fbpx
Wikipedia

Eurasian (mixed ancestry)

March 26, 2023

A Eurasian is a person of mixed Asian and European ancestry.

Eurasian
Total population
Official population numbers are unknown;
United States: 1,623,234 (2010)[1]
England and Wales: 341,727 (2011)[2]
Netherlands: 369,661 (2015)[3]
Regions with significant populations
 United States[4]
 Netherlands[5]
 United Kingdom[1]
 Hong Kong[6]
 Philippines[7]
 Singapore[8]
 Malaysia[9]
 Macau[10]
 Sri Lanka[11]

Terminology

The term Eurasian was first coined in mid-nineteenth century British India. The term was originally used to refer to those who are now known as Anglo-Indians, people of mixed British and Indian descent.[12] In addition to British many were also of mixed Portuguese, Dutch, Irish or French descent. The term has been used in anthropological literature since the 1960s.[13]

Central Asia

 
Genetics of Turkmens indicates a mixture of East Eurasian and West Eurasian populations.
 
An ethnic Hazara police officer from Afghanistan
 
Russia's Defense Minister Sergey Shoygu. His father was Tuvan, while his mother was Russian

Historically, Central Asia has been a "melting pot" of West Eurasian and East Eurasian peoples, leading to high genetic admixture and diversity.[14] Physical and genetic analyses of ancient remains have concluded that while the Scythians – including those in the eastern Pazyryk region – possessed predominantly features found (among others) in Europoid phenotypes, mixed Eurasian phenotypes were also observed, suggesting that the Scythians as a whole were descended in part from East Eurasian populations.[15]

The Xiongnu were nomadic warriors who invaded China and Central Asia. They were predominantly Mongoloid, known from their skeletal remains and artifacts. Analysis of skeletal remains from sites attributed to the Xiongnu provides an identification of dolichocephalic Mongoloid.[16] Russian and Chinese anthropological and craniofacial studies show that the Xiongnu were physically very heterogeneous, with six different population clusters showing different degrees of Mongoloid and Caucasoid physical traits.[17] A majority (89%) of the Xiongnu mtDNA sequences can be classified as belonging to Asian haplogroups, and nearly 11% belong to European haplogroups.[18] This finding indicates that contact between European and Asian populations preceded the start of Xiongnu culture, and confirms results reported for two samples from an early 3rd century BC Scytho-Siberian population (Clisson et al. 2002).

Anthropologist SA Pletnev studied a group of burials of Kipchaks in the Volga region and found them to have Caucasoid features with some admixture of Mongoloid traits, with physical characteristics such as a flat face and distinctly protruding nose.[19] They were nomadic people that, together with the Cumans, ruled areas stretching from Kazakhstan through Caucasus to Eastern Europe.

The Hunnic invaders of Europe were also of mixed origins. Hungarian archaeologist István Bóna argues that most European Huns were of Caucasoid ancestry and that less than 20–25% were of Mongoloid stock.[20] According to the Hungarian anthropologist Pál Lipták (1955) he believed Turanid race was most common among the Huns. He classified Turanid as a Caucasoid type with significant Mongoloid admixture, arising from the mixture of the Andronovo type of Europoid features and the Oriental (Mongoloid).[21] The Eurasian Avars were group of sixth-century nomadic warriors that came from Northern Central Asia who ruled in what is today Central Europe. Anthropological research has revealed several skeletons with Mongoloid-type features, additionally there was continuing cultural influence from the Eurasian nomadic steppe. The early Avar anthropological material was said to be 20% Mongoloid, 40% Eurasian (mixed), and 40% Caucasoid, in the seventh century according to Pál Lipták, while grave-goods indicated Middle and Central Asian parallels. Mongoloid and Euro-Mongoloid types compose about one-third of the total population of the Avar graves of the eighth century with the late Avar Period showing more hybridization resulting in higher frequencies of Europo-Mongolids.[22]

Each year, the Huns [Avars] came to the Slavs, to spend the winter with them; then they took the wives and daughters of the Slavs and slept with them, and among the other mistreatments [already mentioned] the Slavs were also forced to pay levies to the Huns. But the sons of the Huns, who were [then] raised with the wives and daughters of these Wends [Slavs] could not finally endure this oppression anymore and refused obedience to the Huns and began, as already mentioned, a rebellion.

— Chronicle of Fredegar, Book IV, Section 48, written circa 642

The Seljuk Empire which ruled from Central Asia, Middle East to modern Turkey, their descendants are the Iranian Turkmen and Afghan Turkmen and are mixture of East Eurasian and West Eurasian.

Ladislaus' mother was the daughter of a Cuman chief. Like the Kipchaks, the Cuman invaders of Europe were also of mixed anthropological origins. Excavations in Csengele, Hungary, have revealed normatively East Asian and European traits. Five of the six skeletons that were complete enough for anthropometric analysis appeared Asian rather than European.[23]

 
Population genomic structure of Central Asians and other worldwide population groups. Modern Central Asians are largely East-Eurasian (East Asian-related).[24]

Today Central Asians are a mixture of various peoples, such as Mongols, Turks, and Iranians. The Mongol conquest of Central Asia in the 13th century resulted in the mass killings of the Iranian-speaking people and Indo-Europeans population of the region, their culture and languages being superseded by that of the Mongolian-Turkic peoples. The invasions of Bukhara, Samarkand, Urgench and others resulted in mass murders and unprecedented destruction, such as portions of Khwarezmia being completely razed. The remaining surviving population were either displaced or assimilated with intermarriage with invaders.[25][26][27][28] Genetic studies indicates all Central Asian ethnicities share a various genetic mixture of East Eurasian and West Eurasian.[29][30]

 
Turkic peoples, a Northeast Asian/Siberian population originated and expanded from eastern Mongolia into Central Asia and Europe, spreading East-Eurasian ancestry all over Eurasia.[31]

Many Eurasian ethnic groups arose during the Mongol invasion of Europe. The ruling Mongol elites of the Mongol successor states began a process of assimilation with the non-Mongol populations that they had conquered and ruled over. The Golden Horde which ruled eastern Europe resulted in an assimilation and mixture of Mongols, Turkic, Finns, Hungarians, Sarmato-Scythians, Slavs, and people from the Caucasus, among others (whether Muslim or not).[32] Partial Mongol descendants of people from Central Asia and North Caucasus, such as the Uzbeks, Kazakhs, and Nogais, also created many Eurasian ethnic groups under the empires they established (for example, the Timurid Empire, Mughal Empire, Kazakh Khanate, and Nogai Horde), which invaded or covered vast areas that are parts of modern Russia, the Caucasus, the Middle East, Central Asia, and South Asia.

Interracial marriage between Turkic, European, Central Asians in Kazakhstan are increasingly common. In 2021 at least 4728 ethnic Kazakhs had married people of other ethnicity, most commonly Russians.[33] Among Kirgiz men living in Uzbekistan and married to non-Kirgiz women, 9.6% had married Russians, 25.6% Uzbeks, and 34.3% Tatars. Among Kazakh men in Uzbekistan, the structure of mixed marriages appeared as follows: 4.4% married Russians.[34]

Southeast Asia

European colonization of vast swathes of Southeast Asia led to the burgeoning of Eurasian populations, particularly in Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore, Timor-Leste, Vietnam and the Philippines. The majority of Eurasians in Southeast Asia formed a separate community from the indigenous peoples and the European colonizers, and served as middlemen between the two. Post-colonial Eurasians can be found in practically every country in Southeast Asia, most especially in the Philippines due to the 333 years of colonization by Spain, 4 years of British settlement and 49 years as an American territory which gives the country 382 years of continuous European exposure in Southeast Asia. Burma was colonized by the British for 124 years, the French colonized Indochina for 67 years, the British colonized Malaya for 120 years and Dutch colonized Indonesia for 149 years after Portugal.

Cambodia

In the last official census in French Indochina in 1946, there were 45,000 Europeans in Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia. One-fifth were Eurasian.[35] Jean-François Izzi, a French banker of Italian origin, was the father of the Queen Mother of Cambodia, Norodom Monineath.[36] The son of Norodom Monineath is the reigning king of Cambodia, Norodom Sihamoni.

Indonesia

See also: Indo people and Indos in colonial history
  •  

    Studio portrait of an Indo-European family, Dutch East Indies (1890–1910)

  •  

    Studio portrait of the family Engelenburg Banjoewangi (1919)

  •  

    Mrs. Mertens in sarong and kabaja, Java (c. 1888)

  •  

    Dutch Totok father with Indo wife and children (1922)

  •  

    Japanese Indonesian identity card in the name of Johanna Maria Durand Leeuwenburgh

  •  

    Group of Eurasian girls in Indonesia around 1925–1930

  •  

    Dutch-Indonesian General Gerardus Johannes Berenschot

  •  

    Dutch-German-Indonesian nationalist and politician of Indo descent Ernest Douwes Dekker

  •  

    Dutch-French-Indonesian National Hero Pierre Tendean

  •  

    Mohammad Husni Thamrin of mixed English, Arab and Betawi descent is an Indonesian politician and National Hero

  •  

    French-Chinese-Indonesian actress Fifi Young

  •  

    Dutch-German-Indonesian actress of Indo descent Suzzanna

  •  

    Dutch-Indonesian novelist Maria Dermoût

  •  

    Dutch-Indonesian Defense Minister Juwono Sudarsono

  •  

    German-Chinese-Indonesian actor and tech entrepreneur Christian Sugiono

  •  

    Austrian-Indonesian actress and singer Sophia Latjuba

  •  

    German-Jewish-Indonesian rock musician, songwriter, arranger, and producer Ahmad Dhani

  •  

    British-Indonesian singer, dancer, actress, model Dewi Sandra

  •  

    American-Dutch Indonesian actress, model, activist Jolene Marie Rotinsulu

  •  

    Barack Obama's half sister Maya Soetoro-Ng (Indonesian-American)

The Eurasian community from Indonesia developed over a period of 400 years, it began with a mostly Portuguese Indonesian ancestry and ended with a dominant Dutch-Indonesian ancestry after the arrival of the Dutch East India Company in Indonesia in 1603 and near continuous Dutch rule until the Japanese occupation of Indonesia in World War II.

Indo is a term for Europeans, Asians, and Eurasian people who were a migrant population that associated themselves with and experienced the colonial culture of the former Dutch East Indies, a Dutch colony in Southeast Asia that became Indonesia after World War II.[37][38][39][40] It was used to describe people acknowledged to be of mixed Dutch and Indonesian descent, or it was a term used in the Dutch East Indies to apply to Europeans who had partial Asian ancestry.[40][41][42][43][44] The European ancestry of these people was predominantly Dutch, and also Portuguese, British, French, Belgian, German, and others.[45]

Other terms used were Indos, Dutch Indonesians, Eurasians,[46] Indo-Europeans, Indo-Dutch,[40] and Dutch-Indos.[47][48][49][50][51]

Malaysia

See also: Kristang people

There are over 29,000 Eurasians living in Malaysia, the vast majority of whom are of Portuguese descent.[52]

In East Malaysia, the exact number of Eurasians are unknown. Recent DNA studies by Stanford found that 7.8% of samples from Kota Kinabalu have European chromosomes.[53]

Philippines

See also: Filipino mestizo

Eurasians are collectively called Mestizos in the Philippines. The vast majority are descendants of Spanish, Latino and American settlers who intermarried with people of indigenous Filipino descent. Aside from the more common Spanish, Latino and American mestizos, there are also Eurasians in the Philippines who have ancestries from various European countries or Australia. Significant intermarriage between Filipinos and European Americans has occurred since the United States colonial period up to the present day, as the US had numerous people stationed there at military bases.

Most Eurasians of Spanish or Latino descent own business conglomerates in the real estate, agriculture, and utilities sector, whereas Eurasians of white American descent are largely in the entertainment industry which are one of the biggest industries in the Philippines working as reporters, writers, producers, directors, models, actors and actresses as modern Philippine mass media and entertainment industry was pioneered during the American colonization of the Philippines by the Americans. Many of them also works in offices and call centers; the Philippines being the call center capital of the world.[citation needed]The actual number of Eurasians in the Philippines cannot be ascertained due to lack of surveys, although Spanish censuses record that as much as one third of the inhabitants of the island of Luzon possess varying degrees of Spanish or Latino admixture.[54] A 2019 study by Anthropologist Matthew Go, postulates that the percentage of Filipino bodies who were sampled from the University of the Philippines, that were curated to be representative of Filipinos, that is phenotypically classified as Asian (East, South and Southeast Asian) is 72.7%, Hispanic (Spanish-Amerindian Mestizo, Latin American, or Spanish-Malay Mestizo) is at 12.7%, Indigenous American (Native American) at 7.3%, African (Sub-Saharan African) at 4.5%, and European at 2.7%.[55]

As opposed to the policies of other colonial powers such as the British or the Dutch, the Spanish colonies were devoid of any anti-miscegenation laws.

The Spanish implemented incentives to deliberately entangle the various races together in order to stop rebellion:[56][57][58] – It is needful to encourage public instruction in all ways possible, permit newspapers subject to a liberal censure, to establish in Manila a college of medicine, surgery, and pharmacy: in order to break down the barriers that divide the races, and amalgamate them all into one. For that purpose, the Spaniards of the country, the Chinese mestizos, and the Filipinos shall be admitted with perfect equality as cadets of the military corps; the personal-service tax shall be abolished, or an equal and general tax shall be imposed, to which all the Spaniards shall be subject. This last plan appears to me more advisable, as the poll-tax is already established, and it is not opportune to make a trial of new taxes when it is a question of allowing the country to be governed by itself. Since the annual tribute is unequal, the average shall be taken and shall be fixed, consequently, at fifteen or sixteen reals per whole tribute, or perhaps one peso fuerte annually from each adult tributary person. This regulation will produce an increase in the revenue of 200,000 or 300,000 pesos fuertes, and this sum shall be set aside to give the impulse for the amalgamation of the races, favoring crossed marriages by means of dowries granted to the single women in the following manner. To a Chinese mestizo woman who marries a Filipino shall be given 100 pesos; to a Filipino woman who marries a Chinese mestizo, Ioo pesos; to a Chinese mestizo woman who marries a Spaniard, 1,000 pesos; to a Spanish woman who marries a Chinese mestizo, 2,000 pesos; to a Filipino woman who marries a Spaniard, 2,000 pesos; to a Spanish woman who marries a Filipino chief, 3,000 or 4,000 pesos. Some mestizo and Filipino alcaldes-mayor of the provinces shall be appointed. It shall be ordered that when a Filipino chief goes to the house of a Spaniard, he shall seat himself as the latter's equal. In a word, by these and other means, the idea that they and the Castilians are two kinds of distinct races shall be erased from the minds of the natives, and the families shall become related by marriage in such manner that when free of the Castilian dominion should any exalted Filipinos try to expel or enslave our race, they would find it so interlaced with their own that their plan would be practically impossible.[59]

The fluid nature of racial integration in the Philippines during the Spanish colonial period was recorded by many travelers and public figures at the time, who were favorably impressed by the lack of racial discrimination, as compared to the situation in other European colonies.

Among them was Sir John Bowring, governor general of British Hong Kong and a well-seasoned traveler who had written several books about the different cultures in Asia, who described the situation as "admirable" during a visit to the Philippines in the 1870s.

The lines separating entire classes and races, appeared to me less marked than in the Oriental colonies. I have seen on the same table, Spaniards, Mestizos (Chinos cristianos) and Indios, priests and military. There is no doubt that having one Religion forms great bonding. And more so to the eyes of one that has been observing the repulsion and differences due to race in many parts of Asia. And from one (like myself) who knows that race is the great divider of society, the admirable contrast and exception to racial discrimination so markedly presented by the people of the Philippines is indeed admirable.[60]

Another foreign witness was English engineer, Frederic H. Sawyer, who had spent most of his life in different parts of Asia and lived in Luzon for fourteen years. His impression was that as far as racial integration and harmony was concerned, the situation in the Philippines was not equaled by any other colonial power:

"... Spaniards and natives lived together in great harmony, and do not know where I could find a colony in which Europeans mixes as much socially with the natives.

Not in Java, where a native of position must dismount to salute the humblest Dutchman.

Not in British India, where the Englishwoman has now made the gulf between British and native into a bottomless pit."[61]

Singapore

See also: Eurasian Singaporeans

Singaporean Eurasians of European ancestry mainly descend from Western European emigrants, although Eurasian migrants to Singapore in the 19th century came mainly from other European colonies in Asia as well. When the European colonisation of Singapore began, the colonisers brought into being a new ethnic group known historically and generally as the Eurasians.[62] Early European colonisers were not accompanied by their womenfolk on the perilous journey to Asia. Consequently, many married the local women of these lands, or formed liaisons with them. Today, Singaporeans of Eurasian descent make up about 0.4% of the Singaporean population, with 16,900 individuals living in Singapore in 2015.[63][64]

Thailand

See also: Luk khrueng

In the mid-20th century, the number of luk khrueng increased dramatically in the period following World War II, with the increasing number of Western residents and visitors to the country. Many were the children of American servicemen who came to the country in the 1960s and the 1970s, when there were several large US military bases in the country because of the Vietnam War. While some of the servicemen formed lasting relationships with Thai women, some luk khrueng were the product of temporary relationships with "rented wives", or prostitutes, a fact that led to some discrimination in that era. Some Thais were also hostile because of the perceived lack of racial purity, but most were quite accepting.[65]

Like certain other parts of Asia, luk khrueng have become popular in the entertainment and modelling industries and many have carved out prominent roles in the entertainment industry with their mixed Caucasian and Thai features which are deemed attractive in modern Thai culture.[66]

Vietnam

See also: Con lai and Women in Vietnam § European rule

In the last official census in French Indochina in 1946, there were 45,000 Europeans in Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia – of which one-fifth were Eurasian.[35] Much of the business conducted with foreign men in Southeast Asia was done by the local women, who engaged in both sexual and mercantile intercourse with foreign male traders. A Portuguese and Malay speaking Vietnamese woman who lived in Macau for an extensive period of time was the person who interpreted for the first diplomatic meeting between Cochin-China and a Dutch delegation. She served as an interpreter for three decades in the Cochin-China court with an old woman who had been married to three husbands; one Vietnamese and two Portuguese.[67][68][69] The cosmopolitan exchange was facilitated by the marriage of Vietnamese women to Portuguese merchants. Those Vietnamese woman were married to Portuguese men and lived in Macao which was how they became fluent in Malay and Portuguese.[70] Alexander Hamilton said that "The Tonquiners used to be very desirous of having a brood of Europeans in their country, for which reason the greatest nobles thought it no shame or disgrace to marry their daughters to English and Dutch seamen, for the time they were to stay in Tonquin, and often presented their sons-in-law pretty handsomely at their departure, especially if they left their wives with child; but adultery was dangerous to the husband, for they are well versed in the art of poisoning."[71]

Vietnam saw a surge in its Eurasian population following the entry of the United States as an active combatant in the Vietnam War in 1965. Large numbers of white American soldiers were deployed in South Vietnam to support the country, and intermingling with local Vietnamese women was common. The resulting Eurasian children, known as Amerasians, were products of varying circumstances ranging from genuine long-term relationships and love affairs to prostitution and rape. When the war was going against South Vietnam in the early 1970s, the gradual withdrawal of American troops during the Vietnamization process included many Vietnamese war brides and their Eurasian children. The situation led the United States Congress to enact the American Homecoming Act, granting preferential immigration status specifically to Eurasian children born to servicemen in Vietnam claimed by their fathers. The Eurasian children that remained in Vietnam, around 20,000, were typically from the worst circumstances, fatherless, and often ended up in orphanages as their mothers were incapable or uninterested in raising them. The North Vietnamese victory in 1975 saw greater stigma against Eurasian Vietnamese children, as the new government of reunified Vietnam was hostile to the United States and saw them as symbols of foreign occupation. The poor circumstances of the Amerasian children made them vulnerable to severe social and state-sponsored persecution.

East Asia

Hong Kong

In 19th century Hong Kong, Eurasian or "half-caste" children were often stigmatised as symbols of 'moral degradation' and 'racial impurity' by both European and Chinese communities.[72] According to Chiu:

To the European community, such children were the ‘tangible evidence of moral irregularity’, while to the Chinese community they embodied the shame and ‘evil’ of their marginalised mothers. Stewart has commented that, ‘The word "barbarian" on the lip of a Greek contained but an iota of the contempt which the Chinese entertain for such persons’.[72]

In the 1890s Ernst Johann Eitel, a German missionary, controversially claimed that most "half-caste" people in Hong Kong were descended exclusively from Europeans having relationships with outcast groups such as the Tanka people. Carl Smith's study in the 1960s on "protected women" (the kept mistresses of foreigners) to an extent supports Eitel's theory. The Tanka were marginalised in Chinese society which consisted of the majority Puntis (Cantonese-speaking people). Custom precluded their intermarriage with the Cantonese and Hakka-speaking populations and they had limited opportunities of settlement on land. Consequently, the Tanka did not experience the same social pressures when dealing with Europeans. Eitel's theory, however, was criticised by Henry J. Lethbridge writing in the 1970s as a "myth" propagated by xenophobic Cantonese to account for the establishment of the Hong Kong Eurasian community.[73][74][75][76] Many Eurasians of part-Chinese blood in Hong Kong at that time were children of British settlers and their Chinese wives from British colonies in Southeast Asia.

