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Seljuk Empire

January 12, 2023

For other uses, see Seljuk (disambiguation).

The Great Seljuk Empire,[11][b] or the Seljuk Empire was a high medieval, culturally Turko-Persian,[14] Sunni Muslim empire, founded and ruled by the Qïnïq branch of Oghuz Turks.[15] It spanned a total area of 3.9 million square kilometres (1.5 million square miles) from Anatolia and the Levant in the west to the Hindu Kush in the east, and from Central Asia in the north to the Persian Gulf in the south.

Great Seljuk Empire
1037–1194
Seljuk Empire at its greatest extent in 1092,
upon the death of Malik Shah I.[a]
StatusEmpire
Capital
Common languages
Religion
Sunni Islam (Hanafi)
GovernmentVassal under caliphate (de jure)[6]
Independent sultanate (de facto)
Caliph 
• 1031–1075
Al-Qaʽim
• 1180–1225
Al-Nasir
Sultan 
• 1037–1063
Tughril (first)
• 1174–1194
Tughril III (last)[7]
History 
• Formation under Tughril
1037
1040
1071
1095–1099
1141
• Supplantation by the Khwarazmian Empire[8]
1194
Area
1080 est.[9][10]3,900,000 km2 (1,500,000 sq mi)

The Seljuk Empire was founded in 1037 by Tughril (990–1063) and his brother Chaghri (989–1060), both of whom co-ruled over its territories; there are indications that the Seljuk leadership otherwise functioned as a triumvirate and thus included Musa Yabghu, the uncle of the aforementioned two.[16] From their homelands near the Aral Sea, the Seljuks advanced first into Khorasan and into the Iranian mainland, where they would become largely based as a Persianate society. They then moved west to conquer Baghdad, filling up the power vacuum that had been caused by struggles between the Arab Abbasid Caliphate and the Iranian Buyid Empire. The subsequent Seljuk expansion into eastern Anatolia triggered the Byzantine–Seljuk wars, with the Battle of Manzikert in 1071 marking a decisive turning point in the conflict in favour of the Seljuks, undermining the authority of the Byzantine Empire in the remaining parts of Anatolia and gradually enabling the region's Turkification. The Seljuk Empire united the fractured political landscape in the non-Arab eastern parts of the Muslim world and played a key role in both the First Crusade and Second Crusade; it also played an important part in the creation and expansion of multiple art forms during the period in which they had influence.[17]

By the 1140s, the Seljuk Empire began to decline in power and influence, and was eventually supplanted by the Khwarazmian Empire in 1194.

History

Founder of the dynasty

The founder of the Seljuq dynasty was an Oghuz Turkic warlord Seljuk. He was reputed to have served in the Khazar army, under whom, the Seljuks migrated to Khwarezm, near the city of Jend, where they converted to Islam in 985.[18] Khwarezm, administered by the Ma'munids, was under the nominal control of the Samanid Empire.[19] By 999 the Samanids fell to the Kara-Khanids in Transoxiana, but the Ghaznavids occupied the lands south of the Oxus.[20] The Seljuks became involved, having supported the last Samanid emir against the Kara-Khanids, in this power struggle in the region before establishing their own independent base.[21]

Expansion of the empire

Tughril and Chaghri

Main article: Tughril
 
Head of male royal figure, 12–13th century, found in Iran.

Oghuz Turks (also known as Turkmens at the time), led by Seljuq's son, Musa and his two nephews, Tughril and Chaghri, were one of several groups of the Oghuz who made their way to Iran between about 1020 and 1040, first moving south to Transoxiana, and then to Khorasan, initially at the invitation of the local rulers, then under alliances and conflicts. However, prior to the arrival of the Seljuks to Khorasan, other Oghuz Turks were already present in the area: that is, the northern slopes of Kopet Dag mountains, which is principally the region stretching from the Caspian Sea to Merv; what is today – Turkmenistan. Contemporary sources mention places such as Dahistan, Farawa and Nasa, as well as Sarakhs, all in present-day Turkmenistan.[22][23]

Around 1034, Tughril and Chaghri were soundly defeated by the Oghuz Yabghu Ali Tegin and his allies, forcing them to escape from Transoxiana. Initially, Turkmens took refuge in Khwarazm, which served as one of their traditional pastures, but they were also encouraged by the local Ghaznavid governor, Harun, who hoped to utilise Seljuqs for his efforts to seize Khorasan from his sovereign. When Harun was assassinated by Ghaznavid agents in 1035, they again had to flee, this time heading south across the Karakum Desert. First, Turkmens made their way to the important city of Merv, but perhaps due to its strong fortification, they then changed their route westwards to take refuge in Nasa. Finally, they arrived on the edges of Khorasan, the province considered a jewel in the Ghaznavid crown.[24]

After moving into Khorasan, Seljuks under Tughril wrested an empire from the Ghaznavids. Initially the Seljuks were repulsed by Mahmud and retired to Khwarezm, but Tughril and Chaghri led them to capture Merv and Nishapur (1037–1038).[25] Later they repeatedly raided and traded territory with his successor, Mas'ud, across Khorasan and Balkh.[26]

In 1040, at the Battle of Dandanaqan, Seljuqs decisively defeated Mas'ud I of Ghazni, forcing him to abandon most of his western territories.[27] Afterwards, Turkmens employed Khorasanians and set up a Persian bureaucracy to administer their new polity with Toghrul as its nominal overlord.[28] By 1046, Abbasid caliph al-Qa'im had sent Tughril a diploma recognizing Seljuk rule over Khurasan.[29] In 1048–1049, the Seljuk Turks, commanded by Ibrahim Yinal, uterine brother of Tughril, made their first incursion into the Byzantine frontier region of Iberia and clashed with a combined Byzantine-Georgian army of 50,000 at the Battle of Kapetrou on 10 September 1048. The devastation left behind by the Seljuk raid was so fearful that the Byzantine magnate Eustathios Boilas described, in 1051–1052, those lands as "foul and unmanageable... inhabited by snakes, scorpions, and wild beasts." The Arab chronicler Ibn al-Athir reports that Ibrahim brought back 100,000 captives and a vast booty loaded on the backs of ten thousand camels.[30] In 1055, Tughril entered Baghdad and removed the influence of the Buyid dynasty, under a commission from the Abbasid caliph.[29]

Alp Arslan

Main article: Alp Arslan
Contemporary Turkic and local dignitaries
 
A dignitary in Turkic dress: long braids, fur hat, boots, close-fitting coat. He may be an amir.[31]
 
A local dignitary in loose-fitting dress and turban, possibly Al-Hariri of Basra himself.[31]
Illustrations from the Maqamat, authored by Al-Hariri of Basra (1054–1122 CE), a high government official of the Seljuks. Published in Baghdad (1237 CE edition).[31]

Alp Arslan, the son of Chaghri Beg, expanded significantly upon Tughril's holdings by adding Armenia and Georgia in 1064 and invading the Byzantine Empire in 1068, from which he annexed almost all of Anatolia. Arslan's decisive victory at the Battle of Manzikert in 1071 effectively neutralized the Byzantine resistance to the Turkish invasion of Anatolia,[32] although the Georgians were able to recover from Alp Arslan's invasion by securing the theme of Iberia. The Byzantine withdrawal from Anatolia brought Georgia in more direct contact with the Seljuks. In 1073 the Seljuk Amirs of Ganja, Dvin and Dmanisi invaded Georgia and were defeated by George II of Georgia, who successfully took the fortress of Kars.[33] A retaliatory strike by the Seljuk Amir Ahmad defeated the Georgians at Kvelistsikhe.[34]

Alp Arslan authorized his Turkmen generals to carve their own principalities out of formerly Byzantine Anatolia, as atabegs loyal to him. Within two years the Turkmens had established control as far as the Aegean Sea under numerous beghliks (modern Turkish beyliks): the Saltukids in Northeastern Anatolia, the Shah-Armens and the Mengujekids in Eastern Anatolia, Artuqids in Southeastern Anatolia, Danishmendis in Central Anatolia, Rum Seljuks (Beghlik of Suleyman, which later moved to Central Anatolia) in Western Anatolia, and the Beylik of Tzachas of Smyrna in İzmir (Smyrna).[citation needed]

Malik Shah I

Main article: Malik Shah I

Under Alp Arslan's successor, Malik Shah, and his two Persian viziers, Nizām al-Mulk and Tāj al-Mulk, the Seljuk state expanded in various directions, to the former Iranian border of the days before the Arab invasion, so that it soon bordered China in the east and the Byzantines in the west. Malikshāh was the one who moved the capital from Ray to Isfahan.[35] The Iqta military system and the Nizāmīyyah University at Baghdad were established by Nizām al-Mulk, and the reign of Malikshāh was reckoned the golden age of "Great Seljuk". The Abbasid Caliph titled him "The Sultan of the East and West" in 1087. The Assassins (Hashshashin) of Hassan-i Sabāh started to become a force during his era, however, and they assassinated many leading figures in his administration; according to many sources these victims included Nizām al-Mulk.[citation needed]

In 1076, Malik Shah I surged into Georgia and reduced many settlements to ruins. From 1079/80 onward, Georgia was pressured into submitting to Malik-Shah to ensure a precious degree of peace at the price of an annual tribute.[citation needed]

Internally, the most prominent development of Malik Shah's rule was the continuous increase in the power of the Nizām al-Mulk. Some contemporary chroniclers refer to the period as "al-dawla al-Nizamiyya", the Nizam's state, while modern scholars have mentioned him as "the real ruler of the Seljuq empire". The 14-century biographer Subki claimed that Nizām al-Mulk's vizierate was "not just a vizierate, it was above the sultanate".[36]

Ahmad Sanjar

Main article: Ahmad Sanjar
 
Ahmad Sanjar seated on his throne
 
Mausoleum of Sultan Sanjar in Merv, Turkmenistan.

Ahmad was the son of Malik Shah I and initially took part in wars of succession against his three brothers and a nephew: Mahmud I, Barkiyaruq, Malik Shah II and Muhammad I Tapar. In 1096, he was tasked to govern the province of Khorasan by his brother Muhammad I.[37] Over the next several years, Ahmad Sanjar became the ruler of most of Iran (Persia), and eventually in 1118, the sole ruler of the Great Seljuk Empire.[38]

In 1141, Ahmad marched to eliminate the threat posed by Kara Khitans and faced them in the vicinity of Samarkand at the Battle of Qatwan. He suffered his first defeat in his long career, and as a result lost all Seljuk territory east of the Syr Darya.[39][40]

Sanjar's as well as the Seljuks' rule collapsed as a consequence of yet another unexpected defeat, this time at the hands of the Seljuks' own tribe, in 1153.[38] Sanjar was captured during the battle and held in captivity until 1156.[41] It brought chaos to the Empire - a situation later exploited by the victorious Turkmens, whose hordes would overrun Khorasan unopposed, wreaking colossal damage on the province and prestige of Sanjar.[41] Sanjar eventually escaped from captivity in the fall of 1156, but soon died in Merv in 1157. After his death, Turkic rulers, Turkmen tribal forces, and other secondary powers competed for Khorasan, and after a long period of confrontations, the province was finally conquered by Khwarazmians in the early 1200s.[42]

The Tomb of Ahmed Sanjar was destroyed by the Mongols led by Tolui, who sacked the city of Merv in 1221, killing 700,000 people according to contemporary sources during their catastrophic invasion of Khwarazm;[43] however, modern scholarship holds such figures to be exaggerated.[44][45]

Division of empire

See also: Sultanate of Rum

When Malikshāh I died in 1092, the empire split as his brother and four sons quarrelled over the apportioning of the empire among themselves. Malikshāh I was succeeded in Anatolia by Kilij Arslan I, who founded the Sultanate of Rum, and in Syria by his brother Tutush I. In Persia he was succeeded by his son Mahmud I, whose reign was contested by his other three brothers Barkiyaruq in Iraq, Muhammad I in Baghdad, and Ahmad Sanjar in Khorasan. When Tutush I died, his sons Radwan and Duqaq inherited Aleppo and Damascus respectively and contested with each other as well, further dividing Syria amongst emirs antagonistic towards each other.[citation needed]

In 1118, the third son Ahmad Sanjar took over the empire. His nephew, the son of Muhammad I, did not recognize his claim to the throne, and Mahmud II proclaimed himself Sultan and established a capital in Baghdad, until 1131 when he was finally officially deposed by Ahmad Sanjar.[citation needed]

Elsewhere in nominal Seljuk territory were the Artuqids in northeastern Syria and northern Mesopotamia; they controlled Jerusalem until 1098. The Dānišmand dynasty founded a state in eastern Anatolia and northern Syria and contested land with the Sultanate of Rum, and Kerbogha exercised independence as the atabeg of Mosul.[citation needed]

First Crusade (1095–1099)

 
Sultan Barkiaruq, the Seljuk ruler during the First Crusade, from the manuscript of Hafiz-i Abru's Majma' al-Tawarikh, Yale University Art Gallery
Main articles: First Crusade and Georgian–Seljuk wars

During the First Crusade, the fractured states of the Seljuks were generally more concerned with consolidating their own territories and gaining control of their neighbours than with cooperating against the crusaders. The Seljuks easily defeated the People's Crusade arriving in 1096, but they could not stop the progress of the army of the subsequent Princes' Crusade, which took important cities such as Nicaea (İznik), Iconium (Konya), Caesarea Mazaca (Kayseri), and Antioch (Antakya) on its march to Jerusalem (Al-Quds). In 1099 the crusaders finally captured the Holy Land and set up the first Crusader states. The Seljuks had already lost Palestine to the Fatimids, who had recaptured it just before its capture by the crusaders.[citation needed]

After pillaging the County of Edessa, Seljukid commander Ilghazi made peace with the Crusaders. In 1121 he went north towards Georgia and with supposedly up to 250 000 – 350 000 troops, including men led by his son-in-law Sadaqah and Sultan Malik of Ganja, he invaded the Kingdom of Georgia.[46][47] David IV of Georgia gathered 40,000 Georgian warriors, including 5,000 monaspa guards, 15,000 Kipchaks, 300 Alans and 100 French Crusaders to fight against Ilghazi's vast army. At the Battle of Didgori on August 12, 1121, the Seljuks were routed, being run down by pursuing Georgian cavalry for several days afterward. The battle helped the Crusader states, which had been under pressure from Ilghazi's armies. The weakening of the main enemy of the Latin principalities also benefitted the Kingdom of Jerusalem under King Baldwin II.[citation needed]

Second Crusade (1147–1149)

See also: Second Crusade, Zengid dynasty, and Nur ad-Din (died 1174)

During this time conflict with the Crusader states was also intermittent, and after the First Crusade increasingly independent atabegs would frequently ally with the Crusader states against other atabegs as they vied with each other for territory. At Mosul, Zengi succeeded Kerbogha as atabeg and successfully began the process of consolidating the atabegs of Syria. In 1144 Zengi captured Edessa, as the County of Edessa had allied itself with the Artuqids against him. This event triggered the launch of the Second Crusade. Nur ad-Din, one of Zengi's sons who succeeded him as atabeg of Aleppo, created an alliance in the region to oppose the Second Crusade, which landed in 1147.[citation needed]

Decline

 
Map depicting military actions during the Battle of Qatwan

Ahmad Sanjar fought to contain the revolts by the Kara-Khanids in Transoxiana, Ghurids in Afghanistan and Qarluks in modern Kyrghyzstan, as well as the nomadic invasion of the Kara-Khitais in the east. The advancing Kara-Khitais first defeated the Eastern Kara-Khanids, then followed up by crushing the Western Kara-Khanids, who were vassals of the Seljuks at Khujand. The Kara-Khanids turned to their Seljuk overlords for assistance, to which Sanjar responded by personally leading an army against the Kara-Khitai. However, Sanjar's army was decisively defeated by the host of Yelu Dashi at the Battle of Qatwan on September 9, 1141. While Sanjar managed to escape with his life, many of his close kin including his wife were taken captive in the battle's aftermath. As a result of Sanjar's failure to deal with the encroaching threat from the east, the Seljuk Empire lost all its eastern provinces up to the river Syr Darya, and vassalage of the Western Kara-Khanids was usurped by the Kara-Khitai, otherwise known as the Western Liao in Chinese historiography.[48]

Conquest by Khwarezm and the Ayyubids

See also: Saladin, Ayyubids, and Khwarezmid Empire

In 1153, the Ghuzz (Oghuz Turks) rebelled and captured Sanjar. He managed to escape after three years but died a year later. The atabegs, such as the Zengids and Artuqids, were only nominally under the Seljuk Sultan, and generally controlled Syria independently. When Ahmad Sanjar died in 1157, this fractured the empire even further and rendered the atabegs effectively independent.[citation needed]

 
Seljuk stucco figurine (12th century)
  1. Khorasani Seljuks in Khorasan and Transoxiana. Capital: Merv
  2. Kerman Seljuk Sultanate
  3. Sultanate of Rum (or Seljuks of Turkey). Capital: Iznik (Nicaea), later Konya (Iconium)
  4. Atabeghlik of the Salghurids in Fars
  5. Atabeghlik of Eldiguzids (Atabeg of Azerbaijan[49]) in Iraq and Azerbaijan.[50] Capital: Nakhchivan[51] (1136–1175), Hamadan (1176–1186), Tabriz[52] (1187–1225)
  6. Atabeghlik of Bori in Syria. Capital: Damascus
  7. Atabeghlik of Zangi in Al Jazira (Northern Mesopotamia). Capital: Mosul
  8. Turcoman Beghliks: Danishmendis, Artuqids, Saltuqids and Mengujekids in Asia Minor

After the Second Crusade, Nur ad-Din's general Shirkuh, who had established himself in Egypt on Fatimid land, was succeeded by Saladin. In time, Saladin rebelled against Nur ad-Din, and, upon his death, Saladin married his widow and captured most of Syria and created the Ayyubid dynasty.[citation needed]

On other fronts, the Kingdom of Georgia began to become a regional power and extended its borders at the expense of Great Seljuk. The same was true during the revival of the Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia under Leo II of Armenia in Anatolia. The Abbasid caliph An-Nasir also began to reassert the authority of the caliph and allied himself with the Khwarezmshah Takash.[citation needed]

For a brief period, Togrul III was the Sultan of all Seljuk except for Anatolia. In 1194, however, Togrul was defeated by Takash, the Shah of Khwarezmid Empire, and the Seljuk Empire finally collapsed. Of the former Seljuk Empire, only the Sultanate of Rûm in Anatolia remained.[citation needed]

As the dynasty declined in the middle of the thirteenth century, the Mongols invaded Anatolia in the 1260s and divided it into small emirates called the Anatolian beyliks. Eventually one of these, the Ottoman, would rise to power and conquer the rest.[citation needed]

