for Hungary 1300 1308 2 Reign 2 1 Wars against the oligarchs 1308 1323 2 2 Consolidation and reforms 1323 1330 2 3 Active foreign policy 1330 1339 2 4 Last years 1339 1342 3 Family 4 Legacy 5 References 6 Sources 6 1 Primary sources 6 2 Secondary sources 7 Further reading 8 External linksEarly years EditChildhood 1288 1300 Edit Charles was the only son of Charles Martel Prince of Salerno and his wife Clemence of Austria 1 2 He was born in 1288 the place of his birth is unknown 1 2 3 Charles Martel was the firstborn son of Charles II of Naples and Charles II s wife Mary who was a daughter of Stephen V of Hungary 4 5 After the death of her brother Ladislaus IV of Hungary in 1290 Queen Mary announced her claim to Hungary stating that the House of Arpad the royal family of Hungary had become extinct with Ladislaus s death 6 However her father s cousin Andrew also laid claim to the throne although his father Stephen the Posthumous had been regarded a bastard by all other members of the royal family 7 For all that the Hungarian lords and prelates preferred Andrew against Mary and he was crowned king of Hungary on 23 July 1290 6 8 She transferred her claim to Hungary to Charles Martel in January 1292 9 The Babonici Frankopans Subici and other Croatian and Slavonian noble families seemingly acknowledged Charles Martel s claim but in fact their loyalty vacillated between Charles Martel and Andrew III 10 11 Charles Martel died in autumn 1295 and his seven year old son Charles inherited his claim to Hungary 12 3 Charles would have also been the lawful heir to his grandfather Charles II of Naples in accordance with the principles of primogeniture 12 13 However Charles II who preferred his third son Robert to his grandson bestowed the rights of a firstborn son upon Robert on 13 February 1296 14 Pope Boniface VIII confirmed Charles II s decision on 27 February 1296 excluding the child Charles from succeeding his grandfather in the Kingdom of Naples 14 Dante Alighieri wrote of the schemes and frauds that would attack 15 Charles Martel s family in reference to Robert s alleged manoeuvres to acquire the right to inherit Naples 16 The 14th century historian Giovanni Villani also noted that his contemporaries were of the opinion that Robert s claim to Naples was weaker than his nephew s 16 The jurist Baldus de Ubaldis refrained from setting out his position on the legitimacy of Robert s rule 16 Struggle for Hungary 1300 1308 Edit Further information Matthew III Csak Ladislaus Kan and Amade Aba Charles s arrival in Hungary depicted in the Illuminated Chronicle The provinces ruled by the oligarchs powerful lords in the early 14th century Andrew III of Hungary made his maternal uncle Albertino Morosini Duke of Slavonia in July 1299 stirring up the Slavonian and Croatian noblemen to revolt 17 18 A powerful Croatian baron Paul Subic sent his brother George to Italy in early 1300 to convince Charles II of Naples to send his grandson to Hungary to claim the throne in person 18 The king of Naples accepted the proposal and borrowed 1 300 ounces of gold from Florentine bankers to finance Charles s journey 9 19 A Neapolitan knight of French origin Philip Drugeth accompanied the twelve year old Charles to Hungary 20 They landed at Split in Dalmatia in August 1300 9 21 From Split Paul Subic escorted him to Zagreb where Ugrin Csak swore loyalty to Charles 22 Charles s opponent Andrew III of Hungary died on 14 January 1301 23 Charles hurried to Esztergom where the Archbishop elect Gregory Bicskei crowned him with a provisional crown before 13 May 24 25 However most Hungarians considered Charles s coronation unlawful because customary law required that it should have been performed with the Holy Crown of Hungary in Szekesfehervar 24 22 Charles counted his regnal years from this coronation but Hungary had actually disintegrated into about a dozen independent provinces each ruled by a powerful lord or oligarch 26 27 28 Among them Matthew Csak dominated the northwestern parts of Hungary which now form the western territories of present day Slovakia Amadeus Aba controlled the northeastern lands Ivan Koszegi ruled Transdanubia and Ladislaus Kan governed Transylvania 29 Most of those lords refused to accept Charles s rule and proposed the crown to Wenceslaus II of Bohemia s son and namesake Wenceslaus whose bride Elisabeth was Andrew III s only daughter 5 30 Although Wenceslaus was crowned with the Holy Crown in Szekesfehervar the legitimacy of his coronation was also questionable because John Hont Pazmany Archbishop of Kalocsa put the crown on Wenceslaus s head although customary law authorized the Archbishop of Esztergom to perform the ceremony 25 After Wenceslaus s coronation Charles withdrew to Ugrin Csak s domains in the southern regions of the kingdom 31 Pope Boniface sent his legate Niccolo Boccasini to Hungary 31 Boccasini convinced the majority of the Hungarian prelates to accept Charles s reign 31 However most Hungarian lords continued to oppose Charles because according to the Illuminated Chronicle 32 they feared that the free men of the kingdom should lose their freedom by accepting a king appointed by the Church 33 Charles laid siege to Buda the capital of the kingdom in September 1302 but Ivan Koszegi relieved the siege 25 Charles s charters show that he primarily stayed in the southern parts