Andrew and Bushnell (2006) wrote extensively on the position of women in the British Empire and the Tanka inhabitants of Hong Kong and their position in the prostitution industry, catering towards foreign sailors. The Tanka did not marry with the Chinese; being descendants of the natives, they were restricted to the waterways. They supplied their women as prostitutes to British sailors and assisted the British in their military actions around Hong Kong.[77] The Tanka in Hong Kong were considered "outcasts" categorised low class.[78]

Ordinary Chinese prostitutes were afraid of serving Westerners since they looked strange to them, while the Tanka prostitutes freely mingled with western men.[79] The Tanka assisted the Europeans with supplies and providing them with prostitutes.[80][81] European men in Hong Kong easily formed relations with the Tanka prostitutes.[82] The profession of prostitution among the Tanka women led to them being hated by the Chinese both because they had sex with westerners and them being racially Tanka.[83]

Elizabeth Wheeler Andrew (1845–1917) and Katharine Caroline Bushnell (1856–1946) wrote extensively about the position of women in the British Empire. Published in 1907, Heathen Slaves and Christian Rulers, which examined the exploitation of Chinese women in Hong Kong under colonial rule, discussed the Tanka inhabitants of Hong Kong and their position in the prostitution industry, catering towards foreign sailors. The Tanka did not marry with the Chinese, being descendants of the natives, they were restricted to the waterways. They supplied their women as prostitutes to British sailors and assisted the British in their military actions around Hong Kong.[84] The Tanka in Hong Kong were considered as "outcasts".[85] Tanka women were ostracized from the Cantonese community, and were nicknamed "salt water girls" (ham shui mui) for their services as prostitutes to foreigners in Hong Kong.[86][87]

Notable examples of Eurasian people from Hong Kong include Nancy Kwan, once a Hollywood sex symbol, born to a Cantonese father and English and Scottish mother, Bruce Lee, a martial artist icon born to a Cantonese father and a Eurasian mother of Cantonese and German descent, and Macao-born actress Isabella Leong, born to a Portuguese-English father and a Chinese mother. The wealthy Jewish Dutch man Charles Maurice Bosman[88] was the father of the brothers Sir Robert Hotung and Ho Fook who was the grandfather of Stanley Ho. The number of people who identified as "Mixed with one Chinese parent" according to the 2001 Hong Kong census was 16,587, which had risen to 24,649 in 2011.[6]

Macau

The early Macanese ethnic group was formed from Portuguese men with Malay, Japanese, Indian and Sinhalese women.[89] The Portuguese encouraged Cantonese migration to Macau, and most Macanese in Macau were formed from between Portuguese and Cantonese. In 1810, the total population of Macau was about 4033, of which 1172 were white men, 1830 were white women, 425 male slaves, and 606 female slaves. In 1830, the population increased to 4480 and the breakdown was 1,202 white men, 2149 white women, 350 male slaves and 779 female slaves. There is reason to speculate that large numbers of white women were involved in some forms of prostitution which would probably explain the abnormality in the ratio between men and women among the white population.[90] Majority of the early Cantonese-Portuguese intermarriages were between Portuguese men and women of Tanka origin, who were considered the lowest class of people in China and had relations with Portuguese settlers and sailors, or low class Chinese women.[91][92] Western men like the Portuguese were refused by high class Cantonese women, who did not marry foreigners.[93]

While a minority were Cantonese men and Portuguese women. Macanese men and women also married with the Portuguese and Cantonese, as a result, some Macanese became indistinguishable from the Cantonese or Portuguese population. Because the majority of the population who migrated to Macau were Cantonese, Macau became a culturally Cantonese-speaking society, other ethnic groups became fluent in Cantonese. Most Macanese had paternal Portuguese heritage until 1974.[91] It was in 1980s that Macanese and Portuguese women began to marry men who defined themselves ethnically as Chinese,[94] which resulted in many Macanese with Cantonese paternal ancestry. Many Chinese became Macanese simply by converting to Catholicism, and had no ancestry from the Portuguese, having assimilated into the Macanese people since they were rejected by non Christian Chinese.[95]

After the handover of Macau to China in 1999 many Macanese migrated to other countries. Of the Portuguese and Macanese women who stayed in Macau married with local Cantonese men, resulting in more Macanese with Cantonese paternal heritage. There are between 25,000 and 46,000 Macanese; 5,000–8,000 of whom live in Macau, while most live in Latin America (most particularly Brazil), America, and Portugal. Unlike the Macanese of Macau who are almost all of Chinese and Portuguese heritage, many of the Macanese populations living abroad are not entirely of Portuguese and Chinese ancestry; many Macanese men and women intermarried with the local population of America and Latin America etc. and have only partial Macanese heritage.

Taiwan

During the Siege of Fort Zeelandia in which Chinese Ming loyalist forces commanded by Koxinga besieged and defeated the Dutch East India Company and conquered Taiwan, the Chinese took Dutch women and children prisoner. Koxinga took Hambroek's teenage daughter as a concubine,[96][97][98] and Dutch women were sold to Chinese soldiers to become their wives. In 1684 some of these Dutch wives were still captives of the Chinese.[99]

China

Ethnic Russians first arrived in large numbers in northeast China during the 1890s as colonists and marriages between Russian women and Han Chinese men started at the same time as the migration.[100] The descendants of the interracial marriages are concentrated in the towns and villages of the frontier areas along the Ergun River of Inner Mongolia like Shiwei and Enhe.[101][100] Interracial marriages between Chinese women and Russian men were rare, a marriage pattern that does not fit the European colonial convention of Western men marrying native women.[100] Unions between Chinese and Russians were also rare in urban areas like Harbin where there was prejudice against mixed marriages on both sides.[100]

Japan

See also: Amerasian § Japan

Amerasian Japanese in Okinawa and Japan are mostly the result of European American soldiers and Japanese women. Many Latin Americans in Japan (known in their own cultures as dekasegi) are mixed, including Brazilians of Portuguese, Italian, German, Spaniard, Polish and Ukrainian descent. In Mexico and Argentina, for example, those mixed between nikkei and non-nikkei are called mestizos de japonés, while in Brazil both mestiço de japonês and ainoko, ainoco or even hafu are common terms.

Historian S. Kuznetsov, dean of the Department of History of the Irkutsk State University, one of the first researchers of the topic, interviewed thousands of former internees and came to the following conclusion: What is more, romantic relations between Japanese internees and Russian women were not uncommon. For example, in the city of Kansk, Krasnoyarsk Krai, about 50 Japanese married locals and stayed. Today many Russian women married Japanese men, often for the benefit of long-term residence and work rights. Some of their mixed offspring stay in Japan while other's to Russia.[102]

South Korea

See also: Amerasian § South Korea

U.S. military personnel married 6423 Korean women as war brides during and immediately after the Korean War. The average number of Korean women marrying US military personnel each year was about 1500 per year in the 1960s and 2300 per year in the 1970s.[103] Many of these children were orphaned or stigmatized by the local population and were often kept separate in designated camptowns and eventually exported to the United States.[104]

South Asia

Bangladesh

There are about 97,000 Anglo Indians in Bangladesh. 55% of them are Christians.[105]

Burma (Myanmar)

Main article: Anglo-Burmese people

The Anglo-Burmese emerged as a distinct community through mixed relations (sometimes permanent, sometimes temporary) between the British and other European settlers and the indigenous peoples of Burma from 1826 until 1948 when Myanmar gained its independence from the United Kingdom.

Collectively, in the Burmese language, Eurasians are specifically known as bo kabya; the term kabya refers to persons of mixed ancestry or dual ethnicity.

India

Main article: Anglo-Indian
  •  

    Indian actress Katrina Kaif is the daughter of an Indian father and a British (English) mother

  •  

    Actress Tara Sharma, of British-Indian descent

  •  

    British−Mauritian actress Hazel Keech, of Indo-Mauritian descent

The first use of the term Anglo-Indian referred to all British people living in India, regardless of whether they had Indian ancestors or not. The meaning changed to include only people who were of the very specific lineage descending from the British on the male side and women from the Indian side.[106] People of mixed British and Indian descent were previously referred to as simply 'Eurasians'.[107]

During the British East India Company's rule in India as well as the British Raj period, it was initially fairly common for British officers and soldiers to take local Indian wives and have Eurasian children. European women were barred from being with native men. Marriages between European men and Indian women were fairly common during early colonial times.[citation needed] The scholar Michael Fisher estimates that one in three European men stationed during the company rule had an Indian wife. The Europeans (mostly Portuguese, Dutch, French, German, Irish, Scottish, and English) were stationed in India in their youth, and looked for relationships with local women.[108][109] The most famous of such unions was between the Hyderabadi noblewoman Khair-un-Nissa and the Scottish resident James Achilles Kirkpatrick. In addition to intermarriage, inter-ethnic prostitution in India existed. Generally, Muslim women did not marry European men because the men were not of the Islamic faith. Similarly with high caste Hindu women. By the mid-nineteenth century, there were around 40,000 British soldiers but fewer than 2000 British officials present in India.[110] As British women began arriving to India in large numbers around the early-to-mid-nineteenth century, mostly as family members of British officers and soldiers, intermarriage with Indians became less frequent among the British in India. After the events of the Indian Rebellion of 1857, such intermarriage was considered undesirable by both cultures.[111] The colonial government passed several anti-miscegenation laws.[112][113] As a result, Eurasians became more marginal to both the British and Indian populations in India.

Over generations, Anglo-Indians intermarried with other Anglo-Indians to form a community that developed a culture of its own. They created distinctive Anglo-Indian, dress, speech and religion. They established a school system focused on English language and culture, and formed social clubs and associations to run functions, such as regular dances, at holidays such as Christmas and Easter.[106] Over time, the British colonial government recruited Anglo-Indians into the Customs and Excise, Post and Telegraphs, Forestry Department, the Railways and teaching professions, but they were employed in many other fields as well. A number of factors fostered a strong sense of community among Anglo-Indians. Their English-language school system, their Anglocentric culture, and their Christian beliefs helped bind them together.[114] Today, an estimated 300,000-1 million Anglo-Indians worldwide.[115]

Sri Lanka

See also: Burgher people

Due to prolonged colonial contact with Portugal, the Netherlands and Britain, Sri Lanka has had a long history of intermarriage between locals and colonists. Originally these people were known as Mestiços, literally "mixed people" in Portuguese; today they are collectively classified as Burghers. The Sri Lankan Civil War prompted numerous Burghers to flee the island. Most of them settled in Europe, the Americas, Australia and New Zealand.

Portuguese Burghers are usually descended from a Sri Lankan mother and a Portuguese father.[116] This configuration is also the case with the Dutch Burghers. When the Portuguese arrived on the island in 1505, they were accompanied by African slaves. Kaffirs are a mix of African, Portuguese colonist and Sri Lankan. The free mixing between the various groups of people was encouraged by the colonials. Soon the Mestiços or the "Mixed People" began speaking a creole known as the Ceylonese-Portuguese Creole. It was based on Portuguese, Sinhalese and Tamil.

The Burgher population numbers 40,000 in Sri Lanka and thousands more worldwide, concentrated mostly in the United Kingdom, Canada, Australia and New Zealand. Phenotypically Burghers can have skin ranging from light to darker, depending on their ancestors, even within the same family. Burghers with dark to light brown skin usually are of Portuguese Burghers or Kaffir ancestry; they may also have European facial features common to the Mediterranean basin (see Mediterraneans). They have a distinct look compared to native Sri Lankans. Most light-skinned Burghers are of Dutch or British descent. Most Burghers are Roman Catholic in religion.

Like certain other Asian countries -Japan, Malaysia, Thailand, Singapore and the Philippines- Eurasians/Burghers have also been sought after by advertisers and modelling agencies in Sri Lanka. Their mixed look combining both Western and Sri Lankan features makes them attractive to advertisers who see them as a representation of an "exotic Sri Lankan/Sinhalese". Predictions within the advertising industry in Sri Lanka estimate that more than 50% of advertising models in Sri Lanka are Burghers/Eurasians.[117]

Europe

Immigration to Europe has led to the rise of Eurasian communities in Europe, most prominently in the Netherlands, Spain, and United Kingdom, where significant numbers of Indonesian, Filipino, and Indo-Pakistani Eurasians live. The Turkish Empire spanned large parts of Europe and gave rise to populations with mixed ancestry in their former territories.

Historically East-Eurasian (East Asian-related) migrations and invasions into Europe left genetic traces in the respective regions. Noteworthy are the Huns, the Pannonian Avars, the Mongols, the Finnic peoples and some other historical groups.[118][119][120]

Netherlands

See also: Indo people, Indos in colonial history, and Tong Tong Fair

Dutch Eurasians of part Indonesian descent, also called Indos or Indo-Europeans, have largely assimilated in the Netherlands[121] arriving in the Netherlands following the end of World War II until 1965, their diaspora a result of Indonesia gaining its independence from Dutch colonial rule. Statistics show high inter marriage rates with native Dutch (50–80%). With over 500,000 persons, they are the largest ethnic minority in the Netherlands. So-called Indo rockers such as the Tielman Brothers introduced their blend of rock and roll music to Dutch audiences, whereas others gained fame as singers and TV presenters, such as Rob de Nijs and Sandra Reemer. There are also famous Indo soccer players such as Giovanni van Bronckhorst. Well-known politicians, such as Christian democrat Hans van den Broek and politician Geert Wilders, are also of Indo descent.

France

Vietnamese men married French women but most of the time had to hide their relationship through casual sexual encounters, brothels and workplaces, some Eurasians were born as result. According to official records in 1918, of the Vietnamese men and French women, 250 had married officially and 1363 couples were living together without the approval of the French parental consent and without the approval of French authorities.[122][123]

Spain

See also: Spanish people of Filipino ancestry

Spanish Eurasians, called Mestizos, most of whom are of partial Filipino ancestry, make up a small but important minority in Spain. Numbering about 115,000, they consist of early migrants to Spain after the loss of the Philippines to the United States in 1898.

Well known Spanish Eurasians include actress and socialite Isabel Preysler and her son Enrique Iglesias, as well as former Prime Minister Marcelo Azcarraga Palmero.

United Kingdom

See also: Anglo-Indian, Anglo-Burmese people, and Mixed (United Kingdom ethnicity category)

Interracial marriage was fairly common in Britain since the seventeenth century, when the British East India Company began bringing over thousands of Indian scholars, lascars and workers (mostly Bengali and/or Muslim) to Britain. Many married local white British women and girls, due to the absence of Indian women in Britain at the time. This later became an issue, as a magistrate of the London Tower Hamlets area in 1817 expressed disgust at how the local British women and girls in the area were marrying and cohabiting with foreign South Asian lascars. Nevertheless, there were no legal restrictions against 'mixed' marriages in Britain, unlike the restrictions in India.[124][125][126] This led to "mixed race" Eurasian (Anglo-Indian) children in Britain, which challenged the British elite efforts to "define them using simple dichotomies of British versus Indian, ruler versus ruled." By the mid-nineteenth century, there were more than 40,000 Indian seamen, diplomats, scholars, soldiers, officials, tourists, businessmen and students arriving in Britain,[108] and by the time World War I began, there were 51,616 Indian lascar seamen residing in Britain.[127] In addition, the British officers and soldiers who had Indian wives and Eurasian children in British India often brought them to Britain in the nineteenth century.[128]

An estimated 900 Chinese-Eurasian born as result of marriages from Chinese fathers and white mothers of various ethnic backgrounds; the most common being British and Irish. Most British-Chinese of Eurasian origin were concentrated in around the Liverpool area of Chinatown, where there was a growing Chinese-Eurasian community. Many of them had assimilated with other ethnic Chinese, while others assimilated with mainstream British population.[129][130][131]

Following World War I, there were more women than men in Britain,[132] and there were increasing numbers of seamen arriving from abroad, mostly from the Indian subcontinent, in addition to smaller numbers from Yemen, Malaysia and China. This led to increased intermarriage and cohabitation with local white females. Some residents grew concerned about miscegenation and there were several race riots at the time.[133] In the 1920s to 1940s, several writers raised concerns about an increasing 'mixed-breed' population, born mainly from Muslim Asian (mostly South Asian in addition to Arab and Malaysian) fathers and local white mothers, occasionally out of wedlock. They denounced white girls who mixed with Muslim Asian men as 'shameless' and called for a ban on the breeding of 'half-caste' children. Such attempts at imposing anti-miscegenation laws were unsuccessful.[134] As South Asian women began arriving in Britain in large numbers from the 1970s, mostly as family members, intermarriage rates have decreased in the British Asian community, although the size of the community has increased. As of 2006, there are 246,400 'British Mixed-Race' people of European and South Asian descent.

There is also a small Eurasian community in Liverpool[citation needed]. The first Chinese settlers were mainly Cantonese from south China some were also from Shanghai. The figures of Chinese for 1921 are 2157 men and 262 women. Many Chinese men married British women while others remained single, possibly supporting a wife and family back home in China. During World War II (1939–1945) another wave of Chinese seamen from Shanghai and of Cantonese origin married British women. Records show that about some 300 of these men had married British women and supported families.[135] A estimated 900 Chinese-Eurasian born as result of marriages from Chinese fathers and white mothers of various ethnic backgrounds; the most common being British and Irish. Most British-Chinese of Eurasian origin were concentrated in around the Liverpool area of Chinatown, where there was a growing Chinese-Eurasian community. Many of them had assimilated with other ethnic Chinese, while others assimilated with mainstream British population.[129][130][131]

North America

Canada

Main article: Asian Canadians

Cuba

See also: Chinese Cubans

There were almost no women among the nearly entirely male Chinese coolie population that migrated to Cuba.[136][137] In Cuba some Indian (Native American), mulatto, black, and white women engaged in carnal relations or marriages with Chinese men, with marriages of mulatto, black, and white woman being reported by the Cuba Commission Report.[138]

120,000 Cantonese 'coolies' (all males) entered Cuba under contract for 80 years. Most of these men did not marry, but Hung Hui (1975:80) cites there was a frequency of sexual activity between black women and these Asian immigrants. According to Osberg (1965:69) the free Chinese practice of buying slave women and then freeing them expressly for marriage was utilized at length. In the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, Chinese men (Cantonese) engaged in sexual activity with white Cuban women and black Cuban women, and from such relations many children were born. (For a British Caribbean model of Chinese cultural retention through procreation with black women, see Patterson, 322–31).[139]

In the 1920s an additional 30,000 Cantonese and small groups of Japanese also arrived; both immigrant groups were exclusively male, and there was rapid intermarriage with white, black, and mulato populations.[140][141] CIA World Factbook. Cuba. 2008. 15 May 2008. claimed 114,240 Chinese-Cuban with only 300 pure Chinese.[142]

In the study of genetic origin, admixture, and asymmetry in maternal and paternal human lineages in Cuba. Thirty-five Y-chromosome SNPs were typed in the 132 male individuals of the Cuban sample. The study does not include any people with some Chinese ancestry. All the samples were white Cubans and black Cubans. Two out of 132 male sample belong to East Asian Haplogroup O2 which is found in significant frequencies among Cantonese people is found in 1.5% of Cuban population.[143]

Costa Rica

See also: Chinese people in Costa Rica

The Chinese originated from the Cantonese male migrants. Pure Chinese make up only 1% of the Costa Rican population but according to Jacqueline M. Newman close to 10% of Costa Ricans are of Chinese descent or married to a Chinese.[144] Most Chinese immigrants since then have been Cantonese, but in the last decades of the twentieth century, a number of immigrants have also come from Taiwan. Many men came alone to work and married Costa Rican women and speak Cantonese. However the majority of the descendants of the first Chinese immigrants no longer speak Cantonese and feel themselves to be Costa Ricans.[145] They married Tican women (who are a blend of Europeans, Castizos, Mestizos, Indian, black).[146] A Tican is also a white person with a small portion of nonwhite blood like Castizos. The census In 1989 shows about 98% of Costa Ricans were either white, castizos, mestizos, with 80% being white or Castizos.

Mexico

See also: Chinese immigration to Mexico

A marriage between a Chinese man and a white Mexican woman was recorded in "Current anthropological literature, Volumes 1–2", published in 1912, titled "Note on two children born to a Chinese and a Mexican white"- "Note sur deux enfants nes d'un chinois et d une mexicaine de race blanche. (Ibid., 122–125, portr.) Treats briefly of Chen Tean (of Hong Kong), his wife, Inez Mancha (a white Mexican), married in 1907, and their children, a boy (b. April 14, 1908) and a girl (b. Sept. 24, 1909). The boy is of marked Chinese type, the girl much more European. No Mongolian spots were noticed at birth. Both children were born with red cheeks. Neither has ever been sick. The boy began to walk at ten months, the girl a little after a year."[147][148][149][150][151]

Mexican women and Chinese men initiated free unions with each other as recorded by the Chihuahua and Sonora census records, a number Chinese men and their Mexican wives and children came to China to live there while a big number of Chinese-Mexican families were entirely expelled from northern Mexico to China, during the early 1930s 500 Chinese-Mexican families, numbering around 2,000 people in total came to China, with a large number of them settling in Portuguese Macau and forming their own ghetto there since they were drawn to the Catholic and Iberian culture of Macau.[152] A lot of couples ended up divorcing in China due to a huge variety of factors which caused stress like culture, economic, and familial with the men leaving Macau with hundreds of Mexican women and mixed children alone. Mexican women in Macau rearing their mixed Chinese children wanted to return to Mexico saying "Even if we have to scrape bittersweet potatoes in the sierra, we want Mexico." and Mexico under President Lázaro Cardenas allowed over 400 Mexican women and their children to come back in 1937–1938 after the women petitioned, after World War II, some Chinese Mexican families also came back and after a petition by mixed race Chinese-Mexicans who had been deported from Mexico and raised in Macau led another campaign to allow them to return home in 1960.[153] Children which were born to Mexican women and sired by Chinese men were counted as ethnic Chinese by Mexican census takers since they were not considered Mexicans by the general public and viewed as Chinese.[154] The Mexican ideology of mestizaje portrayed the quintessential Mexican identity as being made from a mix of indigenous native and Spanish white, with Mexico being portrayed by racial ideologues as being made out of a south populated by indigenous natives, a central part populated by mixed white-native Mestizos, and a north populated by white Spanish creoles, Sonora was where these white Spanish creoles lived, and the marriage of Chinese with Mexicans was portrayed as particularly threatening to the white identity of Sonora and to the concept of mixed mestizaje identity of indigenous natives and Spanish since the Chinese-Mexican mixed children did not fit into this identity.[155]

The anti-Chinese campaigns resulted in an exodus of Chinese leaving northern Mexican states like Sonora, Sinaloa, Coahuila, Chihuahua and Mexicali, with the Chinese and their families being stripped of the property they took with them as they were forced across the Mexican border into America, where they would be sent back to China, Dr. David Trembly MacDougal said "many of these departing Chinese have married Mexican women, some of whom with their children accompany them into exile.", and after "a lifetime of skillful and honest work" they were driven into poverty by the loss of their property.[156]

Mexico's international image was being damaged by the anti-Chinese expulsion campaign and while attempts were made to reign in anti-Chinese measures by the Mexican federal government, using the war between Japan and China as a reason to stop deporting Chinese, Mexican states continued in the anti-Chinese campaign to drive Chinese out of states like Sinora and Sinaloa with citizenship being stripped from Mexican women who were married to Chinese men, labeled as "race traitors" and from the United States, Sinaloa, and Sonora, both Mexican women, their Chinese husbands and their mixed children were expelled to China[157][158]

There was a more widespread general anti-foreign sentiment sweeping through Mexico which was against Arabs, eastern Europeans, and Jews, in addition to Chinese, with the anti-Chinese movement being part of this bigger campaign, a Mexican anti-foreign pamphlet exhorted Mexicans to "not spend one penny on the Chinese, Russians, Poles, Czechoslovacs, Lithuanians, Greeks, Jews, Sirio-Lebanese, etc." a poster advocated "boycott sabotage, and expulsion from the country of all foreigners in general, considered as pernicious and undesirable." and warned against Chinese men marrying Mexican women, saying "WHATEVER IT COSTS, MEXICAN WOMAN! Do not fall asleep, help your racial brothers boycott the undesirable foreigners, who steal the bread from our children."[159]

Many Chinese migrated into Sinaloa and into cities such as Mazatlán up to the 1920s where they engaged in business and married Mexican women, this led to the expulsion of Chinese in the 1930s and Sinaloa passed laws expelling the Chinese in 1933, leading to the break up of mixed Chinese Mexican families and Mexican women to be deported to China with their Chinese husbands.[160]

After several hundred Chinese men and their mixed families of Mexican wives and Mexican Chinese children were expelled from Mexico into the United States, the Immigration and Naturalization Service (INS) took charge of these people, took their testimonies and labelled them as refugees before sending them to China, the U.S. immigration employees also included under the category "Chinese refugees from Mexico", the Mexican women and mixed Chinese Mexican children who accompanied the Chinese men and sent them all to China instead of sending the mixed children and Mexican women to Mexico in spite of it having been cheaper, since at this era of history laws and convention regarding citizenship held that women were controlled by their husbands and when they married foreign men, women had their citizenship stripped from them so the women were dealt with by their husbands' standing and conditions so while Chinese men had their testimonies collected, the Mexican women were not interviewed by U.S. immigration officials, and the Mexican women and the mixed Chinese Mexican families were sent to China, even Mexican women who were not officially married but were engaged in relationships with Chinese men. Sinaloa and Sonora saw most of their Chinese population and mixed Chinese Mexican families deported due to the virulent anti-Chinese movement.[161]

The anti-Chinese sentiment in Mexico was spurred on by the onset of the Great Depression, Chinese started to come to Mexico in the late 19th century and the majority of them were in trade and owners of businesses when the Maderistas came into power, marrying Mexican women and siring mixed race children with them which resulted in a law banning Chinese-Mexican marriages in 1923 in Sonora and another law forcing Chinese into ghettos two years after, and in Sinaloa, Sonora, and Chihuahua, the Chinese were driven out in the early 1930s with northern Mexico seeing 11,000 Chinese expelled in total.[162]

The maternal grandfather of Mexican singer Ana Gabriel was a Chinese man named Yang Quing Yong Chizon who adopted the name Roberto in Mexico.