Governance

 
Seljuk Dinar (gold), 12th century
Further information: Divan § Seljuks

Seljuk power was indeed at its zenith under Malikshāh I, and both the Qarakhanids and Ghaznavids had to acknowledge the overlordship of the Seljuks.[53] The Seljuk dominion was established over the ancient Sasanian domains, in Iran and Iraq, and included Anatolia, Syria, as well as parts of Central Asia and modern Afghanistan.[53] Seljuk rule was modelled after the tribal organization common among Turkic and Mongol nomads and resembled a 'family federation' or 'appanage state'.[53] Under this organization, the leading member of the paramount family assigned family members portions of his domains as autonomous appanages.[53]

Various emblems and banners have been recorded as having been used by the Seljuks in different periods. Early Seljuks used their traditional emblems, but gradually adopted local Muslim signs and banners. The official flag of the empire was most probably a black flag, similar to that of the Abbasid Caliphate. The flag was decorated with signs, which were either superimposed over it, or placed above the flag.[54]

Capital cities

 
Ruins of ancient Marv, one of the capitals of the Great Seljuk Empire

Seljuks exercised full control over Islamic Central Asia and the Middle East between 1040 and 1157. For most of its history, the empire was split into western and eastern half and did not have a single capital or political center. In the east, the chief seat of Seljuk rule was Marv in present-day Turkmenistan. In the west, various cities, where the Seljuk rulers lived periodically, served as capitals: Rayy, Isfahan, Baghdad, and later Hamadan. These western lands were known as the Sultanate of Iraq.[note 1] Since 1118, the Seljuk rulers of Iraq recognized the suzerainty of the great Seljuk sultan Sanjar, who mostly ruled from Marv, and was known by the title of al-sultān al-a'zam, "the Greatest Sultan". The Seljuk rulers of Iraq were often mentioned as the "Lesser Seljuks".[55]

Culture and language

Much of the ideological character of the Seljuq Empire was derived from the earlier Samanid and Ghaznavid kingdoms, which had in turn emerged from the Perso-Islamic imperial system of the Abbasid caliphate.[56] This Perso-Islamic tradition was based on pre-Islamic Iranian ideas of kingship molded into an Islamic framework. Little of the public symbolism used by the Seljuks was Turkic, namely the tughra.[57] The populace of the Seljuk Empire would have considered this Perso-Islamic tradition more significant than that of steppe customs.[58] Highly Persianized[59] in culture[60] and language,[61] the Seljuks also played an important role in the development of the Turko-Persian tradition,[62] even exporting Persian culture to Anatolia.[63][64] Under the Seljuks, Persian was also used for books lecturing about politics in the Mirrors for princes genre, such as the prominent Siyasatnama (Book of Politics) composed by Nizam al-Mulk.[65] During this period, these type of books consciously made use of Islamic and Iranian traditions, such as an ideal government based on the Islamic prophet Muhammad and his successors, or the Sasanian King of Kings Khosrow I (r. 531–579).[56]

In most of their coins, the Seljuk sultans used the Sasanian title of shahanshah (King of Kings), and even used the old Buyid title of "Shahanshah of Islam."[66] The title of malik was used by lesser princes of the Seljuk family.[67] Like the caliphate, the Seljuks relied on a refined Persian bureaucracy.[68] The settlement of Turkic tribes in the northwestern peripheral parts of the empire, for the strategic military purpose of fending off invasions from neighboring states, led to the progressive Turkicization of those areas.[69] According to the 12th-century poet Nizami Aruzi, all of the Seljuk sultans had a liking for poetry, which is also demonstrated by the large compilation of Persian verses written under their patronage. This had already started under Tughril, who was praised in Arabic and Persian by poets such as Fakhruddin As'ad Gurgani and Bakharzi, albeit he could not understand the verses. The last Seljuk sultan Tughril III was well-known for his Persian poetry.[70] The Saljuq-nama of Zahir al-Din Nishapuri, which was most likely dedicated to Tughril III, indicates that the Seljuk family now used Persian to communicate, and even were taught about the achievements of their forefathers in that language.[71]

Tughril relied on his vizier to translate from Arabic and Persian into Turkic for him,[72] and Oghuz songs were sung at the wedding of Tughril to the caliph's daughter. Later sultans, like Mahmud, could speak Arabic alongside Persian, however, they still used Turkic among themselves. The most significant evidence of the importance of Turkic language is the extensive Turkic–Arabic dictionary, or the Dīwān Lughāt al-Turk, assembled in Baghdad for Caliph al-Muqtadi by Mahmud al-Kashgari. However, besides the Diwan, no works written in Turkic language survive from the Seljuk Empire. While the Maliknama was compiled from Turkic oral accounts, it was written in Persian and Arabic languages.[71]

Steppe traditions influenced Seljuk marriages,[73] with Tughril marrying his brother Chaghri's widow, a practice despised in Islam.[73] Seljuk ceremonies were based on the Abbasid model, but sometimes ancient Iranian ceremonies were observed. During a night in 1091, all of Baghdad was lit with candles under the orders of Malik-Shah I, which resembled the Zoroastrian ritual of sadhak.[74]

Religion

In 985, the Seljuks migrated to the city of Jend where they converted to Islam.[18] The arrival of the Seljuq Turks into Persia, and their patronage of constructing madrassas, allowed for Sunni Islam to become the dominant sect of Islam.[75]

In 1046, Tughril built the madrasa, al-Sultaniya in Nishapur,[76] while Chaghri Beg founded a madrasa in Merv.[77] Tughril and Alp Arslan chose Hanafi qadis and preachers for these madrassas. By 1063, there were twenty-five madrassas scattered throughout Persia and Khorasan,[78] founded by Seljuq princes.[79] In the 12th century there were over thirty madrassas in Baghdad.[80]

In 1056, Tughril built a Friday mosque with a newly constructed quarter in Baghdad which was surrounded by a wall.[81][82] The new quarter separated the Shia community from the Sunnis, since there had been frequent outbreaks of violence.[82] Through the influence of Tughril's vizier, al-Kunduri, a Hanafi Sunni,[83] the Ash'ari and Ismaili Shi'ites were exiled from Khurasan and cursed at Friday sermons in Seljuq mosques.[84][85] Al-Kunduri's vizierate persecuted Ash'aris and Sharifis, although this ended with the vizierate of Nizam al-Mulk.[83] It was under the vizierate of al-Kunduri that the Islamic scholar, Al-Juwayni was forced to flee to Mecca and Medina.[83] In 1065, Alp Arslan campaigned against the Kingdom of Georgia, subjugated Tbilisi, and built a mosque in the city.[86]

In 1092, Malik-shah built the Jami al-Sultan Mosque in Baghdad.[81] At the capital, Isfahan, Malik-shah had constructed a madrasa, a citadel and a castle near Dizkuh.[87] Following Malik-Shah's death, the familial civil war drew attention away from religious patronage, slowing the building of madrassas and mosques.[88] Although, in 1130, the Seljuk sultan Sanjar ordered the construction of the Quthamiyya madrasa in Samarkand.[89]

While the Seljuk sultans were prodigious builders of religious houses, Seljuk viziers were no different. The Seljuk vizier, Nazim al-Mulk, founded the first madrasa in Baghdad, in 1063, called the Nizamiya.[78] In the madrassas he built, he patronized Shafi'is.[90] The vizier Taj al-Mulk and Malik-shah's widow, Terken Khatun, patronized the building of a madrasa to compete with Nazim's Nizamiya.[91]

Until the death of Sultan Sanjar, the Seljuks were pious Sunnis, and represented a re-establishment of Sunni Islam in Iraq and western Persia since the 10th century.[92]

Military

General overview

 
 
Princely figures related to the Seljuq sultan or one of his local vassals or successors, Seljuk period, Iran, late 12th–13th century.[93][94]

The army of the earliest Seljuks was not similar to the renowned Turkic military of the classical 'Abbasid era. Their first invasions were more of a great nomadic migration accompanied by their families and livestock rather than planned military conquests. They were not a professional army, however warfare was a way of life for nearly all of adult male Turkmens.[95]

According to a Seljuk vizier, Nizam al-Mulk, by the reign of Malik-Shah I, the sovereign had a large army at his disposal. There were Turkmens, mamluks, a standing army, infantry and the sultan's personal guard. Nizam al-Mulk also estimated Malik-Shah's forces at 400,000 men, and often opposed cost-cutting plans (instituted by Taj al-Mulk) to bring these to 70,000.[96]

Turkmens

Vizier Nizam al-Mulk, the greatest advocate of Iranian orientation for the Seljuk empire, admitted the debt dynasty owed to the Turkmens. After the establishment of the Seljuk state, Turkmens continued to be the driving force behind the Seljuk expansion in Anatolia. After the rule of Malik-Shah I, however, there are very few mentions of Turkmens in the Jibali region of the state, especially in their traditional axis of Rayy, Hamadhan and Hulwan.[97]

Turkmens were difficult to manage, and they were susceptible to undisciplined pillaging. The greatest issue, however, was their dependence on pasturelands for their livestock. A great number of regions that constituted the Seljuk state were ecologically ill-suited for supporting a nomadic army. Turkmens' limitations are adeptly described by Arab scholar Sibt ibn al-Jawzi:[98]

The sultan (Tughril I) ordered his soldiers to prepare [themselves] and to send to bring their tents, children and families to Iraq and to head to Syria with him. They said, "This land is ruined, there is neither food nor fodder here and we have no funds left. We cannot stay [indefinitely] on the backs of horses. What if our families, horses and beasts come, but our absence becomes drawn out? We must visit our families, so we are asking for permission to return to them and to go back to the place which is assigned to us."

Long campaigns had to be discontinued due to Turkmens' insistence on returning home, and conquests had to be scheduled to satisfy the demands of Turkmens. The short-term needs of Turkmens made a longer term military plans unachievable.[99]

Mamluks

The alternative to nomadic Turkmen troops was mamluks. While also of Turkic and often nomadic origin, dependence on pasturelands was non-existent for mamluks as they did not live a nomadic life. Previously, mamluks had constituted the later 'Abbasid, the Samanid and the Ghaznavid armies. In fact, the Ghaznavid dynasty was itself of mamluk origin.[100]

The process of mamluk recruitment are well known from other periods in Islamic history, but there is almost no information directly relating to the Seljuks. The chief source of mamluks was most probably forays to the steppe. The alternative to raids was buying them from slave traders and various dealers as evidenced from a slave dispute between a merchant and Muhammad I Tapar.[101]

Legacy

The Seljuks were educated in the service of Muslim courts as slaves or mercenaries. The dynasty brought revival, energy, and reunion to the Islamic civilization hitherto dominated by Arabs and Persians.

The Seljuks founded universities and were also patrons of art and literature. Their reign is characterized by Persian astronomers such as Omar Khayyám, and the Persian philosopher al-Ghazali. Under the Seljuks, New Persian became the language for historical recording, while the center of Arabic language culture shifted from Baghdad to Cairo.[102]

Sultans of the Seljuk Empire

Main article: List of sultans of the Seljuk Empire

Art of the Great Seljuk Empire

Architecture and ceramics

Further information: Seljuk architecture

Various art forms were popularized during the Seljuk period, as evidenced by the vast amount of surviving artifacts.[17] Most Seljuk arts are known to have been produced in what is modern-day Iran.[145] However, the Seljuk sultans also encouraged artists to settle in Anatolia as part of a recolonization and reconstruction process of several cities.[146] Many works of Seljuk art continued to be produced following the decline of the empire in the late 12th century.[145] In this regard, the timeline associated with the production of Seljuk art does not entirely match the political events pertaining to the empire and its eventual fall.[17] Nonetheless, relatively little art can be correctly dated and ascribed to a Great Seljuq context. Much of the material deemed to be Seljuq in world museums in fact belongs to the period A.D. 1150–1250, after the fall of the Great Seljuq Empire, when there seems to have been a sudden burst in artistic production, apparently to a great extent unrelated to court patronage.[147]

 
Seljuk ceramic tile

Among other ceramics, the manufacture of polychrome ceramic tiles, often used as decor in architecture, were popularized during the Seljuk dynasty.[148][149] The Seljuks pioneered the use of the Minai technique, a painted and enameled polychrome overglaze for ceramics.[149] The glazes on the Seljuk ceramics produced often ranged from a brilliant turquoise to a very dark blue.[148] The art of Seljuk mosaic tile decorating would continue to dominate the interior of many Anatolian mosques following the period of Seljuk rule.[148] The Seljuks also created ceramic house models, while other ceramic forms in the Seljuk period included pottery figurines, some of them children's toys.[150]

In the realm of architecture, mosques and madrasas were created and embellished during the period of Seljuk control. Congregational mosques were either repaired, re-built, or constructed in their entirety. The Seljuk sultan also commissioned numerous madrasas to promote the teaching of orthodox Islamic sciences.[145] These developments in architectural practice are coherent with the Seljuk dynasty's focus on Islam and the promotion of Muslim orthodoxy, the combining of Sufism and Sunnism.[145][17]

 
Muqarnas in a mosque

One architectural form that flourished during the Seljuk dynasty was the muqarnas.[151] Some interpretations maintain that the earliest known examples of muqarnas were constructed during the period of Seljuk hegemony, though it also remains possible that they were being developed at the same time in North Africa.[151] The layering of multiple embellished cells with divergent profiles in muqarnas creates a dome that has a seemingly-insubstantial interior.[151] The play of light on the surface enhances this visual effect.[151] Art historian Oleg Grabar argues that the effect of muqarnas domes embodies Qur'anic water symbolism.[151] Examples of muqarnas also appear in the niches of mosques built during the Seljuk empire.[152] Overall, the architecture attributed to the Seljuk period is characterized by elaborate decoration, much like the other arts produced under Seljuk rule.[153]

Book arts

Both secular and non-secular manuscripts were produced during the Seljuk period.[154][155] These pieces are now limited in availability, considering their ultimate susceptibility to damage overtime.[156] But those manuscripts that have survived over the centuries provide insight into the Seljuk's involvement in the arts of the book.[156] Calligraphers and illuminators were responsible for the creation of these manuscripts, though sometimes calligraphers mastered the art of both writing and illustration.[157] By the end of the 10th century, both illuminators and calligraphers were beginning to employ various colors, styles, and writing techniques in the realm of the book arts.[157]

The Qur'an's produced during the period of Seljuk rule evidence developments in calligraphy and other changes in how the holy text was divided.[157] Uniquely, calligraphers during this period frequently combined several scripts on one page of the Qur'an, such as Kufic and New Style.[157] In addition to these changes in the text, the dawn of the Seljuk empire coincided with a newfound increase in the popularity of paper as a replacement for parchment in the Islamic world.[158] The use of durable paper increased the production of compact, single-volume Qur'an's, whereas parchment codexes often contained multiple volumes of Qur'anic text.[159] Despite this development, parchment would remain popular for the production of some Qur'an's, and multi-volume pieces continued to be produced.[158][157] Illuminated borders continued to distinguish the Qur'ans produced during the Seljuk period and relative consistency was maintained with regard to their structure.[159]

One example of a manuscript created during Seljuk rule is a thirty-volume (juz) Qur'an created c.1050, produced by only one calligrapher and illuminator (Freer Gallery of Art, District of Columbia, F2001.16a-b).[157] As paper had just been introduced to the Islamic world, this piece is an early Islamic paper manuscript.[158] This Qur'an is bound in brown leather, dyed in pink, decorated with gold, and offers an intricate frontispiece.[157] These elements imply the care that went into the production of this text and indications of frequent usage confirm that it was appreciated.[157] It is primarily written in the vertical "New-Style" Arabic script, a sharp, vertical script.[158] The dominant use of New Style in this folio, also referred to as "new Abbasid Script," attests to the shift from the geometric Kufic script to a more legible calligraphic style, which occurred in the 10th century.[158] Scattered remnants of Kufic, used primarily to indicate volume and page number, also appear in the text.[158] The verticality of the paper in this manuscript speaks to the historic shift away from the horizontal use of paper in many Qur'ans, also a 10th-century development.[158]

 
A folio from Qarmathian Qur'an, c. 1180

Another example of a religious manuscript produced closer to the end of the period of Seljuk Rule is the Qarmathian Qur'an (dispersed folio, Arthur M. Stackler Gallery of Art, District of Columbia, S1986.65a-b).[157] This manuscript's folios are illuminated with a gold border and thin, spiraled illustration, featuring vegetal motifs.[157] Despite the generous illumination, the four lines of Qur'anic text on the folio are exceptionally legible.[157] Created between the years 1170–1200, this particular folio demonstrates the evolution of New Style, as both vocalized cursive and diacritical dots appear in this later version of the script.[157] Only during the 13th century would New Style be replaced by the curvier proportional scripts for regular use.[158]

A final example of a Seljuk Qur'an that has entered into scholarship is a manuscript studied in-depth by the late art historian Richard Ettinghausen.[155] This piece was written in 1164 by Mahmud Ibn Al-Husayn and contains the entirety of the Qur'an (University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology, Philadelphia, NEP27).[155] Unlike the two Seljuk Qur'ans discussed prior, this manuscript primarily contains Naskh script, another early Arabic script that replaced Kufic.[160] However, some Kufic calligraphy is embedded in the chapter headings.[155] This aspect speaks to how the inclusion of Kufic in Qur'ans became more of a decorative element overtime, often included in headings as opposed to the main body of text.[158][157] The manuscript is large, with seventeen lines of text per two-hundred and fifteen sheets of paper.[155] Though not all of the Qur'an is illuminated, both the beginning and the end boast elaborate illustration, with blue, gold, and white hues.[155] Ettinghausen describes the subsequent visual effect as "brilliant."[155] The inscriptions feature detailed rosettes, vines, medallions, and arabesques, some exclusively as decoration and others to indicate the end of particular lines of Qur'anic text.[155]

Manuscript production during the Seljuk period was not limited to religious texts. Beyond these religious manuscripts, scientific, literary, and historical pieces were created.[153] One example of a secular manuscript is the Nusrat al-fatrah, a historiographical and literary account of the Seljuk period written in 1200 by Imād al-Dīn (Al-Furqan Islamic Heritage Foundation, London).[161] Meanwhile, the scientific manuscripts produced during the Seljuk period oftentimes pertained to geography, physics, mechanics, mathematics, and astronomy.[153] The former Seljuk city of Isfahan not only boasted twelve libraries that contained a total of twelve thousand volumes, but also had an observatory where scholars could record their astrological findings.[153][154] Secular manuscripts from the Seljuk empire bear illuminations that often relate to the alignment of planets and the zodiac, a couple examples of common themes.[159]

 
The angel Metatron from the Daqa'iq al Haqa'iq, an occult manuscript (c. 1272–73)

Whether secular or non-secular, Seljuk illuminated manuscripts had enough influence as to inspire other relevant art forms, such as brass or bronze metal objects.[157] For example, the large Qarmathian Qur'an influenced some of the inscriptions on Seljuk ceramic wares.[157] Even mirrors, candlesticks, coins, and jugs manufactured in Anatolia during the Seljuk period would often bear occult astrological images inspired by manuscripts.[154] Occult knowledge persisted in manuscripts produced after the decline in the Seljuk's political power in the late 12th century, as the Seljuk sultanate's influence on the book arts continued in Anatolia.[154]