of the kingdom during the next years although he also visited Amadeus Aba in the fortress of Gonc 26 Pope Boniface who regarded Hungary as a fief of the Holy See declared Charles the lawful king of Hungary on 31 May 1303 34 35 He also threatened Wenceslaus with excommunication if he continued to style himself king of Hungary 36 Wenceslaus left Hungary in summer 1304 taking the Holy Crown with him 31 Charles met his cousin Rudolph III of Austria in Pressburg now Bratislava in Slovakia on 24 August 31 37 After signing an alliance they jointly invaded Bohemia in the autumn 31 38 Wenceslaus who had succeeded his father in Bohemia renounced his claim to Hungary in favor of Otto III Duke of Bavaria on 9 October 1305 39 Otto was crowned with the Holy Crown in Szekesfehervar on 6 December 1305 by Benedict Rad Bishop of Veszprem and Anton Bishop of Csanad 39 40 38 He was never able to strengthen his position in Hungary because only the Koszegis and the Transylvanian Saxons supported him 31 Charles seized Esztergom and many fortresses in the northern parts of Hungary now in Slovakia in 1306 41 38 His partisans also occupied Buda in June 1307 41 Ladislaus Kan Voivode of Transylvania seized and imprisoned Otto in Transylvania 39 42 An assembly of Charles s partisans confirmed Charles s claim to the throne on 10 October but three powerful lords Matthew Csak Ladislaus Kan and Ivan Koszegi were absent from the meeting 41 38 In 1308 Ladislaus Kan released Otto who then left Hungary 42 Otto never ceased styling himself King of Hungary but he never returned to the country 41 Pope Clement V sent a new papal legate Gentile Portino da Montefiore to Hungary 41 43 Montefiore arrived in the summer of 1308 41 In the next few months he persuaded the most powerful lords one by one to accept Charles s rule 41 At the Diet which was held in the Dominican monastery in Pest Charles was unanimously proclaimed king on 27 November 1308 43 44 The delegates sent by Matthew Csak and Ladislaus Kan were also present at the assembly 44 Reign EditWars against the oligarchs 1308 1323 Edit Further information Battle of Rozgony King Charles Robert as depicted in the Chronica Hungarorum The Battle of Rozgony depicted in the Illuminated Chronicle in this battle Charles defeated the sons of Amadeus Aba on 15 June 1312 The papal legate convoked the synod of the Hungarian prelates who declared the monarch inviolable in December 1308 43 44 They also urged Ladislaus Kan to hand over the Holy Crown to Charles 44 After Kan refused to do so the legate consecrated a new crown for Charles 43 Thomas II Archbishop of Esztergom crowned Charles king with the new crown in the Church of Our Lady in Buda on 15 or 16 June 1309 43 45 However most Hungarians regarded his second coronation invalid 41 The papal legate excommunicated Ladislaus Kan who finally agreed to give the Holy Crown to Charles 43 On 27 August 1310 Archbishop Thomas of Esztergom put the Holy Crown on Charles s head in Szekesfehervar thus Charles s third coronation was performed in full accordance with customary law 41 46 45 However his rule remained nominal in most parts of his kingdom 41 Matthew Csak laid siege Buda in June 1311 and Ladislaus Kan declined to assist the king 47 46 Charles sent an army to invade Matthew Csak s domains in September but it achieved nothing 48 In the same year Ugrin Csak died enabling Charles to take possession of the deceased lord s domains which were situated between Pozega in Slavonia and Temesvar present day Timișoara in Romania 49 50 The burghers of Kassa now Kosice in Slovakia assassinated Amadeus Aba in September 1311 51 Charles s envoys arbitrated an agreement between Aba s sons and the town which also prescribed that the Abas withdraw from two counties and allow the noblemen inhabiting their domains to freely join Charles 51 However the Abas soon entered into an alliance with Matthew Csak against the king 49 The united forces of the Abas and Matthew Csak besieged Kassa but Charles routed them in the Battle of Rozgony now Rozhanovce in Slovakia on 15 June 1312 52 45 Almost half of the noblemen who had served Amadeus Aba fought on Charles s side in the battle 53 In July Charles captured the Abas many fortresses in Abauj Torna and Saros counties including Fuzer Regec and Munkacs now Mukacheve in Ukraine 54 Thereafter he waged war against Matthew Csak capturing Nagyszombat now Trnava in Slovakia in 1313 and Visegrad in 1315 but was unable to win a decisive victory 49 Charles transferred his residence from Buda to Temesvar in early 1315 55 49 Ladislaus Kan died in 1315 but his sons did not yield to Charles 56 47 Charles launched a campaign against the Koszegis in Transdanubia and Slavonia in the first half of 1316 57 58 Local noblemen joined the royal troops which contributed to the quick collapse of the Koszegis rule in southern parts of their domains 57 Meanwhile James Borsa made an alliance against Charles with Ladislaus Kan s sons and other lords including Mojs Akos and Peter son of Petenye 47 They offered the crown to Andrew of Galicia 47 57 Charles s troops which were under the command of a former supporter of the Borsas Dozsa Debreceni defeated the rebels united troops at Debrecen at the end of June 58 59 In the next two months many fortresses of Borsa and his allies fell to the royal troops in Bihar Szolnok Borsod and