United States

See also: Amerasian, Hafu, and Hapa

According to the United States Census Bureau, concerning multi-racial families in 1990:[163]

In the United States, census data indicate that the number of children in interracial families grew from less than one half million in 1970 to about two million in 1990. In 1990, for interracial families with one white American partner, the other parent...was Asian American for 45 percent...

According to James P. Allen and Eugene Turner from California State University, Northridge, by some calculations, the largest part-European bi-racial population is European/Native American and Alaskan Native, at 7,015,017; followed by European/African at 737,492; then European/Asian at 727,197; and finally European/Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander at 125,628.[164]

The U.S. census has categorized Eurasian responses in the "Some other race" section as belonging to the Asian category.[165] The Eurasian responses the US census officially recognizes are Indo-European, Amerasian, and Eurasian.[165] Starting with the 2000 census, people have been allowed to mark more than one "race" on the U.S. census, and many have identified as both Asian and European. Defining Eurasians as those who were marked as both "white" and "Asian" in the census, there were 868,395 Eurasians in the United States in 2000 and 1,623,234 in 2010.[4]

Accusations of support for miscegenation were commonly made by slavery defenders against abolitionists before the US Civil War. After the War, similar charges were used by white segregationists against advocates of equal rights for African Americans. They were said to be secretly plotting the destruction of the white race through miscegenation. In the 1950s, segregationists alleged a Communist plot funded by the Soviet Union with that goal. In 1957, segregationists cite the antisemitic hoax A Racial Program for the Twentieth Century as evidence for these claims.

From the nineteenth to the mid-twentieth century, the Chinese who migrated to the United States were almost entirely of Cantonese origin. Anti-miscegenation laws in many states prohibited Chinese men from marrying white women.[166] In the mid-1850s, 70 to 150 Chinese were living in New York City, and 11 of them married Irish women. In 1906 the New York Times (6 August) reported that 300 white women (Irish American) were married to Chinese men in New York, with many more cohabited. In 1900, based on Liang research, of the 120,000 men in more than 20 Chinese communities in the United States, he estimated that one out of every 20 Chinese men (Cantonese) was married to white women.[167] In the 1960s census showed 3500 Chinese men married to white women and 2900 Chinese women married to white men.[168]

Twenty-five percent of married Asian American women have white spouses, but 45% of cohabitating Asian American women are with white American men. Of cohabiting Asian men, slightly over 37% of Asian men have white female partners and over 10% married to white women.[169] Asian American women and Asian American men live with a white partner, 40% and 27%, respectively (Le, 2006b). In 2008, of new marriages including an Asian man, 80% were to an Asian spouse and 14% to a white spouse; of new marriages involving an Asian woman, 61% were to an Asian spouse and 31% to a white spouse.[170]

Hawaii

See also: Chinese Hawaiian and Hapa

The majority of early Hawaiian Chinese were Cantonese-speaking immigrants, with a small number of Hakka speakers. If all people with Chinese ancestry in Hawaii (including the Sino-Hawaiians) are included, they form about one-third of Hawaii's entire population. Many thousands of them married women of Hawaiian, Hawaiian/European and European origin. A large percentage of the Chinese men married Hawaiian and Hawaiian European women. While a minority married white women in Hawaii were with Portuguese women. The 12,592 Asiatic Hawaiians enumerated in 1930 were the result of Chinese men intermarrying with Hawaiian and part Hawaiian European. Most Asiatic Hawaiians men also married Hawaiians and European women (and vice versa). On the census some Chinese with little native blood would be classified as Chinese not an Asiatic Hawaiians due to dilution of native blood. Intermarriage started to decline in the 1920s.[171][172][173] Portuguese and other Caucasian women married Chinese men.[174][175] These unions between Chinese men and Portuguese women resulted in children of mixed Chinese Portuguese parentage, called Chinese-Portuguese. For two years to 30 June 1933, 38 of these children were born, they were classified as pure Chinese because their fathers were Chinese.[176] A large amount of mingling took place between Chinese and Portuguese, Chinese men married Portuguese, Spanish, Hawaiian, Caucasian-Hawaiian, etc.[177][178][179][180] Only one Chinese man was recorded marrying an American woman.[181][182] Chinese men in Hawaii also married Puerto Rican, Portuguese, Japanese, Greek, and half-white women.[183][184]

Oceania

Australia

Most of the early Australian Chinese population consisted of Cantonese-speaking migrants from Guangzhou and Taishan as well as some Hokkien-speaking immigrants. They migrated to Australia during the gold rush period of the 1850s. Marriage records show that between the 1850s and the start of the twentieth century, there were about 2000 legal marriages between white women and migrant Chinese men in Australia's eastern colonies, probably with similar numbers involved in de facto relationships of various kinds.[185]

A Chinese man Sun San Lung and his son by his white European Australian wife Lizzie in Castlemaine returned to China in 1887 for a trip after marrying a second white wife after Lizzie died, but they were blocked from coming back to Melbourne. Chinese men were found living with 73 opium addicted Australian white women when Quong Tart surveyed the goldfields for opium addicts, and many homeless women abused by husbands and prostitutes ran away and married Chinese men in Sydney after taking refuge in Chinese opium dens in gambling houses, Reverend Francis Hopkins said that "A Chinaman's Anglo-Saxon wife is almost his God, a European's is his slave. This is the reason why so many girls transfer their affections to the almond-eyed Celestials." when giving the reason why these women married Chinese men.[186] After the gold mining ended some Chinese remained in Australia and started families, one youthful Englishwoman married a Chinese in 1870 in Bendigo and the Golden Dragon Museum is run by his great-grandson Russell Jack.[187]

The Australian sniper Billy Sing was the son of a Chinese father and an English mother.[188][189][190][191] His parents were John Sing (c. 1842–1921), a drover from Shanghai, China, and Mary Ann Sing (née Pugh; c. 1857–unknown), a nurse from Kingswinford, Staffordshire, England.[192][193]

The rate of intermarriage declined as stories of the viciousness of Chinese men towards white women spread, mixed with increasing opposition to intermarriage. In late 1878, there were 181 marriages between women of European descent and Chinese men as well as 171 such couples cohabiting without matrimony, resulting in the birth of 586 children of Sino-European descent.[194] Such a rate of intermarriage between Chinese Australians and white Australians was to continue until the 1930s.[citation needed]

South America

Argentina

Main article: Asian Argentines

Today, there are an estimated of 180,000 Asian-Argentines, with 120,000 of Chinese descent,[195] 32,000 of Japanese descent, 25,000 of Korean descent.[196]

Brazil

Main article: Asian Brazilians

Common estimates generally include about 25–35% of Japanese Brazilians as multiracial, being generally over 50–60% among the yonsei, or fourth-generation outside Japan. In Brazil, home to the largest Japanese community overseas, miscegenation is celebrated, and it promoted racial integration and mixing over the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, nevertheless as a way of dealing with and assimilating its non-white population, submitted to white elites, with no dangers of uprisings that would put its status quo in risk[citation needed]. While culture shock was strong for the first and second generations of Japanese Brazilians, and the living conditions in the fazendas (plantation farms) after the slavery crisis were sometimes worse than in Asia, Brazil stimulated immigration as means of substitution for the lost workforce, and any qualms about the non-whiteness of the Japanese were quickly forgotten. After Japan became one of the world's most developed and rich nations, the Japanese in Brazil and their culture as well gained an image of progress, instead of the old bad perception of a people which would not be assimilated or integrated as its culture and race were deemed as diametrically opposed to the Brazilian ones.

In the censuses, self-reported amarelos (literally "yellows" i.e. Mongolics, people racially East Asian) include about 2,100,000 people, or around 1% of the Brazilian population. A greater number of persons may have Japanese and less commonly Chinese and Korean ancestry, but identify as white (Brazilian society has no one drop rule), pardo (i.e. brown-skinned multiracial or assimilated Amerindian, pardo stands for a Brazilian darker than white and lighter than black, but not necessarily implying a white-black admixture) or Afro-Brazilian. When it comes to religion, self-reported Asian Brazilians are only less Irreligious than whites, and a little more Catholic than Amerindians. They are the least group when it comes to traditional churches of Christianity, and also the least group in percent of Protestants, and Evangelicals or Pentecostals as well. Asian Brazilians have the highest income per capita according to the 2010 census.

Peru

See also: Asian Peruvians

About 100,000 Cantonese coolies (almost all males) in 1849 to 1874 migrated to Peru and intermarried with Peruvian women of mestizo, European, Amerindian, European/mestizo (castizo), African and mulatto origin. Many Peruvian Chinese and Peruvian Japanese today are of Spanish, Italian, German, African and American origin. Estimates for Chinese-Peruvian is about 1.3–1.6 millions. Asian Peruvians are estimated to be 3% of the population, but one source places the number of citizens with some Chinese ancestry at 4.2 million, which equates to 15% of the country's total population. In Peru, non-Chinese women married the mostly male Chinese coolies.[197]