Historian Andrew Peacock demonstrates an interest in the Seljuks of Anatolia's focus on occult themes and its manifestation in the book arts.[154] Peacock describes this finding as something that challenges the reigning view that the Seljuks were exclusively the "pious defenders of Islam" when it came to larger systems of belief.[154] Some of the occult sciences that the Seljuks took special interest in included geomancy, astrology, alchemy. A relevant occult manuscript from a period of Seljuk influence is the Dustur al-Munajjimin, otherwise known as the "Rules of Astrologers," while another is the Daqa'iq al-Haqa'iq, or the "Fine Points of Eternal Truths."[154] The latter text captures an interest in magic and spells, with a particular focus on calling upon spiritual beings, such as angels, through ritualistic acts (Bibliothèque nationale de France, Paris, Persan 174).[154] The text was written by a man who wrote under a pen name, "Nasiri."[154] Interestingly, Nasiri's Daqa'iq al-Haqa'iq challenges prevailing Islamic understandings of God while encouraging piety and invoking both Sufi terms and themes.[154] For example, while incorporating a Sufi poem, the occult text speaks of supernatural bodies and disputes what Islam considers to be the accepted number of names for God.[154]

Textiles

Similar to architecture, Seljuk fabrics depict inscriptions and decorative forms. These fabrics represent what could be called a "Sasanian renaissance" marking a new dominance of Persian culture. Textiles, along with literary works, are evidence of this.[162] Contrast is the main feature of different techniques and fabric qualities. Stories of the period are told through a variety of inscriptions. At the same time, higher contrasts generate a more abstract approach to the ornaments and figures within the fabric patterns. Seljuk fabrics that were excavated in 1931 are distinguished by the representation of nature, by minimal ornamental details, and by the combination of colorful linens giving an interchangeable color effect to the fabric. Many realistic natural elements characterize the composition of the fabrics, such as animals and plants, forming patterns consisting of arabesque elements.[162]

Examples of Seljuk art

See also

Notes

  1. ^ The lighter colour in the top right represents its vassal, the Kara-Khanid Khanate.
  2. ^ In order to distinguish from the Anatolian branch of the Seljuk dynasty, the Sultanate of Rum.[12][13]
  1. ^ Here, Iraq is meant in its medieval sense, which incorporated western Iran (historic 'Iraq al-'Ajam or Persian Iraq, also known as Jibal) as well as 'Iraq al-Arab (Arab Iraq), roughly the central and southern parts of present-day Iraq

Footnotes

  1. ^ Grand Vizier Sāhīp Shams ad-Dīn Īsfahānī ruled the country on behalf of ʿIzz ad-Dīn Kay Kāwus II between 1246 and 1249
  2. ^ Grand Vizier Parwāna Mu'in al-Din Suleyman ruled the country on behalf of Ghiyāth ad-Dīn Kay Khusraw III between 1266 and 2 August 1277 (1 Rabi' al-awwal 676)
  3. ^ Between 1246 and 1249 ʿIzz ad-Dīn Kay Kāwus II reigned alone
  4. ^ ʿIzz ad-Dīn Kay Kāwus II was defeated on October 14, 1256 in Sultanhanı (Sultan Han, Aksaray) and he acceded to the throne on May 1, 1257 again after the departure of Baiju Noyan from Anatolia
  5. ^ Between 1262 and 1266 Rukn ad-Dīn Kilij Arslan IV reigned alone
  6. ^ Between 1249 and 1254 triple reign of three brothers
  7. ^ According to İbn Bîbî, el-Evâmirü'l-ʿAlâʾiyye, p. 727. (10 Dhu al-Hijjah 675 – 17 Muharram 676)
  8. ^ According to Yazıcıoğlu Ali, Tevârih-i Âl-i Selçuk, p. 62. (10 Dhu al-Hijjah 677 – 17 Muharram 678)