Kolozs counties 58 No primary source has made reference to Charles s bravery or heroic acts suggesting that he rarely fought in person in the battles and sieges 55 However he had excellent strategic skills it was always Charles who appointed the fortresses to be besieged 55 Stefan Dragutin who controlled the Szeremseg Macso and other regions along the southern borders of Hungary died in 1316 58 60 Charles confirmed the right of Stefan Dragutin s son Vladislav to succeed his father and declared Vladislav the lawful ruler of Serbia against Stefan Uros II Milutin 58 However Stefan Uros II captured Vladislav and invaded the Szeremseg 61 57 Charles launched a counter campaign across the river Szava and seized the fortress of Macso 57 In May 1317 Charles s army suppressed the Abas revolt seizing Ungvar and Nevicke Castle present day Uzhhorod and Nevytsky Castle in Ukraine from them 62 After that Charles invaded Matthew Csak s domains and captured Komarom now Komarno in Slovakia on 3 November 1317 62 After his uncle King Robert of Naples granted the Principality of Salerno and the domain of Monte Sant Angelo to his brother Charles s younger uncle John Charles protested and laid claim to those domains previously held by his father 63 64 After Charles neglected to reclaim Church property that Matthew Csak had seized by force the prelates of the realm made an alliance in early 1318 against all who would jeopardize their interests 65 Upon their demand Charles held a Diet in summer but refused to confirm the Golden Bull of 1222 66 58 Before the end of the year the prelates made a complaint against Charles because he had taken possession of Church property 58 In 1319 Charles fell so seriously ill that the pope authorized Charles s confessor to absolve him from his all sins before he died but Charles recovered 67 In the same year Dozsa Debreceni whom Charles had made voivode of Transylvania launched successful expeditions against Ladislaus Kan s sons and their allies and Charles s future Judge royal Alexander Kocski seized the Koszegis six fortresses 68 In summer Charles launched an expedition against Stefan Uros II Milutin during which he retook Belgrade and restored the Banate of Macso 61 The last Diet during Charles s reign was held in 1320 following that he failed to convoke the yearly public judicial sessions contravening the provisions of the Golden Bull 69 Matthew Csak died on 18 March 1321 70 The royal army invaded the deceased lord s province which soon disintegrated because most of his former castellans yielded without resistance 71 72 Charles personally led the siege of Csak s former seat Trencsen now Trencin in Slovakia which fell on 8 August 71 72 About three months later Charles s new voivode of Transylvania Thomas Szecsenyi seized Csicso present day Ciceu Corabia in Romania the last fortress of Ladislaus Kan s sons 71 47 In January 1322 two Dalmatian towns Sibenik and Trogir rebelled against Mladen II Subic who was a son of Charles s one time leading partisan Paul Subic 73 The two towns also accepted the suzerainty of the Republic of Venice although Charles had urged Venice not to intervene in the conflict between his subjects 71 Many Croatian lords including his own brother Paul II Subic also turned against Mladen and their coalition defeated him at Klis 74 In September Charles marched to Croatia where all the Croatian lords who were opposed to Mladen Subic yielded to him in Knin 74 Mladen Subic also visited Charles but the king had the powerful lord imprisoned 74 Consolidation and reforms 1323 1330 Edit Coats of Arms of Charles I of Anjou King of Hungary As one of his charters concluded Charles had taken full possession of his kingdom by 1323 75 In the first half of the year he moved his capital from Temesvar to Visegrad in the centre of his kingdom 57 76 In the same year the Dukes of Austria renounced Pressburg now Bratislava in Slovakia which they had controlled for decades in exchange for the support they had received from Charles against Louis IV Holy Roman Emperor in 1322 77 Royal power was only nominally restored in the lands between the Carpathian Mountains and the Lower Danube which had been united under a voivode known as Basarab by the early 1320s 78 Although Basarab was willing to accept Charles s suzerainty in a peace treaty signed in 1324 he refrained from renouncing control of the lands he had occupied in the Banate of Severin 78 Charles also attempted to reinstate royal authority in Croatia and Slavonia 79 He dismissed the Ban of Slavonia John Babonic replacing him with Mikcs Akos in 1325 79 80 Ban Mikcs invaded Croatia to subjugate the local lords who had seized the former castles of Mladen Subic without the king s approval but one of the Croatian lords Ivan I Nelipac routed the ban s troops in 1326 79 Consequently royal power remained only nominal in Croatia during Charles s reign 79 81 The Babonici and the Koszegis rose up in open rebellion in 1327 but Ban Mikcs and Alexander Kocski defeated them 81 In retaliation at least eight fortresses of the rebellious lords were confiscated in Slavonia and Transdanubia 82 Through his victory over the oligarchs Charles acquired about 60 of the Hungarian castles along with the estates belonging to them 83 In 1323 he set about revising his previous land grants which enabled him to reclaim former royal estates 