See also

References

  1. ^ a b (PDF). 30 September 2011. Archived from the original (PDF) on 30 September 2011.
  2. ^ "Archived copy". from the original on 24 February 2016. Retrieved 25 December 2012.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
  3. ^ "CBS StatLine – Bevolking; generatie, geslacht, leeftijd en herkomstgroepering, 1 januari". Statline.cbs.nl. Retrieved 9 January 2018.
  4. ^ a b "U.S. census website". United States Census Bureau. Retrieved 2 January 2014. Defining Eurasians as those who were marked as both "white" and "Asian", in the 2010 census there were 1,623,234 Eurasians in the United States.
  5. ^ (PDF). Cbs.nl. Archived from the original (PDF) on 22 August 2018. Retrieved 9 January 2018.
  6. ^ a b Hong Kong Government. . Archived from the original on 12 June 2017. Retrieved 5 February 2014. 24,649 people identified as "Mixed with one Chinese parent", according to the 2011 Hong Kong census.
  7. ^ "Spanish Colonial Caste System in the Philippines" (PDF). Retrieved 22 August 2018.[permanent dead link]
  8. ^ . Channel NewsAsia. 23 February 2013. Archived from the original on 25 December 2013 – via XinMSN. "There are close to 18,000 Eurasians in Singapore".
  9. ^ Jarnagin, Laura (2012). Portuguese and Luso-Asian Legacies in Southeast Asia, 1511–2011: Culture and identity in the Luso-Asian world, tenacities & plasticities. Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. p. 268. "Today, there are over twenty-nine thousand Eurasians living in Malaysia, the vast majority of whom are of Portuguese descent."
  10. ^ Yee, H. (12 September 2001). Macau in Transition: From Colony to Autonomous Region. Springer. ISBN 9780230599369 – via Google Books.
  11. ^ "A2: Population by ethnic group according to districts, 2012" (PDF). Census of Population & Housing, 2011. Department of Census & Statistics, Sri Lanka. 2012.
  12. ^ Meiqi Lee (2004). Being Eurasian: Memories Across Racial Divides (illustrated ed.). Hong Kong University Press. p. 2. ISBN 978-962-209-671-4.
  13. ^ Current Anthropology, Vol. 2, No. 1 (February 1961), p. 64.
  14. ^ González-Ruiz, Mercedes; Santos, Cristina; Jordana, Xavier; Simón, Marc; Lalueza-Fox, Carles; Gigli, Elena; Pilar Aluja, Maria; Malgosa, Assumpció (2012). "Tracing the Origin of the East-West Population Admixture in the Altai Region (Central Asia)". PLOS ONE. 7 (11): 1. Bibcode:2012PLoSO...748904G. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0048904. PMC 3494716. PMID 23152818.
  15. ^ . Archived from the original on 15 October 2014.
  16. ^ Fu ren da xue (Beijing, China), S.V.D. Research Institute, Society of the Divine Word – 2003
  17. ^ Tumen D., "Anthropology of Archaeological Populations from Northeast Asia [1] 29 July 2013 at the Wayback Machine page 25, 27
  18. ^ Keyser-Tracqui C, Crubézy E, Ludes B (August 2003). "Nuclear and mitochondrial DNA analysis of a 2,000-year-old necropolis in the Egyin Gol Valley of Mongolia". American Journal of Human Genetics. 73 (2): 247–60. doi:10.1086/377005. PMC 1180365. PMID 12858290.
  19. ^ SA Pletnev. "Google Translate". p. 2.
  20. ^ Bóna, István: "A Nagyrév-kultúra településeirol", 1991, p.30. In: Hyun Jin Kim, "The Huns, Rome and the Birth of Europe August 21, 2016, at the Wayback Machine", Cambridge University Press, p.187
  21. ^ Lipták, Pál. (1955) – In: Acta archaeologica Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae, vol. 6 (1955), pp. 231–314
  22. ^ Acta archaeologica Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae. Magyar Tudományos Akadémia. 1967. p. 86.
  23. ^ Bogacsi-Szabo, Erika; Kalmar, Tibor; Csanyi, Bernadett; Tomory, Gyongyver; Czibula, Agnes; Priskin, Katalin; Horvath, Ferenc; Downes, Christopher Stephen; Rasko, Istvan (October 2005). "Mitochondrial DNA of Ancient Cumanians: Culturally Asian Steppe Nomadic Immigrants with Substantially More Western Eurasian Mitochondrial DNA Lineages". Human Biology. 77 (5): 639–662. doi:10.1353/hub.2006.0007. ISSN 0018-7143. LCCN 31029123. OCLC 1752384. PMID 16596944. S2CID 13801005.
  24. ^ Damgaard, Peter de Barros; Marchi, Nina; Rasmussen, Simon; Peyrot, Michaël; Renaud, Gabriel; Korneliussen, Thorfinn; Moreno-Mayar, J. Víctor; Pedersen, Mikkel Winther; Goldberg, Amy; Usmanova, Emma; Baimukhanov, Nurbol (May 2018). "137 ancient human genomes from across the Eurasian steppes". Nature. 557 (7705): 369–374. Bibcode:2018Natur.557..369D. doi:10.1038/s41586-018-0094-2. hdl:1887/3202709. ISSN 1476-4687. PMID 29743675. S2CID 13670282.
  25. ^ Roy, Olivier (1 October 2007). The New Central Asia: Geopolitics and the Birth of Nations Paperback. New York: New York University Press. p. 6. ISBN 978-0814776094.
  26. ^ .Central Asian world cities (XI – XIII century)faculty.washington.edu
  27. ^ Ramirez-Faria, Carlos (30 June 2007). Concise Encyclopeida Of World History. New Delhi: Atlantic Publishers & Distributors. p. 120. ISBN 978-8126907755.
  28. ^ H. Schram, Robert (16 September 2013). Mixed Marriage . . . Interreligious, Interracial, Interethnic. Bloomington, Indiana: Xlibris. p. 125. ISBN 978-1483688152.
  29. ^ Villems, Richard; Khusnutdinova, Elza; Kivisild, Toomas; Yepiskoposyan, Levon; Voevoda, Mikhail; Osipova, Ludmila; Malyarchuk, Boris; Derenko, Miroslava; Damba, Larisa (21 April 2015). "The Genetic Legacy of the Expansion of Turkic-Speaking Nomads across Eurasia". PLOS Genetics. 11 (4): e1005068. doi:10.1371/journal.pgen.1005068. ISSN 1553-7404. PMC 4405460. PMID 25898006.
  30. ^ Heyer, Evelyne; Balaresque, Patricia; Jobling, Mark A.; Quintana-Murci, Lluis; Chaix, Raphaelle; Segurel, Laure; Aldashev, Almaz; Hegay, Tanya (1 September 2009). "Genetic diversity and the emergence of ethnic groups in Central Asia". BMC Genetics. 10 (1): 49. doi:10.1186/1471-2156-10-49. ISSN 1471-2156. PMC 2745423. PMID 19723301.
  31. ^ Uchiyama, Junzo; Gillam, J. Christopher; Savelyev, Alexander; Ning, Chao (2020). "Populations dynamics in Northern Eurasian forests: a long-term perspective from Northeast Asia". Evolutionary Human Sciences. 2. doi:10.1017/ehs.2020.11. hdl:21.11116/0000-0007-7733-A. ISSN 2513-843X. S2CID 219470000.
  32. ^ Halperin, Charles J. (1987). Russia and the Golden Horde: The Mongol Impact on Medieval Russian History. Indiana University Press. p. 111. ISBN 978-0-253-20445-5.
  33. ^ https://mk-kz.kz/social/2022/07/30/kolichestvo-mezhnacionalnykh-brakov-podschitali-v-kazakhstane.html. {{cite web}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)
  34. ^ "Soviet Sociology". International Arts and Sciences Press. 22 October 1972. Retrieved 22 October 2017 – via Google Books.
  35. ^ a b Thomas A. Bass. Vietnamerica: The War Comes Home. New York: Soho Press, 1996, p. 86
  36. ^ The Royal House of Cambodia, Julio A. Jeldres, Monument Books, 2003, p. 69
  37. ^ van Amersfoort, H. (1982). "Immigration and the formation of minority groups: the Dutch experience 1945–1975". Cambridge University Press. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  38. ^ Sjaardema, H. (1946). "One View on the Position of the Eurasian in Indonesian Society". The Journal of Asian Studies. 5 (2): 172–175. doi:10.2307/2049742. JSTOR 2049742. S2CID 158287493.
  39. ^ Bosma, U. (2012). Post-colonial Immigrants and Identity Formations in the Netherlands. Amsterdam University Press. p. 198.
  40. ^ a b c van Imhoff, E.; Beets, G. (2004). "A demographic history of the Indo-Dutch population, 1930–2001". Journal of Population Research. 21 (1): 47–49. doi:10.1007/bf03032210. S2CID 53645470.
  41. ^ Lai, Selena (2002). Understanding Indonesia in the 21st Century. Stanford University Institute for International Studies. p. 12.
  42. ^ J. Errington, Linguistics in a Colonial World: A Story of Language, 2008, Wiley-Blackwell, p. 138
  43. ^ The Colonial Review. Department of Education in Tropical Areas, University of London, Institute of Education. 1941. p. 72.
  44. ^ Bosma, U.; Raben, R. (2008). Being "Dutch" in the Indies: a history of creolisation and empire, 1500–1920. University of Michigan, NUS Press. pp. 21, 37, 220. ISBN 978-9971-69-373-2. Indos–people of Dutch descent who stayed in the new republic Indonesia after it gained independence, or who emigrated to Indonesia after 1949–are called Dutch-Indonesians. Although the majority of the Indos are found in the lowest strata of European society, they do not represent a solid social or economic group."
  45. ^ van der Veur, P. (1968). "The Eurasians of Indonesia: A Problem and Challenge in Colonial History". Journal of Southeast Asian History. 9 (2): 191. doi:10.1017/s021778110000466x.
  46. ^ Knight, G. (2012). "East of the Cape in 1832: The Old Indies World, Empire Families and "Colonial Women" in Nineteenth-century Java". Itinerario. 36: 22–48. doi:10.1017/s0165115312000356. S2CID 163411444.
  47. ^ Greenbaum-Kasson, E. (2011). "The long way home". Los Angeles Times.
  48. ^ Betts, R. (2004). Decolonization. Psychology Press. p. 81.
  49. ^ Yanowa, D.; van der Haar, M. (2012). "People out of place: allochthony and autochthony in the Netherlands' identity discourse—metaphors and categories in action". Journal of International Relations and Development. 16 (2): 227–261. doi:10.1057/jird.2012.13. S2CID 145401956.
  50. ^ Pattynama, P. (2012). "Cultural memory and Indo-Dutch identity formations". The University of Amsterdam: 175–192. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  51. ^ Asrianti, Tifa (10 January 2010). "Dutch Indonesians' search for home". The Jakarta Post.
  52. ^ Laura Jarnagin (2012). Portuguese and Luso-Asian Legacies in Southeast Asia, 1511–2011: Culture and identity in the Luso-Asian world, tenacities & plasticities. Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. p. 268.
  53. ^ (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 14 February 2010. Retrieved 18 December 2009.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
  54. ^ Fëdor Jagor et al. (1870). The Former Philippines thru Foreign Eyes
  55. ^ Go MC, Jones AR, Algee-Hewitt B, Dudzik B, Hughes C (2019). "Classification Trends among Contemporary Filipino Crania Using Fordisc 3.1". Human Biology. University of Florida Press. 2 (4): 1–11. doi:10.5744/fa.2019.1005. Retrieved 13 September 2020. [Page 1] ABSTRACT: Filipinos represent a significant contemporary demographic group globally, yet they are underrepresented in the forensic anthropological literature. Given the complex population history of the Philippines, it is important to ensure that traditional methods for assessing the biological profile are appropriate when applied to these peoples. Here we analyze the classification trends of a modern Filipino sample (n = 110) when using the Fordisc 3.1 (FD3) software. We hypothesize that Filipinos represent an admixed population drawn largely from Asian and marginally from European parental gene pools, such that FD3 will classify these individuals morphometrically into reference samples that reflect a range of European admixture, in quantities from small to large. Our results show the greatest classification into Asian reference groups (72.7%), followed by Hispanic (12.7%), Indigenous American (7.3%), African (4.5%), and European (2.7%) groups included in FD3. This general pattern did not change between males and females. Moreover, replacing the raw craniometric values with their shape variables did not significantly alter the trends already observed. These classification trends for Filipino crania provide useful information for casework interpretation in forensic laboratory practice. Our findings can help biological anthropologists to better understand the evolutionary, population historical, and statistical reasons for FD3-generated classifications. The results of our studyindicate that ancestry estimation in forensic anthropology would benefit from population-focused research that gives consideration to histories of colonialism and periods of admixture.
  56. ^ Historical Conservation Society. The Society. 1963. p. 191.
  57. ^ Sinibaldo De Mas (1963). Informe secreto de Sinibaldo de Más. Historical Conservation Society. p. 191.
  58. ^ Shubert S. C. Liao (1964). Chinese participation in Philippine culture and economy. Bookman. p. 30.
  59. ^ Emma Helen Blair (1915). The Philippine Islands, 1493–1898: Relating to China and the Chinese. A.H. Clark Company. pp. 85–87.
  60. ^ L. Hunt, Chester, "Sociology in the Philippine setting: A modular approach", p. 118, Phoenix Pub. House, 1954
  61. ^ Frederic H. Sawyer, "The Inhabitants of the Philippines, p. 125, New York, 1900
  62. ^ Asian and Pacific Migration Journal 24 (2), 'The postcolonial ambiguities of Eurasian pan-ethnicity in Singapore', J. Lowe and M. Mac an Ghaill (2015, Page 234); Indonesia and the Malay World 43 (126), 'Children of Decolonisation: Postcolonial (Indo) Eurasian Communities in Indonesia and the Netherlands', R. Hewett (2015, Page 192)
  63. ^ "I'm Eurasian Singaporean, not ang moh". from the original on 8 September 2013.
  64. ^ "More than Devil Curry". Todayonline.com. Retrieved 29 May 2018.
  65. ^ . Time. 23 April 2001. Archived from the original on 27 November 2006.
  66. ^ Williams-León, Teresa; Nakashima, Cynthia L. (2001). The sum of our parts: mixed-heritage Asian Americans – Teresa Williams-León, Cynthia L. Nakashima – Google Books. ISBN 9781566398473.
  67. ^ Reid, Anthony (1990). Southeast Asia in the Age of Commerce, 1450–1680: The lands below the winds. Vol. 1 of Southeast Asia in the Age of Commerce, 1450–1680 (illustrated, reprint, revised ed.). New Haven: Yale University Press. p. 165. ISBN 978-0-300-04750-9.
  68. ^ MacLeod, Murdo J.; Rawski, Evelyn Sakakida, eds. (1998). European Intruders and Changes in Behaviour and Customs in Africa, America, and Asia Before 1800. Vol. 30 of An Expanding World, the European Impact on World History, 1450–1800, Vol 30 (illustrated, reprint ed.). Ashgate. p. 636. ISBN 978-0-86078-522-4.
  69. ^ Hughes, Sarah S.; Hughes, Brady, eds. (1995). Women in World History: Readings from prehistory to 1500. Vol. 1 of Sources and studies in world history (illustrated ed.). M.E. Sharpe. p. 219. ISBN 978-1-56324-311-0.
  70. ^ Tingley, Nancy (2009). Asia Society. Museum (ed.). Arts of Ancient Viet Nam: From River Plain to Open Sea. Andreas Reinecke, Museum of Fine Arts, Houston (illustrated ed.). Asia Society. p. 249. ISBN 978-0-300-14696-7.
  71. ^ Hamilton, Alexander (1997). Smithies, Michael (ed.). Alexander Hamilton: A Scottish Sea Captain in Southeast Asia, 1689–1723 (illustrated, reprint ed.). Silkworm Books. p. 205. ISBN 978-9747100457.
  72. ^ a b Patricia Pok‐kwan Chiu (November 2008). "'A position of usefulness': gendering history of girls' education in colonial Hong Kong (1850s–1890s)". History of Education: Journal of the History of Education Society. Routledge. 37 (6): 799.
  73. ^ Meiqi Lee (2004). Being Eurasian: Memories Across Racial Divides (illustrated ed.). Hong Kong University Press. p. 262. ISBN 978-962-209-671-4. EJ Eitel, in the late 1890s, claims that the 'half-caste population in Hong Kong ' were from the earliest days of the settlement almost exclusively the offspring of liaisons between European men and women of outcaste ethnic groups such as Tanka (Europe in, 169). Lethbridge refutes the theory saying it was based on a 'myth' propagated by xenophobic Cantonese to account for the establishment of the Hong Kong Eurasian community. Carl Smith's study in the late 1960s on the protected women seems, to some degree, support Eitel's theory. Smith says that the Tankas experienced certain restrictions within the traditional Chinese social structure. Custom precluded their intermarriage with the Cantonese and Hakka-speaking populations. The Tanka women did not have bound feet. Their opportunities for settlement on shore were limited. They were hence not as closely tied to Confucian ethics as other Chinese ethnic groups. Being a group marginal to the traditional Chinese society of the Puntis (Cantonese), they did not have the same social pressure in dealing with Europeans (CT Smith, Chung Chi Bulletin, 27). 'Living under the protection of a foreigner,' says Smith, 'could be a ladder to financial security, if not respectability, for some of the Tanka boat girls' (13 ).
  74. ^ Maria Jaschok; Suzanne Miers (1994). Maria Jaschok; Suzanne Miers (eds.). Women and Chinese patriarchy: submission, servitude, and escape (illustrated ed.). Zed Books. p. 223. ISBN 978-1-85649-126-6. He states that they had a near- monopoly of the trade in girls and women, and that: The half-caste population in Hong Kong were, from the earliest days of the settlement of the Colony and down to the present day, almost exclusively the offspring of these Tan-ka people. But, like the Tan-ka people themselves, they are happily under the influence of a process of continuous re-absorption in the mass of Chinese residents of the Colony (1895 p. 169)
  75. ^ Helen F. Siu (2011). Helen F. Siu (ed.). Merchants' Daughters: Women, Commerce, and Regional Culture in South. Hong Kong University Press. p. 305. ISBN 978-988-8083-48-0. "The half-caste population of Hongkong were . . . almost exclusively the offspring of these Tan-ka women." EJ Eitel, Europe in, the History of Hongkong from the Beginning to the Year 1882 (Taipei: Chen-Wen Publishing Co., originally published in Hong Kong by Kelly and Walsh. 1895, 1968), 169.
  76. ^ Henry J. Lethbridge (1978). Hong Kong, stability and change: a collection of essays. Oxford University Press. p. 75. ISBN 9780195804027. The half-caste population in Hong Kong were, from the earliest days of the settlement of the Colony and down to the present day [1895], almost exclusively the off-spring of these Tan-ka people
  77. ^ Andrew, Elizabeth Wheeler; Bushnell, Katharine Caroline (2006). Heathen Slaves and Christian Rulers. Echo Library. p. 11. ISBN 978-1-4068-0431-7.
  78. ^ John Mark Carroll (2007). A concise history of Hong Kong (illustrated ed.). Rowman & Littlefield. p. 36. ISBN 978-0-7425-3422-3. Most of the Chinese who came to Hong Kong in the early years were from the lower classes, such as labourers, artisans, Tanka outcasts, prostitutes, wanderers, and smugglers. That these people violated orders from authorities in Canton
  79. ^ Maria Jaschok; Suzanne Miers (1994). Maria Jaschok; Suzanne Miers (eds.). Women and Chinese patriarchy: submission, servitude, and escape (illustrated ed.). Zed Books. p. 237. ISBN 978-1-85649-126-6. I am indebted to Dr Maria Jaschok for drawing my attention to Sun Guoqun's work on Chinese prostitution and for a reference to Tanka prostitutes who served Western clients. In this they were unlike typical prostitutes who were so unaccustomed to the appearance of western men that 'they were all afraid of them'.
  80. ^ Henry J. Lethbridge (1978). Hong Kong, stability and change: a collection of essays. Oxford University Press. p. 75. ISBN 9780195804027. but another source of supply was the daughters of the tanka, the boat population of kwangtung
  81. ^ Henry J. Lethbridge (1978). Hong Kong, stability and change: a collection of essays. Oxford University Press. p. 75. ISBN 9780195804027. The Tanka, it seems, not only supplied foreign shipping with provisions but foreigners with mistresses. They also supplied brothels with some of their inmates. As a socially disadvantaged group, they found prostitution a convenient