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    • Khazonov, Anatoly M. (April 9, 2015). "Pastoral nomadic migrations and conquests". In Kedar, Benjamin Z.; Wiesner-Hanks, Merry E. (eds.). The Cambridge World History, Volume 5. Cambridge University Press. p. 373. ISBN 978-0521190749. The Seljuk Empire was another Turco-Iranian state, and its creation was unexpected even by the Seljuks themselves.
    • Partridge, Christopher (July 3, 2018). High Culture: Drugs, Mysticism, and the Pursuit of Transcendence in the Modern World. Oxford University Press. p. 96. ISBN 978-0190459116. Under his leadership, the Nezāris mounted a decentralized revolutionary effort against the militarily superior Turko-Persian Saljuq empire.
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  54. ^ کوپریلی، فؤاد (۱۳۷۹). . در حداد عادل، غلامعلی. دانشنامه جهان اسلام. ۵. تهران: بنیاد دایرةالمعارف اسلامی. بایگانی‌شده از اصلی در ۱ آوریل ۲۰۲۰.
  55. ^ Peacock 2015, pp. 6–8.
  56. ^ a b Herzig & Stewart 2014, p. 3.
  57. ^ Peacock 2015, p. 134.
  58. ^ Peacock 2015, p. 135.
  59. ^  • Encyclopaedia Iranica, "Šahrbānu", Online Edition: "here one might bear in mind that non-Persian dynasties such as the Ghaznavids, Saljuqs and Ilkhanids were rapidly to adopt the Persian language and have their origins traced back to the ancient kings of Persia rather than to Turkish heroes or Muslim saints ..."  • Josef W. Meri, "Medieval Islamic Civilization: An Encyclopedia", Routledge, 2005, p. 399  • Michael Mandelbaum, "Central Asia and the World", Council on Foreign Relations (May 1994), p. 79  • Jonathan Dewald, "Europe 1450 to 1789: Encyclopedia of the Early Modern World", Charles Scribner's Sons, 2004, p. 24: "Turcoman armies coming from the East had driven the Byzantines out of much of Asia Minor and established the Persianized sultanate of the Seljuks."
  60. ^ *C.E. Bosworth, "Turkmen Expansion towards the west" in UNESCO History of Humanity, Volume IV, titled "From the Seventh to the Sixteenth Century", UNESCO Publishing / Routledge, p. 391: "While the Arabic language retained its primacy in such spheres as law, theology and science, the culture of the Seljuk court and secular literature within the sultanate became largely Persianized; this is seen in the early adoption of Persian epic names by the Seljuk rulers (Qubād, Kay Khusraw and so on) and in the use of Persian as a literary language (Turkmen must have been essentially a vehicle for everyday speech at this time). The process of Persianization accelerated in the thirteenth century with the presence in Konya of two of the most distinguished refugees fleeing before the Mongols, Bahā' al-Dīn Walad and his son Mawlānā Jalāl al-Dīn Rūmī, whose Mathnawī, composed in Konya, constitutes one of the crowning glories of classical Persian literature."  • Mehmed Fuad Köprülü, "Early Mystics in Turkish Literature", Translated by Gary Leiser and Robert Dankoff, Routledge, 2006, p. 149: "If we wish to sketch, in broad outline, the civilization created by the Seljuks of Anatolia, we must recognize that the local—i.e., non-Muslim, element was fairly insignificant compared to the Turkish and Arab-Persian elements, and that the Persian element was paramount. The Seljuk rulers, to be sure, who were in contact with not only Muslim Persian civilization, but also with the Arab civilizations in al-jazlra and Syria—indeed, with all Muslim peoples as far as India—also had connections with {various} Byzantine courts. Some of these rulers, like the great 'Ala' al-Dln Kai-Qubad I himself, who married Byzantine princesses and thus strengthened relations with their neighbors to the west, lived for many years in Byzantium and became very familiar with the customs and ceremonial at the Byzantine court. Still, this close contact with the ancient Greco-Roman and Christian traditions only resulted in their adoption of a policy of tolerance toward art, aesthetic life, painting, music, independent thought—in short, toward those things that were frowned upon by the narrow and piously ascetic views {of their subjects}. The contact of the common people with the Greeks and Armenians had basically the same result. [Before coming to Anatolia,] the Turkmens had been in contact with many nations and had long shown their ability to synthesize the artistic elements that they had adopted from these nations. When they settled in Anatolia, they encountered peoples with whom they had not yet been in contact and immediately established relations with them as well. Ala al-Din Kai-Qubad I established ties with the Genoese and, especially, the Venetians at the ports of Sinop and Antalya, which belonged to him, and granted them commercial and legal concessions. Meanwhile, the Mongol invasion, which caused a great number of scholars and artisans to flee from Turkmenistan, Iran, and Khwarazm and settle within the Empire of the Seljuks of Anatolia, resulted in a reinforcing of Persian influence on the Anatolian Turks. Indeed, despite all claims to the contrary, there is no question that Persian influence was paramount among the Seljuks of Anatolia. This is clearly revealed by the fact that the sultans who ascended the throne after Ghiyath al-Din Kai-Khusraw I assumed titles taken from ancient Persian mythology, like Kai-Khusraw, Kai-Ka us, and Kai-Qubad; and that. Ala' al-Din Kai-Qubad I had some passages from the Shahname inscribed on the walls of Konya and Sivas. When we take into consideration domestic life in the Konya courts and the sincerity of the favor and attachment of the rulers to Persian poets and Persian literature, then this fact [i.e., the importance of Persian influence] is undeniable. With regard to the private lives of the rulers, their amusements, and palace ceremonial, the most definite influence was also that of Iran, mixed with the early Turkish traditions, and not that of Byzantium."
    • Stephen P. Blake, Shahjahanabad: The Sovereign City in Mughal India, 1639–1739. Cambridge University Press, 1991. pg 123: "For the Seljuks and Il-Khanids in Iran it was the rulers rather than the conquered who were "Persianized and Islamicized"
  61. ^ *Encyclopaedia Iranica, "Šahrbānu", Online Edition: "here one might bear in mind that non-Persian dynasties such as the Ghaznavids, Saljuqs and Ilkhanids were rapidly to adopt the Persian language and have their origins traced back to the ancient kings of Persia rather than to Turkish heroes or Muslim saints ..."
    • O.Özgündenli, "Persian Manuscripts in Ottoman and Modern Turkish Libraries 2012-01-22 at the Wayback Machine", Encyclopaedia Iranica, Online Edition
    • M. Ravandi, "The Seljuq court at Konya and the Persianisation of Anatolian Cities", in Mesogeios (Mediterranean Studies), vol. 25-6 (2005), pp. 157–69
    • F. Daftary, "Sectarian and National Movements in Iran, Khorasan, and Trasoxania during Umayyad and Early Abbasid Times", in History of Civilizations of Central Asia, Vol 4, pt. 1; edited by M.S. Asimov and C.E. Bosworth; UNESCO Publishing, Institute of Ismaili Studies: "Not only did the inhabitants of Khurasan not succumb to the language of the nomadic invaders, but they imposed their own tongue on them. The region could even assimilate the Turkic Ghaznavids and Seljuks (eleventh and twelfth centuries), the Timurids (fourteenth–fifteenth centuries), and the Qajars (nineteenth–twentieth centuries) ..."
  62. ^ "The Turko-Persian tradition features Persian culture patronized by Turkic rulers." See Daniel Pipes: "The Event of Our Era: Former Soviet Muslim Republics Change the Middle East" in Michael Mandelbaum, "Central Asia and the World: Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan, Turkemenistan and the World", Council on Foreign Relations, p. 79. Exact statement: "In Short, the Turko-Persian tradition featured Persian culture patronized by Turcophone rulers."
  63. ^ Grousset, Rene, The Empire of the Steppes, (Rutgers University Press, 1991), 574.
  64. ^ Bingham, Woodbridge, Hilary Conroy and Frank William Iklé, History of Asia, Vol.1, (Allyn and Bacon, 1964), 98.
  65. ^ Green 2019, p. 16.
  66. ^ Tor 2012, p. 149.
  67. ^ Spuler 2014, p. 349.
  68. ^ El-Azhari 2021, p. 286.
  69. ^ *An Introduction to the History of the Turkic Peoples (Peter B. Golden. Otto Harrasowitz, 1992). pg 386: "Turkic penetration probably began in the Hunnic era and its aftermath. Steady pressure from Turkic nomads was typical of the Khazar era, although there are no unambiguous references to permanent settlements. These most certainly occurred with the arrival of the Oguz in the 11th century. The Turkicization of much of Azarbayjan, according to Soviet scholars, was completed largely during the Ilxanid period if not by late Seljuk times. Sumer, placing a slightly different emphasis on the data (more correct in my view), posts three periods which Turkicization took place: Seljuk, Mongol and Post-Mongol (Qara Qoyunlu, Aq Qoyunlu and Safavid). In the first two, Oguz Turkic tribes advanced or were driven to the western frontiers (Anatolia) and Northern Azarbaijan (Arran, the Mugan steppe). In the last period, the Turkic elements in Iran (derived from Oguz, with lesser admixture of Uygur, Qipchaq, Qaluq and other Turks brought to Iran during the Chinggisid era, as well as Turkicized Mongols) were joined now by Anatolian Turks migrating back to Iran. This marked the final stage of Turkicization. Although there is some evidence for the presence of Qipchaqs among the Turkic tribes coming to this region, there is little doubt that the critical mass which brought about this linguistic shift was provided by the same Oguz-Turkmen tribes that had come to Anatolia. The Azeris of today are an overwhelmingly sedentary, detribalized people. Anthropologically, they are little distinguished from the Iranian neighbors."
    • John Perry: "We should distinguish two complementary ways in which the advent of the Turks affected the language map of Iran. First, since the Turkish-speaking rulers of most Iranian polities from the Ghaznavids and Seljuks onward were already Iranized and patronized Persian literature in their domains, the expansion of Turk-ruled empires served to expand the territorial domain of written Persian into the conquered areas, notably Anatolia and Central and South Asia. Secondly, the influx of massive Turkish-speaking populations (culminating with the rank and file of the Mongol armies) and their settlement in large areas of Iran (particularly in Azerbaijan and the northwest), progressively turkicized local speakers of Persian, Kurdish and other Iranian languages"
    (John Perry. "The Historical Role of Turkish in Relation to Persian of Iran". Iran & the Caucasus, Vol. 5, (2001), pp. 193–200.)
    • According to C.E. Bosworth:
    "The eastern Caucasus came under Saljuq control in the middle years of the 5th/11th century, and in c. 468/1075-56 Sultan Alp Arslān sent his slave commander ʿEmād-al-dīn Savtigin as governor of Azerbaijan and Arrān, displacing the last Shaddadids. From this period begins the increasing Turkicization of Arrān, under the Saljuqs and then under the line of Eldigüzid or Ildeñizid Atabegs, who had to defend eastern Transcaucasia against the attacks of the resurgent Georgian kings. The influx of Oghuz and other Türkmens was accentuated by the Mongol invasions. Bardaʿa had never revived fully after the Rūs sacking, and is little mentioned in the sources." (C.E. Bsowrth, Arran in Encyclopædia Iranica)
    • According to Fridrik Thordarson:
    "Iranian influence on Caucasian languages. There is general agreement that Iranian languages predominated in Azerbaijan from the 1st millennium b.c. until the advent of the Turks in a.d. the 11th century (see Menges, pp. 41–42; Camb. Hist. Iran IV, pp. 226–228, and VI, pp. 950–952). The process of Turkicization was essentially complete by the beginning of the 16th century, and today Iranian languages are spoken in only a few scattered settlements in the area."
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January 12, 2023
seljuk, empire, other, uses, seljuk, disambiguation, great, high, medieval, culturally, turko, persian, sunni, muslim, empire, founded, ruled, qïnïq, branch, oghuz, turks, spanned, total, area, million, square, kilometres, million, square, miles, from, anatoli. For other uses see Seljuk disambiguation The Great Seljuk Empire 11 b or the Seljuk Empire was a high medieval culturally Turko Persian 14 Sunni Muslim empire founded and ruled by the Qiniq branch of Oghuz Turks 15 It spanned a total area of 3 9 million square kilometres 1 5 million square miles from Anatolia and the Levant in the west to the Hindu Kush in the east and from Central Asia in the north to the Persian Gulf in the south Great Seljuk Empire1037 1194Seljuk Empire at its greatest extent in 1092 upon the death of Malik Shah I a StatusEmpireCapitalNishapur 1037 1043 Ray 1043 1051 Isfahan 1051 1118 Merv 1118 1153 eastern Hamadan 1118 1194 western Common languagesPersian official lingua franca court erudition and literature 1 2 3 Oghuz Turkic dynastic and military 4 3 5 Arabic theology law and science 1 3 ReligionSunni Islam Hanafi GovernmentVassal under caliphate de jure 6 Independent sultanate de facto Caliph 1031 1075Al Qaʽim 1180 1225Al NasirSultan 1037 1063Tughril first 1174 1194Tughril III last 7 History Formation under Tughril1037 Battle of Dandanaqan1040 Battle of Manzikert1071 First Crusade1095 1099 Battle of Qatwan1141 Supplantation by the Khwarazmian Empire 8 1194Area1080 est 9 10 3 900 000 km2 1 500 000 sq mi Preceded by Succeeded byOghuz Yabgu StateGhaznavidsBuyid dynastyByzantine EmpireKakuyidsFatimid CaliphateKara Khanid KhanateMarwanidsRawadids Sultanate of RumAnatolian beyliksGhurid dynastyKhwarezmian EmpireAtabegs of AzerbaijanSalghuridsBavandidsAyyubid dynastyBurid dynastyZengid dynastyDanishmendsArtuqid dynastyShah ArmensShaddadidsKerman Seljuk SultanateKingdom of CyprusByzantine EmpireThe Seljuk Empire was founded in 1037 by Tughril 990 1063 and his brother Chaghri 989 1060 both of whom co ruled over its territories there are indications that the Seljuk leadership otherwise functioned as a triumvirate and thus included Musa Yabghu the uncle of the aforementioned two 16 From their homelands near the Aral Sea the Seljuks advanced first into Khorasan and into the Iranian mainland where they would become largely based as a Persianate society They then moved west to conquer Baghdad filling up the power vacuum that had been caused by struggles between the Arab Abbasid Caliphate and the Iranian Buyid Empire The subsequent Seljuk expansion into eastern Anatolia triggered the Byzantine Seljuk wars with the Battle of Manzikert in 1071 marking a decisive turning point in the conflict in favour of the Seljuks undermining the authority of the Byzantine Empire in the remaining parts of Anatolia and gradually enabling the region s Turkification The Seljuk Empire united the fractured political landscape in the non Arab eastern parts of the Muslim world and played a key role in both the First Crusade and Second Crusade it also played an important part in the creation and expansion of multiple art forms during the period in which they had influence 17 By the 1140s the Seljuk Empire began to decline in power and influence and was eventually supplanted by the Khwarazmian Empire in 1194 Contents 1 History 1 1 Founder of the dynasty 1 2 Expansion of the empire 1 2 1 Tughril and Chaghri 1 2 2 Alp Arslan 1 2 3 Malik Shah I 1 2 4 Ahmad Sanjar 1 3 Division of empire 1 4 First Crusade 1095 1099 1 5 Second Crusade 1147 1149 1 6 Decline 1 7 Conquest by Khwarezm and the Ayyubids 2 Governance 3 Capital cities 4 Culture and language 4 1 Religion 5 Military 5 1 General overview 5 2 Turkmens 5 3 Mamluks 6 Legacy 7 Sultans of the Seljuk Empire 8 Art of the Great Seljuk Empire 8 1 Architecture and ceramics 8 2 Book arts 8 3 Textiles 8 4 Examples of Seljuk art 9 See also 10 Notes 11 Footnotes 12 References 12 1 Sources 13 Further reading 14 External linksHistory EditFounder of the dynasty Edit The founder of the Seljuq dynasty was an Oghuz Turkic warlord Seljuk He was reputed to have served in the Khazar army under whom the Seljuks migrated to Khwarezm near the city of Jend where they converted to Islam in 985 18 Khwarezm administered by the Ma munids was under the nominal control of the Samanid Empire 19 By 999 the Samanids fell to the Kara Khanids in Transoxiana but the Ghaznavids occupied the lands south of the Oxus 20 The Seljuks became involved having supported the last Samanid emir against the Kara Khanids in this power struggle in the region before establishing their own independent base 21 Expansion of the empire Edit Tughril and Chaghri Edit Main article Tughril Head of male royal figure 12 13th century found in Iran Oghuz Turks also known as Turkmens at the time led by Seljuq s son Musa and his two nephews Tughril and Chaghri were one of several groups of the Oghuz who made their way to Iran between about 1020 and 1040 first moving south to Transoxiana and then to Khorasan initially at the invitation of the local rulers then under alliances and conflicts However prior to the arrival of the Seljuks to Khorasan other Oghuz Turks were already present in the area that is the northern slopes of Kopet Dag mountains which is principally the region stretching from the Caspian Sea to Merv what is today Turkmenistan Contemporary sources mention places such as Dahistan Farawa and Nasa as well as Sarakhs all in present day Turkmenistan 22 23 Around 1034 Tughril and Chaghri were soundly defeated by the Oghuz Yabghu Ali Tegin and his allies forcing them to escape from Transoxiana Initially Turkmens took refuge in Khwarazm which served as one of their traditional pastures but they were also encouraged by the local Ghaznavid governor Harun who hoped to utilise Seljuqs for his efforts to seize Khorasan from his sovereign When Harun was assassinated by Ghaznavid agents in 1035 they again had to flee this time heading south across the Karakum Desert First Turkmens made their way to the important city of Merv but perhaps due to its strong fortification they then changed their route westwards to take refuge in Nasa Finally they arrived on the edges of Khorasan the province considered a jewel in the Ghaznavid crown 24 After moving into Khorasan Seljuks under Tughril wrested an empire from the Ghaznavids Initially the Seljuks were repulsed by Mahmud and retired to Khwarezm but Tughril and Chaghri led them to capture Merv and Nishapur 1037 1038 25 Later they repeatedly raided and traded territory with his successor Mas ud across Khorasan and Balkh 26 In 1040 at the Battle of Dandanaqan Seljuqs decisively defeated Mas ud I of Ghazni forcing him to abandon most of his western territories 27 Afterwards Turkmens employed Khorasanians and set up a Persian bureaucracy to administer their new polity with Toghrul as its nominal overlord 28 By 1046 Abbasid caliph al Qa im had sent Tughril a diploma recognizing Seljuk rule over Khurasan 29 In 1048 1049 the Seljuk Turks commanded by Ibrahim Yinal uterine brother of Tughril made their first incursion into the Byzantine frontier region of Iberia and clashed with a combined Byzantine Georgian army of 50 000 at the Battle of Kapetrou on 10 September 1048 The devastation left behind by the Seljuk raid was so fearful that the Byzantine magnate Eustathios Boilas described in 1051 1052 those lands as foul and unmanageable inhabited by snakes scorpions and wild beasts The Arab chronicler Ibn al Athir reports that Ibrahim brought back 100 000 captives and a vast booty loaded on the backs of ten thousand camels 30 In 1055 Tughril entered Baghdad and removed the influence of the Buyid dynasty under a commission from the Abbasid caliph 29 Alp Arslan Edit Main article Alp Arslan Contemporary Turkic and local dignitaries A dignitary in Turkic dress long braids fur hat boots close fitting coat He may be an amir 31 A local dignitary in loose fitting dress and turban possibly Al Hariri of Basra himself 31 Illustrations from the Maqamat authored by Al Hariri of Basra 1054 1122 CE a high government official of the Seljuks Published in Baghdad 1237 CE edition 31 Alp Arslan the son of Chaghri Beg expanded significantly upon Tughril s holdings by adding Armenia and Georgia in 1064 and invading the Byzantine Empire in 1068 from which he annexed almost all of Anatolia Arslan s decisive victory at the Battle of Manzikert in 1071 effectively neutralized the Byzantine resistance to the Turkish invasion of Anatolia 32 although the Georgians were able to recover from Alp Arslan s invasion by securing the theme of Iberia The Byzantine withdrawal from Anatolia brought Georgia in more direct contact with the Seljuks In 1073 the Seljuk Amirs of Ganja Dvin and Dmanisi invaded Georgia and were defeated by George II of Georgia who successfully took the fortress of Kars 33 A retaliatory strike by the Seljuk Amir Ahmad defeated the Georgians at Kvelistsikhe 34 Alp Arslan authorized