84 During his reign special commissions were set up to detect royal estates that had been unlawfully acquired by their owners 85 Charles refrained from making perpetual grants to his partisans 84 Instead he applied a system of office fiefs or honors whereby his officials were entitled to enjoy all revenues accrued from their offices but only for the time they held those offices 86 87 That system assured the preponderance of royal power enabling Charles to rule with the plenitude of power as he emphasized in one of his charters of 1335 86 69 He even ignored customary law for instance promoting a daughter to a son which entitled her to inherit her father s estates instead of her male cousins 88 Charles also took control of the administration of the Church in Hungary 89 He appointed the Hungarian prelates at will without allowing the cathedral chapters to elect them 89 A gold forint of Charles based on the Italian florin made popular by the Republic of Florence in the 13th century He promoted the spread of chivalrous culture in his realms 90 He regularly held tournaments and introduced the new ranks of page of the royal court and knight of the royal court 90 91 Charles was the first monarch to create a secular order of knighthood by establishing the Order of Saint George in 1326 92 93 He was the first Hungarian king to grant helmet crests to his faithful followers to distinguish them from others by means of an insignium of their own as he emphasized in one of his charters 90 94 Charles reorganized and improved the administration of royal revenues 95 During his reign five new chambers administrative bodies headed by German Italian or Hungarian merchants were established for the control and collection of royal revenues from coinage monopolies and custom duties 96 In 1327 he partially abolished the royal monopoly of gold mining giving one third of the royal revenues from the gold extracted from a newly opened mine to the owner of the land where that mine was discovered 97 In the next few years new gold mines were opened at Kormocbanya now Kremnica in Slovakia Nagybanya present day Baia Mare in Romania and Aranyosbanya now Baia de Arieș in Romania 95 98 Hungarian mines yielded about 1 400 kilograms 3 100 lb of gold around 1330 which made up more than 30 of the world s total production 87 The minting of gold coins began under Charles s auspices in the lands north of the Alps in Europe 97 His florins which were modelled on the gold coins of Florence were first issued in 1326 97 99 The attempt of Felician Zah on the royal family depicted in the Illuminated Chronicle Internal peace and increasing royal revenues strengthened the international position of Hungary in the 1320s 100 101 On 13 February 1327 Charles and John of Bohemia signed an alliance in Nagyszombat present day Trnava in Slovakia against the Habsburgs who had occupied Pressburg 70 In the summer of 1328 Hungarian and Bohemian troops invaded Austria and routed the Austrian army on the banks of the Leitha River 102 On 21 September 1328 Charles signed a peace treaty with the three dukes of Austria Frederick the Fair Albert the Lame and Otto the Merry who renounced Pressburg and the Murakoz now Međimurje in Croatia 77 103 The following year Serbian troops laid siege to Belgrade but Charles relieved the fortress 81 Alliance with his father in law Wladyslaw I the Elbow high King of Poland became a permanent element of Charles s foreign policy in the 1320s 77 After being defeated by the united forces of the Teutonic Knights and John of Bohemia Wladyslaw I sent his son and heir Casimir to Visegrad in late 1329 to seek assistance from Charles 104 During his stay in Charles s court the nineteen year old Casimir seduced Clara Zah who was a lady in waiting of Charles s wife Elisabeth of Poland according to an Italian writer 105 106 107 On 17 April 1330 the young lady s father Felician Zah stormed into the dining room of the royal palace at Visegrad with a sword in his hand and attacked the royal family 108 Zah wounded both Charles and the queen on their right hand and attempted to kill their two sons Louis and Andrew before the royal guards killed him 109 Charles s revenge was brutal with the exception of Clara Felician Zah s children were tortured to death Clara s lips and all eight fingers were cut before she was dragged by a horse through the streets of many towns all of Felician s other relatives within the third degree of kinship including his sons in law and sisters were executed and those within the seventh degree were condemned to perpetual serfdom 110 107 Active foreign policy 1330 1339 Edit Battle of Posada Wallachian Romanian warriors ambushed and defeated the Hungarian mounted knights in a narrow valley In September 1330 Charles launched a military expedition against Basarab I of Wallachia who had attempted to get rid of his suzerainty 111 81 After seizing the fortress of Severin present day Drobeta Turnu Severin in Romania he refused to make peace with Basarab and marched towards Curtea de Argeș which was Basarab s seat 111 The Wallachians applied scorched earth tactics compelling Charles to make a truce with Basarab and withdraw his troops from Wallachia 111 While the royal troops were marching through a narrow pass across the Southern Carpathians on 9 November the Wallachians ambushed them 112 During the next