  82. ^ Henry J. Lethbridge (1978). Hong Kong, stability and change: a collection of essays. Oxford University Press. p. 210. ISBN 9780195804027. In the early days, such women were found usually among the Tanka boat population, a pariah group that infested the Pearl River delta region. A few of these women achieved the status of 'protected' woman (a kept mistress) and were
  83. ^ Fanny M. Cheung (1997). Fanny M. Cheung (ed.). EnGendering Hong Kong society: a gender perspective of women's status (illustrated ed.). Chinese University Press. p. 348. ISBN 978-962-201-736-8. twentieth century, in women doubly marginalised: as members of a despised ethnic group of Tanka Boat people, and as prostitutes engaged in "contemptible" sexual intercourse with Western men. In the empirical work done by CT Smith (1994)
  84. ^ Elizabeth Wheeler Andrew; Katharine Caroline Bushnell (1907). Heathen Slaves and Christian Rulers. Echo Library. p. 11. ISBN 978-1-4068-0431-7.
  85. ^ John Mark Carroll (2007). A concise history of Hong Kong. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 36. ISBN 978-0-7425-3422-3. Most of the Chinese who came to Hong Kong in the early years were from the lower classes, such as laborers, artisans, Tanka outcasts, prostitutes, wanderers, and smugglers. That these people violated orders from authorities in Canton
  86. ^ Henry J. Lethbridge (1978). Hong Kong, stability and change: a collection of essays. Oxford University Press. p. 75. This exceptional class of Chinese residents here in Hong Kong consists principally of the women known in Hong Kong by the popular nickname " ham-shui- mui " (lit. salt water girls), applied to these members of the so-called Tan-ka or boat
  87. ^ Peter Hodge (1980). Peter Hodge (ed.). Community problems and social work in Southeast Asia: the Hong Kong and Singapore experience. Hong Kong University Press. p. 33. ISBN 978-962-209-022-4. exceptional class of Chinese residents here in Hong Kong consists principally of the women known in Hong Kong by the popular nickname " ham-shui- mui " (lit. salt water girls), applied to these members of the so-called Tan-ka or boat
  88. ^ . Archived from the original on 22 August 2016. Retrieved 9 August 2016.
  89. ^ Porter, Jonathan (1996). Macau, the imaginary city: culture and society, 1557 to the present. WestviewPress. p. 78. ISBN 9780813328362.
  90. ^ . www.bjrhby.com. Archived from the original on 9 March 2012.
  91. ^ a b "9781157453604 – Alibris Marketplace". alibris.com.
  92. ^ Between China and Europe: person, culture and emotion in Macao, By João de Pina-Cabral, page 164
  93. ^ João de Pina-Cabral (2002). Between China and Europe: person, culture and emotion in Macao. Vol. 74 of London School of Economics monographs on social anthropology (illustrated ed.). Berg. p. 165. ISBN 978-0-8264-5749-3. Retrieved 1 March 2012.
  94. ^ João de Pina-Cabral (2002). Between China and Europe: Person, Culture and Emotion in Macao. Berg Publishers. p. 165. ISBN 978-0-8264-5748-6.
  95. ^ João de Pina-Cabral (2002). Between China and Europe: person, culture and emotion in Macao. Vol. 74 of London School of Economics monographs on social anthropology (illustrated ed.). Berg. p. 39. ISBN 978-0-8264-5749-3.
  96. ^ Moffett, Samuel H. (1998). A History of Christianity in Asia: 1500–1900. Bishop Henry McNeal Turner Studies in North American Black Religion Series. Vol. 2 of A History of Christianity in Asia: 1500–1900. Volume 2 (2, illustrated, reprint ed.). Orbis Books. p. 222. ISBN 978-1-57075-450-0.
  97. ^ Moffett, Samuel H. (2005). A history of Christianity in Asia, Volume 2 (2 ed.). Orbis Books. p. 222. ISBN 978-1-57075-450-0.
  98. ^ Free China Review, Volume 11. W.Y. Tsao. 1961. p. 54.
  99. ^ Covell, Ralph R. (1998). Pentecost of the Hills in Taiwan: The Christian Faith Among the Original Inhabitants (illustrated ed.). Hope Publishing House. p. 96. ISBN 978-0-932727-90-9.
  100. ^ a b c d Entangled Histories: The Transcultural Past of Northeast China (PDF). London: Springer. 2014. pp. 47–58.
  101. ^ "神秘室韦 中国唯一俄罗斯族民族乡(组图)". 乐途旅游网. 3 July 2014.
  102. ^ Akaha, Tsuneo; Vassilieva, Anna, eds. (2005). Crossing National Borders: Human Migration Issues in Northeast Asia. United Nations University Press. p. 112. ISBN 9789280811179. Retrieved 18 November 2018.
  103. ^ Eui-Young Yu and Earl H. Phillips, Korean women in transition: at home and abroad, Center for Korean-American and Korean Studies, California State University, Los Angeles, 1987, p. 185 ISBN 0-942831-00-4.
  104. ^ "Mixed Race Children in 1960s–70s Korea and ECLAIR". Presbyterian Historical Society. 6 March 2019.
  105. ^ "Try Again | Joshua Project". from the original on 8 December 2015. Retrieved 29 November 2015.
  106. ^ a b Stark, Herbert Alick. Hostages To India: OR The Life Story of the Anglo Indian Race. Third Edition. London: The Simon Wallenberg Press: Vol 2: Anglo Indian Heritage Books
  107. ^ "Eurasian". Dictionary.com. Retrieved 13 January 2009.
  108. ^ a b Fisher, Michael H. (2007), "Excluding and Including 'Natives of India': Early-Nineteenth-Century British-Indian Race Relations in Britain", Comparative Studies of South Asia, Africa and the Middle East, 27 (2): 303–314 [304–5], doi:10.1215/1089201x-2007-007
  109. ^ Fisher, Michael Herbert (2006), Counterflows to Colonialism: Indian Traveller and Settler in Britain 1600–1857, Orient Blackswan, pp. 111–9, 129–30, 140, 154–6, 160–8, ISBN 978-81-7824-154-8
  110. ^ Fisher, Michael H. (2007), "Excluding and Including 'Natives of India': Early-Nineteenth-Century British-Indian Race Relations in Britain", Comparative Studies of South Asia, Africa and the Middle East, 27 (2): 303–314 [305], doi:10.1215/1089201x-2007-007
  111. ^ Beckman, Karen Redrobe (2003), Vanishing Women: Magic, Film, and Feminism, Duke University Press, pp. 31–3, ISBN 978-0-8223-3074-5
  112. ^ Kent, Eliza F. (2004), Converting Women, Oxford University Press US, pp. 85–6, ISBN 978-0-19-516507-4
  113. ^ Kaul, Suvir (1996), "Essay: Colonial Figures and Postcolonial Reading", Diacritics, 26 (1): 74–89 [83–9], doi:10.1353/dia.1996.0005, S2CID 144798987
  114. ^ Maher, James, Reginald. (2007). These Are The Anglo Indians, London: Simon Wallenberg Press. (An Anglo Indian Heritage Book)
  115. ^ Fisher, Michael H (2007). "Excluding and Including 'Natives of India': Early-Nineteenth-Century British-Indian Race Relations in Britain". Comparative Studies of South Asia, Africa and the Middle East. 27 (2): 303–314 [305]. doi:10.1215/1089201x-2007-007.
  116. ^ Reeves, Peter (2014). The Encyclopedia of the Sri Lankan Diaspora. Editions Didier Millet. p. 28.
  117. ^ Kemper, Steven (1 May 2001). Buying and Believing: Sri Lankan Advertising and Consumers in a Transnational World. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 9780226430416 – via Google Books.
  118. ^ Neparáczki, Endre; Maróti, Zoltán; Kalmár, Tibor; Maár, Kitti; Nagy, István; Latinovics, Dóra; Kustár, Ágnes; Pálfi, György; Molnár, Erika; Marcsik, Antónia; Balogh, Csilla (12 November 2019). "Y-chromosome haplogroups from Hun, Avar and conquering Hungarian period nomadic people of the Carpathian Basin". Scientific Reports. 9 (1): 16569. Bibcode:2019NatSR...916569N. doi:10.1038/s41598-019-53105-5. ISSN 2045-2322. PMC 6851379. PMID 31719606.
  119. ^ Csáky, Veronika; Gerber, Dániel; Koncz, István; Csiky, Gergely; Mende, Balázs G.; Szeifert, Bea; Egyed, Balázs; Pamjav, Horolma; Marcsik, Antónia; Molnár, Erika; Pálfi, György (22 January 2020). "Genetic insights into the social organisation of the Avar period elite in the 7th century AD Carpathian Basin". Scientific Reports. 10 (1): 948. Bibcode:2020NatSR..10..948C. doi:10.1038/s41598-019-57378-8. ISSN 2045-2322. PMC 6976699. PMID 31969576.
  120. ^ Saag, Lehti; Laneman, Margot; Varul, Liivi; Malve, Martin; Valk, Heiki; Razzak, Maria A.; Shirobokov, Ivan G.; Khartanovich, Valeri I.; Mikhaylova, Elena R.; Kushniarevich, Alena; Scheib, Christiana Lyn (20 May 2019). "The Arrival of Siberian Ancestry Connecting the Eastern Baltic to Uralic Speakers further East". Current Biology. 29 (10): 1701–1711.e16. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2019.04.026. ISSN 1879-0445. PMC 6544527. PMID 31080083.
  121. ^ Hewett, Rosalind (2015). "Children of Decolonisation". Indonesia and the Malay World. 43 (126): 191–206. doi:10.1080/13639811.2014.1001598. S2CID 161120555.
  122. ^ Asia and the Great War, A Shared History By Guoqi Xu · 2017
  123. ^ Race, Empire and First World War Writing - Page 60, Santanu Das 2011
  124. ^ Fisher, Michael Herbert (2006), Counterflows to Colonialism: Indian Traveller and Settler in Britain 1600–1857, Orient Blackswan, pp. 106, 111–6, 119–20, 129–35, 140–2, 154–8, 160–8, 172, 181, ISBN 978-81-7824-154-8
  125. ^ Fisher, Michael Herbert (2006), "Working across the Seas: Indian Maritime Labourers in India, Britain, and in Between, 1600–1857", International of Social History, 51: 21–45, doi:10.1017/S0020859006002604
  126. ^ Ansari, Humayun (2004), The Infidel Within: The History of Muslims in Britain, 1800 to the Present, C. Hurst & Co. Publishers, p. 58, ISBN 978-1-85065-685-2
  127. ^ Ansari, Humayun (2004), The Infidel Within: The History of Muslims in Britain, 1800 to the Present, C. Hurst & Co. Publishers, p. 37, ISBN 978-1-85065-685-2
  128. ^ Fisher, Michael Herbert (2006), Counterflows to Colonialism: Indian Traveller and Settler in Britain 1600–1857, Orient Blackswan, pp. 180–2, ISBN 978-81-7824-154-8
  129. ^ a b "Liverpool and it's Chinese Children".
  130. ^ a b "Liverpool Chinatown History". Liverpool Chinatown. Retrieved 29 October 2015.
  131. ^ a b UK Chinese 24 May 2012 at the Wayback Machine. Sacu.org (23 January 2006). Retrieved 22 June 2013.
  132. ^ Ansari, Humayun (2004), The Infidel Within: The History of Muslims in Britain, 1800 to the Present, C. Hurst & Co. Publishers, p. 94, ISBN 978-1-85065-685-2
  133. ^ Bland, Lucy (April 2005), "White Women and Men of Colour: Miscegenation Fears in Britain after the Great War", Gender & History, 17 (1): 29–61, doi:10.1111/j.0953-5233.2005.00371.x, S2CID 143187996
  134. ^ Ansari, Humayun (2004), The Infidel Within: The History of Muslims in Britain, 1800 to the Present, C. Hurst & Co. Publishers, pp. 93–4, ISBN 978-1-85065-685-2
  135. ^ . sacu.org. Archived from the original on 24 May 2012. Retrieved 3 June 2012.
  136. ^ Isabelle Lausent-Herrera (2010). Walton Look Lai; Chee Beng Tan (eds.). The Chinese in Latin America and the Caribbean. Brill ebook titles. BRILL. p. 143. ISBN 978-9004182134.
  137. ^ Adam McKeown (2001). Chinese Migrant Networks and Cultural Change: Peru, Chicago, and Hawaii 1900–1936 (illustrated ed.). University of Chicago Press. p. 47. ISBN 978-0226560250.
  138. ^ Elliott Young (2014). Alien Nation: Chinese Migration in the Americas from the Coolie Era Through World War II. The David J. Weber Series in the New Borderlands History. Vol. 4 of Wiley Blackwell Concise History of the Modern World (illustrated ed.). UNC Press Books. p. 82. ISBN 978-1469612966.
  139. ^ [4][dead link]
  140. ^ . www.com. Archived from the original on 30 November 2016. Retrieved 14 January 2022.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
  141. ^ Cuba: a Lonely Planet travel survival kit. Lonely Planet. January 1997. ISBN 9780864424037.
  142. ^ "The World Factbook". cia.gov. 7 June 2022.
  143. ^ Mendizabal, I; Sandoval, K; Berniell-Lee, G; et al. (2008). "Genetic origin, admixture, and asymmetry in maternal and paternal human lineages in Cuba". BMC Evol. Biol. 8: 213. doi:10.1186/1471-2148-8-213. PMC 2492877. PMID 18644108.
  144. ^ . www.flavorandfortune.com. Archived from the original on 4 January 2016.
  145. ^ Margaret Tyler Mitchell; Scott Pentzer (2008). Costa Rica: A Global Studies Handbook. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-1-85109-992-4.
  146. ^ "Costa Rica, People". greenspun.com.
  147. ^ Current Anthropological Literature, Volumes 1–2. American Anthropological Association and the American Folk-lore Society. 1912. p. 257.
  148. ^ Current Anthropological Literature, Volume 1. American Anthropological Association and the American Folk-lore Society. 1912. p. 257.
  149. ^ Current Anthropological Literature, Volumes 1–2. American Anthropological Association and the American Folk-lore Society. 1912. p. 257.
  150. ^ George Charles Engerrand (1912). Note sur deux enfants nés d'un chinois et d'une mexicaine de race blanche (in French) (reprint ed.). Librairie F. Alcan. p. 125.
  151. ^ Engerrand, Georges (1912). Note sur deux enfants nes d'un Chinois et d'une Mexicaine de race blanche. [microform] (in French) (reprint ed.). F. Alcan. p. 125.
  152. ^ Robert Chao Romero (2011). The Chinese in Mexico, 1882–1940 (illustrated, reprint ed.). University of Arizona Press. p. 86. ISBN 978-0816508198.
  153. ^ Robert Chao Romero (2011). The Chinese in Mexico, 1882–1940 (illustrated, reprint ed.). University of Arizona Press. p. 87. ISBN 978-0816508198.
  154. ^ Robert Chao Romero (2011). The Chinese in Mexico, 1882–1940 (illustrated, reprint ed.). University of Arizona Press. p. 88. ISBN 978-0816508198.
  155. ^ Robert Chao Romero (2011). The Chinese in Mexico, 1882–1940 (illustrated, reprint ed.). University of Arizona Press. p. 89. ISBN 978-0816508198.
  156. ^ Grace Delgado (2013). Making the Chinese Mexican: Global Migration, Localism, and Exclusion in the U.S.-Mexico Borderlands (illustrated ed.). Stanford University Press. p. 187. ISBN 978-0804783712.
  157. ^ Julia María Schiavone Camacho (2012). Chinese Mexicans: Transpacific Migration and the Search for a Homeland, 1910–1960 (illustrated ed.). Univ of North Carolina Press. ISBN 9780807882597.
  158. ^ Schiavone Camacho, Julia Maria (2012). Expulsion of Chinese Men and Chinese Mexican Families from Sonora and Sinaloa, Early 1930s – North Carolina Scholarship. doi:10.5149/9780807882597_schiavone_camacho. ISBN 9780807835401.
  159. ^ Elliott Young (2014). Alien Nation: Chinese Migration in the Americas from the Coolie Era Through World War II. The David J. Weber Series in the New Borderlands History (illustrated ed.). UNC Press Books. p. 242. ISBN 978-1469612966.
  160. ^ Lee Gutkind, ed. (2007). Hurricanes and Carnivals: Essays by Chicanos, Pochos, Pachucos, Mexicanos, and Expatriates (illustrated ed.). University of Arizona Press. p. 34. ISBN 978-0816526253.
  161. ^ Thomas C. Holt; Laurie B. Green; Charles Reagan Wilson, eds. (2013). The New Encyclopedia of Southern Culture: Volume 24: Race. The New Encyclopedia of Southern Culture. UNC Press Books. ISBN 978-1469607245.
  162. ^ Ramón Eduardo Ruiz (1993). Triumphs and Tragedy: A History of the Mexican People (reprint, revised ed.). W. W. Norton & Company. p. 383. ISBN 978-0393310665.
  163. ^ (PDF). 20 October 2003 . Archived from the original (PDF) on 20 October 2003. {{cite web}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)
  164. ^ . Archived from the original on 2 October 2008. Retrieved 9 November 2008.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
  165. ^ a b . umich.edu. Clark Library – University of Michigan. 27 August 2007. Archived from the original on 2 May 2008.
  166. ^ Chin, Gabriel; Hrishi Karthikeyan (2002). "Preserving Racial Identity: Population Patterns and the Application of Anti-Miscegenation Statutes to Asian Americans, 1910–1950". Asian Law Journal. 9. SSRN 283998.
  167. ^ Benson Tong (2004). Asian American Children: A Historical Handbook and Guide. Greenwood Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-313-33042-1.
  168. ^ Maria P. P. Root (2001). Love's Revolution: Interracial Marriage. Temple University Press. p. 180. ISBN 978-1-56639-826-8.
  169. ^ Degrading Stereotypes Ruin Dating Experience 4 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine. Modelminority.com (22 October 2002). Retrieved 11 December 2011.
  170. ^ (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 11 June 2016.
  171. ^ Romanzo Adams (2005). Interracial Marriage in Hawaii. Kessinger Publishing. p. 396. ISBN 978-1-4179-9268-3.
  172. ^ Margaret M. Schwertfeger (1982). Interethnic Marriage and Divorce in Hawaii A Panel Study of 1968 First Marriages. Kessinger Publishing.
  173. ^ "caucasian and portuguese women manying chinese males pattern". Retrieved 9 January 2018.
  174. ^ David Anthony Chiriboga, Linda S. Catron (1991). Divorce: crisis, challenge, or relief?. NYU Press. p. 254. ISBN 978-0-8147-1450-8.
  175. ^ Gary A. Cretser, Joseph J. Leon (1982). in the United States, Volume 5. Psychology Press. p. 58. ISBN 978-0-917724-60-2.
  176. ^ Romanzo Adams (2005). Interracial Marriage in Hawaii. Kessinger Publishing. p. 396. ISBN 978-1-4179-9268-3.
  177. ^ United States Bureau of Education (1921). Bulletin, Issues 13–18. U.S. G.P.O. p. 27.
  178. ^ United States. Office of Education (1920). Bulletin, Issue 16. U.S. Dept. of Health, Education, and Welfare, Office of Education. p. 27.
  179. ^ American Association of Physical Anthropologists, Wistar Institute of Anatomy and Biology (1920). American journal of physical anthropology, Volume 3. A. R. Liss. p. 492.
  180. ^ Gary A. Cretser, Joseph J. Leon (1982). Intermarriage in the United States, Volume 5. Routledge. p. 111. ISBN 978-0-917724-60-2.
  181. ^ American Genetic Association (1919). The Journal of heredity, Volume 10. American Genetic Association. p. 42.
  182. ^ American Genetic Association (1919). J hered, Volume 10. American Genetic Association. p. 42.
  183. ^ Alfred Emanuel Smith (1905). New Outlook, Volume 81. Outlook Publishing Company, Inc. p. 988.
  184. ^ The Outlook, Volume 81. Outlook Co. 1905. p. 988.
  185. ^ Deacon, Desley; Russell, Penny; Woollacott, Angela, eds. (2008). Australian wives in China. anu.edu.au. ANU Press. doi:10.22459/TT.12.2008. ISBN 9781921536205.
  186. ^ June Duncan Owen (2002). Mixed Matches: Interracial Marriage in Australia (illustrated ed.). UNSW Press. p. 11. ISBN 978-0868405810.
  187. ^ June Duncan Owen (2002). Mixed Matches: Interracial Marriage in Australia (illustrated ed.). UNSW Press. p. 12. ISBN 978-0868405810.
  188. ^ Gallipoli and the Anzacs: The Anzac Walk – Artillery Road 25 May 2010 at the Wayback Machine (2009). Retrieved 26 May 2010.
  189. ^ Hamilton (2008), p. 7.
  190. ^ Brisbane graveside ceremony for famed Gallipoli sniper 4 October 2012 at the Wayback Machine Brisbane Times (18 May 2009). Retrieved 26 May 2010.
  191. ^ Nash, J. (2008): The Aussie Assassin 24 March 2012 at the Wayback Machine Gold Coast News (2 August 2008). Retrieved 26 May 2010.
  192. ^ Hamilton, John C. M.. Gallipoli Sniper: The life of Billy Sing. Sydney: Pan Macmillan Australia, 2008. (ISBN 978-1-4050-3865-2), p. 12.
  193. ^ Courtney, Bob. Anzac: Gallipoli marksman 8 June 2011 at the Wayback Machine The Joint Imperial War Museum / Australian War Memorial Battlefield Study Tour to Gallipoli, September 2000, p. 3.
  194. ^ Cusack, Carole M.; Hartney, Christopher (2010). Religion and Retributive Logic. ISBN 978-9004178809.
  195. ^ "La comunidad china en el país se duplicó en los últimos 5 años". Clarin.com. 27 September 2010.
  196. ^ , South Korea: Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Trade, 2009, archived from the original on 23 October 2010
  197. ^ Teresa A. Meade (2011). A History of Modern Latin America: 1800 to the Present. Vol. 4 of Wiley Blackwell Concise History of the Modern World (illustrated ed.). John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-1-4443-5811-7.