his Turkmen generals to carve their own principalities out of formerly Byzantine Anatolia as atabegs loyal to him Within two years the Turkmens had established control as far as the Aegean Sea under numerous beghliks modern Turkish beyliks the Saltukids in Northeastern Anatolia the Shah Armens and the Mengujekids in Eastern Anatolia Artuqids in Southeastern Anatolia Danishmendis in Central Anatolia Rum Seljuks Beghlik of Suleyman which later moved to Central Anatolia in Western Anatolia and the Beylik of Tzachas of Smyrna in Izmir Smyrna citation needed Malik Shah I Edit Main article Malik Shah I Under Alp Arslan s successor Malik Shah and his two Persian viziers Nizam al Mulk and Taj al Mulk the Seljuk state expanded in various directions to the former Iranian border of the days before the Arab invasion so that it soon bordered China in the east and the Byzantines in the west Malikshah was the one who moved the capital from Ray to Isfahan 35 The Iqta military system and the Nizamiyyah University at Baghdad were established by Nizam al Mulk and the reign of Malikshah was reckoned the golden age of Great Seljuk The Abbasid Caliph titled him The Sultan of the East and West in 1087 The Assassins Hashshashin of Hassan i Sabah started to become a force during his era however and they assassinated many leading figures in his administration according to many sources these victims included Nizam al Mulk citation needed In 1076 Malik Shah I surged into Georgia and reduced many settlements to ruins From 1079 80 onward Georgia was pressured into submitting to Malik Shah to ensure a precious degree of peace at the price of an annual tribute citation needed Internally the most prominent development of Malik Shah s rule was the continuous increase in the power of the Nizam al Mulk Some contemporary chroniclers refer to the period as al dawla al Nizamiyya the Nizam s state while modern scholars have mentioned him as the real ruler of the Seljuq empire The 14 century biographer Subki claimed that Nizam al Mulk s vizierate was not just a vizierate it was above the sultanate 36 Ahmad Sanjar Edit Main article Ahmad Sanjar Ahmad Sanjar seated on his throne Mausoleum of Sultan Sanjar in Merv Turkmenistan Ahmad was the son of Malik Shah I and initially took part in wars of succession against his three brothers and a nephew Mahmud I Barkiyaruq Malik Shah II and Muhammad I Tapar In 1096 he was tasked to govern the province of Khorasan by his brother Muhammad I 37 Over the next several years Ahmad Sanjar became the ruler of most of Iran Persia and eventually in 1118 the sole ruler of the Great Seljuk Empire 38 In 1141 Ahmad marched to eliminate the threat posed by Kara Khitans and faced them in the vicinity of Samarkand at the Battle of Qatwan He suffered his first defeat in his long career and as a result lost all Seljuk territory east of the Syr Darya 39 40 Sanjar s as well as the Seljuks rule collapsed as a consequence of yet another unexpected defeat this time at the hands of the Seljuks own tribe in 1153 38 Sanjar was captured during the battle and held in captivity until 1156 41 It brought chaos to the Empire a situation later exploited by the victorious Turkmens whose hordes would overrun Khorasan unopposed wreaking colossal damage on the province and prestige of Sanjar 41 Sanjar eventually escaped from captivity in the fall of 1156 but soon died in Merv in 1157 After his death Turkic rulers Turkmen tribal forces and other secondary powers competed for Khorasan and after a long period of confrontations the province was finally conquered by Khwarazmians in the early 1200s 42 The Tomb of Ahmed Sanjar was destroyed by the Mongols led by Tolui who sacked the city of Merv in 1221 killing 700 000 people according to contemporary sources during their catastrophic invasion of Khwarazm 43 however modern scholarship holds such figures to be exaggerated 44 45 Division of empire Edit See also Sultanate of Rum When Malikshah I died in 1092 the empire split as his brother and four sons quarrelled over the apportioning of the empire among themselves Malikshah I was succeeded in Anatolia by Kilij Arslan I who founded the Sultanate of Rum and in Syria by his brother Tutush I In Persia he was succeeded by his son Mahmud I whose reign was contested by his other three brothers Barkiyaruq in Iraq Muhammad I in Baghdad and Ahmad Sanjar in Khorasan When Tutush I died his sons Radwan and Duqaq inherited Aleppo and Damascus respectively and contested with each other as well further dividing Syria amongst emirs antagonistic towards each other citation needed In 1118 the third son Ahmad Sanjar took over the empire His nephew the son of Muhammad I did not recognize his claim to the throne and Mahmud II proclaimed himself Sultan and established a capital in Baghdad until 1131 when he was finally officially deposed by Ahmad Sanjar citation needed Elsewhere in nominal Seljuk territory were the Artuqids in northeastern Syria and northern Mesopotamia they controlled Jerusalem until 1098 The Danismand dynasty founded a state in eastern Anatolia and northern Syria and contested land with the Sultanate of Rum and Kerbogha exercised independence as the atabeg of Mosul citation needed First Crusade 1095 1099 Edit Sultan Barkiaruq the Seljuk ruler during the First Crusade from the manuscript of Hafiz i Abru s Majma al Tawarikh Yale University Art Gallery Main articles First Crusade and Georgian Seljuk wars During the First Crusade the fractured states of the Seljuks were generally more concerned with consolidating their own territories and gaining control of their neighbours than with cooperating against the crusaders The Seljuks easily defeated the People s Crusade arriving in 1096 but they could not stop the progress of the army of the subsequent Princes Crusade which took important cities such as Nicaea Iznik Iconium Konya Caesarea Mazaca Kayseri and Antioch Antakya on its march to Jerusalem Al Quds In 1099 the crusaders finally captured the Holy Land and set up the first Crusader states The Seljuks had already lost Palestine to the Fatimids who had recaptured it just before its capture by the crusaders citation needed After pillaging the County of Edessa Seljukid commander Ilghazi made peace with the Crusaders In 1121 he went north towards Georgia and with supposedly up to 250 000 350 000 troops including men led by his son in law Sadaqah and Sultan Malik of Ganja he invaded the Kingdom of Georgia 46 47 David IV of Georgia gathered 40 000 Georgian warriors including 5 000 monaspa guards 15 000 Kipchaks 300 Alans and 100 French Crusaders to fight against Ilghazi s vast army At the Battle of Didgori on August 12 1121 the Seljuks were routed being run down by pursuing Georgian cavalry for several days afterward The battle helped the Crusader states which had been under pressure from Ilghazi s armies The weakening of the main enemy of the Latin principalities also benefitted the Kingdom of Jerusalem under King Baldwin II citation needed Second Crusade 1147 1149 Edit See also Second Crusade Zengid dynasty and Nur ad Din died 1174 During this time conflict with the Crusader states was also intermittent and after the First Crusade increasingly independent atabegs would frequently ally with the Crusader states against other atabegs as they vied with each other for territory At Mosul Zengi succeeded Kerbogha as atabeg and successfully began the process of consolidating the atabegs of Syria In 1144 Zengi captured Edessa as the County of Edessa had allied itself with the Artuqids against him This event triggered the launch of the Second Crusade Nur ad Din one of Zengi s sons who succeeded him as atabeg of Aleppo created an alliance in the region to oppose the Second Crusade which landed in 1147 citation needed Decline Edit Map depicting military actions during the Battle of Qatwan Ahmad Sanjar fought to contain the revolts by the Kara Khanids in Transoxiana Ghurids in Afghanistan and Qarluks in modern Kyrghyzstan as well as the nomadic invasion of the Kara Khitais in the east The advancing Kara Khitais first defeated the Eastern Kara Khanids then followed up by crushing the Western Kara Khanids who were vassals of the Seljuks at Khujand The Kara Khanids turned to their Seljuk overlords for assistance to which Sanjar responded by personally leading an army against the Kara Khitai However Sanjar s army was decisively defeated by the host of Yelu Dashi at the Battle of Qatwan on September 9 1141 While Sanjar managed to escape with his life many of his close kin including his wife were taken captive in the battle s aftermath As a result of Sanjar s failure to deal with the encroaching threat from the east the Seljuk Empire lost all its eastern provinces up to the river Syr Darya and vassalage of the Western Kara Khanids was usurped by the Kara Khitai otherwise known as the Western Liao in Chinese historiography 48 Conquest by Khwarezm and the Ayyubids Edit See also Saladin Ayyubids and Khwarezmid Empire In 1153 the Ghuzz Oghuz Turks rebelled and captured Sanjar He managed to escape after three years but died a year later The atabegs such as the Zengids and Artuqids were only nominally under the Seljuk Sultan and generally controlled Syria independently When Ahmad Sanjar died in 1157 this fractured the empire even further and rendered the atabegs effectively independent citation needed Seljuk stucco figurine 12th century Khorasani Seljuks in Khorasan and Transoxiana Capital Merv Kerman Seljuk Sultanate Sultanate of Rum or Seljuks of Turkey Capital Iznik Nicaea later Konya Iconium Atabeghlik of the Salghurids in Fars Atabeghlik of Eldiguzids Atabeg of Azerbaijan 49 in Iraq and Azerbaijan 50 Capital Nakhchivan 51 1136 1175 Hamadan 1176 1186 Tabriz 52 1187 1225 Atabeghlik of Bori in Syria Capital Damascus Atabeghlik of Zangi in Al Jazira Northern Mesopotamia Capital Mosul Turcoman Beghliks Danishmendis Artuqids Saltuqids and Mengujekids in Asia MinorAfter the Second Crusade Nur ad Din s general Shirkuh who had established himself in Egypt on Fatimid land was succeeded by Saladin In time Saladin rebelled against Nur ad Din and upon his death Saladin married his widow and captured most of Syria and created the Ayyubid dynasty citation needed On other fronts the Kingdom of Georgia began to become a regional power and extended its borders at the expense of Great Seljuk The same was true during the revival of the Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia under Leo II of Armenia in Anatolia The Abbasid caliph An Nasir also began to reassert the authority of the caliph and allied himself with the Khwarezmshah Takash citation needed For a brief period Togrul III was the Sultan of all Seljuk except for Anatolia In 1194 however Togrul was defeated by Takash the Shah of Khwarezmid Empire and the Seljuk Empire finally collapsed Of the former Seljuk Empire only the Sultanate of Rum in Anatolia remained citation needed As the dynasty declined in the middle of the thirteenth century the Mongols invaded Anatolia in the 1260s and divided it into small emirates called the Anatolian beyliks Eventually one of these the Ottoman would rise to power and conquer the rest citation needed Governance Edit Seljuk Dinar gold 12th century Further information Divan Seljuks Seljuk power was indeed at its zenith under Malikshah I and both the Qarakhanids and Ghaznavids had to acknowledge the overlordship of the Seljuks 53 The Seljuk dominion was established over the ancient Sasanian domains in Iran and Iraq and included Anatolia Syria as well as parts of Central Asia and modern Afghanistan 53 Seljuk rule was modelled after the tribal organization common among Turkic and Mongol nomads and resembled a family federation or appanage state 53 Under this organization the leading member of the paramount family assigned family members portions of his domains as autonomous appanages 53 Various emblems and banners have been recorded as having been used by the Seljuks in different periods Early Seljuks used their traditional emblems but gradually adopted local Muslim signs and banners The official flag of the empire was most probably a black flag similar to that of the Abbasid Caliphate The flag was decorated with signs which were either superimposed over it or placed above the flag 54 Capital cities Edit Ruins of ancient Marv one of the capitals of the Great Seljuk Empire Seljuks exercised full control over Islamic Central Asia and the Middle East between 1040 and 1157 For most of its history the empire was split into western and eastern half and did not have a single capital or political center In the east the chief seat of Seljuk rule was Marv in present day Turkmenistan In the west various cities where the Seljuk rulers lived periodically served as capitals Rayy Isfahan Baghdad and later Hamadan These western lands were known as the Sultanate of Iraq note 1 Since 1118 the Seljuk rulers of Iraq recognized the suzerainty of the great Seljuk sultan Sanjar who mostly ruled from Marv and was known by the title of al sultan al a zam the Greatest Sultan The Seljuk rulers of Iraq were often mentioned as the Lesser Seljuks 55 Culture and language EditMuch of the ideological character of the Seljuq Empire was derived from the earlier Samanid and Ghaznavid kingdoms which had in turn emerged from the Perso Islamic imperial system of the Abbasid caliphate 56 This Perso Islamic tradition was based on pre Islamic Iranian ideas of kingship molded into an Islamic framework Little of the public symbolism used by the Seljuks was Turkic namely the tughra 57 The populace of the Seljuk Empire would have considered this Perso Islamic tradition more significant than that of steppe customs 58 Highly Persianized 59 in culture 60 and language 61 the Seljuks also played an important role in the development of the Turko Persian tradition 62 even exporting Persian culture to Anatolia 63 64 Under the Seljuks Persian was also used for books lecturing about politics in the Mirrors for princes genre such as the prominent Siyasatnama Book of Politics composed by Nizam al Mulk 65 During this period these type of books consciously made use of Islamic and Iranian traditions such as an ideal government based on the Islamic prophet Muhammad and his successors or the Sasanian King of Kings Khosrow I r 531 579 56 In most of their coins the Seljuk sultans used the Sasanian title of shahanshah King of Kings and even used the old Buyid title of Shahanshah of Islam 66 The title of malik was used by lesser princes of the Seljuk family 67 Like the caliphate the Seljuks relied on a refined Persian bureaucracy 68 The settlement of Turkic tribes in the northwestern peripheral parts of the empire for the strategic military purpose of fending off invasions from neighboring states led to the progressive Turkicization of those areas 69 According to the 12th century poet Nizami Aruzi all of the Seljuk sultans had a liking for poetry which is also demonstrated by the large compilation of Persian verses written under their patronage This had already started under Tughril who was praised in Arabic and Persian by poets such as Fakhruddin As ad Gurgani and Bakharzi albeit he could not understand the verses The last Seljuk sultan Tughril III was well known for his Persian poetry 70 The Saljuq nama of Zahir al Din Nishapuri which was most likely dedicated to Tughril III indicates that the Seljuk family now used Persian to communicate and even were taught about the achievements of their forefathers in that language 71 Tughril relied on his vizier to translate from Arabic and Persian into Turkic for him 72 and Oghuz songs were sung at the wedding of Tughril to the caliph s daughter Later sultans like Mahmud could speak Arabic alongside Persian however they still used Turkic among themselves The most significant evidence of the importance of Turkic language is the extensive Turkic Arabic dictionary or the Diwan Lughat al Turk assembled in Baghdad for Caliph al Muqtadi by Mahmud al Kashgari However besides the Diwan no works written in Turkic language survive from the Seljuk Empire While the Maliknama was compiled from Turkic oral accounts it was written in Persian and Arabic languages 71 Steppe traditions influenced Seljuk marriages 73 with Tughril marrying his brother Chaghri s widow a practice despised in Islam 73 Seljuk ceremonies were based on the Abbasid model but sometimes ancient Iranian ceremonies were observed During a night in 1091 all of Baghdad was lit with candles under the orders of Malik Shah I which resembled the Zoroastrian ritual of sadhak 74 Religion Edit In 985 the Seljuks migrated to the city of Jend where they converted to Islam 18 The arrival of the Seljuq Turks into Persia and their patronage of constructing madrassas allowed for Sunni Islam to become the dominant sect of Islam 75 In 1046 Tughril built the madrasa al Sultaniya in Nishapur 76 while Chaghri Beg founded a madrasa in Merv 77 Tughril and Alp Arslan chose Hanafi qadis and preachers for these madrassas By 1063 there were twenty five madrassas scattered throughout Persia and Khorasan 78 founded by Seljuq princes 79 In the 12th century there were over thirty madrassas in Baghdad 80 In 1056 Tughril built a Friday mosque with a newly constructed quarter in Baghdad which was surrounded by a wall 81 82 The new quarter separated the Shia community from the Sunnis since there had been frequent outbreaks of violence 82 Through the influence of Tughril s vizier al Kunduri a Hanafi Sunni 83 the Ash ari and Ismaili Shi ites were exiled from Khurasan and cursed at Friday sermons in Seljuq mosques 84 85 Al Kunduri s vizierate persecuted Ash aris and Sharifis although this ended with the vizierate of Nizam al Mulk 83 It was under the vizierate of al Kunduri that the Islamic scholar Al Juwayni was forced to flee to Mecca and Medina 83 In 1065 Alp Arslan campaigned against the Kingdom of Georgia subjugated Tbilisi and built a mosque in the city 86 In 1092 Malik shah built the Jami al Sultan Mosque in Baghdad 81 At the capital Isfahan Malik shah had constructed a madrasa a citadel and a castle near Dizkuh 87 Following Malik Shah s death the familial civil war drew attention away from religious patronage slowing the building of madrassas and mosques 88 Although in 1130 the Seljuk sultan Sanjar ordered the construction of the Quthamiyya madrasa in Samarkand 89 While the Seljuk sultans were prodigious builders of religious houses Seljuk viziers were no different The Seljuk vizier Nazim al Mulk founded the first madrasa in Baghdad in 1063 called the Nizamiya 78 In the madrassas he built he patronized Shafi is 90 The vizier Taj al Mulk and Malik shah s widow Terken Khatun patronized the building of a madrasa to compete with Nazim s Nizamiya 91 Until the death of Sultan Sanjar the Seljuks were pious Sunnis and represented a re establishment of Sunni Islam in Iraq and western Persia since the 10th century 92 Military EditGeneral overview Edit Princely figures related to the Seljuq sultan or one of his local vassals or successors Seljuk period Iran late 12th 13th century 93 94 The army of the earliest Seljuks was not similar to the renowned Turkic military of the classical Abbasid era Their first invasions were more of a great nomadic migration accompanied by their families and livestock rather than planned military conquests They were not a professional army however warfare was a way of life for nearly all of adult male Turkmens 95 According to a Seljuk vizier Nizam al Mulk by the reign of Malik Shah I the sovereign had a large army at his disposal There were Turkmens mamluks a standing army infantry and the sultan s personal guard Nizam al Mulk also estimated Malik Shah s forces at 400 000 men and often opposed cost cutting plans instituted by Taj al Mulk to bring these to 70 000 96 Turkmens Edit Vizier Nizam al Mulk the greatest advocate of Iranian orientation for the Seljuk empire admitted the debt dynasty owed to the Turkmens After the establishment of the Seljuk state Turkmens continued to be the driving force behind the Seljuk expansion in Anatolia After the rule of Malik Shah I however there are very few mentions of Turkmens in the Jibali region of the state especially in their traditional axis of Rayy Hamadhan and Hulwan 97 Turkmens were difficult to manage and they were susceptible to undisciplined pillaging The greatest issue however was their dependence on pasturelands for their livestock A great number of regions that constituted the Seljuk state were ecologically ill suited for supporting a nomadic army Turkmens limitations are adeptly described by Arab scholar Sibt ibn al Jawzi 98 The sultan Tughril I ordered his soldiers to prepare themselves and to send to bring their tents children and families to Iraq and to head to Syria with him They said This land is ruined there is neither food nor fodder here and we have no funds left We cannot stay indefinitely on the backs of horses What if our families horses and beasts