four days the royal army was decimated Charles could only escape from the battlefield after changing his clothes with one of his knights Desiderius Hedervari who sacrificed his life to enable the king s escape 112 77 Charles did not attempt a new invasion of Wallachia which subsequently developed into an independent principality 112 77 In September 1331 Charles made an alliance with Otto the Merry Duke of Austria against Bohemia 113 He also sent reinforcements to Poland to fight against the Teutonic Knights and the Bohemians 114 In 1332 he signed a peace treaty with John of Bohemia and mediated a truce between Bohemia and Poland 113 115 In 1332 Charles allowed the collection of the papal tithe the tenth part of the Church revenues in his realms only after the Holy See agreed to give one third of the money collected to him 89 After years of negotiations Charles visited his uncle Robert in Naples in July 1333 116 117 Two months later Charles s son Andrew was betrothed to Robert s granddaughter Joanna who had been made her grandfather s heir 117 118 Charles returned to Hungary in early 1334 119 In retaliation for a previous Serbian raid he invaded Serbia and captured the fortress of Galamboc now Golubac in Serbia 81 In summer 1335 the delegates of John of Bohemia and the new King of Poland Casimir III entered into negotiations in Trencsen to put an end to the conflicts between the two countries 120 With Charles s mediation a compromise was reached on 24 August John of Bohemia renounced his claim to Poland and Casimir of Poland acknowledged John of Bohemia s suzerainty in Silesia 120 121 On 3 September Charles signed an alliance with John of Bohemia in Visegrad which was primarily formed against the Dukes of Austria 122 Upon Charles s invitation John of Bohemia and Casimir of Poland met in Visegrad in November 121 During the Congress of Visegrad the two rulers confirmed the compromise that their delegates had worked out in Trencsen 123 Casimir III also promised to pay 400 000 groschen to John of Bohemia but a part of this indemnification 120 000 groschen was finally paid off by Charles instead of his brother in law 123 The three rulers agreed upon a mutual defence union against the Habsburgs and a new commercial route was set up to enable merchants travelling between Hungary and the Holy Roman Empire to bypass Vienna 121 Romantic painting Charles army wear hussar clothes of the 17th century by Jozsef Molnar The Babonici and the Koszegis made an alliance with the Dukes of Austria in January 1336 101 124 John of Bohemia who claimed Carinthia from the Habsburgs invaded Austria in February 124 125 Casimir III of Poland came to Austria to assist him in late June 125 Charles soon joined them at Marchegg 125 The dukes sought reconciliation and signed a peace treaty with John of Bohemia in July 124 Charles signed a truce with them on 13 December and launched a new expedition against Austria early the next year 126 He forced the Babonici and the Koszegis to yield and the latter were also compelled to hand over to him their fortresses along the frontier in exchange for faraway castles 101 127 Charles s peace treaty with Albert and Otto of Austria which was signed on 11 September 1337 forbade both the dukes and Charles to give shelter to the other party s rebellious subjects 127 Charles continued the reform of coinage in the late 1330s 98 In 1336 he abolished the compulsory exchange of old coins for newly issued coins for villagers but introduced a new tax the chamber s profit to compensate the loss of royal revenues 128 98 Two years later Charles ordered the minting of a new silver penny and prohibited payments made in foreign coins or silver bars 98 John of Bohemia s heir Charles Margrave of Moravia visited Charles in Visegrad in early 1338 129 The margrave acknowledged the right of Charles s son Louis to inherit Poland if Casimir III died without a son in exchange for Charles s promise to persuade Casimir III not to invade Silesia 130 Two leading Polish lords Zbigniew chancellor of Cracow and Spycimir Leliwita also supported this plan and persuaded Casimir III who lost his first wife on 26 May 1339 to start negotiations with Charles 130 In July Casimir came to Hungary and designated his sister Charles s wife Elizabeth and her sons as his heirs 131 132 On his sons behalf Charles promised that they would make every effort to reconquer all lands that Poland had lost and that they would refrain from employing foreigners in Poland 131 132 Bac Fortress founded by Charles I Last years 1339 1342 Edit Charles obliged the Koszegis to renounce their last fortresses along the western borders of the kingdom in 1339 or 1340 84 He divided the large Zolyom County now in Slovakia which had been dominated by a powerful local lord Donch into three smaller counties in 1340 80 The following year Charles also forced Donch to renounce his two fortresses in Zolyom in exchange for one castle in the distant Kraszna County in present day Romania 133 Around the same time Stephen Uros IV Dusan of Serbia invaded Sirmium and captured Belgrade 81 134 Charles was ailing during the last years of his life 135 He died in Visegrad on 16 July 1342 136 His corpse was first delivered to Buda where a Mass was said for his soul 136 From Buda his corpse was taken to Szekesfehervar 136 He was buried in the Szekesfehervar