External links

  • AngloIndians.com – Anglo-Indian resources & matrimony
  • Maleisie.be article on Malaysian Dutch Descendants

March 26, 2023
eurasian, mixed, ancestry, this, article, lead, section, short, adequately, summarize, points, please, consider, expanding, lead, provide, accessible, overview, important, aspects, article, july, 2022, eurasian, person, mixed, asian, european, ancestry, eurasi. This article s lead section may be too short to adequately summarize the key points Please consider expanding the lead to provide an accessible overview of all important aspects of the article July 2022 A Eurasian is a person of mixed Asian and European ancestry EurasianTotal populationOfficial population numbers are unknown United States 1 623 234 2010 1 England and Wales 341 727 2011 2 Netherlands 369 661 2015 3 Regions with significant populations United States 4 Netherlands 5 United Kingdom 1 Hong Kong 6 Philippines 7 Singapore 8 Malaysia 9 Macau 10 Sri Lanka 11 Contents 1 Terminology 2 Central Asia 3 Southeast Asia 3 1 Cambodia 3 2 Indonesia 3 3 Malaysia 3 4 Philippines 3 5 Singapore 3 6 Thailand 3 7 Vietnam 4 East Asia 4 1 Hong Kong 4 2 Macau 4 3 Taiwan 4 4 China 4 5 Japan 4 6 South Korea 5 South Asia 5 1 Bangladesh 5 2 Burma Myanmar 5 3 India 5 4 Sri Lanka 6 Europe 6 1 Netherlands 6 2 France 6 3 Spain 6 4 United Kingdom 7 North America 7 1 Canada 7 2 Cuba 7 3 Costa Rica 7 4 Mexico 7 5 United States 7 5 1 Hawaii 8 Oceania 8 1 Australia 9 South America 9 1 Argentina 9 2 Brazil 9 3 Peru 10 See also 11 References 12 External linksTerminology EditThe term Eurasian was first coined in mid nineteenth century British India The term was originally used to refer to those who are now known as Anglo Indians people of mixed British and Indian descent 12 In addition to British many were also of mixed Portuguese Dutch Irish or French descent The term has been used in anthropological literature since the 1960s 13 Central Asia Edit Genetics of Turkmens indicates a mixture of East Eurasian and West Eurasian populations An ethnic Hazara police officer from Afghanistan Russia s Defense Minister Sergey Shoygu His father was Tuvan while his mother was Russian King Ladislaus IV of Hungary Historically Central Asia has been a melting pot of West Eurasian and East Eurasian peoples leading to high genetic admixture and diversity 14 Physical and genetic analyses of ancient remains have concluded that while the Scythians including those in the eastern Pazyryk region possessed predominantly features found among others in Europoid phenotypes mixed Eurasian phenotypes were also observed suggesting that the Scythians as a whole were descended in part from East Eurasian populations 15 The Xiongnu were nomadic warriors who invaded China and Central Asia They were predominantly Mongoloid known from their skeletal remains and artifacts Analysis of skeletal remains from sites attributed to the Xiongnu provides an identification of dolichocephalic Mongoloid 16 Russian and Chinese anthropological and craniofacial studies show that the Xiongnu were physically very heterogeneous with six different population clusters showing different degrees of Mongoloid and Caucasoid physical traits 17 A majority 89 of the Xiongnu mtDNA sequences can be classified as belonging to Asian haplogroups and nearly 11 belong to European haplogroups 18 This finding indicates that contact between European and Asian populations preceded the start of Xiongnu culture and confirms results reported for two samples from an early 3rd century BC Scytho Siberian population Clisson et al 2002 Anthropologist SA Pletnev studied a group of burials of Kipchaks in the Volga region and found them to have Caucasoid features with some admixture of Mongoloid traits with physical characteristics such as a flat face and distinctly protruding nose 19 They were nomadic people that together with the Cumans ruled areas stretching from Kazakhstan through Caucasus to Eastern Europe The Hunnic invaders of Europe were also of mixed origins Hungarian archaeologist Istvan Bona argues that most European Huns were of Caucasoid ancestry and that less than 20 25 were of Mongoloid stock 20 According to the Hungarian anthropologist Pal Liptak 1955 he believed Turanid race was most common among the Huns He classified Turanid as a Caucasoid type with significant Mongoloid admixture arising from the mixture of the Andronovo type of Europoid features and the Oriental Mongoloid 21 The Eurasian Avars were group of sixth century nomadic warriors that came from Northern Central Asia who ruled in what is today Central Europe Anthropological research has revealed several skeletons with Mongoloid type features additionally there was continuing cultural influence from the Eurasian nomadic steppe The early Avar anthropological material was said to be 20 Mongoloid 40 Eurasian mixed and 40 Caucasoid in the seventh century according to Pal Liptak while grave goods indicated Middle and Central Asian parallels Mongoloid and Euro Mongoloid types compose about one third of the total population of the Avar graves of the eighth century with the late Avar Period showing more hybridization resulting in higher frequencies of Europo Mongolids 22 Each year the Huns Avars came to the Slavs to spend the winter with them then they took the wives and daughters of the Slavs and slept with them and among the other mistreatments already mentioned the Slavs were also forced to pay levies to the Huns But the sons of the Huns who were then raised with the wives and daughters of these Wends Slavs could not finally endure this oppression anymore and refused obedience to the Huns and began as already mentioned a rebellion Chronicle of Fredegar Book IV Section 48 written circa 642 The Seljuk Empire which ruled from Central Asia Middle East to modern Turkey their descendants are the Iranian Turkmen and Afghan Turkmen and are mixture of East Eurasian and West Eurasian Ladislaus mother was the daughter of a Cuman chief Like the Kipchaks the Cuman invaders of Europe were also of mixed anthropological origins Excavations in Csengele Hungary have revealed normatively East Asian and European traits Five of the six skeletons that were complete enough for anthropometric analysis appeared Asian rather than European 23 Population genomic structure of Central Asians and other worldwide population groups Modern Central Asians are largely East Eurasian East Asian related 24 Today Central Asians are a mixture of various peoples such as Mongols Turks and Iranians The Mongol conquest of Central Asia in the 13th century resulted in the mass killings of the Iranian speaking people and Indo Europeans population of the region their culture and languages being superseded by that of the Mongolian Turkic peoples The invasions of Bukhara Samarkand Urgench and others resulted in mass murders and unprecedented destruction such as portions of Khwarezmia being completely razed The remaining surviving population were either displaced or assimilated with intermarriage with invaders 25 26 27 28 Genetic studies indicates all Central Asian ethnicities share a various genetic mixture of East Eurasian and West Eurasian 29 30 Turkic peoples a Northeast Asian Siberian population originated and expanded from eastern Mongolia into Central Asia and Europe spreading East Eurasian ancestry all over Eurasia 31 Many Eurasian ethnic groups arose during the Mongol invasion of Europe The ruling Mongol elites of the Mongol successor states began a process of assimilation with the non Mongol populations that they had conquered and ruled over The Golden Horde which ruled eastern Europe resulted in an assimilation and mixture of Mongols Turkic Finns Hungarians Sarmato Scythians Slavs and people from the Caucasus among others whether Muslim or not 32 Partial Mongol descendants of people from Central Asia and North Caucasus such as the Uzbeks Kazakhs and Nogais also created many Eurasian ethnic groups under the empires they established for example the Timurid Empire Mughal Empire Kazakh Khanate and Nogai Horde which invaded or covered vast areas that are parts of modern Russia the Caucasus the Middle East Central Asia and South Asia Interracial marriage between Turkic European Central Asians in Kazakhstan are increasingly common In 2021 at least 4728 ethnic Kazakhs had married people of other ethnicity most commonly Russians 33 Among Kirgiz men living in Uzbekistan and married to non Kirgiz women 9 6 had married Russians 25 6 Uzbeks and 34 3 Tatars Among Kazakh men in Uzbekistan the structure of mixed marriages appeared as follows 4 4 married Russians 34 Southeast Asia Edit Xanana Gusmao former president of East Timor European colonization of vast swathes of Southeast Asia led to the burgeoning of Eurasian populations particularly in Indonesia Malaysia Singapore Timor Leste Vietnam and the Philippines The majority of Eurasians in Southeast Asia formed a separate community from the indigenous peoples and the European colonizers and served as middlemen between the two Post colonial Eurasians can be found in practically every country in Southeast Asia most especially in the Philippines due to the 333 years of colonization by Spain 4 years of British settlement and 49 years as an American territory which gives the country 382 years of continuous European exposure in Southeast Asia Burma was colonized by the British for 124 years the French colonized Indochina for 67 years the British colonized Malaya for 120 years and Dutch colonized Indonesia for 149 years after Portugal Cambodia Edit In the last official census in French Indochina in 1946 there were 45 000 Europeans in Vietnam Laos and Cambodia One fifth were Eurasian 35 Jean Francois Izzi a French banker of Italian origin was the father of the Queen Mother of Cambodia Norodom Monineath 36 The son of Norodom Monineath is the reigning king of Cambodia Norodom Sihamoni Indonesia Edit See also Indo people and Indos in colonial history Studio portrait of an Indo European family Dutch East Indies 1890 1910 Studio portrait of the family Engelenburg Banjoewangi 1919 Mrs Mertens in sarong and kabaja Java c 1888 Dutch Totok father with Indo wife and children 1922 Japanese Indonesian identity card in the name of Johanna Maria Durand Leeuwenburgh Group of Eurasian girls in Indonesia around 1925 1930 Dutch Indonesian General Gerardus Johannes Berenschot Dutch German Indonesian nationalist and politician of Indo descent Ernest Douwes Dekker Dutch French Indonesian National Hero Pierre Tendean Mohammad Husni Thamrin of mixed English Arab and Betawi descent is an Indonesian politician and National Hero French Chinese Indonesian actress Fifi Young Dutch German Indonesian actress of Indo descent Suzzanna Dutch Indonesian novelist Maria Dermout Dutch Indonesian Defense Minister Juwono Sudarsono German Chinese Indonesian actor and tech entrepreneur Christian Sugiono Austrian Indonesian actress and singer Sophia Latjuba German Jewish Indonesian rock musician songwriter arranger and producer Ahmad Dhani British Indonesian singer dancer actress model Dewi Sandra American Dutch Indonesian actress model activist Jolene Marie Rotinsulu Barack Obama s half sister Maya Soetoro Ng Indonesian American The Eurasian community from Indonesia developed over a period of 400 years it began with a mostly Portuguese Indonesian ancestry and ended with a dominant Dutch Indonesian ancestry after the arrival of the Dutch East India Company in Indonesia in 1603 and near continuous Dutch rule until the Japanese occupation of Indonesia in World War II Indo is a term for Europeans Asians and Eurasian people who were a migrant population that associated themselves with and experienced the colonial culture of the former Dutch East Indies a Dutch colony in Southeast Asia that became Indonesia after World War II 37 38 39 40 It was used to describe people acknowledged to be of mixed Dutch and Indonesian descent or it was a term used in the Dutch East Indies to apply to Europeans who had partial Asian ancestry 40 41 42 43 44 The European ancestry of these people was predominantly Dutch and also Portuguese British French Belgian German and others 45 Other terms used were Indos Dutch Indonesians Eurasians 46 Indo Europeans Indo Dutch 40 and Dutch Indos 47 48 49 50 51 Malaysia Edit See also Kristang people There are over 29 000 Eurasians living in Malaysia the vast majority of whom are of Portuguese descent 52 In East Malaysia the exact number of Eurasians are unknown Recent DNA studies by Stanford found that 7 8 of samples from Kota Kinabalu have European chromosomes 53 Portuguese Malaysian Indian entrepreneur Tony Fernandes Scottish Chinese Malay Melanau and Iban politician Nancy Shukri American Malaysian actress Diana Danielle Dutch Javanese Arab Indian Malay Chinese Malaysian pop singer Ning Baizura American Malaysian actress and model Julia Ziegler Circassian Malaysian politician and a Menteri Besar Chief Minister of Johore Dato Onn Jaafar Arab Circassian English and Malay former governor of Bank Negara Malaysia Zeti Akhtar Aziz Malaysian British actor Henry Golding Zara Davidson of mixed Arab English Malay and Thai descent is Perak s current queen consort to Sultan Nazrin Muizzuddin Shah French Malaysian actor and director Pierre Andre Ungku Aziz is a Malaysian economist of mixed Malay Circassian and English parentage He is also Zeti Akhtar Aziz s father Philippines Edit See also Filipino mestizo President Manuel L Quezon Kristine Hermosa Jaime Augusto Zobel de Ayala Jose Luis Martin Gascon Andres Bonifacio Neile AdamsEurasians are collectively called Mestizos in the Philippines The vast majority are descendants of Spanish Latino and American settlers who intermarried with people of indigenous Filipino descent Aside from the more common Spanish Latino and American mestizos there are also Eurasians in the Philippines who have ancestries from various European countries or Australia Significant intermarriage between Filipinos and European Americans has occurred since the United States colonial period up to the present day as the US had numerous people stationed there at military bases Most Eurasians of Spanish or Latino descent own business conglomerates in the real estate agriculture and utilities sector whereas Eurasians of white American descent are largely in the entertainment industry which are one of the biggest industries in the Philippines working as reporters writers producers directors models actors and actresses as modern Philippine mass media and entertainment industry was pioneered during the American colonization of the Philippines by the Americans Many of them also works in offices and call centers the Philippines being the call center capital of the world citation needed The actual number of Eurasians in the Philippines cannot be ascertained due to lack of surveys although Spanish censuses record that as much as one third of the inhabitants of the island of Luzon possess varying degrees of Spanish or Latino admixture 54 A 2019 study by Anthropologist Matthew Go postulates that the percentage of Filipino bodies who were sampled from the University of the Philippines that were curated to be representative of Filipinos that is phenotypically classified as Asian East South and Southeast Asian is 72 7 Hispanic Spanish Amerindian Mestizo Latin American or Spanish Malay Mestizo is at 12 7 Indigenous American Native American at 7 3 African Sub Saharan African at 4 5 and European at 2 7 55 As opposed to the policies of other colonial powers such as the British or the Dutch the Spanish colonies were devoid of any anti miscegenation laws The Spanish implemented incentives to deliberately entangle the various races together in order to stop rebellion 56 57 58 It is needful to encourage public instruction in all ways possible permit newspapers subject to a liberal censure to establish in Manila a college of medicine surgery and pharmacy in order to break down the barriers that divide the races and amalgamate them all into one For that purpose the Spaniards of the country the Chinese mestizos and the Filipinos shall be admitted with perfect equality as cadets of the military corps the personal service tax shall be abolished or an equal and general tax shall be imposed to which all the Spaniards shall be subject This last plan appears to me more advisable as the poll tax is already established and it is not opportune to make a trial of new taxes when it is a question of allowing the country to be governed by itself Since the annual tribute is unequal the average shall be taken and shall be fixed consequently at fifteen or sixteen reals per whole tribute or perhaps one peso fuerte annually from each adult tributary person This regulation will produce an increase in the revenue of 200 000 or 300 000 pesos fuertes and this sum shall be set aside to give the impulse for the amalgamation of the races favoring crossed marriages by means of dowries granted to the single women in the following manner To a Chinese mestizo woman who marries a Filipino shall be given 100 pesos to a Filipino woman who marries a Chinese mestizo Ioo pesos to a Chinese mestizo woman who marries a Spaniard 1 000 pesos to a Spanish woman who marries a Chinese mestizo 2 000 pesos to a Filipino woman who marries a Spaniard 2 000 pesos to a Spanish woman who marries a Filipino chief 3 000 or 4 000 pesos Some mestizo and Filipino alcaldes mayor of the provinces shall be appointed It shall be ordered that when a Filipino chief goes to the house of a Spaniard he shall seat himself as the latter s equal In a word by these and other means the idea that they and the Castilians are two kinds of distinct races shall be erased from the minds of the natives and the families shall become related by marriage in such manner that when free of the Castilian dominion should any exalted Filipinos try to expel or enslave our race they would find it so interlaced with their own that their plan would be practically impossible 59 The fluid nature of racial integration in the Philippines during the Spanish colonial period was recorded by many travelers and public figures at the time who were favorably impressed by the lack of racial discrimination as compared to the situation in other European colonies Among them was Sir John Bowring governor general of British Hong Kong and a well seasoned traveler who had written several books about the different cultures in Asia who described the situation as admirable during a visit to the Philippines in the 1870s The lines separating entire classes and races appeared to me less marked than in the Oriental colonies I have seen on the same table Spaniards Mestizos Chinos cristianos and Indios priests and military There is no doubt that having one Religion forms great bonding And more so to the eyes of one that has been observing the repulsion and differences due to race in many parts of Asia And from one like myself who knows that race is the great divider of society the admirable contrast and exception to racial discrimination so markedly presented by the people of the Philippines is indeed admirable 60 Another foreign witness was English engineer Frederic H Sawyer who had spent most of his life in different parts of Asia and lived in Luzon for fourteen years His impression was that as far as racial integration and harmony was concerned the situation in the Philippines was not equaled by any other colonial power Spaniards and natives lived together in great harmony and do not know where I could find a colony in which Europeans mixes as much socially with the natives Not in Java where a native of position must dismount to salute the humblest Dutchman Not in British India where the Englishwoman has now made the gulf between British and native into a bottomless pit 61 Singapore Edit See also Eurasian Singaporeans Joseph Schooling is a Singaporean national swimmer Eunice Olsen is an actress host communications trainer producer and business woman Christopher de Souza is a politician and lawyer Singaporean Eurasians of European ancestry mainly descend from Western European emigrants although Eurasian migrants to Singapore in the 19th century came mainly from other European colonies in Asia as well When the European colonisation of Singapore began the colonisers brought into being a new ethnic group known historically and generally as the Eurasians 62 Early European colonisers were not accompanied by their womenfolk on the perilous journey to Asia Consequently many married the local women of these lands or formed liaisons with them Today Singaporeans of Eurasian descent make up about 0 4 of the Singaporean population with 16 900 individuals living in Singapore in 2015 63 64 Thailand Edit See also Luk khrueng Prince Chula Chakrabongse Ann Thongprasom Tata Young Davika Hoorne Mario Maurer Nadech Kugimiya Charyl Chappuis Rangsiman RomeIn the mid 20th century the number of luk khrueng increased dramatically in the period following World War II with the increasing number of Western residents and visitors to the country Many were the children of American servicemen who came to the country in the 1960s and the 1970s when there were several large US military bases in the country because of the Vietnam War While some of the servicemen formed lasting relationships with Thai women some luk khrueng were the product of temporary relationships with rented wives or prostitutes a fact that led to some discrimination in that era Some Thais were also hostile because of the perceived lack of racial purity but most were quite accepting 65 Like certain other parts of Asia luk khrueng have become popular in the entertainment and modelling industries and many have carved out prominent roles in the entertainment industry with their mixed Caucasian and Thai features which are deemed attractive in modern Thai culture 66 Vietnam Edit See also Con lai and Women in Vietnam European rule In the last official census in French Indochina in 1946 there were 45 000 Europeans in Vietnam Laos and Cambodia of which one fifth were Eurasian 35 Much of the business conducted with foreign men in Southeast Asia was done by the local women who engaged in both sexual and mercantile intercourse with foreign male traders A Portuguese and Malay speaking Vietnamese woman who lived in Macau for an extensive period of time was the person who interpreted for the first diplomatic meeting between Cochin China and a Dutch delegation She served as an interpreter for three decades in the Cochin China court with an old woman who had been married to three husbands one Vietnamese and two Portuguese 67 68 69 The cosmopolitan exchange was facilitated by the marriage of Vietnamese women to Portuguese merchants Those Vietnamese woman were married to Portuguese men and lived in Macao which was how they became fluent in Malay and Portuguese 70 Alexander Hamilton said that The Tonquiners used to be very desirous of having a brood of Europeans in their country for which reason the greatest nobles thought it no shame or disgrace to marry their daughters to English and Dutch seamen for the time they were to stay in Tonquin and often presented their sons in law pretty handsomely at their departure especially if they left their wives with child but adultery was dangerous to the husband for they are well versed in the art of poisoning 71 Vietnam saw a surge in its Eurasian population following the entry of the United States as an active combatant in the Vietnam War in 1965 Large numbers of white American soldiers were deployed in South Vietnam to support the country and intermingling with local Vietnamese women was common The resulting Eurasian children known as Amerasians were products of varying circumstances ranging from genuine long term relationships and love affairs to prostitution and rape When the war was going against South Vietnam in the early 1970s the gradual withdrawal of American troops during the Vietnamization process included many Vietnamese war brides and their Eurasian children The situation led the United States Congress to enact the American Homecoming Act granting preferential immigration status specifically to Eurasian children born to servicemen in Vietnam claimed by their fathers The Eurasian children that remained in Vietnam around 20 000 were typically from the worst circumstances fatherless and often ended up in orphanages as their mothers were incapable or uninterested in raising them The North Vietnamese victory in 1975 saw greater stigma against Eurasian Vietnamese children as the new government of reunified Vietnam was hostile to the United States and saw them as symbols of foreign occupation The poor circumstances of the Amerasian children made them vulnerable to severe social and state sponsored persecution East Asia EditHong Kong Edit Robert Hotung Nancy Kwan Stanley Ho Anthony Wong AngelababyIn 19th century Hong Kong Eurasian or half caste children were often stigmatised as symbols of moral degradation and racial impurity by both European and Chinese communities 72 According to Chiu To the European community such children were the tangible evidence of moral irregularity while to the Chinese community they embodied the shame and evil of their marginalised mothers Stewart has commented that The word barbarian on the lip of a Greek contained but an iota of the contempt which the Chinese entertain for such persons 72 In the 1890s Ernst Johann Eitel a German missionary controversially claimed that most half caste people in Hong Kong were descended exclusively from Europeans having relationships with outcast groups such as the Tanka people Carl Smith s study in the 1960s on protected women the kept mistresses of foreigners to an extent supports Eitel s theory The Tanka were marginalised in Chinese society which consisted of the majority Puntis Cantonese speaking people Custom precluded their intermarriage with the Cantonese and Hakka speaking populations and they had limited opportunities of settlement on land Consequently the Tanka did not experience the same social pressures when dealing with Europeans Eitel s theory however was criticised by Henry J Lethbridge writing in the 1970s as a myth propagated by xenophobic Cantonese to account for the establishment of the Hong Kong Eurasian community 73 74 75 76 Many Eurasians of part Chinese blood in Hong Kong at that time were children of British settlers and their Chinese wives from British colonies in Southeast Asia Andrew and Bushnell 2006 wrote extensively on the position of women in the British Empire and the Tanka inhabitants of Hong Kong and their position in the prostitution industry catering towards foreign sailors The Tanka did not marry with the Chinese being descendants of the natives they were restricted to the waterways They supplied their women as prostitutes to British sailors and assisted the British in their military actions around Hong Kong 77 The Tanka in Hong Kong were considered outcasts categorised low class 78 Ordinary Chinese prostitutes were afraid of serving Westerners since they looked strange to them while the Tanka prostitutes freely mingled with western men 79 The Tanka assisted the Europeans with supplies and providing them with prostitutes 80 81 European men in Hong Kong easily formed relations with the Tanka prostitutes 82 The profession of prostitution among the Tanka women led to them being hated by the Chinese both because they had sex with westerners and them being racially Tanka 83 Elizabeth Wheeler Andrew 1845 1917 and Katharine Caroline Bushnell 1856 1946 wrote extensively about the position of women in the British Empire Published in 1907 Heathen Slaves and Christian Rulers which examined the exploitation of Chinese women in Hong Kong under colonial rule discussed the Tanka inhabitants of Hong Kong and their position in the prostitution industry catering towards foreign sailors The Tanka did not marry with the Chinese being descendants of the natives they were restricted to the waterways They supplied their women as prostitutes to British sailors and assisted the British in their military actions around Hong Kong 84 The Tanka in Hong Kong were considered as outcasts 85 Tanka women were ostracized from the Cantonese community and were nicknamed salt water girls ham shui mui for their services as prostitutes to foreigners in Hong Kong 86 87 Notable examples of Eurasian people from Hong Kong include Nancy Kwan once a Hollywood sex symbol born to a Cantonese father and English and Scottish mother Bruce Lee a martial artist icon born to a Cantonese father and a Eurasian mother of Cantonese and German descent and Macao born actress Isabella Leong born to a Portuguese English father and a Chinese mother The wealthy Jewish Dutch man Charles Maurice Bosman 88 was the father of the brothers Sir Robert Hotung and Ho Fook who was the grandfather of Stanley Ho The number of people who identified as Mixed with one Chinese parent according to the 2001 Hong Kong census was 16 587 which had risen to 24 649 in 2011 6 Macau Edit The early Macanese ethnic group was formed from Portuguese men with Malay Japanese Indian and Sinhalese women 89 The Portuguese encouraged Cantonese migration to Macau and most Macanese in Macau were formed from between Portuguese and Cantonese In 1810 the total population of Macau was about 4033 of which 1172 were white men 1830 were white women 425 male slaves and 606 female slaves In 1830 the population increased to 4480 and the breakdown was 1 202 white men 2149 white women 350 male slaves and 779 female slaves There is reason to speculate that large numbers of white women were involved in some forms of prostitution which would probably explain the abnormality in the ratio between men and women among the white population 90 Majority of the early Cantonese Portuguese intermarriages were between Portuguese men and women of Tanka origin who were considered the lowest class of people in China and had relations with Portuguese settlers and sailors or low class Chinese women 91 92 Western men like the Portuguese were refused by high class Cantonese women who did not marry foreigners 93 While a minority were Cantonese men and Portuguese women Macanese men and women also married with the Portuguese and Cantonese as a result some Macanese became indistinguishable from the Cantonese or Portuguese population Because the majority of the population who migrated to Macau were Cantonese Macau became a culturally Cantonese speaking society other ethnic groups became fluent in Cantonese Most Macanese had paternal Portuguese heritage until 1974 91 It was in 1980s that Macanese and Portuguese women began to marry men who defined themselves ethnically as Chinese 94 which resulted in many Macanese with Cantonese paternal ancestry Many Chinese became Macanese simply by converting to Catholicism and had no ancestry from the Portuguese having assimilated into the Macanese people since they were rejected by non Christian Chinese 95 After the handover of Macau to China in 1999 many Macanese migrated to other countries Of the Portuguese and Macanese women who stayed in Macau married with local Cantonese men resulting in more Macanese with Cantonese paternal heritage There are between 25 000 and 46 000 Macanese 5 000 8 000 of whom live in Macau while most live in Latin America most particularly Brazil America and Portugal Unlike the Macanese of Macau who are almost all of Chinese and Portuguese heritage many of the Macanese populations living abroad are not entirely of Portuguese and Chinese ancestry many Macanese men and women intermarried with the local population of America and Latin America etc and have only partial Macanese heritage Taiwan Edit During the Siege of Fort Zeelandia in which Chinese Ming loyalist forces commanded by Koxinga besieged and defeated the Dutch East India Company and conquered Taiwan the Chinese took Dutch women and children prisoner Koxinga took Hambroek s teenage daughter as a concubine 96 97 98 and Dutch women were sold to Chinese soldiers to become their wives In 