come but our absence becomes drawn out We must visit our families so we are asking for permission to return to them and to go back to the place which is assigned to us Long campaigns had to be discontinued due to Turkmens insistence on returning home and conquests had to be scheduled to satisfy the demands of Turkmens The short term needs of Turkmens made a longer term military plans unachievable 99 Mamluks Edit The alternative to nomadic Turkmen troops was mamluks While also of Turkic and often nomadic origin dependence on pasturelands was non existent for mamluks as they did not live a nomadic life Previously mamluks had constituted the later Abbasid the Samanid and the Ghaznavid armies In fact the Ghaznavid dynasty was itself of mamluk origin 100 The process of mamluk recruitment are well known from other periods in Islamic history but there is almost no information directly relating to the Seljuks The chief source of mamluks was most probably forays to the steppe The alternative to raids was buying them from slave traders and various dealers as evidenced from a slave dispute between a merchant and Muhammad I Tapar 101 Legacy EditThe Seljuks were educated in the service of Muslim courts as slaves or mercenaries The dynasty brought revival energy and reunion to the Islamic civilization hitherto dominated by Arabs and Persians The Seljuks founded universities and were also patrons of art and literature Their reign is characterized by Persian astronomers such as Omar Khayyam and the Persian philosopher al Ghazali Under the Seljuks New Persian became the language for historical recording while the center of Arabic language culture shifted from Baghdad to Cairo 102 Sultans of the Seljuk Empire EditMain article List of sultans of the Seljuk Empire Rank Laqab Throne name Reign Marriages Succession right1 Rukn ad Dunya wa ad Dinرکن الدنیا والدین Toghrul Beg 1037 1063 1 Altun Jan Khatun 2 Aka Khatun 3 Fulana Khatun daughter of Abu Kalijar 4 Seyyidah Khatun daughter of Al Qa im Abbasid caliph 5 Fulana Khatun widow of Chaghri Beg son of Mikail grandson of Seljuk 2 Diya ad Dunya wa ad Din Adud ad Dawlahضياء الدنيا و الدين عضد الدولة Alp Arslan 1063 1072 1 Aka Khatun widow of Toghrul I 2 Safariyya Khatun daughter of Yusuf Qadir Khan Khagan of Kara Khanid 3 Fulana Khatun daughter of Smbat Lorhi 4 Fulana Khatun daughter of Kurtchu bin Yunus bin Seljuk son of Chaghri3 Muizz ad Dunya wa ad Din Jalal ad Dawlahمعز الدین جلال الدولہ Malik Shah I 1072 1092 1 Turkan Khatun daughter of Ibrahim Tamghach Khan Khagan of Western Kara Khanid 2 Zubeida Khatun daughter of Yaquti ibn Chaghri 3 Safariyya Khatun daughter of Isa Khan Sultan of Samarkand 4 Fulana Khatun daughter of Romanos IV Diogenes son of Alp Arslan4 Nasir ad Dunya wa ad Dinناصر الدنیا والدین Mahmud I 1092 1094 son of Malik Shah I5 Rukn ad Dunya wa ad Dinرکن الدنیا والدین Barkiyaruq 1094 1105 son of Malik Shah I6 Rukn ad Dunya wa ad Din Jalal ad Dawlahرکن الدنیا والدین جلال الدولہ Malik Shah II 1105 son of Barkiyaruq7 Ghiyath ad Dunya wa ad Din غیاث الدنیا والدین Tapar 1105 1118 1 Nisandar Jihan Khatun 2 Gouhar Khatun daughter of Isma il bin Yaquti 3 Fulana Khatun daughter of Aksungur Beg son of Malik Shah I8 Mughith ad Dunya wa ad Din Jalal ad Dawlahم غيث الدنيا و الدين جلال الدولة Mahmud II 1118 1131 1 Mah i Mulk Khatun died 1130 daughter of Sanjar 2 Amir Siti Khatun daughter of Sanjar 3 Ata Khatun daughter of Ali bin Faramarz son of Muhammad I9 Muizz ad Dunya wa ad Din Adud ad Dawlahم عز الدنيا و الدين جلال الدولة Sanjar 1118 1153 1 Turkan Khatun daughter of Muhammad Arslan Khan Khagan of Western Kara Khanid 2 Rusudan Khatun daughter of Demetrius I of Georgia 3 Gouhar Khatun daughter of Isma il bin Yaquti widow of Tapar 4 Fulana Khatun daughter of Arslan Khan a Qara Khitai prisoner son of Malik Shah I10 Ghiyath ad Dunya wa ad Dinغیاث الدنیا والدین Dawud 1131 1132 Gouhar Khatun daughter of Masud son of Mahmud II11 Rukn ad Dunya wa ad Dinرکن الدنیا والدین Toghrul II 1132 1135 1 Mumine Khatun mother of Arslan Shah 2 Zubeida Khatun daughter of Barkiyaruq son of Muhammad I12 Ghiyath ad Dunya wa ad Dinغیاث الدنیا والدین Masud 1135 1152 1 Gouhar Nasab Khatun daughter of Sanjar 2 Zubeida Khatun daughter of Barkiyaruq widow of Toghrul II 3 Mustazhiriyya Khatun daughter of Qawurd 4 Sufra Khatun daughter of Dubais 5 Arab Khatun daughter of Al Muqtafi 6 Ummiha Khatun daughter of Amid ud Deula bin Juhair 7 Abkhaziyya Khatun daughter of David IV of Georgia 8 Sultan Khatun mother of Malik Shah III son of Muhammad I13 Muin ad Dunya wa ad Dinم عين الدنيا و الدين Malik Shah III 1152 1153 son of Mahmud II14 Rukn ad Dunya wa ad Dinرکن الدنیا والدین Muhammad 1153 1159 1 Mahd Rafi Khatun daughter of Kirman Shah 2 Gouhar Khatun daughter of Masud widow of Dawud 3 Kerman Khatun daughter of Al Muqtafi 4 Kirmaniyya Khatun daughter of Tughrul Shah ruler of Kerman son of Mahmud II15 Ghiyath ad Dunya wa ad Dinغیاث الدنیا والدین Suleiman Shah 1159 1160 1 Khwarazmi Khatun daughter of Muhammad Khwarazm Shah 2 Abkhaziyya Khatun daughter of David IV of Georgia widow of Masud son of Muhammad I16 Muizz ad Dunya wa ad Dinمعز الدنیا والدین Arslan Shah 1160 1176 1 Kerman Khatun daughter of Al Muqtafi widow of Muhammad II of Great Seljuq 2 Sitti Fatima Khatun daughter of Ala ad Daulah 3 Kirmaniyya Khatun daughter of Tughrul Shah ruler of Kerman widow of Muhammad 4 Fulana Khatun sister of Izz al Din Hasan Qipchaq son of Toghrul II17 Rukn ad Dunya wa ad Dinرکن الدنیا والدین Toghrul III 1176 11911st reign Inanj Khatun daughter of Sunqur Inanj ruler of Ray widow of Toghrul III son of Arslan Shah18 Muzaffar ad Dunya wa ad Dinمظفر الدنیا والدین Qizil Arslan 1191 Inanj Khatun daughter of Sunqur Inanj ruler of Ray widow of Muhammad ibn Ildeniz son of Ildeniz stepbrother of Arslan Shah Rukn ad Dunya wa ad Dinرکن الدنیا والدین Toghrul III 1192 1194 2nd reign son of Arslan ShahvteGreat Seljuk sultans family treeTuqaq TemurYalig Beg b d Commander in chief of The Oghuz armySeljuk Beg b d The founder of Seljuk dynastyQawam al Dawla 103 r 1012 1028 Buyid Governor in KermanArslan Yabgu b d 1032 Chief of Seljuk dynastyMikail ibn Seljuk b d The mother ofToghrul Chaghri Ibrahim and ArtashYusuf Inal 104 105 Yunus 106 107 Musa Yabgu 108 Inanc Yabgu Abu Kalijar 103 r 1028 1048 Buyid Amir in KirmanKurlu Bey 109 r 1069 1071 Leader of the Seljukvassal state in PalestineQutalmish 110 Father of the founder ofAnatolian Seljuk Sultanate1 Toghrul I r 1037 1063 First sultan ofThe Great Seljuk EmpireChaghri Beg 111 r 1040 1060 Governor of KhorasanIbrahim Inal 110 Artash Inal 108 Artash Abu AliHasan Yabgu 108 110 Yusuf Kara Arslan Abu Bakr Umar 112 Bori and Dawlatshah1 Qawurd Beg 103 Seljuk Shah of Kirman r 1048 1073 Kerman Seljuk SultanateAtsiz ibn Uvaq 109 r 1076 1079 Amir of DimashqAksungur 113 r 1086 1094 Sultan of Aleppo2 Suleiman 111 r 1063 114 Sultan of Great Seljuk3 Alp Arslan r 1063 1072 Sultan of Great SeljukAlp Sungur Yakuti 111 PrinceGovernor of AzerbaijanArslan Argun and Ilyas 111 Other princesKhadija Arslan 111 Princessmarried Abbasid caliph Al Qa im Safiyya Khatun 111 Princess2 Kerman Shah 115 r 1073 1074 3 Hussain Omar Shah 115 r 1074 Tutush 116 117 r 1079 1095 Sultan of Dimashq and r 1094 1095 of AleppoTurkan Khatun 118 The daughter of Tamghach KhanIbrahim of Kara Khanid dynastyand de facto ruler of Mahmud I4 Malik Shah I 119 r 1072 1092 Sultan of Great SeljukArslan Shah r 1066 1083 Governor of KhorasanDogan Shah r 1083 1092 Governor of KhorasanArslan Argun 120 r 1092 1097 Governor of KhorasanTugrul and Bori BarsOther princesAishaPrincessmarried Kara Khanid khanNasr Shams al Mulk 4 Sultan Shah 115 r 1074 1085 5 Turan I Shah 115 r 1085 1097 Dawud and Ahmad 118 119 Other princes5 Mahmud I 118 119 121 r 1092 1094 Sultan of Great Seljuk6 Bark Yaruq 121 r 1092 1104 114 Sultan of Great Seljuk8 Muhammad I Tapar 122 r 1105 1118 Sultan of Great Seljuk9 Ahmad Sanjar 123 r 1118 1153 Last sultan ofThe Great SeljukTugrul and Amir Humar 119 Other princesGawhar Khatun 119 Princessmarried Ghaznavid sultan Mas ud III Sayyeda 119 Princessmarried Abbasid caliph Al Mustazhir6 Iranshah 115 r 1097 1101 7 Arslan I Shah 115 r 1101 1142 Duqaq 117 r 1095 1104 Amir of DimashqMah i Malak 118 119 Princessmarried Abbasid caliph Al Muqtadi7 Malik Shah II 121 r 1104 1105 114 Sultan of Great Seljuk1 Mahmud II 124 125 r 1118 1131 First sultan ofThe Iraqi Seljuks3 Toghrul II 124 126 r 1132 1134 Sultan of Iraqi SeljuksMu mine Khatunwife of Toghrul II until 1134wife of Ildeniz from 1136Ildeniz r 1160 1175 de facto rulerAtabeg of Arslan Shah4 Masud 124 127 r 1134 1152 Sultan of Iraqi Seljuks8 Malik Muhammad I Shah 115 r 1142 1156 9 Toghrul Shah 115 r 1156 1170 Tutush II amp Artash 117 Baktash r 1104 Amir of Dimashq2 Dawud 124 r 1131 1132 Sultan of Iraqi Seljuks5 Malik Shah III 124 r 1152 1153 Sultan of Iraqi Seljuks6 Muhammad II 124 r 1153 1159 Sultan of Iraqi Seljuks7 Suleiman Shah 124 r 1159 1160 Sultan of Iraqi Seljuks8 Arslan Shah 124 128 r 1160 1177 Sultan of Iraqi SeljuksNusrat al Din Muhammad r 1175 1186 de facto ruler of Toghrul IIIAtabeg of Arslan ShahQizil Arslan r 1186 1191 de facto ruler of Toghrul IIIAtabeg of the Eldiguzids10 Bahram 11 Arslan IIShah 115 r 1170 1171 12 Bahram Shah 115 r 1171 1172 13 Bahram amp Arslan IIShah 115 r 1172 1175 14 Bahram Shah 115 r 1175 15 Muhammad II Shah 115 r 1175 16 Arslan II Shah 115 r 1175 1177 17 Turan II Shah 115 r 1177 1183 18 Muhammad II Shah 115 r 1183 1187 Fakhr al Mulk Radwan 117 r 1095 1113 Malik of AleppoAlp Arslan 117 r 1113 1114 Sultan Shah 117 r 1114 1117 9 Toghrul III 124 129 r 1177 1191 1192 1194 Last sultan ofThe Iraqi SeljuksNusrat al Din Abu Bakr r 1191 1210 de facto rulerAtabeg of the EldiguzidsMuzaffar al Din Uzbek r 1210 1225 Atabeg of the EldiguzidsNotes The comparative genealogy of the Great Seljuks with their Khwarazm neighbors and the Anatolian SeljuksTuqaq TemurBegCommander in chief of the Oghuz armyMa munid rulers in Chorasmia r 995 1117 Seljuk BegThe founder of Seljuk dynastyAltun Tash 1017 1032 Arslan YabguChief of Seljuk dynastyMikail ibn SeljukThe mother ofToghrul I Chaghri Ibrahim amp ArtashYusuf Inal 104 105 Yunus 106 107 Musa 130 Inanc YabguHarun r 1032 1035 Ismail Khandan r 1035 1041 Rasul Tagin 131 Qutalmish 132 Father of the founder of Anatolian Seljuk SultanateToghrul BegFirst sultan ofthe Seljuks r 1037 1063 Chaghri BegCo ruler ofthe Seljuk dynastyIbrahim Inal 132 Artash Inal 108 Abu Ali Hasan Yabgu 108 132 Yusuf 133 Kara Arslan Abu Bakr Umar Bori amp DawlatshahShah Malik r 1041 1042 Mansur 131 131 Suleyman I Shah of Rum 134 r 1077 1086 Alp Ilig and Dawlat 131 Suleiman 111 r 1063 114 Alp Arslan r 1063 1072 Kavurt 135 Beg r 1048 1073 Kirman SeljuksSeljuk rule in Khwarazm r 1042 1077 Abu l Qasim Iznik r 1086 1092 Abu l Ghazi Hasan Bey Kayseri Malik Shah I r 1072 1092 Kirman 136 Shah r 1073 1074 Sultan Shah 136 r 1074 1085 Turan I Shah 136 r 1085 1097 Anush Tekin r 1077 1097 Ayisha 134 Khatun r in Malatya Kilij Arslan I r 1092 1107 Kulan Arslan Davud 134 Mahmud I 118 119 121 r 1092 1094 Barkiyaruq 137 r 1092 1104 Arslan Shah I r 1101 1142 Muhammad I Malik Shah r 1142 1156 Iranshah r 1097 1101 Ekinchi r 1097 Toghrul Arslan 134 r 1107 1124 Malik Shah of Rum r 1110 1116 Muhammad I Tapar r 1105 1118 Malik Shah II r 1104 1105 Toghrul Shah 136 r 1156 1170 Bahram Shah r 1170 1175 136 Arslan II Shah r 1170 1177 136 Turan II Shah r 1177 1183 Muhammad II r 1183 1187 Qutbu d DinMuhammad r 1097 1127 Gunduz Alp 138 Rukn ad Din Mas ud I r 1116 1156 Malik Arab 134 r 1116 1127 in AnkaraAhmad Sanjar r 1118 1153 Last Sultan of The Great SeljukMahmud II 124 139 r 1118 1131 First sultan ofThe Iraqi SeljuksToghrul II 124 140 r 1132 1134 Masud 124 141 r 1134 1152 Suleiman Shah 124 r 1159 1160 Qizil Arslan r 1191 de facto ruler of Toghrul IIIAtabeg of the EldiguzidsʿAlaʾ ad Din Atsiz r 1127 1156 Danismendli Grooms Yagibasan Sivas amp ZunNun Kayseri ʿIzz ad DinKilij Arslan II r 1156 1192 Malik Shahin Shah Ankara Cankiri Kastamonu DaulatDawud 124 r 1131 1132 Malik Shah III 124 r 1152 1153 Muhammad II 124 r 1153 1159 Arslan Shah 124 142 r 1160 1177 Toghrul III 124 143 r 1177 1191 1192 1194 Last sultanTerken KhatunTaj ad DinIl Arslan r 1156 1172 Rukn ad Din Suleyman II Shah of Rum r 1196 1204 The mothers ofʿIzz ad DinKay Kawus I andJalal ad Din Kay FaridunGhiyath ad DinKay Khusraw I r 1192 1196 amp r 1205 1211 Dawlat Raziya KhatunMalika Ismetu d DinGevher Nesibe SultanQutbu d DinMalik Shah Sivas Aksaray Arslan Shah Nigde Terken Khatunde facto ruler of MuhammadʿAlaʾ ad Din Takish r 1172 1200 Jalal ad Din Sultan Shah r 1172 1193 Kilij Arslan III r 1204 1205 ʿIzz ad DinKay Kawus I r 1211 1220 Hunad Mah Pari Khatun of Kir Fard of Alanya CastleʿAlaʾ ad DinKay Qubad I r 1220 1237 Malika Adila Ghaziya Khatun of AyyubidsMuhyi d Din Masud Shah Ankara Cankiri Eskisehir Nuru d Din Mahmud Sultan Shah Kayseri ʿAlaʾ ad Din Muhammad r 1200 1220 Jalal ad Din Mangubardi r 1220 1231 Jalal ad DinKay Faridun Koyulhisar Sahip Shamsad Din isfahani 1246 1249 Note 1 Barduliya Khatun Prodoulia Ghiyath ad DinKay Khusraw II r 1237 1246 Gurju Khatun Bagrationi dynasty of Georgians Mu in ad Din Suleyman Note 2 Parwana ʿIzz ad DinKilij Arslan Rukn ad Din and two daughtersMugisu d Din Toghrul Shah Elbistan Muizu d Din Kaysar Shah Malatya Ogedei established the Mongol rulein Khwarezmia r 1229 1241 Karim ad Din Karaman Bey r 1256 1263 KaramanogullariAnatolian Beylik Unknown son 144 ʿIzz ad DinKay Kawus II 1246 1249 Note 3 r 1249 1254 amp r 1254 1262 Note 4 Rukn ad DinKilij Arslan IV r 1249 1254 amp r 1257 1262 amp 1262 1266 Note 5 ʿAlaʾ ad Din Kay Qubad II Note 6 r 1249 1254 Pervaneogullari Anatolian Beylik established inSinop in 1277 Nizamu d Din Argun Shah Amasya Sanjar Shah Eregli Nasiru d Din Barkyaruk Shah Niksar Koyulhisar Mongke appointed Hulagu the son of Tolui as Il khan of the Mongol Empire in 1253Karamanoglu Shams ad Din Mehmed Bey Grand Vizier of ʿAlaʾ ad Din Siyavus ʿAlaʾ ad Din Siyavus 15 May 1277 20 June 1277 Note 7 or Note 8 24 April 1279 30 May 1279 Ghiyath ad Din Mas ud II r 1282 1284 amp r 1284 1296 FaramurzGhiyath ad DinKay Khusraw III r 1266 1282 amp r 1282 1284 Mu in ad Din Mehmed r 1277 1297 Mu hazzabud Din AliKubilai endorsed Abaqa the son of Hulagu as Il Khan in 1270 r 1265 1282 Ahmad Tagudar r 1282 1284 Uc Beylik of Osman establishedʿAlaʾ ad Din Kay Qubad III r 1298 1302 134 Mu hazzabud Din Masud r 1297 1300 TaraqayArghun r 1284 1291 Gaykhatu r 1291 1295 Osman of Ottomans r 1299 1323 4 Ghiyath ad Din Mas ud II r 1303 1308 134 Gazi Chelebi r 1300 1322 Baydu r 1295 Ghazan r 1295 1304 Oljaitu r 1304 1316 The list of important historical events Chaghri Beg defeated Shah Malik ibn Ali in Makran in 1042 and ended Ghaznevid rule in Khwarazm Establishment Alp Arslan defeated Byzantine Emperor Romanos IV Diogenes in the Battle of Malazgirt in 1071 The First Crusade Crusade of 1101 Second Crusade ʿIzz ad Din Kilij Arslan defeated Manuel I Komnenos in the Battle of Myriokephalon Third Crusade Ala ad Din Tekish Khwarazmshah ended The Great Seljuk Empire in Ray Khorasan in 1194 Zenith of Anatolian Seljuks Kayqubad the Great defeated Jalal ad Din Mingburnu in the Battle of Yassicimen in 1230 Chormaqan defeated Mangubarti in the Battle of Indus on August 1231 and ended Khwarazmshahs Babai Revolt Baiju Noyan defeated Kay Khusraw II in the Battle of Kosedag in 1243 and Anatolian Seljuks became a vassal state of Mongol Empire Guyuk designated Kilij Arslan IV the Sultan of Rum in 1248 Triple reign 1249 1254 134 Hulagu captured Alamut in 1256 Anatolian Seljuks were divided into two by a firman of Mongke Khan in 1258 1259 Ilkhanate gained independence from the Mongol Empire in 1295 after the demise of Kublai Khan on February 18 1294 Ottoman State emerged in Sogut Bilecik in 1299 Disestablishment period of The Anatolian Seljuks Ilkhanate disintegrated after 1336Art of the Great Seljuk Empire EditArchitecture and ceramics Edit Further information Seljuk architecture Various art forms were popularized during the Seljuk period as evidenced by the vast amount of surviving artifacts 17 Most Seljuk arts are known to have been produced in what is modern day Iran 145 However the Seljuk sultans also encouraged artists to settle in Anatolia as part of a recolonization and reconstruction process of several cities 146 Many works of Seljuk art continued to be produced following the decline of the empire in the late 12th century 145 In this regard the timeline associated with the production of Seljuk art does not entirely match the political events pertaining to the empire and its eventual fall 17 Nonetheless relatively little art can be correctly dated and ascribed to a Great Seljuq context Much of the material deemed to be Seljuq in world museums in fact belongs to the period A D 1150 1250 after the fall of the Great Seljuq Empire when there seems to have been a sudden burst in artistic production apparently to a great extent unrelated to court patronage 147 Seljuk ceramic tile Among other ceramics the manufacture of polychrome ceramic tiles often used as decor in architecture were popularized during the Seljuk dynasty 148 149 The Seljuks pioneered the use of the Minai technique a painted and enameled polychrome overglaze for ceramics 149 The glazes on the Seljuk ceramics produced often ranged from a brilliant turquoise to a very dark blue 148 The art of Seljuk mosaic tile decorating would continue to dominate the interior of many Anatolian mosques following the period of Seljuk rule 148 The Seljuks also created ceramic house models while other ceramic forms in the Seljuk period included pottery figurines some of them children s toys 150 In the realm of architecture mosques and madrasas were created and embellished during the period of Seljuk control Congregational mosques were either repaired re built or constructed in their entirety The Seljuk sultan also commissioned numerous madrasas to promote the teaching of orthodox Islamic sciences 145 These developments in architectural practice are coherent with the Seljuk dynasty s focus on Islam and the promotion of Muslim orthodoxy the combining of Sufism and Sunnism 145 17 Muqarnas in a mosque One architectural form that flourished during the Seljuk dynasty was the muqarnas 151 Some interpretations maintain that the earliest known examples of muqarnas were constructed during the period of Seljuk hegemony though it also remains possible that they were being developed at the same time in North Africa 151 The layering of multiple embellished cells with divergent profiles in muqarnas creates a dome that has a seemingly insubstantial interior 151 The play of light on the surface enhances this visual effect 151 Art historian Oleg Grabar argues that the effect of muqarnas domes embodies Qur anic water symbolism 151 Examples of muqarnas also appear in the niches of mosques built during the Seljuk empire 152 Overall the architecture attributed to the Seljuk period is characterized by elaborate decoration much like the other arts produced under Seljuk rule 153 Book arts Edit Both secular and non secular manuscripts were produced during the Seljuk period 154 155 These pieces are now limited in availability considering their ultimate susceptibility to damage overtime 156 But those manuscripts that have survived over the centuries provide insight into the Seljuk s involvement in the arts of the book 156 Calligraphers and illuminators were responsible for the creation of these manuscripts though sometimes calligraphers mastered the art of both writing and illustration 157 By the end of the 10th century both illuminators and calligraphers were beginning to employ various colors styles and writing techniques in the realm of the book arts 157 The Qur an s produced during the period of Seljuk rule evidence developments in calligraphy and other changes in how the holy text was divided 157 Uniquely calligraphers during this period frequently combined several scripts on one page of the Qur an such as Kufic and New Style 157 In addition to these changes in the text the dawn of the Seljuk empire coincided with a newfound increase in the popularity of paper as a replacement for parchment in the Islamic world 158 The use of durable paper increased the production of compact single volume Qur an s whereas parchment codexes often contained multiple volumes of Qur anic text 159 Despite this development parchment would remain popular for the production of some Qur an s and multi volume pieces continued to be produced 158 157 Illuminated borders continued to distinguish the Qur ans produced during the Seljuk period and relative consistency was maintained with regard to their structure 159 One example of a manuscript created during Seljuk rule is a thirty volume juz Qur an created c 1050 produced by only one calligrapher and illuminator Freer Gallery of Art District of Columbia F2001 16a b 157 As paper had just been introduced to the Islamic world this piece is an early Islamic paper manuscript 158 This Qur an is bound in brown leather dyed in pink