Basilica a month after his death 108 His brother in law Casimir III of Poland and Charles Margrave of Moravia were present at his funeral an indication of Charles s international prestige 108 Family EditAncestors of Charles I of Hungary 137 138 139 140 8 Charles I of Naples4 Charles II of Naples9 Beatrice of Provence2 Charles Martel Prince of Salerno10 Stephen V of Hungary5 Mary of Hungary11 Elizabeth the Cuman1 Charles I of Hungary12 Albert IV of Habsburg6 Rudolf I of Germany13 Hedwig of Kyburg3 Klementia of Habsburg7 Gertrude of Hohenberg The Anonymi descriptio Europae orientalis An Anonymous Description of Eastern Europe wrote in the first half of 1308 that the daughter of the strapping Duke of Ruthenia Leo has recently married Charles King of Hungary 141 142 Charles also stated in a charter of 1326 that he once travelled to Ruthenia or Halych Lodomeria in order to bring his first wife back to Hungary 143 142 A charter issued on 23 June 1326 referred to Charles s wife Queen Mary 144 Historian Gyula Kristo says the three documents show that Charles married a daughter of Leo II of Galicia in late 1305 or early 1306 145 Historian Eniko Csukovits accepts Kristo s interpretation but she writes that Mary of Galicia most probably died before the marriage 146 The Polish scholar Stanislaw Sroka rejects Kristo s interpretation stating that Leo I who was born in 1292 according to him could hardly have fathered Charles s first wife 147 In accordance with previous academic consensus Sroka says that Charles s first wife was Mary of Bytom from the Silesian branch of the Piast dynasty 148 The Illuminated Chronicle stated that Charles s first consort Maria was of the Polish nation and she was the daughter of Duke Casimir 149 141 Sroka proposes that Mary of Bytom married Charles in 1306 but Kristo writes that their marriage probably took place in the first half of 1311 150 151 The Illuminated Chronicle recorded that she died on 15 December 1317 but a royal charter issued on 12 July 1318 stated that her husband made a land grant with her consent 152 Charles s next second or third wife was Beatrice of Luxembourg who was a daughter of Henry VII Holy Roman Emperor and the sister of John King of Bohemia 152 Their marriage took place before the end of February 1319 153 She died in childbirth in early November in the same year 153 Charles s last wife Elisabeth daughter of Wladyslaw I King of Poland 154 was born around 1306 154 Their marriage took place on 6 July 1320 154 Most 14th century Hungarian chroniclers write that Charles and Elisabeth of Poland had five sons 155 Their first son Charles was born in 1321 and died in the same year according to the Illuminated Chronicle 156 However a charter of June 1323 states that the child had died in this month 157 The second son of Charles and Elisabeth Ladislaus was born in 1324 158 The marriage of Ladislaus and Anne a daughter of King John of Bohemia was planned by their parents but Ladislaus died in 1329 159 Charles s and Elisabeth s third son Louis who was born in 1326 survived his father and succeeded him as King of Hungary 159 His younger brothers Andrew and Stephen who were born in 1327 and 1332 respectively also survived Charles 159 Although no contemporaneous or nearly contemporaneous sources made mention of any further children Charles may have fathered two daughters according to historians Zsuzsa Teke and Gyula Kristo 159 160 Zsuzsa Teke writes that they were born to Mary of Bytom but the nearly contemporaneous Peter of Zittau wrote that she had died childless 160 158 Gyula Kristo proposes that a miniature in the Illuminated Chronicle which depicts Elisabeth of Poland and five children implies that she gave birth to Charles s two daughters because Kristo identifies two of the three children standing on her right as daughters 155 The elder of Charles s two possible daughters Catherine who was born in the early 1320s was the wife of Henry II Duke of Swidnica 155 Their only daughter Anne grew up in the Hungarian royal court after her parents death implying that Charles and Elisabeth of Poland were her grandparents 161 Historian Kazimierz Jasinski says that Elisabeth the wife of Boleslaus II of Troppau was also Charles s daughter 158 If she was actually Charles s daughter she must have been born in about 1330 according to Kristo 158 Charles also fathered an illegitimate son Coloman who was born in early 1317 150 162 His mother was a daughter of Gurke Csak 162 Coloman was elected Bishop of Gyor in 1336 163 The betrothal of Charles to Elisabeth of Poland depicted in Illuminated Chronicle Charles s wife Elisabeth of Poland and her five children depicted in Illuminated ChronicleLegacy Edit Charles s statue on Heroes Square in Budapest the king holds his coat of arms which units the Arpad stripes with the Capetians fleurs de lis Charles often declared that his principal aim was the restoration of the ancient good conditions of the kingdom 164 On his coat of arms he united the Arpad stripes with the motifs of the coat of arms of his paternal family which emphasized his kinship with the first royal house of Hungary 164 During his reign Charles reunited Hungary and introduced administrative and fiscal reforms 108 He bequeathed to his son Louis the Great a bulging exchequer and an effective system of taxation according to scholar Bryan Cartledge 