1684 some of these Dutch wives were still captives of the Chinese 99 China Edit Ethnic Russians first arrived in large numbers in northeast China during the 1890s as colonists and marriages between Russian women and Han Chinese men started at the same time as the migration 100 The descendants of the interracial marriages are concentrated in the towns and villages of the frontier areas along the Ergun River of Inner Mongolia like Shiwei and Enhe 101 100 Interracial marriages between Chinese women and Russian men were rare a marriage pattern that does not fit the European colonial convention of Western men marrying native women 100 Unions between Chinese and Russians were also rare in urban areas like Harbin where there was prejudice against mixed marriages on both sides 100 Japan Edit See also Amerasian Japan Marcus Tulio Tanaka Gōtoku Sakai Ryuju Hino Namie AmuroAmerasian Japanese in Okinawa and Japan are mostly the result of European American soldiers and Japanese women Many Latin Americans in Japan known in their own cultures as dekasegi are mixed including Brazilians of Portuguese Italian German Spaniard Polish and Ukrainian descent In Mexico and Argentina for example those mixed between nikkei and non nikkei are called mestizos de japones while in Brazil both mestico de japones and ainoko ainoco or even hafu are common terms Historian S Kuznetsov dean of the Department of History of the Irkutsk State University one of the first researchers of the topic interviewed thousands of former internees and came to the following conclusion What is more romantic relations between Japanese internees and Russian women were not uncommon For example in the city of Kansk Krasnoyarsk Krai about 50 Japanese married locals and stayed Today many Russian women married Japanese men often for the benefit of long term residence and work rights Some of their mixed offspring stay in Japan while other s to Russia 102 South Korea Edit See also Amerasian South Korea Nancy Samuel Somi Daniel HenneyU S military personnel married 6423 Korean women as war brides during and immediately after the Korean War The average number of Korean women marrying US military personnel each year was about 1500 per year in the 1960s and 2300 per year in the 1970s 103 Many of these children were orphaned or stigmatized by the local population and were often kept separate in designated camptowns and eventually exported to the United States 104 South Asia EditBangladesh Edit There are about 97 000 Anglo Indians in Bangladesh 55 of them are Christians 105 Burma Myanmar Edit Main article Anglo Burmese people Burmese Bollywood actress Helen of mixed Anglo Burmese Anglo Indian and Burmese descent Burmese actress Myint Myint KhinThe Anglo Burmese emerged as a distinct community through mixed relations sometimes permanent sometimes temporary between the British and other European settlers and the indigenous peoples of Burma from 1826 until 1948 when Myanmar gained its independence from the United Kingdom Collectively in the Burmese language Eurasians are specifically known as bo kabya the term kabya refers to persons of mixed ancestry or dual ethnicity India Edit Main article Anglo Indian Indian actress Katrina Kaif is the daughter of an Indian father and a British English mother Actress Tara Sharma of British Indian descent British Mauritian actress Hazel Keech of Indo Mauritian descentThe first use of the term Anglo Indian referred to all British people living in India regardless of whether they had Indian ancestors or not The meaning changed to include only people who were of the very specific lineage descending from the British on the male side and women from the Indian side 106 People of mixed British and Indian descent were previously referred to as simply Eurasians 107 During the British East India Company s rule in India as well as the British Raj period it was initially fairly common for British officers and soldiers to take local Indian wives and have Eurasian children European women were barred from being with native men Marriages between European men and Indian women were fairly common during early colonial times citation needed The scholar Michael Fisher estimates that one in three European men stationed during the company rule had an Indian wife The Europeans mostly Portuguese Dutch French German Irish Scottish and English were stationed in India in their youth and looked for relationships with local women 108 109 The most famous of such unions was between the Hyderabadi noblewoman Khair un Nissa and the Scottish resident James Achilles Kirkpatrick In addition to intermarriage inter ethnic prostitution in India existed Generally Muslim women did not marry European men because the men were not of the Islamic faith Similarly with high caste Hindu women By the mid nineteenth century there were around 40 000 British soldiers but fewer than 2000 British officials present in India 110 As British women began arriving to India in large numbers around the early to mid nineteenth century mostly as family members of British officers and soldiers intermarriage with Indians became less frequent among the British in India After the events of the Indian Rebellion of 1857 such intermarriage was considered undesirable by both cultures 111 The colonial government passed several anti miscegenation laws 112 113 As a result Eurasians became more marginal to both the British and Indian populations in India Over generations Anglo Indians intermarried with other Anglo Indians to form a community that developed a culture of its own They created distinctive Anglo Indian dress speech and religion They established a school system focused on English language and culture and formed social clubs and associations to run functions such as regular dances at holidays such as Christmas and Easter 106 Over time the British colonial government recruited Anglo Indians into the Customs and Excise Post and Telegraphs Forestry Department the Railways and teaching professions but they were employed in many other fields as well A number of factors fostered a strong sense of community among Anglo Indians Their English language school system their Anglocentric culture and their Christian beliefs helped bind them together 114 Today an estimated 300 000 1 million Anglo Indians worldwide 115 Sri Lanka Edit See also Burgher people Sri Lankan actress Jacqueline Fernandez Sri Lankan actress and model Sachini Ayendra StanleyDue to prolonged colonial contact with Portugal the Netherlands and Britain Sri Lanka has had a long history of intermarriage between locals and colonists Originally these people were known as Mesticos literally mixed people in Portuguese today they are collectively classified as Burghers The Sri Lankan Civil War prompted numerous Burghers to flee the island Most of them settled in Europe the Americas Australia and New Zealand Portuguese Burghers are usually descended from a Sri Lankan mother and a Portuguese father 116 This configuration is also the case with the Dutch Burghers When the Portuguese arrived on the island in 1505 they were accompanied by African slaves Kaffirs are a mix of African Portuguese colonist and Sri Lankan The free mixing between the various groups of people was encouraged by the colonials Soon the Mesticos or the Mixed People began speaking a creole known as the Ceylonese Portuguese Creole It was based on Portuguese Sinhalese and Tamil The Burgher population numbers 40 000 in Sri Lanka and thousands more worldwide concentrated mostly in the United Kingdom Canada Australia and New Zealand Phenotypically Burghers can have skin ranging from light to darker depending on their ancestors even within the same family Burghers with dark to light brown skin usually are of Portuguese Burghers or Kaffir ancestry they may also have European facial features common to the Mediterranean basin see Mediterraneans They have a distinct look compared to native Sri Lankans Most light skinned Burghers are of Dutch or British descent Most Burghers are Roman Catholic in religion Like certain other Asian countries Japan Malaysia Thailand Singapore and the Philippines Eurasians Burghers have also been sought after by advertisers and modelling agencies in Sri Lanka Their mixed look combining both Western and Sri Lankan features makes them attractive to advertisers who see them as a representation of an exotic Sri Lankan Sinhalese Predictions within the advertising industry in Sri Lanka estimate that more than 50 of advertising models in Sri Lanka are Burghers Eurasians 117 Europe Edit Melanie Winiger Youri Djorkaeff Richard von Coudenhove Kalergi Marcel Nguyen France Nuyen Berenice Marlohe Florence FaivreImmigration to Europe has led to the rise of Eurasian communities in Europe most prominently in the Netherlands Spain and United Kingdom where significant numbers of Indonesian Filipino and Indo Pakistani Eurasians live The Turkish Empire spanned large parts of Europe and gave rise to populations with mixed ancestry in their former territories Historically East Eurasian East Asian related migrations and invasions into Europe left genetic traces in the respective regions Noteworthy are the Huns the Pannonian Avars the Mongols the Finnic peoples and some other historical groups 118 119 120 Netherlands Edit See also Indo people Indos in colonial history and Tong Tong Fair Dutch Eurasians of part Indonesian descent also called Indos or Indo Europeans have largely assimilated in the Netherlands 121 arriving in the Netherlands following the end of World War II until 1965 their diaspora a result of Indonesia gaining its independence from Dutch colonial rule Statistics show high inter marriage rates with native Dutch 50 80 With over 500 000 persons they are the largest ethnic minority in the Netherlands So called Indo rockers such as the Tielman Brothers introduced their blend of rock and roll music to Dutch audiences whereas others gained fame as singers and TV presenters such as Rob de Nijs and Sandra Reemer There are also famous Indo soccer players such as Giovanni van Bronckhorst Well known politicians such as Christian democrat Hans van den Broek and politician Geert Wilders are also of Indo descent France Edit Vietnamese men married French women but most of the time had to hide their relationship through casual sexual encounters brothels and workplaces some Eurasians were born as result According to official records in 1918 of the Vietnamese men and French women 250 had married officially and 1363 couples were living together without the approval of the French parental consent and without the approval of French authorities 122 123 Spain Edit See also Spanish people of Filipino ancestry Spanish Eurasians called Mestizos most of whom are of partial Filipino ancestry make up a small but important minority in Spain Numbering about 115 000 they consist of early migrants to Spain after the loss of the Philippines to the United States in 1898 Well known Spanish Eurasians include actress and socialite Isabel Preysler and her son Enrique Iglesias as well as former Prime Minister Marcelo Azcarraga Palmero United Kingdom Edit See also Anglo Indian Anglo Burmese people and Mixed United Kingdom ethnicity category Ben Kingsley Zayn Malik Rhona Mitra Michael Chopra Lisa Nandy Joe Choong Gok Wan George Young actor Adam Tse Jasmine ThompsonInterracial marriage was fairly common in Britain since the seventeenth century when the British East India Company began bringing over thousands of Indian scholars lascars and workers mostly Bengali and or Muslim to Britain Many married local white British women and girls due to the absence of Indian women in Britain at the time This later became an issue as a magistrate of the London Tower Hamlets area in 1817 expressed disgust at how the local British women and girls in the area were marrying and cohabiting with foreign South Asian lascars Nevertheless there were no legal restrictions against mixed marriages in Britain unlike the restrictions in India 124 125 126 This led to mixed race Eurasian Anglo Indian children in Britain which challenged the British elite efforts to define them using simple dichotomies of British versus Indian ruler versus ruled By the mid nineteenth century there were more than 40 000 Indian seamen diplomats scholars soldiers officials tourists businessmen and students arriving in Britain 108 and by the time World War I began there were 51 616 Indian lascar seamen residing in Britain 127 In addition the British officers and soldiers who had Indian wives and Eurasian children in British India often brought them to Britain in the nineteenth century 128 An estimated 900 Chinese Eurasian born as result of marriages from Chinese fathers and white mothers of various ethnic backgrounds the most common being British and Irish Most British Chinese of Eurasian origin were concentrated in around the Liverpool area of Chinatown where there was a growing Chinese Eurasian community Many of them had assimilated with other ethnic Chinese while others assimilated with mainstream British population 129 130 131 Following World War I there were more women than men in Britain 132 and there were increasing numbers of seamen arriving from abroad mostly from the Indian subcontinent in addition to smaller numbers from Yemen Malaysia and China This led to increased intermarriage and cohabitation with local white females Some residents grew concerned about miscegenation and there were several race riots at the time 133 In the 1920s to 1940s several writers raised concerns about an increasing mixed breed population born mainly from Muslim Asian mostly South Asian in addition to Arab and Malaysian fathers and local white mothers occasionally out of wedlock They denounced white girls who mixed with Muslim Asian men as shameless and called for a ban on the breeding of half caste children Such attempts at imposing anti miscegenation laws were unsuccessful 134 As South Asian women began arriving in Britain in large numbers from the 1970s mostly as family members intermarriage rates have decreased in the British Asian community although the size of the community has increased As of 2006 there are 246 400 British Mixed Race people of European and South Asian descent There is also a small Eurasian community in Liverpool citation needed The first Chinese settlers were mainly Cantonese from south China some were also from Shanghai The figures of Chinese for 1921 are 2157 men and 262 women Many Chinese men married British women while others remained single possibly supporting a wife and family back home in China During World War II 1939 1945 another wave of Chinese seamen from Shanghai and of Cantonese origin married British women Records show that about some 300 of these men had married British women and supported families 135 A estimated 900 Chinese Eurasian born as result of marriages from Chinese fathers and white mothers of various ethnic backgrounds the most common being British and Irish Most British Chinese of Eurasian origin were concentrated in around the Liverpool area of Chinatown where there was a growing Chinese Eurasian community Many of them had assimilated with other ethnic Chinese while others assimilated with mainstream British population 129 130 131 North America Edit Kristin Kreuk Shay Mitchell George Nozuka Justin NozukaCanada Edit Main article Asian Canadians Cuba Edit See also Chinese Cubans There were almost no women among the nearly entirely male Chinese coolie population that migrated to Cuba 136 137 In Cuba some Indian Native American mulatto black and white women engaged in carnal relations or marriages with Chinese men with marriages of mulatto black and white woman being reported by the Cuba Commission Report 138 120 000 Cantonese coolies all males entered Cuba under contract for 80 years Most of these men did not marry but Hung Hui 1975 80 cites there was a frequency of sexual activity between black women and these Asian immigrants According to Osberg 1965 69 the free Chinese practice of buying slave women and then freeing them expressly for marriage was utilized at length In the nineteenth and twentieth centuries Chinese men Cantonese engaged in sexual activity with white Cuban women and black Cuban women and from such relations many children were born For a British Caribbean model of Chinese cultural retention through procreation with black women see Patterson 322 31 139 In the 1920s an additional 30 000 Cantonese and small groups of Japanese also arrived both immigrant groups were exclusively male and there was rapid intermarriage with white black and mulato populations 140 141 CIA World Factbook Cuba 2008 15 May 2008 claimed 114 240 Chinese Cuban with only 300 pure Chinese 142 In the study of genetic origin admixture and asymmetry in maternal and paternal human lineages in Cuba Thirty five Y chromosome SNPs were typed in the 132 male individuals of the Cuban sample The study does not include any people with some Chinese ancestry All the samples were white Cubans and black Cubans Two out of 132 male sample belong to East Asian Haplogroup O2 which is found in significant frequencies among Cantonese people is found in 1 5 of Cuban population 143 Costa Rica Edit See also Chinese people in Costa Rica The Chinese originated from the Cantonese male migrants Pure Chinese make up only 1 of the Costa Rican population but according to Jacqueline M Newman close to 10 of Costa Ricans are of Chinese descent or married to a Chinese 144 Most Chinese immigrants since then have been Cantonese but in the last decades of the twentieth century a number of immigrants have also come from Taiwan Many men came alone to work and married Costa Rican women and speak Cantonese However the majority of the descendants of the first Chinese immigrants no longer speak Cantonese and feel themselves to be Costa Ricans 145 They married Tican women who are a blend of Europeans Castizos Mestizos Indian black 146 A Tican is also a white person with a small portion of nonwhite blood like Castizos The census In 1989 shows about 98 of Costa Ricans were either white castizos mestizos with 80 being white or Castizos Mexico Edit See also Chinese immigration to Mexico Ana Gabriel Barbara MoriA marriage between a Chinese man and a white Mexican woman was recorded in Current anthropological literature Volumes 1 2 published in 1912 titled Note on two children born to a Chinese and a Mexican white Note sur deux enfants nes d un chinois et d une mexicaine de race blanche Ibid 122 125 portr Treats briefly of Chen Tean of Hong Kong his wife Inez Mancha a white Mexican married in 1907 and their children a boy b April 14 1908 and a girl b Sept 24 1909 The boy is of marked Chinese type the girl much more European No Mongolian spots were noticed at birth Both children were born with red cheeks Neither has ever been sick The boy began to walk at ten months the girl a little after a year 147 148 149 150 151 Mexican women and Chinese men initiated free unions with each other as recorded by the Chihuahua and Sonora census records a number Chinese men and their Mexican wives and children came to China to live there while a big number of Chinese Mexican families were entirely expelled from northern Mexico to China during the early 1930s 500 Chinese Mexican families numbering around 2 000 people in total came to China with a large number of them settling in Portuguese Macau and forming their own ghetto there since they were drawn to the Catholic and Iberian culture of Macau 152 A lot of couples ended up divorcing in China due to a huge variety of factors which caused stress like culture economic and familial with the men leaving Macau with hundreds of Mexican women and mixed children alone Mexican women in Macau rearing their mixed Chinese children wanted to return to Mexico saying Even if we have to scrape bittersweet potatoes in the sierra we want Mexico and Mexico under President Lazaro Cardenas allowed over 400 Mexican women and their children to come back in 1937 1938 after the women petitioned after World War II some Chinese Mexican families also came back and after a petition by mixed race Chinese Mexicans who had been deported from Mexico and raised in Macau led another campaign to allow them to return home in 1960 153 Children which were born to Mexican women and sired by Chinese men were counted as ethnic Chinese by Mexican census takers since they were not considered Mexicans by the general public and viewed as Chinese 154 The Mexican ideology of mestizaje portrayed the quintessential Mexican identity as being made from a mix of indigenous native and Spanish white with Mexico being portrayed by racial ideologues as being made out of a south populated by indigenous natives a central part populated by mixed white native Mestizos and a north populated by white Spanish creoles Sonora was where these white Spanish creoles lived and the marriage of Chinese with Mexicans was portrayed as particularly threatening to the white identity of Sonora and to the concept of mixed mestizaje identity of indigenous natives and Spanish since the Chinese Mexican mixed children did not fit into this identity 155 The anti Chinese campaigns resulted in an exodus of Chinese leaving northern Mexican states like Sonora Sinaloa Coahuila Chihuahua and Mexicali with the Chinese and their families being stripped of the property they took with them as they were forced across the Mexican border into America where they would be sent back to China Dr David Trembly MacDougal said many of these departing Chinese have married Mexican women some of whom with their children accompany them into exile and after a lifetime of skillful and honest work they were driven into poverty by the loss of their property 156 Mexico s international image was being damaged by the anti Chinese expulsion campaign and while attempts were made to reign in anti Chinese measures by the Mexican federal government using the war between Japan and China as a reason to stop deporting Chinese Mexican states continued in the anti Chinese campaign to drive Chinese out of states like Sinora and Sinaloa with citizenship being stripped from Mexican women who were married to Chinese men labeled as race traitors and from the United States Sinaloa and Sonora both Mexican women their Chinese husbands and their mixed children were expelled to China 157 158 There was a more widespread general anti foreign sentiment sweeping through Mexico which was against Arabs eastern Europeans and Jews in addition to Chinese with the anti Chinese movement being part of this bigger campaign a Mexican anti foreign pamphlet exhorted Mexicans to not spend one penny on the Chinese Russians Poles Czechoslovacs Lithuanians Greeks Jews Sirio Lebanese etc a poster advocated boycott sabotage and expulsion from the country of all foreigners in general considered as pernicious and undesirable and warned against Chinese men marrying Mexican women saying WHATEVER IT COSTS MEXICAN WOMAN Do not fall asleep help your racial brothers boycott the undesirable foreigners who steal the bread from our children 159 Many Chinese migrated into Sinaloa and into cities such as Mazatlan up to the 1920s where they engaged in business and married Mexican women this led to the expulsion of Chinese in the 1930s and Sinaloa passed laws expelling the Chinese in 1933 leading to the break up of mixed Chinese Mexican families and Mexican women to be deported to China with their Chinese husbands 160 After several hundred Chinese men and their mixed families of Mexican wives and Mexican Chinese children were expelled from Mexico into the United States the Immigration and Naturalization Service INS took charge of these people took their testimonies and labelled them as refugees before sending them to China the U S immigration employees also included under the category Chinese refugees from Mexico the Mexican women and mixed Chinese Mexican children who accompanied the Chinese men and sent them all to China instead of sending the mixed children and Mexican women to Mexico in spite of it having been cheaper since at this era of history laws and convention regarding citizenship held that women were controlled by their husbands and when they married foreign men women had their citizenship stripped from them so the women were dealt with by their husbands standing and conditions so while Chinese men had their testimonies collected the Mexican women were not interviewed by U S immigration officials and the Mexican women and the mixed Chinese Mexican families were sent to China even Mexican women who were not officially married but were engaged in relationships with Chinese men Sinaloa and Sonora saw most of their Chinese population and mixed Chinese Mexican families deported due to the virulent anti Chinese movement 161 The anti Chinese sentiment in Mexico was spurred on by the onset of the Great Depression Chinese started to come to Mexico in the late 19th century and the majority of them were in trade and owners of businesses when the Maderistas came into power marrying Mexican women and siring mixed race children with them which resulted in a law banning Chinese Mexican marriages in 1923 in Sonora and another law forcing Chinese into ghettos two years after and in Sinaloa Sonora and Chihuahua the Chinese were driven out in the early 1930s with northern Mexico seeing 11 000 Chinese expelled in total 162 The maternal grandfather of Mexican singer Ana Gabriel was a Chinese man named Yang Quing Yong Chizon who adopted the name Roberto in Mexico United States Edit See also Amerasian Hafu and Hapa Merle Oberon Jawed Karim Harry B Harris Jr Chloe Bennet Wang Sam Tsui Vanessa Hudgens Malese Jow Cheryl Burke Mike Shinoda Sean Lennon Olivia Munn Janel Parrish Hayley Kiyoko Sono Osato Leah Dizon Tammy Duckworth Dean Cain Michelle Branch Olivia Rodrigo Mitski Mina Kimes Eileen GuAccording to the United States Census Bureau concerning multi racial families in 1990 163 In the United States census data indicate that the number of children in interracial families grew from less than one half million in 1970 to about two million in 1990 In 1990 for interracial families with one white American partner the other parent was Asian American for 45 percent According to James P Allen and Eugene Turner from California State University Northridge by some calculations the largest part European bi racial population is European Native American and Alaskan Native at 7 015 017 followed by European African at 737 492 then European Asian at 727 197 and finally European Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander at 125 628 164 The U S census has categorized Eurasian responses in the Some other race section as belonging to the Asian category 165 The Eurasian responses the US census officially recognizes are Indo European Amerasian and Eurasian 165 Starting with the 2000 census people have been allowed to mark more than one race on the U S census and many have identified as both Asian and European Defining Eurasians as those who were marked as both white and Asian in the census there were 868 395 Eurasians in the United States in 2000 and 1 623 234 in 2010 4 Accusations of support for miscegenation were commonly made by slavery defenders against abolitionists before the US Civil War After the War similar charges were used by white segregationists against advocates of equal rights for African Americans They were said to be secretly plotting the destruction of the white race through miscegenation In the 1950s segregationists alleged a Communist plot funded by the Soviet Union with that goal In 1957 segregationists cite the antisemitic hoax A Racial Program for the Twentieth Century as evidence for these claims From the nineteenth to the mid twentieth century the Chinese who migrated to the United States were almost entirely of Cantonese origin Anti miscegenation laws in many states prohibited Chinese men from marrying white women 166 In the mid 1850s 70 to 150 Chinese were living in New York City and 11 of them married Irish women In 1906 the New York Times 6 August reported that 300 white women Irish American were married to Chinese men in New York with many more cohabited In 1900 based on Liang research of the 120 000 men in more than 20 Chinese communities in the United States he estimated that one out of every 20 Chinese men Cantonese was married to white women 167 In the 1960s census showed 3500 Chinese men married to white women and 2900 Chinese women married to white men 168 Twenty five percent of married Asian American women have white spouses but 45 of cohabitating Asian American women are with white American men Of cohabiting Asian men slightly over 37 of Asian men have white female partners and over 10 married to white women 169 Asian American women and Asian American men live with a white partner 40 and 27 respectively Le 2006b In 2008 of new marriages including an Asian man 80 were to an Asian spouse and 14 to a white spouse of new marriages involving an Asian woman 61 were to an Asian spouse and 31 to a white spouse 170 Hawaii Edit See also Chinese Hawaiian and Hapa Bruno Mars Keanu Reeves Brook Lee Nicole Scherzinger Carrie Ann Inaba Kelly Hu Tulsi Gabbard Maggie QThe majority of early Hawaiian Chinese were Cantonese speaking immigrants with a small number of Hakka speakers If all people with Chinese ancestry in Hawaii including the Sino Hawaiians are included they form about one third of Hawaii s entire population Many thousands of them married women of Hawaiian Hawaiian European and European origin A large percentage of the Chinese men married Hawaiian and Hawaiian European women While a minority married white women in Hawaii were with Portuguese women The 12 592 Asiatic Hawaiians enumerated in 1930 were the result of Chinese men intermarrying with Hawaiian and part Hawaiian European Most Asiatic Hawaiians men also married Hawaiians and European women and vice versa On the census some Chinese with little native blood would be classified as Chinese not an Asiatic Hawaiians due to dilution of native blood Intermarriage started to decline in the 1920s 171 172 173 Portuguese and other Caucasian women married Chinese men 174 175 These unions between Chinese men and Portuguese women resulted in children of mixed Chinese Portuguese parentage called Chinese Portuguese For two years to 30 June 1933 38 of these children were born they were classified as pure Chinese because their fathers were Chinese 176 A large amount of mingling took place between Chinese and Portuguese Chinese men married Portuguese Spanish Hawaiian Caucasian Hawaiian etc 177 178 179 180 Only one Chinese man was recorded marrying an American woman 181 182 Chinese men in Hawaii also married Puerto Rican Portuguese Japanese Greek and half white women 183 184 Oceania EditAustralia Edit Penny Wong Bob MorleyMost of the early Australian Chinese population consisted of Cantonese speaking migrants from Guangzhou and Taishan as well as some Hokkien speaking immigrants They migrated to Australia during the gold rush period of the 1850s Marriage records show that between the 1850s and the start of the twentieth century there were about 2000 legal marriages between white women and migrant Chinese men in Australia s eastern colonies probably with similar numbers involved in de facto relationships of various kinds 185 A Chinese man Sun San Lung and his son by his white European Australian wife Lizzie in Castlemaine returned to China in 1887 for a trip after marrying a second white wife after Lizzie died but they were blocked from coming back to Melbourne Chinese men were found living with 73 opium addicted Australian white women when Quong Tart surveyed the goldfields for opium addicts and many homeless women abused by husbands and prostitutes ran away and married Chinese men in Sydney after taking refuge in Chinese opium dens in gambling houses Reverend Francis Hopkins said that A Chinaman s Anglo Saxon wife is almost his God a European s is his slave This is the reason why so many girls transfer