decorated with gold and offers an intricate frontispiece 157 These elements imply the care that went into the production of this text and indications of frequent usage confirm that it was appreciated 157 It is primarily written in the vertical New Style Arabic script a sharp vertical script 158 The dominant use of New Style in this folio also referred to as new Abbasid Script attests to the shift from the geometric Kufic script to a more legible calligraphic style which occurred in the 10th century 158 Scattered remnants of Kufic used primarily to indicate volume and page number also appear in the text 158 The verticality of the paper in this manuscript speaks to the historic shift away from the horizontal use of paper in many Qur ans also a 10th century development 158 A folio from Qarmathian Qur an c 1180 Another example of a religious manuscript produced closer to the end of the period of Seljuk Rule is the Qarmathian Qur an dispersed folio Arthur M Stackler Gallery of Art District of Columbia S1986 65a b 157 This manuscript s folios are illuminated with a gold border and thin spiraled illustration featuring vegetal motifs 157 Despite the generous illumination the four lines of Qur anic text on the folio are exceptionally legible 157 Created between the years 1170 1200 this particular folio demonstrates the evolution of New Style as both vocalized cursive and diacritical dots appear in this later version of the script 157 Only during the 13th century would New Style be replaced by the curvier proportional scripts for regular use 158 A final example of a Seljuk Qur an that has entered into scholarship is a manuscript studied in depth by the late art historian Richard Ettinghausen 155 This piece was written in 1164 by Mahmud Ibn Al Husayn and contains the entirety of the Qur an University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology Philadelphia NEP27 155 Unlike the two Seljuk Qur ans discussed prior this manuscript primarily contains Naskh script another early Arabic script that replaced Kufic 160 However some Kufic calligraphy is embedded in the chapter headings 155 This aspect speaks to how the inclusion of Kufic in Qur ans became more of a decorative element overtime often included in headings as opposed to the main body of text 158 157 The manuscript is large with seventeen lines of text per two hundred and fifteen sheets of paper 155 Though not all of the Qur an is illuminated both the beginning and the end boast elaborate illustration with blue gold and white hues 155 Ettinghausen describes the subsequent visual effect as brilliant 155 The inscriptions feature detailed rosettes vines medallions and arabesques some exclusively as decoration and others to indicate the end of particular lines of Qur anic text 155 Manuscript production during the Seljuk period was not limited to religious texts Beyond these religious manuscripts scientific literary and historical pieces were created 153 One example of a secular manuscript is the Nusrat al fatrah a historiographical and literary account of the Seljuk period written in 1200 by Imad al Din Al Furqan Islamic Heritage Foundation London 161 Meanwhile the scientific manuscripts produced during the Seljuk period oftentimes pertained to geography physics mechanics mathematics and astronomy 153 The former Seljuk city of Isfahan not only boasted twelve libraries that contained a total of twelve thousand volumes but also had an observatory where scholars could record their astrological findings 153 154 Secular manuscripts from the Seljuk empire bear illuminations that often relate to the alignment of planets and the zodiac a couple examples of common themes 159 The angel Metatron from the Daqa iq al Haqa iq an occult manuscript c 1272 73 Whether secular or non secular Seljuk illuminated manuscripts had enough influence as to inspire other relevant art forms such as brass or bronze metal objects 157 For example the large Qarmathian Qur an influenced some of the inscriptions on Seljuk ceramic wares 157 Even mirrors candlesticks coins and jugs manufactured in Anatolia during the Seljuk period would often bear occult astrological images inspired by manuscripts 154 Occult knowledge persisted in manuscripts produced after the decline in the Seljuk s political power in the late 12th century as the Seljuk sultanate s influence on the book arts continued in Anatolia 154 Historian Andrew Peacock demonstrates an interest in the Seljuks of Anatolia s focus on occult themes and its manifestation in the book arts 154 Peacock describes this finding as something that challenges the reigning view that the Seljuks were exclusively the pious defenders of Islam when it came to larger systems of belief 154 Some of the occult sciences that the Seljuks took special interest in included geomancy astrology alchemy A relevant occult manuscript from a period of Seljuk influence is the Dustur al Munajjimin otherwise known as the Rules of Astrologers while another is the Daqa iq al Haqa iq or the Fine Points of Eternal Truths 154 The latter text captures an interest in magic and spells with a particular focus on calling upon spiritual beings such as angels through ritualistic acts Bibliotheque nationale de France Paris Persan 174 154 The text was written by a man who wrote under a pen name Nasiri 154 Interestingly Nasiri s Daqa iq al Haqa iq challenges prevailing Islamic understandings of God while encouraging piety and invoking both Sufi terms and themes 154 For example while incorporating a Sufi poem the occult text speaks of supernatural bodies and disputes what Islam considers to be the accepted number of names for God 154 Textiles Edit Similar to architecture Seljuk fabrics depict inscriptions and decorative forms These fabrics represent what could be called a Sasanian renaissance marking a new dominance of Persian culture Textiles along with literary works are evidence of this 162 Contrast is the main feature of different techniques and fabric qualities Stories of the period are told through a variety of inscriptions At the same time higher contrasts generate a more abstract approach to the ornaments and figures within the fabric patterns Seljuk fabrics that were excavated in 1931 are distinguished by the representation of nature by minimal ornamental details and by the combination of colorful linens giving an interchangeable color effect to the fabric Many realistic natural elements characterize the composition of the fabrics such as animals and plants forming patterns consisting of arabesque elements 162 Examples of Seljuk art Edit Bowl with an Enthronement Scene 12th 13th century Brooklyn Museum Seljuk pottery head Seljuk era art Ewer from Herat Afghanistan dated 1180 1210CE Brass worked in repousse and inlaid with silver and bitumen British Museum Section of a Water Jug Habb 12th 13th century Brooklyn Museum Toghrol Tower a 12th century monument south of Tehran in Iran commemorating Tughril Beg The Kharaghan twin towers built in 1053 in Iran is the burial of Seljuk princes See also EditAnatolian Seljuks family tree Danishmend Ghaznavid Empire History of the Turks List of battles involving the Seljuk Empire List of Turkic dynasties and countries Nizari Seljuk conflicts Rahat al sudur Seljuk architecture Seljuk dynasty Timeline of the Seljuk Sultanate of Rum Timeline of the Turkic peoples 500 1300 Turkic migrationNotes Edit The lighter colour in the top right represents its vassal the Kara Khanid Khanate In order to distinguish from the Anatolian branch of the Seljuk dynasty the Sultanate of Rum 12 13 Here Iraq is meant in its medieval sense which incorporated western Iran historic Iraq al Ajam or Persian Iraq also known as Jibal as well as Iraq al Arab Arab Iraq roughly the central and southern parts of present day IraqFootnotes Edit Grand Vizier Sahip Shams ad Din isfahani ruled the country on behalf of ʿIzz ad Din Kay Kawus II between 1246 and 1249 Grand Vizier Parwana Mu in al Din Suleyman ruled the country on behalf of Ghiyath ad Din Kay Khusraw III between 1266 and 2 August 1277 1 Rabi al awwal 676 Between 1246 and 1249 ʿIzz ad Din Kay Kawus II reigned alone ʿIzz ad Din Kay Kawus II was defeated on October 14 1256 in Sultanhani Sultan Han Aksaray and he acceded to the throne on May 1 1257 again after the departure of Baiju Noyan from Anatolia Between 1262 and 1266 Rukn ad Din Kilij Arslan IV reigned alone Between 1249 and 1254 triple reign of three brothers According to Ibn Bibi el Evamiru l ʿAlaʾiyye p 727 10 Dhu al Hijjah 675 17 Muharram 676 According to Yazicioglu Ali Tevarih i Al i Selcuk p 62 10 Dhu al Hijjah 677 17 Muharram 678 References Edit a b Savory R M ed 1976 Introduction to Islamic Civilisation Cambridge University Press p 82 ISBN 978 0 521 20777 5 Black Edwin 2004 Banking on Baghdad Inside Iraq s 7 000 year History of War Profit and Conflict John Wiley and Sons p 38 ISBN 978 0 471 67186 2 a b c C E Bosworth Turkish Expansion towards the west in UNESCO History of Humanity Volume IV titled From the Seventh to the Sixteenth Century UNESCO Publishing Routledge p 391 While the Arabic language retained its primacy in such spheres as law theology and science the culture of the Seljuk court and secular literature within the sultanate became largely Persianized this is seen in the early adoption of Persian epic names by the Seljuk rulers Qubad Kay Khusraw and so on and in the use of Persian as a literary language Turkish must have been essentially a vehicle for everyday speech at this time Stokes 2008 p 615 Concise Encyclopedia of Languages of the World Ed Keith Brown Sarah Ogilvie Elsevier Ltd 2009 1110 Oghuz Turkic is first represented by Old Anatolian Turkish which was a subordinate written medium until the end of the Seljuk rule Holt Peter M 1984 Some Observations on the Abbasid Caliphate of Cairo Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies University of London 47 3 501 507 doi 10 1017 s0041977x00113710 S2CID 161092185 Grousset Rene The Empire of the Steppes New Brunswick Rutgers University Press 1988 167 Grousset Rene 1988 The Empire of the Steppes New Brunswick Rutgers University Press pp 159 161 ISBN 978 0 8135 0627 2 In 1194 Togrul III would succumb to the onslaught of the Khwarizmian Turks who were destined at last to succeed the Seljuks to the empire of the Middle East Turchin Peter Adams Jonathan M Hall Thomas D December 2006 East West Orientation of Historical Empires Journal of World Systems Research 12 2 223 ISSN 1076 156X Retrieved 13 September 2016 Rein Taagepera September 1997 Expansion and Contraction Patterns of Large Polities Context for Russia International Studies Quarterly 41 3 496 doi 10 1111 0020 8833 00053 JSTOR 2600793 Peacock 2015 Christian Lange Songul Mecit eds Seljuqs Politics Society and Culture Edinburgh University Press 2012 1 328 P M Holt Ann K S Lambton Bernard Lewis The Cambridge History of Islam Volume IA The Central Islamic Lands from Pre Islamic Times to the First World War Cambridge University Press 1977 151 231 234 Mecit 2014 p 128 Peacock amp Yildiz 2013 p 6 Aḥmad of Niǧde s al Walad al Shafiq and the Seljuk Past A C S Peacock Anatolian Studies Vol 54 2004 97 With the growth of Seljuk power in Rum a more highly developed Muslim cultural life based on the Persianate culture of the Seljuk court was able to take root in Anatolia Meisami Julie Scott Persian Historiography to the End of the Twelfth Century Edinburgh University Press 1999 143 Nizam al Mulk also attempted to organise the Saljuq administration according to the Persianate Ghaznavid model k Encyclopaedia Iranica Sahrbanu Online Edition here one might bear in mind that non Persian dynasties such as the Ghaznavids Saljuqs and Ilkhanids were rapidly to adopt the Persian language and have their origins traced back to the ancient kings of Persia rather than to Turkish heroes or Muslim saints Meri Josef W 2006 Medieval Islamic Civilization An Encyclopedia Psychology Press p 399 ISBN 978 0 415 96690 0 Isfahan has served as the political and cultural center of the Persianate world during the reign of the Seljuks 1038 1194 and that of the Safavids 1501 1722 Mandelbaum Michael 1994 Central Asia and the World Kazakhstan Uzbekistan Tajikistan Kyrgyzstan and Turkmenistan Council on Foreign Relations p 79 ISBN 978 0 87609 167 8 Persianate zone The rise of Persianized Turks to administrative control The Turko Persian tradition developed during the Seljuk period 1040 1118 In the Persianate zone Turkophones ruled and Iranians administered Jonathan Dewald Europe 1450 to 1789 Encyclopedia of the Early Modern World Charles Scribner s Sons 2004 p 24 Turcoman armies coming from the East had driven the Byzantines out of much of Asia Minor and established the Persianized sultanate of the Seljuks Grousset Rene The Empire of the Steppes Rutgers University Press 1991 161 164 renewed the Seljuk attempt to found a great Turko Persian empire in eastern Iran It is to be noted that the Seljuks those Turkomans who became sultans of Persia did not Turkify Persia no doubt because they did not wish to do so On the contrary it was they who voluntarily became Persians and who in the manner of the great old Sassanid kings strove to protect the Iranian populations from the plundering of Ghuzz bands and save Iranian culture from the Turkoman menace Shaw Wendy 12 June 2003 Possessors and Possessed Museums Archaeology and the Visualization of History in the Late Ottoman Empire University of California Press p 5 ISBN 978 0 520 92856 5 In the tenth century these and other nomadic tribes often collectively referred to as Turkomans migrated out of Central Asia and into Iran Turkish tribes initially served as mercenary soldiers for local rulers but soon set up their own kingdoms in Iran some of which grew into Empires most notably the Great Seljuk Empire In the meantime many Turkic rulers and tribespeople eventually converted to Islam Gencer A Yunus 2017 Thomas David Chesworth John A eds Christian Muslim Relations A Bibliographical History Volume 10 Ottoman and Safavid Empires 1600 1700 Brill ISBN 978 9004345652 Turkish music completed its transformation into completely makam based music in the early 11th century in the period of the Turko Persian Seljuk Empire Calmard Jean 22 May 2003 Newman Andrew J ed Society and Culture in the Early Modern Middle East Studies on Iran in the Safavid Period BRILL p 318 ISBN 978 90 47 40171 1 A particularly interesting text which reveals the socio religious mood of the Turco Persian world from Seljuk times is the Abu Muslim romance Pfeifer Helen 2022 Empire of Salons Conquest and Community in Early Modern Ottoman Lands Princeton University Press p 46 ISBN 9780691224954 The cultural influence of the Turco Persian Seljuks long outlasted their political control of Anatolia and the Turkish principalities that succeeded them starting in the late thirteenth cetury continued to look to that tradition for models of refinement and sociability Khazonov Anatoly M April 9 2015 Pastoral nomadic migrations and conquests In Kedar Benjamin Z Wiesner Hanks Merry E eds The Cambridge World History Volume 5 Cambridge University Press p 373 ISBN 978 0521190749 The Seljuk Empire was another Turco Iranian state and its creation was unexpected even by the Seljuks themselves Partridge Christopher July 3 2018 High Culture Drugs Mysticism and the Pursuit of Transcendence in the Modern World Oxford University Press p 96 ISBN 978 0190459116 Under his leadership the Nezaris mounted a decentralized revolutionary effort against the militarily superior Turko Persian Saljuq empire Neumann Iver B Wigen Einar June 2018 The Steppe Tradition in International Relations Cambridge University Press p 135 ISBN 9781108355308 The Seljuq Empire is nevertheless the foremost example of a Turko Persian Islamic empire Hathaway Jane October 2003 A Tale of Two Factions Myth Memory and Identity in Ottoman Egypt and Yemen State University of New York Press p 98 ISBN 9780791458846 Farther east medieval Turco Iranian military patronage states such as those of the Ghaznavids Seljuks Timurids and early Ottomans appear to have been more directly affected by the banner traditions of the nomadic Turkic and Mongol populations of the Central Asian steppes who in turn were influenced by the traditions of the various empires and kingdoms that ruled China Japan and Korea Cupane Carolina Kronung Bettina 27 Sep 2016 Fictional Storytelling in the Medieval Eastern Mediterranean and Beyond BRILL p 532 ISBN 978 90 04 30772 8 Seljuk s medieval Turko Persian dynasty Jackson P 2002 Review The History of the Seljuq Turkmens The History of the Seljuq Turkmens Journal of Islamic Studies Oxford Centre for Islamic Studies 13 1 75 76 doi 10 1093 jis 13 1 75 Bosworth C E 2001 0Notes on Some Turkish Names in Abu l Fadl Bayhaqi s Tarikh i Mas udi Oriens Vol 36 2001 2001 pp 299 313 Dani A H Masson V M Eds Asimova M S Eds Litvinsky B A Eds Boaworth C E Eds 1999 History of Civilizations of Central Asia Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Pvt Ltd Hancock I 2006 On Romani origins and identity The Romani Archives and Documentation Center The University of Texas at Austin Asimov M S Bosworth C E eds 1998 History of Civilizations of Central Asia Vol IV The Age of Achievement AD 750 to the End of the Fifteenth Century Part One The Historical Social and Economic Setting Multiple History Series Paris UNESCO Publishing Dani A H Masson V M Eds Asimova M S Eds Litvinsky B A Eds Boaworth C E Eds 1999 History of Civilizations of Central Asia Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Pvt Ltd Lars Johanson Eva Agnes Csato Johanson 2015 The Turkic Languages p 25 The name Seljuk is a political rather than ethnic name It derives from Selciik born Toqaq Temir Yally a war lord sil basi from the Qiniq tribal grouping of the Oghuz Seljuk in the rough and tumble of internal Oghuz politics fled to Jand c 985 after falling out with his overlord a href Template Cite book html title Template Cite book cite book a CS1 maint uses authors parameter link Peacock 2015 p 32 Later sources also play down the role of a third Seljuk Musa Yabghu who certainly occupied an equal position to Tughril and Chaghri and possibly even a senior one a b c d Bloom Jonathan M BloomJonathan M Blair Sheila S BlairSheila S 2009 Saljuq The Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art and Architecture Oxford University Press doi 10 1093 acref 9780195309911 001 0001 ISBN 978 0 19 530991 1 retrieved 2023 01 01 a b Peacock 2015 p 25 Peacock 2015 p 26 Frye 1975 p 159 Peacock 2015 p 27 Peacock 2015 pp 32 35 Paul Jurgen 2008 The Role of Khwarazm in Seljuq Central Asian Politics Victories and Defeats Two Case Studies Eurasian Studies VII Martin Luther Universitat Halle Wittemberg pp 1 17 Peacock 2015 p 33 Peacock 2010b p 92 93 Basan 2010 p 61 62 Basan 2010 p 62 Friedman John Block 2017 Routledge Revivals Trade Travel and Exploration in the Middle Ages 2000 An Encyclopedia Taylor amp Francis p 546 ISBN 978 1 351 66132 4 a b Basan 2010 p 66 Paul A Blaum 2005 Diplomacy gone to seed a history of Byzantine foreign relations A D 1047 57 International Journal of Kurdish Studies Online version Archived 2012 07 08 at archive today a b c Flood Finbarr Barry 2017 A Turk in the Dukhang Comparative Perspectives on Elite Dress in Medieval Ladakh and the Caucasus Interaction in the Himalayas and Central Asia Austrian Academy of Science Press 232 Princeton University Dhu l Qa da 463 August 1071 The Battle of Malazkirt Manzikert Retrieved 2007 09 08 Battle of Partskhisi Historical Dictionary of Georgia ed Alexander Mikaberidze Rowman amp Littlefield 2015 524 Georgian Saljuk Wars 11th 13th Centuries Alexander Mikaberidze Conflict and Conquest in the Islamic World A Historical Encyclopedia Vol I ed Alexander Mikaberidze ABC CLIO 2011 334 Korobeinikov 2015 p 71 Peacock 2015 p 68 Grousset Rene 1970 The empire of the steppes a history of central Asia in English and French Internet Archive New Brunswick N J Rutgers University Press ISBN 978 0 8135 0627 2 a b Tor Deborah G 2000 Sanjar Aḥmad b Maleksah Encyclopaedia Iranica Zarncke Friedrich 1879 Der Priester Johannes in German S Hirzel Liao Shih the official history of the Khitan Dynasty cited by Wittfogel Karl A and Feng Chia Sheng 1949 History of Chinese Society Liao 907 1125 American Philosophical Society Philadelphia p 639 OCLC 9811810 a b Sinor Denis 1990 The Cambridge History of Early Inner Asia Cambridge Cambridge University Press p 368 ISBN 0 521 24304 1 C Edmond Bosworth The Political and Dynastic History of the Iranian World A D 1000 1217 Camb Hist Iran V 1968 pp 94 185 Saunders John Joseph 1971 The History of the Mongol Conquests University of Pennsylvania Press p 60 The Desolation of Merv Tertius Chandler amp Gerald Fox 3000 Years of Urban Growth pp 232 236 Mikaberidze Alexander Miraculous Victory Battle of Didgori 1121 Armchair General Retrieved 2012 10 20 Anatol Khazanov Nomads in the Sedentary World Retrieved 2012 10 20 Biran Michel The Empire of the