134 Nevertheless Louis the Great s achievements overshadowed Charles s reputation 108 The only contemporaneous record of Charles s deeds were made by a Franciscan friar who was hostile towards the monarch 108 Instead of emphasizing Charles s achievements in the reunification of the country the friar described in detail the negative episodes of Charles s reign 108 In particular the unusual cruelty that the king showed after Felician Zah s assassination attempt on the royal family contributed to the negative picture of Charles s personality 108 The Franciscan friar attributed Charles s defeat by Basarab of Wallachia as a punishment from God for the king s revenge 108 References Edit a b Kristo 2002 p 24 a b Csukovits 2012a p 112 a b Dummerth 1982 p 220 Engel 2001 pp 110 383 a b Cartledge 2011 p 33 a b Engel 2001 p 110 Engel 2001 pp 98 110 Bartl et al 2002 p 34 a b c Kristo 2002 p 25 Magas 2007 p 59 Fine 1994 p 207 a b Kelly 2003 p 8 Dummerth 1982 p 222 223 a b Dummerth 1982 p 224 The Divine Comedy Dante Alighieri Paradise 9 3 p 667 a b c Kelly 2003 p 276 Solymosi amp Kormendi 1981 pp 188 189 a b Fine 1994 p 208 Dummerth 1982 p 228 Engel 2001 p 144 Engel 2001 p 111 a b Kristo 2002 pp 25 26 Dummerth 1982 p 229 a b Engel 2001 p 128 a b c Solymosi amp Kormendi 1981 p 188 a b Kristo 2002 p 26 Engel 2001 p 124 Kontler 1999 p 84 Engel 2001 pp 125 126 Engel 2001 pp 128 129 a b c d e f g Engel 2001 p 129 Zsoldos 2013 p 212 The Hungarian Illuminated Chronicle ch 188 133 p 143 Solymosi amp Kormendi 1981 p 189 Dummerth 1982 pp 232 234 Dummerth 1982 p 233 Kristo 2002 p 27 a b c d Kristo 2002 p 28 a b c Solymosi amp Kormendi 1981 p 190 Engel 2001 pp 129 130 a b c d e f g h i j Engel 2001 p 130 a b Pop 2005 p 251 a b c d e f Solymosi amp Kormendi 1981 p 191 a b c d Kristo 2002 p 29 a b c Bartl et al 2002 p 37 a b Solymosi amp Kormendi 1981 p 192 a b c d e Pop 2005 p 252 Kristo 2002 p 32 a b c d Engel 2001 p 131 Zsoldos 2013 p 222 a b Zsoldos 2013 p 221 Zsoldos 2013 p 229 Zsoldos 2013 p 236 Solymosi amp Kormendi 1981 p 193 a b c Kristo 2002 p 35 Kontler 1999 p 88 a b c d e f Engel 2001 p 132 a b c d e f g Solymosi amp Kormendi 1981 p 194 Zsoldos 2013 p 235 Fine 1994 p 260 a b Fine 1994 p 261 a b Solymosi amp Kormendi 1981 p 195 Kristo 2002 p 41 Dummerth 1982 p 353 Engel 2001 p 142 Engel 2001 p 141 Kristo 2002 p 36 Solymosi amp Kormendi 1981 p 196 a b Engel 2001 p 140 a b Bartl et al 2002 p 38 a b c d Solymosi amp Kormendi 1981 p 197 a b Engel 2001 p 133 Fine 1994 pp 210 211 a b c Fine 1994 p 212 Engel 2001 pp 144 391 Solymosi amp Kormendi 1981 p 198 a b c d e Engel 2001 p 136 a b Sălăgean 2005 p 149 a b c d Fine 1994 p 213 a b Engel 2001 p 145 a b c d e f Engel 2001 p 135 Solymosi amp Kormendi 1981 p 199 Engel 2001 pp 149 150 a b c Engel 2001 p 150 Engel 2001 p 149 a b Kontler 1999 p 89 a b Cartledge 2011 p 34 Engel 2001 pp 140 178 a b c Engel 2001 p 143 a b c Boulton 2000 p 29 Engel 2001 pp 146 147 Boulton 2000 p 27 Cartledge 2011 p 35 Engel 2001 p 147 a b Kontler 1999 p 90 Engel 2001 p 154 a b c Engel 2001 p 156 a b c d Engel 2001 p 155 Kontler 1999 p 91 Kontler 1999 p 92 a b c Engel 2001 p 134 Solymosi amp Kormendi 1981 p 200 Solymosi amp Kormendi 1981 p 201 Knoll 1972 pp 51 54 Knoll 1972 p 54 Dummerth 1982 p 341 a b Engel 2001 p 139 a b c d e f g h i Engel 2001 p 138 Kristo 2002 p 40 Kristo 2002 pp 40 41 a b c Sălăgean 2005 p 194 a b c Sălăgean 2005 p 195 a b Solymosi amp Kormendi 1981 p 202 Knoll 1972 p 58 Knoll 1972 p 61 Solymosi amp Kormendi 1981 pp 202 203 a b Dummerth 1982 p 352 Engel 2001 pp 137 138 Solymosi amp Kormendi 1981 p 203 a b Knoll 1972 p 73 a b c Engel 2001 p 137 Knoll 1972 pp 74 75 a b Knoll 1972 p 75 a b c Solymosi amp Kormendi 1981 p 204 a b c Knoll 1972 p 86 Solymosi amp Kormendi 1981 pp 204 205 a b Solymosi amp Kormendi 1981 p 205 Kontler 1999 pp 91 92 Knoll 1972 p 95 a b Knoll 1972 pp 95 96 a b Knoll 1972 p 96 a b Solymosi amp Kormendi 1981 p 206 Engel 2001 pp 145 150 a b Cartledge 2011 p 36 Csukovits 2012a p 115 a b c Kristo 2002 p 43 Teke 1994 p 48 Dummerth 1982 pp 62 63 Appendix Kristo amp Makk 1996 p 271 Appendix 5 Franzl 2002 pp 279 280 a b Kristo 2005 p 15 a b Sroka 1992 p 261 Kristo 2005 p 16 Kristo 2005 p 17 Kristo 2005 pp 17 18 Csukovits 2012a p 114 Sroka 1992 p 262 Sroka 1992 p 263 The Hungarian Illuminated Chronicle ch 197 139 p 145 a b Sroka 1992 p 265 Kristo 2005 p 19 a b Kristo 2005 pp 19 20 a b Kristo 2005 p 22 a b c Knoll 1972 p 42 a b c Kristo 2005 pp 25 26 Kristo 2005 p 23 Kristo 2005 pp 23 24 a b c d Kristo 2005 p 26 a b c d Kristo 2005 p 27 a b Teke 1994 p 49 Kristo 2005 p 25 a b Szovak 1994 p 316 Szovak 1994 p 317 a b Kontler 1999 pp 88 89 Sources EditPrimary sources Edit The Divine Comedy The Inferno the Purgatorio and the Paradiso Dante Alighieri Translated by John Ciardi 2003 Penguin Books ISBN 0 451 20863 3 The Hungarian Illuminated Chronicle Chronica de Gestis Hungarorum Edited by Dezso Dercsenyi 1970 Corvina Taplinger Publishing ISBN 0 8008 4015 1 Secondary sources Edit Bartl Julius Cicaj Viliam Kohutova Maria Letz Robert Seges Vladimir Skvarna Dusan 2002 Slovak History Chronology amp Lexicon Bolchazy Carducci Publishers Slovenske Pedegogicke Nakladatel stvo ISBN 0 86516 444 4 Boulton D A J D 2000 The Knights of the Crown The Boydell Press ISBN 978 0 85115 795 5 Cartledge Bryan 2011 The Will to Survive A History of Hungary C Hurst amp Co ISBN 978 1 84904 112 6 Csukovits Eniko 2012a I Karoly In Gujdar Noemi Szatmary Nora eds Magyar kiralyok nagykonyve Uralkodoink kormanyzoink es az erdelyi fejedelmek eletenek es tetteinek kepes tortenete Encyclopedia of the Kings of Hungary An Illustrated History of the Life and Deeds of Our Monarchs Regents and the Princes of Transylvania in Hungarian Reader s Digest pp 112 115 ISBN 978 963 289 214 6 Csukovits Eniko 2012b Az Anjouk Magyarorszagon I resz I Karoly es uralkodasa 1301 1342 The Angevins in Hungary Vol 1 Charles I and His Reign 1301 1342 in Hungarian MTA Bolcseszettudomanyi Kutatokozpont Tortenettudomanyi Intezet ISBN 978 963 9627 53 6 Dummerth Dezso 1982 Az Anjou haz nyomaban On the House of Anjou in Hungarian Panorama ISBN 963 243 179 0 Engel Pal 2001 The Realm of St Stephen A History of Medieval Hungary 895 1526 I B Tauris Publishers ISBN 1 86064 061 3 Fine John V A Jr 1994 1987 The Late Medieval Balkans A Critical Survey from the Late Twelfth Century to the Ottoman Conquest Ann Arbor Michigan University of Michigan Press ISBN 0 472 08260 4 Franzl Johan 2002 I Rudolf Az elso Habsburg a nemet tronon Rudolph I The First Habsburg on the German Throne in Hungarian Corvina ISBN 963 13 5138 6 Kelly Samantha 2003 The New Solomon Robert of Naples 1309 1343 and Fourteenth Century Kingship Brill ISBN 90 04 12945 6 Knoll Paul W 1972 The Rise of the Polish Monarchy Piast Poland in East Central Europe 1320 1370 The University of Chicago Press ISBN 0 226 44826 6 Kontler Laszlo 1999 Millennium in Central Europe A History of Hungary Atlantisz Publishing House ISBN 963 9165 37 9 Kristo Gyula Makk Ferenc 1996 Az Arpad haz uralkodoi Rulers of the House of Arpad in Hungarian I P C Konyvek ISBN 963 7930 97 3 Kristo Gyula 2002 I Karoly In Kristo Gyula ed Magyarorszag vegyes hazi kiralyai The Kings of Various Dynasties of Hungary in Hungarian Szukits Konyvkiado pp 23 44 ISBN 963 9441 58 9 Kristo Gyula 2005 Karoly Robert csaladja Charles Robert s family PDF Aetas in Hungarian 20 4 14 28 ISSN 0237 7934 Magas Branka 2007 Croatia Through History SAQI ISBN 978 0 86356 775 9 Pop Ioan Aurel 2005 Transylvania in the 14th century and the first half of the 15th century 1300 1456 In Pop Ioan Aurel Nagler Thomas eds The History of Transylvania Vol I Until 1541 Romanian Cultural Institute Center for Transylvanian Studies pp 247 298 ISBN 973 7784 00 6 Sălăgean Tudor 2005 Romanian Society in the Early Middle Ages 9th 14th Centuries AD In Pop Ioan Aurel Bolovan Ioan eds History of Romania Compendium Romanian Cultural Institute Center for Transylvanian Studies pp 133 207 ISBN 978 973 7784 12 4 Solymosi Laszlo Kormendi Adrienne 1981 A kozepkori magyar allam viragzasa es bukasa 1301 1506 The Heyday and Fall of the Medieval Hungarian State 1301 1526 In Solymosi Laszlo ed Magyarorszag torteneti kronologiaja I a kezdetektol 1526 ig Historical Chronology of Hungary Volume I From the Beginning to 1526 in Hungarian Akademiai Kiado pp 188 228 ISBN 963 05 2661 1 Sroka Stanislaw 1992 A Hungarian Galician Marriage at the Beginning of the Fourteenth Century Harvard Ukrainian Studies 16 3 4 261 268 JSTOR 41036478 Szovak Kornel 1994 Kalman 3 Coloman 3 In Kristo Gyula Engel Pal Makk Ferenc eds Korai magyar torteneti lexikon 9 14 szazad Encyclopedia of the Early Hungarian History 9th 14th centuries in Hungarian Akademiai Kiado pp 316 317 ISBN 963 05 6722 9 Teke Zsuzsa 1994 Anjouk The Angevins In Kristo Gyula Engel Pal Makk Ferenc eds Korai magyar torteneti lexikon 9 14 szazad Encyclopedia of the Early Hungarian History 9th 14th centuries in Hungarian Akademiai Kiado pp 46 49 ISBN 963 05 6722 9 Zsoldos Attila 2013 Kings and Oligarchs in Hungary at the Turn of the Thirteenth and Fourteenth Centuries Hungarian Historical Review 2 2 211 242 Further reading EditKrstic Aleksandar R 2016 The Rival and the Vassal of Charles Robert of Anjou King Vladislav II Nemanjic Banatica 26 2 33 51 Lucherini Vinni 2013 The Journey of Charles I King of Hungary from Visegrad to Naples 1333 Its Political Implications and Artistic Consequences Hungarian Historical Review 2 2 341 362 Michaud Claude 2000 The kingdoms of Central Europe in the fourteenth century In Jones Michael ed The New Cambridge Medieval History Volume VI c 1300 c 1415 Cambridge University Press pp 735 763 ISBN 0 521 36290 3 Racz Gyorgy 2013 The Congress of Visegrad in 1335 Diplomacy and Representation Hungarian Historical Review 2 2 261 287 Skorka Renata 2013 With a Little Help from the Cousins Charles I and the Habsburg Dukes of Austria during the Interregnum Hungarian Historical Review 2 2 243 260 External links Edit Wikimedia Commons has media related to Charles I of Hungary Bain Robert Nisbet 1911 Charles I King of Hungary Encyclopaedia Britannica Vol 5 11th ed pp 922 923 His picture on the Hungarian 200 forint banknote Armorial of the House Anjou Sicily in French House of Anjou Sicily in French His profile in Medieval Lands by Charles Cawley Charles I of HungaryCapetian House of AnjouCadet branch of the Capetian dynastyBorn 1288 Died 16 July 1342Regnal titlesPreceded byAndrew III or Otto King of Hungary and Croatia1301 or 1308 1342 Succeeded byLouis I Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Charles I of Hungary amp oldid 1147829368, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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