Qara Khitai in Eurasian History Cambridge University Press 2005 44 Hodgson Marshall G S The Venture of Islam Conscience and History in a World Civilization University of Chicago Press 1974 ISBN 0 226 47693 6 p 260 Bosworth Clifford Edmund 1996 The New Islamic Dynasties A Chronological and Genealogical Manual Columbia University Press pp 199 200 ISBN 978 0 231 10714 3 pp 199 200 Eldiguizds or Ildegizds The Elgiguzids or Ildegizds were a Turkish Atabeg dynasty who controlled most of Azerbaijan apart from the region of Maragha held by another Atabeg line the Ahamadilis Arran and northern Jibal during the second half the twelfth century when the Great Seljuq Sultane of Western Persia and Iraq was in full decay and unable to prevent the growth of virtually independent powers in the province pp 199 200 Eldiguz Arabic Persian sources write y l d k z was originally a Qipchaq military slave pp199 200 The historical significance of these Atabegs thus lies in their firm control over most of north western Persia during the later Seljuq periodand also their role in Transcaucasia as champions of Islamagainst the resurgent Bagtarid Kings pp 199 In their last phase the Eldiguzids were once more local rulers in Azerbaijan and eastern Transcaucasia hard pressed by the aggressive Georgians and they did not survive the troubled decades of the thirteenth century Encyclopaedia Iranica K A Luther Atabakan e Adarbayjan Sources such as Ḥosayni s Aḵbar p 181 and passim make it clear that members of the family always considered Naḵǰavan their home base Houtsma M T E J Brill s First Encyclopaedia of Islam 1913 1936 BRILL 1987 ISBN 90 04 08265 4 p 1053 a b c d Wink Andre Al Hind the Making of the Indo Islamic World Brill Academic Publishers Jan 1 1996 ISBN 90 04 09249 8 pg 9 10 کوپریلی فؤاد ۱۳۷۹ پرچم ۱ تاریخچه پرچم در جهان اسلام در حداد عادل غلامعلی دانشنامه جهان اسلام ۵ تهران بنیاد دایرةالمعارف اسلامی بایگانی شده از اصلی در ۱ آوریل ۲۰۲۰ Peacock 2015 pp 6 8 a b Herzig amp Stewart 2014 p 3 Peacock 2015 p 134 Peacock 2015 p 135 Encyclopaedia Iranica Sahrbanu Online Edition here one might bear in mind that non Persian dynasties such as the Ghaznavids Saljuqs and Ilkhanids were rapidly to adopt the Persian language and have their origins traced back to the ancient kings of Persia rather than to Turkish heroes or Muslim saints Josef W Meri Medieval Islamic Civilization An Encyclopedia Routledge 2005 p 399 Michael Mandelbaum Central Asia and the World Council on Foreign Relations May 1994 p 79 Jonathan Dewald Europe 1450 to 1789 Encyclopedia of the Early Modern World Charles Scribner s Sons 2004 p 24 Turcoman armies coming from the East had driven the Byzantines out of much of Asia Minor and established the Persianized sultanate of the Seljuks C E Bosworth Turkmen Expansion towards the west in UNESCO History of Humanity Volume IV titled From the Seventh to the Sixteenth Century UNESCO Publishing Routledge p 391 While the Arabic language retained its primacy in such spheres as law theology and science the culture of the Seljuk court and secular literature within the sultanate became largely Persianized this is seen in the early adoption of Persian epic names by the Seljuk rulers Qubad Kay Khusraw and so on and in the use of Persian as a literary language Turkmen must have been essentially a vehicle for everyday speech at this time The process of Persianization accelerated in the thirteenth century with the presence in Konya of two of the most distinguished refugees fleeing before the Mongols Baha al Din Walad and his son Mawlana Jalal al Din Rumi whose Mathnawi composed in Konya constitutes one of the crowning glories of classical Persian literature Mehmed Fuad Koprulu Early Mystics in Turkish Literature Translated by Gary Leiser and Robert Dankoff Routledge 2006 p 149 If we wish to sketch in broad outline the civilization created by the Seljuks of Anatolia we must recognize that the local i e non Muslim element was fairly insignificant compared to the Turkish and Arab Persian elements and that the Persian element was paramount The Seljuk rulers to be sure who were in contact with not only Muslim Persian civilization but also with the Arab civilizations in al jazlra and Syria indeed with all Muslim peoples as far as India also had connections with various Byzantine courts Some of these rulers like the great Ala al Dln Kai Qubad I himself who married Byzantine princesses and thus strengthened relations with their neighbors to the west lived for many years in Byzantium and became very familiar with the customs and ceremonial at the Byzantine court Still this close contact with the ancient Greco Roman and Christian traditions only resulted in their adoption of a policy of tolerance toward art aesthetic life painting music independent thought in short toward those things that were frowned upon by the narrow and piously ascetic views of their subjects The contact of the common people with the Greeks and Armenians had basically the same result Before coming to Anatolia the Turkmens had been in contact with many nations and had long shown their ability to synthesize the artistic elements that they had adopted from these nations When they settled in Anatolia they encountered peoples with whom they had not yet been in contact and immediately established relations with them as well Ala al Din Kai Qubad I established ties with the Genoese and especially the Venetians at the ports of Sinop and Antalya which belonged to him and granted them commercial and legal concessions Meanwhile the Mongol invasion which caused a great number of scholars and artisans to flee from Turkmenistan Iran and Khwarazm and settle within the Empire of the Seljuks of Anatolia resulted in a reinforcing of Persian influence on the Anatolian Turks Indeed despite all claims to the contrary there is no question that Persian influence was paramount among the Seljuks of Anatolia This is clearly revealed by the fact that the sultans who ascended the throne after Ghiyath al Din Kai Khusraw I assumed titles taken from ancient Persian mythology like Kai Khusraw Kai Ka us and Kai Qubad and that Ala al Din Kai Qubad I had some passages from the Shahname inscribed on the walls of Konya and Sivas When we take into consideration domestic life in the Konya courts and the sincerity of the favor and attachment of the rulers to Persian poets and Persian literature then this fact i e the importance of Persian influence is undeniable With regard to the private lives of the rulers their amusements and palace ceremonial the most definite influence was also that of Iran mixed with the early Turkish traditions and not that of Byzantium Stephen P Blake Shahjahanabad The Sovereign City in Mughal India 1639 1739 Cambridge University Press 1991 pg 123 For the Seljuks and Il Khanids in Iran it was the rulers rather than the conquered who were Persianized and Islamicized Encyclopaedia Iranica Sahrbanu Online Edition here one might bear in mind that non Persian dynasties such as the Ghaznavids Saljuqs and Ilkhanids were rapidly to adopt the Persian language and have their origins traced back to the ancient kings of Persia rather than to Turkish heroes or Muslim saints O Ozgundenli Persian Manuscripts in Ottoman and Modern Turkish Libraries Archived 2012 01 22 at the Wayback Machine Encyclopaedia Iranica Online Edition M Ravandi The Seljuq court at Konya and the Persianisation of Anatolian Cities in Mesogeios Mediterranean Studies vol 25 6 2005 pp 157 69 F Daftary Sectarian and National Movements in Iran Khorasan and Trasoxania during Umayyad and Early Abbasid Times in History of Civilizations of Central Asia Vol 4 pt 1 edited by M S Asimov and C E Bosworth UNESCO Publishing Institute of Ismaili Studies Not only did the inhabitants of Khurasan not succumb to the language of the nomadic invaders but they imposed their own tongue on them The region could even assimilate the Turkic Ghaznavids and Seljuks eleventh and twelfth centuries the Timurids fourteenth fifteenth centuries and the Qajars nineteenth twentieth centuries The Turko Persian tradition features Persian culture patronized by Turkic rulers See Daniel Pipes The Event of Our Era Former Soviet Muslim Republics Change the Middle East in Michael Mandelbaum Central Asia and the World Kazakhstan Uzbekistan Tajikistan Kyrgyzstan Turkemenistan and the World Council on Foreign Relations p 79 Exact statement In Short the Turko Persian tradition featured Persian culture patronized by Turcophone rulers Grousset Rene The Empire of the Steppes Rutgers University Press 1991 574 Bingham Woodbridge Hilary Conroy and Frank William Ikle History of Asia Vol 1 Allyn and Bacon 1964 98 Green 2019 p 16 Tor 2012 p 149 Spuler 2014 p 349 El Azhari 2021 p 286 An Introduction to the History of the Turkic Peoples Peter B Golden Otto Harrasowitz 1992 pg 386 Turkic penetration probably began in the Hunnic era and its aftermath Steady pressure from Turkic nomads was typical of the Khazar era although there are no unambiguous references to permanent settlements These most certainly occurred with the arrival of the Oguz in the 11th century The Turkicization of much of Azarbayjan according to Soviet scholars was completed largely during the Ilxanid period if not by late Seljuk times Sumer placing a slightly different emphasis on the data more correct in my view posts three periods which Turkicization took place Seljuk Mongol and Post Mongol Qara Qoyunlu Aq Qoyunlu and Safavid In the first two Oguz Turkic tribes advanced or were driven to the western frontiers Anatolia and Northern Azarbaijan Arran the Mugan steppe In the last period the Turkic elements in Iran derived from Oguz with lesser admixture of Uygur Qipchaq Qaluq and other Turks brought to Iran during the Chinggisid era as well as Turkicized Mongols were joined now by Anatolian Turks migrating back to Iran This marked the final stage of Turkicization Although there is some evidence for the presence of Qipchaqs among the Turkic tribes coming to this region there is little doubt that the critical mass which brought about this linguistic shift was provided by the same Oguz Turkmen tribes that had come to Anatolia The Azeris of today are an overwhelmingly sedentary detribalized people Anthropologically they are little distinguished from the Iranian neighbors John Perry We should distinguish two complementary ways in which the advent of the Turks affected the language map of Iran First since the Turkish speaking rulers of most Iranian polities from the Ghaznavids and Seljuks onward were already Iranized and patronized Persian literature in their domains the expansion of Turk ruled empires served to expand the territorial domain of written Persian into the conquered areas notably Anatolia and Central and South Asia Secondly the influx of massive Turkish speaking populations culminating with the rank and file of the Mongol armies and their settlement in large areas of Iran particularly in Azerbaijan and the northwest progressively turkicized local speakers of Persian Kurdish and other Iranian languages John Perry The Historical Role of Turkish in Relation to Persian of Iran Iran amp the Caucasus Vol 5 2001 pp 193 200 According to C E Bosworth The eastern Caucasus came under Saljuq control in the middle years of the 5th 11th century and in c 468 1075 56 Sultan Alp Arslan sent his slave commander ʿEmad al din Savtigin as governor of Azerbaijan and Arran displacing the last Shaddadids From this period begins the increasing Turkicization of Arran under the Saljuqs and then under the line of Eldiguzid or Ildenizid Atabegs who had to defend eastern Transcaucasia against the attacks of the resurgent Georgian kings The influx of Oghuz and other Turkmens was accentuated by the Mongol invasions Bardaʿa had never revived fully after the Rus sacking and is little mentioned in the sources C E Bsowrth Arran in Encyclopaedia Iranica According to Fridrik Thordarson Iranian influence on Caucasian languages There is general agreement that Iranian languages predominated in Azerbaijan from the 1st millennium b c until the advent of the Turks in a d the 11th century see Menges pp 41 42 Camb Hist Iran IV pp 226 228 and VI pp 950 952 The process of Turkicization was essentially complete by the beginning of the 16th century and today Iranian languages are spoken in only a few scattered settlements in the area Peacock 2015 p 185 a b Peacock 2015 p 182 Canby et al 2016 p 30 a b Peacock 2015 p 183 Peacock 2015 pp 163 164 Gardet 1970 p 570 Bulliet 1994 p 223 Lambton 1968 p 215 216 a b Bulliet 1994 p 147 Hillenbrand 1994 p 174 Peacock 2015 p a b Lambton 1968 p 223 a b Van Renterghem 2015 p 80 81 a b c Kuru 2019 p 101 Arjomand 1999 p 269 Safi 2006 p xxx Minorsky 1953 p 65 Bosworth 1968 p 85 Christie 2014 p 36 Mirbabaev 1992 p 37 Berkey 2003 p 217 Safi 2006 p 67 Tor 2011 p 54 Metropolitan Museum of Art metmuseum org HEIDEMANN STEFAN DE LAPEROUSE JEAN FRANCOIS PARRY VICKI 2014 The Large Audience Life Sized Stucco Figures of Royal Princes from the Seljuq Period Muqarnas 31 35 71 doi 10 1163 22118993 00311P03 ISSN 0732 2992 JSTOR 44657297 Peacock Andrew C S 2010b Early Seljuq History A New Interpretation pp 83 84 Peacock 2015 p 218 Durand Guedy David 2015 Goodbye to the Turkmen The Military Role of Nomads in Iran after the Saljuq Conquest Nomadic Military Power Iran and Adjacent Areas in the Islamic Period in K Franz and W Holzwarth eds Wiesbaden pp 110 113 al Jawzi Sibt 1968 Sevim Ali ed Mir at al Zaman fi Ta rikh al A yan al oawadith al kha a bi ta rikh al Salajiqa bayna al sanawat 1056 1086 Ankara p 5 Peacock 2015 pp 224 225 Peacock 2015 p 225 Lambton Anne 1988 Continuity and Change in Medieval Persia Aspects of Administrative Economic and Social History Albany NY Bibliotheca Persica pp 240 241 Andre Wink Al Hind The Making of the Indo Islamic World Vol 2 16 a b c Ozaydin Abdulkerim 2002 KAVURD BEY PDF TDV Encyclopedia of Islam Vol 25 Kasti lya Ki le in Turkish Istanbul Turkiye Diyanet Foundation Centre for Islamic Studies pp 73 74 ISBN 978 975 389 403 6 a b Zahiruddin i Nisaburi Selcuḳname Muhammed Ramazani Publications Tahran 1332 p 10 a b Residuddin Fazlullah i Hemedani Camiʿu t tevariḫ Ahmed Ates Publications Ankara 1960 vol II 5 p 5 Cite error The named reference Residuddin was defined multiple times with different content see the help page a b Ravendi Muhammed b Ali Rahatu s sudur Ates Publications vol I p 85 Cite error The named reference Ravendi was defined multiple times with different content see the help page a b Mustevfi Tariḫ i Guzide Nevai Publications p 426 a b c d e Osman Gazi Ozgudenli 2016 MUSA YABGU TDV Encyclopedia of Islam Supplement 2 Kafur Ebu l Misk Zureyk Kostantin in Turkish Istanbul Turkiye Diyanet Foundation Centre for Islamic Studies pp 324 325 ISBN 978 975 389 889 8 a b Sevim Ali 1991 ATSIZ b UVAK PDF TDV Encyclopedia of Islam Vol 4 Asik Omer Bala Kulli yesi in Turkish Istanbul Turkiye Diyanet Foundation Centre for Islamic Studies p 92 93 ISBN 978 975 389 431 9 a b c Sumer Faruk 2002 KUTALMIS PDF TDV Encyclopedia of Islam Vol 26 Ki li Kutahya in Turkish Istanbul Turkiye Diyanet Foundation Centre for Islamic Studies pp 480 481 ISBN 978 975 389 406 7 a b c d e f g Sevim Ali 1993 CAGRI BEY PDF TDV Encyclopedia of Islam Vol 8 Ci lve Darunnedve in Turkish Istanbul Turkiye Diyanet Foundation Centre for Islamic Studies pp 183 186 ISBN 978 975 389 435 7 Beyhaki Tariḫ Behmenyar p 71 Alptekin Coskun 1989 AKSUNGUR PDF TDV Encyclopedia of Islam Vol 2 Ahlak Amari in Turkish Istanbul Turkiye Diyanet Foundation Centre for Islamic Studies p 196 ISBN 978 975 389 429 6 a b c d Sumer Faruk 2009 SELCUKLULAR PDF TDV Encyclopedia of Islam Vol 36 Sakal Sevm in Turkish Istanbul Turkiye Diyanet Foundation Centre for Islamic Studies pp 365 371 ISBN 978 975 389 566 8 a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p Sumer Faruk 2009 KIRMAN SELCUKLULARI PDF TDV Encyclopedia of Islam Vol 36 Sakal Sevm in Turkish Istanbul Turkiye Diyanet Foundation Centre for Islamic Studies p 377 379 ISBN 978 975 389 566 8 Ozaydin Abdulkerim 2012 TUTUS PDF TDV Encyclopedia of Islam Vol 41 Tevekkul Tusteri in Turkish Istanbul Turkiye Diyanet Foundation Centre for Islamic Studies pp 446 449 ISBN 978 975 389 713 6 a b c d e f Sumer Faruk 2009 SELCUKS of Syria PDF TDV Encyclopedia of Islam Vol 36 Sakal Sevm in Turkish Istanbul Turkiye Diyanet Foundation Centre for Islamic Studies pp 385 386 ISBN 978 975 389 566 8 a b c d e Bezer Gulay Ogun 2011 TERKEN HATUN the mother of MAHMUD I PDF TDV Encyclopedia of Islam Vol 40 Tanzi mat Teveccuh in Turkish Istanbul Turkiye Diyanet Foundation Centre for Islamic Studies p 510 ISBN 978 975 389 652 8 Terken Khatun wife of Malik Shah I a b c d e f g h Ozaydin Abdulkerim 2004 MELIKSAH PDF TDV Encyclopedia of Islam Vol 29 Mekteb Misir Mevlevihanesi in Turkish Istanbul Turkiye Diyanet Foundation Centre for Islamic Studies pp 54 57 ISBN 978 975 389 415 9 Sumer Faruk 1991 ARSLAN ARGUN PDF TDV Encyclopedia of Islam Vol 3 Amasya Asik Musi ki si in Turkish Istanbul Turkiye Diyanet Foundation Centre for Islamic Studies p 399 400 ISBN 978 975 389 430 2 a b c d Ozaydin Abdulkerim 1992 BERKYARUK PDF TDV Encyclopedia of Islam Vol 5 Balaban Besi r Aga in Turkish Istanbul Turkiye Diyanet Foundation Centre for Islamic Studies pp 514 516 ISBN 978 975 389 432 6 Ozaydin Abdulkerim 2005 MUHAMMED TAPAR PDF TDV Encyclopedia of Islam Vol 30 Misra Muhammedi yye in Turkish Istanbul Turkiye Diyanet Foundation Centre for Islamic Studies pp 579 581 ISBN 978 975 389 402 9 Ozaydin Abdulkerim 2009 AHMED SENCER PDF TDV Encyclopedia of Islam Vol 36 Sakal Sevm in Turkish Istanbul Turkiye Diyanet Foundation Centre for Islamic Studies pp 507 511 ISBN 978 975 389 566 8 a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r Sumer Faruk 2009 IRAK SELCUKLULARI PDF TDV Encyclopedia of Islam Vol 36 Sakal Sevm in Turkish Istanbul Turkiye Diyanet Foundation Centre for Islamic Studies p 387 ISBN 978 975 389 566 8 Ozaydin Abdulkerim 2003 MAHMUD b MUHAMMED TAPAR PDF TDV Encyclopedia of Islam Vol 27 Kutahya Mevlevihanesi Mani sa in Turkish Istanbul Turkiye Diyanet Foundation Centre for Islamic Studies pp 371 372 ISBN 978 975 389 408 1 Sumer Faruk 2012 TUGRUL I PDF TDV Encyclopedia of Islam Vol 41 Tevekkul Tusteri in Turkish Istanbul Turkiye Diyanet Foundation Centre for Islamic Studies pp 341 342 ISBN 978 975 389 713 6 Sumer Faruk 2004 MES UD b MUHAMMED TAPAR PDF TDV Encyclopedia of Islam Vol 29 Mekteb Misir Mevlevihanesi in Turkish Istanbul Turkiye Diyanet Foundation Centre for Islamic Studies pp 349 351 ISBN 978 975 389 415 9 Sumer Faruk 1991 ARSLANSAH b TUGRUL PDF TDV Encyclopedia of Islam Vol 3 Amasya Asik Musi ki si in Turkish Istanbul Turkiye Diyanet Foundation Centre for Islamic Studies pp 404 406 ISBN 978 975 389 430 2 Sumer Faruk 2012 Ebu Talib TUGRUL b ARSLANSAH b TUGRUL PDF TDV Encyclopedia of Islam Vol 41 Tevekkul Tusteri in Turkish Istanbul Turkiye Diyanet Foundation Centre for Islamic Studies pp 342 344 ISBN 978 975 389 713 6 Osman Gazi Ozgudenli 2016 MUSA YABGU Vol EK 2 Istanbul TDV Islam Ansiklopedisi pp 324 325 a b c d Sevim Ali 2010 SULEYMAN SAH I PDF Vol 38 Istanbul TDV Islam Ansiklopedisi pp 103 105 ISBN 978 9 7538 9590 3 a b c Faruk Sumer 2002 KUTALMIS PDF Vol 26 Istanbul TDV Islam Ansiklopedisi pp 480 481 ISBN 978 9 7538 9406 7 Beyhaki Tariḫ Behmenyar p 71 a b c d e f g h Sumer Faruk 2009 ANADOLU SELCUKLULARI PDF Vol 36 Istanbul TDV Islam Ansiklopedisi pp 380 384 ISBN 978 9 7538 9566 8 Ozaydin Abdulkerim 2002 KAVURD BEY PDF Vol 25 Istanbul TDV Islam Ansiklopedisi pp 73 74 ISBN 978 9 7538 9403 6 a b c d e f Sumer Faruk 2009 Kirman Selcuks PDF Vol 36 Istanbul TDV Islam Ansiklopedisi pp 377 379 ISBN 978 9 7538 9566 8 Sumer Faruk 2009 SELCUKLULAR PDF Vol 36 Istanbul TDV Islam Ansiklopedisi pp 365 371 ISBN 978 9 7538 9566 8 Enveri Dusturname i Enveri pp 78 80 1464 Ozaydin Abdulkerim 2003 MAHMUD b MUHAMMED TAPAR PDF TDV Encyclopedia of Islam Vol 27 Kutahya Mevlevihanesi Mani sa in Turkish Istanbul Turkiye Diyanet Foundation Centre for Islamic Studies pp 371 372 ISBN 978 975 389 408 1 Sumer Faruk 2012 TUGRUL I PDF TDV Encyclopedia of Islam Vol 41 Tevekkul Tusteri in Turkish Istanbul Turkiye Diyanet Foundation Centre for Islamic Studies pp 341 342 ISBN 978 975 389 713 6 Sumer Faruk 2004 MES UD b MUHAMMED TAPAR PDF TDV Encyclopedia of Islam Vol 29 Mekteb Misir Mevlevihanesi in Turkish Istanbul Turkiye Diyanet Foundation Centre for Islamic Studies pp 349 351 ISBN 978 975 389 415 9 Sumer Faruk 1991 ARSLANSAH b TUGRUL PDF TDV Encyclopedia of Islam Vol 3 Amasya Asik Musi ki si in Turkish Istanbul Turkiye Diyanet Foundation Centre for Islamic Studies pp 404 406 ISBN 978 975 389 430 2 Sumer Faruk 2012 Ebu Talib TUGRUL b ARSLANSAH b TUGRUL PDF TDV Encyclopedia of Islam Vol 41 Tevekkul Tusteri in Turkish Istanbul Turkiye Diyanet Foundation Centre for Islamic Studies pp 342 344 ISBN 978 975 389 713 6 link, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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