their affections to the almond eyed Celestials when giving the reason why these women married Chinese men 186 After the gold mining ended some Chinese remained in Australia and started families one youthful Englishwoman married a Chinese in 1870 in Bendigo and the Golden Dragon Museum is run by his great grandson Russell Jack 187 The Australian sniper Billy Sing was the son of a Chinese father and an English mother 188 189 190 191 His parents were John Sing c 1842 1921 a drover from Shanghai China and Mary Ann Sing nee Pugh c 1857 unknown a nurse from Kingswinford Staffordshire England 192 193 The rate of intermarriage declined as stories of the viciousness of Chinese men towards white women spread mixed with increasing opposition to intermarriage In late 1878 there were 181 marriages between women of European descent and Chinese men as well as 171 such couples cohabiting without matrimony resulting in the birth of 586 children of Sino European descent 194 Such a rate of intermarriage between Chinese Australians and white Australians was to continue until the 1930s citation needed South America EditArgentina Edit Main article Asian Argentines Today there are an estimated of 180 000 Asian Argentines with 120 000 of Chinese descent 195 32 000 of Japanese descent 25 000 of Korean descent 196 Brazil Edit Main article Asian Brazilians Lyoto Machida Daniele Suzuki Sabrina Sato Fernanda Takai Lovefoxxx Arthur MarianoCommon estimates generally include about 25 35 of Japanese Brazilians as multiracial being generally over 50 60 among the yonsei or fourth generation outside Japan In Brazil home to the largest Japanese community overseas miscegenation is celebrated and it promoted racial integration and mixing over the nineteenth and twentieth centuries nevertheless as a way of dealing with and assimilating its non white population submitted to white elites with no dangers of uprisings that would put its status quo in risk citation needed While culture shock was strong for the first and second generations of Japanese Brazilians and the living conditions in the fazendas plantation farms after the slavery crisis were sometimes worse than in Asia Brazil stimulated immigration as means of substitution for the lost workforce and any qualms about the non whiteness of the Japanese were quickly forgotten After Japan became one of the world s most developed and rich nations the Japanese in Brazil and their culture as well gained an image of progress instead of the old bad perception of a people which would not be assimilated or integrated as its culture and race were deemed as diametrically opposed to the Brazilian ones In the censuses self reported amarelos literally yellows i e Mongolics people racially East Asian include about 2 100 000 people or around 1 of the Brazilian population A greater number of persons may have Japanese and less commonly Chinese and Korean ancestry but identify as white Brazilian society has no one drop rule pardo i e brown skinned multiracial or assimilated Amerindian pardo stands for a Brazilian darker than white and lighter than black but not necessarily implying a white black admixture or Afro Brazilian When it comes to religion self reported Asian Brazilians are only less Irreligious than whites and a little more Catholic than Amerindians They are the least group when it comes to traditional churches of Christianity and also the least group in percent of Protestants and Evangelicals or Pentecostals as well Asian Brazilians have the highest income per capita according to the 2010 census Peru Edit See also Asian Peruvians About 100 000 Cantonese coolies almost all males in 1849 to 1874 migrated to Peru and intermarried with Peruvian women of mestizo European Amerindian European mestizo castizo African and mulatto origin Many Peruvian Chinese and Peruvian Japanese today are of Spanish Italian German African and American origin Estimates for Chinese Peruvian is about 1 3 1 6 millions Asian Peruvians are estimated to be 3 of the population but one source places the number of citizens with some Chinese ancestry at 4 2 million which equates to 15 of the country s total population In Peru non Chinese women married the mostly male Chinese coolies 197 See also EditEurasian Steppe Tatars Crimean Tatars Turkic peoples Eurasian nomads Steppe Route Afro Asians Euronesian Sami people Multiracial peopleReferences Edit a b The White Population 2010 Census Briefs PDF 30 September 2011 Archived from the original PDF on 30 September 2011 Archived copy Archived from the original on 24 February 2016 Retrieved 25 December 2012 a href Template Cite web html title Template Cite web cite web a CS1 maint archived copy as title link CBS StatLine Bevolking generatie geslacht leeftijd en herkomstgroepering 1 januari Statline cbs nl Retrieved 9 January 2018 a b U S census website United States Census Bureau Retrieved 2 January 2014 Defining Eurasians as those who were marked as both white and Asian in the 2010 census there were 1 623 234 Eurasians in the United States Demografie van de Indische Nederlanders 1930 2001 PDF Cbs nl Archived from the original PDF on 22 August 2018 Retrieved 9 January 2018 a b Hong Kong Government Ethnic Minorities by Ethnicity and Age Group 2001 2006 and 2011 F401 Archived from the original on 12 June 2017 Retrieved 5 February 2014 24 649 people identified as Mixed with one Chinese parent according to the 2011 Hong Kong census Spanish Colonial Caste System in the Philippines PDF Retrieved 22 August 2018 permanent dead link Culture amp identity take centre stage at Eurasian dialogue Channel NewsAsia 23 February 2013 Archived from the original on 25 December 2013 via XinMSN There are close to 18 000 Eurasians in Singapore Jarnagin Laura 2012 Portuguese and Luso Asian Legacies in Southeast Asia 1511 2011 Culture and identity in the Luso Asian world tenacities amp plasticities Institute of Southeast Asian Studies p 268 Today there are over twenty nine thousand Eurasians living in Malaysia the vast majority of whom are of Portuguese descent Yee H 12 September 2001 Macau in Transition From Colony to Autonomous Region Springer ISBN 9780230599369 via Google Books A2 Population by ethnic group according to districts 2012 PDF Census of Population amp Housing 2011 Department of Census amp Statistics Sri Lanka 2012 Meiqi Lee 2004 Being Eurasian Memories Across Racial Divides illustrated ed Hong Kong University Press p 2 ISBN 978 962 209 671 4 Current Anthropology Vol 2 No 1 February 1961 p 64 Gonzalez Ruiz Mercedes Santos Cristina Jordana Xavier Simon Marc Lalueza Fox Carles Gigli Elena Pilar Aluja Maria Malgosa Assumpcio 2012 Tracing the Origin of the East West Population Admixture in the Altai Region Central Asia PLOS ONE 7 11 1 Bibcode 2012PLoSO 748904G doi 10 1371 journal pone 0048904 PMC 3494716 PMID 23152818 An Ancient Scytho Siberian Pair with Asian Ties Archived from the original on 15 October 2014 Fu ren da xue Beijing China S V D Research Institute Society of the Divine Word 2003 Tumen D Anthropology of Archaeological Populations from Northeast Asia 1 Archived 29 July 2013 at the Wayback Machine page 25 27 Keyser Tracqui C Crubezy E Ludes B August 2003 Nuclear and mitochondrial DNA analysis of a 2 000 year old necropolis in the Egyin Gol Valley of Mongolia American Journal of Human Genetics 73 2 247 60 doi 10 1086 377005 PMC 1180365 PMID 12858290 SA Pletnev Google Translate p 2 Bona Istvan A Nagyrev kultura telepuleseirol 1991 p 30 In Hyun Jin Kim The Huns Rome and the Birth of Europe Archived August 21 2016 at the Wayback Machine Cambridge University Press p 187 Liptak Pal Recherches anthropologiques sur les ossements avares des environs d Ullo 1955 In Acta archaeologica Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae vol 6 1955 pp 231 314 Acta archaeologica Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae Magyar Tudomanyos Akademia 1967 p 86 Bogacsi Szabo Erika Kalmar Tibor Csanyi Bernadett Tomory Gyongyver Czibula Agnes Priskin Katalin Horvath Ferenc Downes Christopher Stephen Rasko Istvan October 2005 Mitochondrial DNA of Ancient Cumanians Culturally Asian Steppe Nomadic Immigrants with Substantially More Western Eurasian Mitochondrial DNA Lineages Human Biology 77 5 639 662 doi 10 1353 hub 2006 0007 ISSN 0018 7143 LCCN 31029123 OCLC 1752384 PMID 16596944 S2CID 13801005 Damgaard Peter de Barros Marchi Nina Rasmussen Simon Peyrot Michael Renaud Gabriel Korneliussen Thorfinn Moreno Mayar J Victor Pedersen Mikkel Winther Goldberg Amy Usmanova Emma Baimukhanov Nurbol May 2018 137 ancient human genomes from across the Eurasian steppes Nature 557 7705 369 374 Bibcode 2018Natur 557 369D doi 10 1038 s41586 018 0094 2 hdl 1887 3202709 ISSN 1476 4687 PMID 29743675 S2CID 13670282 Roy Olivier 1 October 2007 The New Central Asia Geopolitics and the Birth of Nations Paperback New York New York University Press p 6 ISBN 978 0814776094 2 Central Asian world cities XI XIII century faculty washington edu Ramirez Faria Carlos 30 June 2007 Concise Encyclopeida Of World History New Delhi Atlantic Publishers amp Distributors p 120 ISBN 978 8126907755 H Schram Robert 16 September 2013 Mixed Marriage Interreligious Interracial Interethnic Bloomington Indiana Xlibris p 125 ISBN 978 1483688152 Villems Richard Khusnutdinova Elza Kivisild Toomas Yepiskoposyan Levon Voevoda Mikhail Osipova Ludmila Malyarchuk Boris Derenko Miroslava Damba Larisa 21 April 2015 The Genetic Legacy of the Expansion of Turkic Speaking Nomads across Eurasia PLOS Genetics 11 4 e1005068 doi 10 1371 journal pgen 1005068 ISSN 1553 7404 PMC 4405460 PMID 25898006 Heyer Evelyne Balaresque Patricia Jobling Mark A Quintana Murci Lluis Chaix Raphaelle Segurel Laure Aldashev Almaz Hegay Tanya 1 September 2009 Genetic diversity and the emergence of ethnic groups in Central Asia BMC Genetics 10 1 49 doi 10 1186 1471 2156 10 49 ISSN 1471 2156 PMC 2745423 PMID 19723301 Uchiyama Junzo Gillam J Christopher Savelyev Alexander Ning Chao 2020 Populations dynamics in Northern Eurasian forests a long term perspective from Northeast Asia Evolutionary Human Sciences 2 doi 10 1017 ehs 2020 11 hdl 21 11116 0000 0007 7733 A ISSN 2513 843X S2CID 219470000 Halperin Charles J 1987 Russia and the Golden Horde The Mongol Impact on Medieval Russian History Indiana University Press p 111 ISBN 978 0 253 20445 5 https mk kz kz social 2022 07 30 kolichestvo mezhnacionalnykh brakov podschitali v kazakhstane html a href Template Cite web html title Template Cite web cite web a Missing or empty title help Soviet Sociology International Arts and Sciences Press 22 October 1972 Retrieved 22 October 2017 via Google Books a b Thomas A Bass Vietnamerica The War Comes Home New York Soho Press 1996 p 86 The Royal House of Cambodia Julio A Jeldres Monument Books 2003 p 69 van Amersfoort H 1982 Immigration and the formation of minority groups the Dutch experience 1945 1975 Cambridge University Press a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a Cite journal requires journal help Sjaardema H 1946 One View on the Position of the Eurasian in Indonesian Society The Journal of Asian Studies 5 2 172 175 doi 10 2307 2049742 JSTOR 2049742 S2CID 158287493 Bosma U 2012 Post colonial Immigrants and Identity Formations in the Netherlands Amsterdam University Press p 198 a b c van Imhoff E Beets G 2004 A demographic history of the Indo Dutch population 1930 2001 Journal of Population Research 21 1 47 49 doi 10 1007 bf03032210 S2CID 53645470 Lai Selena 2002 Understanding Indonesia in the 21st Century Stanford University Institute for International Studies p 12 J Errington Linguistics in a Colonial World A Story of Language 2008 Wiley Blackwell p 138 The Colonial Review Department of Education in Tropical Areas University of London Institute of Education 1941 p 72 Bosma U Raben R 2008 Being Dutch in the Indies a history of creolisation and empire 1500 1920 University of Michigan NUS Press pp 21 37 220 ISBN 978 9971 69 373 2 Indos people of Dutch descent who stayed in the new republic Indonesia after it gained independence or who emigrated to Indonesia after 1949 are called Dutch Indonesians Although the majority of the Indos are found in the lowest strata of European society they do not represent a solid social or economic group van der Veur P 1968 The Eurasians of Indonesia A Problem and Challenge in Colonial History Journal of Southeast Asian History 9 2 191 doi 10 1017 s021778110000466x Knight G 2012 East of the Cape in 1832 The Old Indies World Empire Families and Colonial Women in Nineteenth century Java Itinerario 36 22 48 doi 10 1017 s0165115312000356 S2CID 163411444 Greenbaum Kasson E 2011 The long way home Los Angeles Times Betts R 2004 Decolonization Psychology Press p 81 Yanowa D van der Haar M 2012 People out of place allochthony and autochthony in the Netherlands identity discourse metaphors and categories in action Journal of International Relations and Development 16 2 227 261 doi 10 1057 jird 2012 13 S2CID 145401956 Pattynama P 2012 Cultural memory and Indo Dutch identity formations The University of Amsterdam 175 192 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a Cite journal requires journal help Asrianti Tifa 10 January 2010 Dutch Indonesians search for home The Jakarta Post Laura Jarnagin 2012 Portuguese and Luso Asian Legacies in Southeast Asia 1511 2011 Culture and identity in the Luso Asian world tenacities amp plasticities Institute of Southeast Asian Studies p 268 Archived copy PDF Archived from the original PDF on 14 February 2010 Retrieved 18 December 2009 a href Template Cite web html title Template Cite web cite web a CS1 maint archived copy as title link Fedor Jagor et al 1870 The Former Philippines thru Foreign Eyes Go MC Jones AR Algee Hewitt B Dudzik B Hughes C 2019 Classification Trends among Contemporary Filipino Crania Using Fordisc 3 1 Human Biology University of Florida Press 2 4 1 11 doi 10 5744 fa 2019 1005 Retrieved 13 September 2020 Page 1 ABSTRACT Filipinos represent a significant contemporary demographic group globally yet they are underrepresented in the forensic anthropological literature Given the complex population history of the Philippines it is important to ensure that traditional methods for assessing the biological profile are appropriate when applied to these peoples Here we analyze the classification trends of a modern Filipino sample n 110 when using the Fordisc 3 1 FD3 software We hypothesize that Filipinos represent an admixed population drawn largely from Asian and marginally from European parental gene pools such that FD3 will classify these individuals morphometrically into reference samples that reflect a range of European admixture in quantities from small to large Our results show the greatest classification into Asian reference groups 72 7 followed by Hispanic 12 7 Indigenous American 7 3 African 4 5 and European 2 7 groups included in FD3 This general pattern did not change between males and females Moreover replacing the raw craniometric values with their shape variables did not significantly alter the trends already observed These classification trends for Filipino crania provide useful information for casework interpretation in forensic laboratory practice Our findings can help biological anthropologists to better understand the evolutionary population historical and statistical reasons for FD3 generated classifications The results of our studyindicate that ancestry estimation in forensic anthropology would benefit from population focused research that gives consideration to histories of colonialism and periods of admixture Historical Conservation Society The Society 1963 p 191 Sinibaldo De Mas 1963 Informe secreto de Sinibaldo de Mas Historical Conservation Society p 191 Shubert S C Liao 1964 Chinese participation in Philippine culture and economy Bookman p 30 Emma Helen Blair 1915 The Philippine Islands 1493 1898 Relating to China and the Chinese A H Clark Company pp 85 87 L Hunt Chester Sociology in the Philippine setting A modular approach p 118 Phoenix Pub House 1954 Frederic H Sawyer The Inhabitants of the Philippines p 125 New York 1900 Asian and Pacific Migration Journal 24 2 The postcolonial ambiguities of Eurasian pan ethnicity in Singapore J Lowe and M Mac an Ghaill 2015 Page 234 Indonesia and the Malay World43 126 Children of Decolonisation Postcolonial Indo Eurasian Communities in Indonesia and the Netherlands R Hewett 2015 Page 192 I m Eurasian Singaporean not ang moh Archived from the original on 8 September 2013 More than Devil Curry Todayonline com Retrieved 29 May 2018 Eurasian Invasion Time 23 April 2001 Archived from the original on 27 November 2006 Williams Leon Teresa Nakashima Cynthia L 2001 The sum of our parts mixed heritage Asian Americans Teresa Williams Leon Cynthia L Nakashima Google Books ISBN 9781566398473 Reid Anthony 1990 Southeast Asia in the Age of Commerce 1450 1680 The lands below the winds Vol 1 of Southeast Asia in the Age of Commerce 1450 1680 illustrated reprint revised ed New Haven Yale University Press p 165 ISBN 978 0 300 04750 9 MacLeod Murdo J Rawski Evelyn Sakakida eds 1998 European Intruders and Changes in Behaviour and Customs in Africa America and Asia Before 1800 Vol 30 of An Expanding World the European Impact on World History 1450 1800 Vol 30 illustrated reprint ed Ashgate p 636 ISBN 978 0 86078 522 4 Hughes Sarah S Hughes Brady eds 1995 Women in World History Readings from prehistory to 1500 Vol 1 of Sources and studies in world history illustrated ed M E Sharpe p 219 ISBN 978 1 56324 311 0 Tingley Nancy 2009 Asia Society Museum ed Arts of Ancient Viet Nam From River Plain to Open Sea Andreas Reinecke Museum of Fine Arts Houston illustrated ed Asia Society p 249 ISBN 978 0 300 14696 7 Hamilton Alexander 1997 Smithies Michael ed Alexander Hamilton A Scottish Sea Captain in Southeast Asia 1689 1723 illustrated reprint ed Silkworm Books p 205 ISBN 978 9747100457 a b Patricia Pok kwan Chiu November 2008 A position of usefulness gendering history of girls education in colonial Hong Kong 1850s 1890s History of Education Journal of the History of Education Society Routledge 37 6 799 Meiqi Lee 2004 Being Eurasian Memories Across Racial Divides illustrated ed Hong Kong University Press p 262 ISBN 978 962 209 671 4 EJ Eitel in the late 1890s claims that the half caste population in Hong Kong were from the earliest days of the settlement almost exclusively the offspring of liaisons between European men and women of outcaste ethnic groups such as Tanka Europe in 169 Lethbridge refutes the theory saying it was based on a myth propagated by xenophobic Cantonese to account for the establishment of the Hong Kong Eurasian community Carl Smith s study in the late 1960s on the protected women seems to some degree support Eitel s theory Smith says that the Tankas experienced certain restrictions within the traditional Chinese social structure Custom precluded their intermarriage with the Cantonese and Hakka speaking populations The Tanka women did not have bound feet Their opportunities for settlement on shore were limited They were hence not as closely tied to Confucian ethics as other Chinese ethnic groups Being a group marginal to the traditional Chinese society of the Puntis Cantonese they did not have the same social pressure in dealing with Europeans CT Smith Chung Chi Bulletin 27 Living under the protection of a foreigner says Smith could be a ladder to financial security if not respectability for some of the Tanka boat girls 13 Maria Jaschok Suzanne Miers 1994 Maria Jaschok Suzanne Miers eds Women and Chinese patriarchy submission servitude and escape illustrated ed Zed Books p 223 ISBN 978 1 85649 126 6 He states that they had a near monopoly of the trade in girls and women and that The half caste population in Hong Kong were from the earliest days of the settlement of the Colony and down to the present day almost exclusively the offspring of these Tan ka people But like the Tan ka people themselves they are happily under the influence of a process of continuous re absorption in the mass of Chinese residents of the Colony 1895 p 169 Helen F Siu 2011 Helen F Siu ed Merchants Daughters Women Commerce and Regional Culture in South Hong Kong University Press p 305 ISBN 978 988 8083 48 0 The half caste population of Hongkong were almost exclusively the offspring of these Tan ka women EJ Eitel Europe in the History of Hongkong from the Beginning to the Year 1882 Taipei Chen Wen Publishing Co originally published in Hong Kong by Kelly and Walsh 1895 1968 169 Henry J Lethbridge 1978 Hong Kong stability and change a collection of essays Oxford University Press p 75 ISBN 9780195804027 The half caste population in Hong Kong were from the earliest days of the settlement of the Colony and down to the present day 1895 almost exclusively the off spring of these Tan ka people Andrew Elizabeth Wheeler Bushnell Katharine Caroline 2006 Heathen Slaves and Christian Rulers Echo Library p 11 ISBN 978 1 4068 0431 7 John Mark Carroll 2007 A concise history of Hong Kong illustrated ed Rowman amp Littlefield p 36 ISBN 978 0 7425 3422 3 Most of the Chinese who came to Hong Kong in the early years were from the lower classes such as labourers artisans Tanka outcasts prostitutes wanderers and smugglers That these people violated orders from authorities in Canton Maria Jaschok Suzanne Miers 1994 Maria Jaschok Suzanne Miers eds Women and Chinese patriarchy submission servitude and escape illustrated ed Zed Books p 237 ISBN 978 1 85649 126 6 I am indebted to Dr Maria Jaschok for drawing my attention to Sun Guoqun s work on Chinese prostitution and for a reference to Tanka prostitutes who served Western clients In this they were unlike typical prostitutes who were so unaccustomed to the appearance of western men that they were all afraid of them Henry J Lethbridge 1978 Hong Kong stability and change a collection of essays Oxford University Press p 75 ISBN 9780195804027 but another source of supply was the daughters of the tanka the boat population of kwangtung Henry J Lethbridge 1978 Hong Kong stability and change a collection of essays Oxford University Press p 75 ISBN 9780195804027 The Tanka it seems not only supplied foreign shipping with provisions but foreigners with mistresses They also supplied brothels with some of their inmates As a socially disadvantaged group they found prostitution a convenient Henry J Lethbridge 1978 Hong Kong stability and change a collection of essays Oxford University Press p 210 ISBN 9780195804027 In the early days such women were found usually among the Tanka boat population a pariah group that infested the Pearl River delta region A few of these women achieved the status of protected woman a kept mistress and were Fanny M Cheung 1997 Fanny M Cheung ed EnGendering Hong Kong society a gender perspective of women s status illustrated ed Chinese University Press p 348 ISBN 978 962 201 736 8 twentieth century in women doubly marginalised as members of a despised ethnic group of Tanka Boat people and as prostitutes engaged in contemptible sexual intercourse with Western men In the empirical work done by CT Smith 1994 Elizabeth Wheeler Andrew Katharine Caroline Bushnell 1907 Heathen Slaves and Christian Rulers Echo Library p 11 ISBN 978 1 4068 0431 7 John Mark Carroll 2007 A concise history of Hong Kong Rowman amp Littlefield p 36 ISBN 978 0 7425 3422 3 Most of the Chinese who came to Hong Kong in the early years were from the lower classes such as laborers artisans Tanka outcasts prostitutes wanderers and smugglers That these people violated orders from authorities in Canton Henry J Lethbridge 1978 Hong Kong stability and change a collection of essays Oxford University Press p 75 This exceptional class of Chinese residents here in Hong Kong consists principally of the women known in Hong Kong by the popular nickname ham shui mui lit salt water girls applied to these members of the so called Tan ka or boat Peter Hodge 1980 Peter Hodge ed Community problems and social work in Southeast Asia the Hong Kong and Singapore experience Hong Kong University Press p 33 ISBN 978 962 209 022 4 exceptional class of Chinese residents here in Hong Kong consists principally of the women known in Hong Kong by the popular nickname ham shui mui lit salt water girls applied to these members of the so called Tan ka or boat Charles Henri Maurice BOSMAN Archived from the original on 22 August 2016 Retrieved 9 August 2016 Porter Jonathan 1996 Macau the imaginary city culture and society 1557 to the present WestviewPress p 78 ISBN 9780813328362 click com cn www bjrhby com Archived from the original on 9 March 2012 a b 9781157453604 Alibris Marketplace alibris com Between China and Europe person culture and emotion in Macao By Joao de Pina Cabral page 164 3 Joao de Pina Cabral 2002 Between China and Europe person culture and emotion in Macao Vol 74 of London School of Economics monographs on social anthropology illustrated ed Berg p 165 ISBN 978 0 8264 5749 3 Retrieved 1 March 2012 Joao de Pina Cabral 2002 Between China and Europe Person Culture and Emotion in Macao Berg Publishers p 165 ISBN 978 0 8264 5748 6 Joao de Pina Cabral 2002 Between China and Europe person culture and emotion in Macao Vol 74 of London School of Economics monographs on social anthropology illustrated ed Berg p 39 ISBN 978 0 8264 5749 3 Moffett Samuel H 1998 A History of Christianity in Asia 1500 1900 Bishop Henry McNeal Turner Studies in North American Black Religion Series Vol 2 of A History of Christianity in Asia 1500 1900 Volume 2 2 illustrated reprint ed Orbis Books p 222 ISBN 978 1 57075 450 0 Moffett Samuel H 2005 A history of Christianity in Asia Volume 2 2 ed Orbis Books p 222 ISBN 978 1 57075 450 0 Free China Review Volume 11 W Y Tsao 1961 p 54 Covell Ralph R 1998 Pentecost of the Hills in Taiwan The Christian Faith Among the Original Inhabitants illustrated ed Hope Publishing House p 96 ISBN 978 0 932727 90 9 a b c d Entangled Histories The Transcultural Past of Northeast China PDF London Springer 2014 pp 47 58 神秘室韦 中国唯一俄罗斯族民族乡 组图 乐途旅游网 3 July 2014 Akaha Tsuneo Vassilieva Anna eds 2005 Crossing National Borders Human Migration Issues in Northeast Asia United Nations University Press p 112 ISBN 9789280811179 Retrieved 18 November 2018 Eui Young Yu and Earl H Phillips Korean women in transition at home and abroad Center for Korean American and Korean Studies California State University Los Angeles 1987 p 185 ISBN 0 942831 00 4 Mixed Race Children in 1960s 70s Korea and ECLAIR Presbyterian Historical Society 6 March 2019 Try Again Joshua Project Archived from the original on 8 December 2015 Retrieved 29 November 2015 a b Stark Herbert Alick Hostages To India OR The Life Story of the Anglo Indian Race Third Edition London The Simon Wallenberg Press Vol 2 Anglo Indian Heritage Books Eurasian Dictionary com Retrieved 13 January 2009 a b Fisher Michael H 2007 Excluding and Including Natives of India Early Nineteenth Century British Indian Race Relations in Britain Comparative Studies of South Asia Africa and the Middle East 27 2 303 314 304 5 doi 10 1215 1089201x 2007 007 Fisher Michael Herbert 2006 Counterflows to Colonialism Indian Traveller and Settler in Britain 1600 1857 Orient Blackswan pp 111 9 129 30 140 154 6 160 8 ISBN 978 81 7824 154 8 Fisher Michael H 2007 Excluding and Including Natives of India Early Nineteenth Century British Indian Race Relations in Britain Comparative Studies of South Asia Africa and the Middle East 27 2 303 314 305 doi 10 1215 1089201x 2007 007 Beckman Karen Redrobe 2003 Vanishing Women Magic Film and Feminism Duke University Press pp 31 3 ISBN 978 0 8223 3074 5 Kent Eliza F 2004 Converting Women Oxford University Press US pp 85 6 ISBN 978 0 19 516507 4 Kaul Suvir 1996 Essay Colonial Figures and Postcolonial Reading Diacritics 26 1 74 89 83 9 doi 10 1353 dia 1996 0005 S2CID 144798987 Maher James Reginald 2007 These Are The Anglo Indians London Simon Wallenberg Press An Anglo Indian Heritage Book Fisher Michael H 2007 Excluding and Including Natives of India Early Nineteenth Century British Indian Race Relations in Britain Comparative Studies of South Asia Africa and the Middle East 27 2 303 314 305 doi 10 1215 1089201x 2007 007 Reeves Peter 2014 The Encyclopedia of the Sri Lankan Diaspora Editions Didier Millet p 28 Kemper Steven 1 May 2001 Buying and Believing Sri Lankan Advertising and Consumers in a Transnational World University of Chicago Press ISBN 9780226430416 via Google Books Neparaczki Endre Maroti Zoltan Kalmar Tibor Maar Kitti Nagy Istvan Latinovics Dora Kustar Agnes Palfi Gyorgy Molnar Erika Marcsik Antonia Balogh Csilla 12 November 2019 Y chromosome haplogroups from Hun Avar and conquering Hungarian period nomadic people of the Carpathian Basin Scientific Reports 9 1 16569 Bibcode 2019NatSR 916569N doi 10 1038 s41598 019 53105 5 ISSN 2045 2322 PMC 6851379 PMID 31719606 Csaky Veronika Gerber Daniel Koncz Istvan Csiky Gergely Mende Balazs G Szeifert Bea Egyed Balazs Pamjav Horolma Marcsik Antonia Molnar Erika Palfi Gyorgy 22 January 2020 Genetic insights into the social organisation of the Avar period elite in the 7th century AD Carpathian Basin Scientific Reports 10 1 948 Bibcode 2020NatSR 10 948C doi 10 1038 s41598 019 57378 8 ISSN 2045 2322 PMC 6976699 PMID 31969576 Saag Lehti Laneman Margot Varul Liivi Malve Martin Valk Heiki Razzak Maria A Shirobokov Ivan G Khartanovich Valeri I Mikhaylova Elena R Kushniarevich Alena Scheib Christiana Lyn 20 May 2019 The Arrival of Siberian Ancestry Connecting the Eastern Baltic to Uralic Speakers further East Current Biology 29 10 1701 1711 e16 doi 10 1016 j cub 2019 04 026 ISSN 1879 0445 PMC 6544527 PMID 31080083 Hewett Rosalind 2015 Children of Decolonisation Indonesia and the Malay World 43 126 191 206 doi 10 1080 13639811 2014 1001598 S2CID 161120555 Asia and the Great War A Shared History By Guoqi Xu 2017 Race Empire and First World War Writing Page 60 Santanu Das 2011 Fisher Michael Herbert 2006 Counterflows to Colonialism Indian Traveller and Settler in Britain 1600 1857 Orient Blackswan pp 106 111 6 119 20 129 35 140 2 154 8 160 8 172 181 ISBN 978 81 7824 154 8 Fisher Michael Herbert 2006 Working across the Seas Indian Maritime Labourers in India Britain and in Between 1600 1857 International of Social History 51 21 45 doi 10 1017 S0020859006002604 Ansari Humayun 2004 The Infidel Within The History of Muslims in Britain 1800 to the Present C Hurst amp Co Publishers p 58 ISBN 978 1 85065 685 2 Ansari Humayun 2004 The Infidel Within The History of Muslims in Britain 1800 to the Present C Hurst amp Co Publishers p 37 ISBN 978 1 85065 685 2 Fisher Michael Herbert 2006 Counterflows to Colonialism Indian Traveller and Settler in Britain 1600 1857 Orient Blackswan pp 180 2 ISBN 978 81 7824 154 8 a b Liverpool and it s Chinese Children a b Liverpool Chinatown History Liverpool Chinatown Retrieved 29 October 2015 a b UK Chinese Archived 24 May 2012 at the Wayback Machine Sacu org 23 January 2006 Retrieved 22 June 2013 Ansari Humayun 2004 The Infidel Within The History of Muslims in Britain 1800 to the Present C Hurst amp Co Publishers p 94 ISBN 978 1 85065 685 2 Bland Lucy April 2005 White Women and Men of Colour Miscegenation Fears in Britain after the Great War Gender amp History 17 1 29 61 doi 10 1111 j 0953 5233 2005 00371 x S2CID 143187996 Ansari Humayun 2004 The Infidel Within The History of Muslims in Britain 1800 to the Present C Hurst amp Co Publishers pp 93 4 ISBN 978 1 85065 685 2 UK Chinese sacu org Archived from the original on 24 May 2012 Retrieved 3 June 2012 Isabelle Lausent Herrera 2010 Walton Look Lai Chee Beng Tan eds The Chinese in Latin America and the Caribbean Brill ebook titles BRILL p 143 ISBN 978 9004182134 Adam McKeown 2001 Chinese Migrant Networks and Cultural Change Peru Chicago and Hawaii 1900 1936 illustrated ed University of Chicago Press p 47 ISBN 978 0226560250 Elliott Young 2014 Alien Nation Chinese Migration in the Americas from the Coolie Era Through World War II The David J Weber Series in the New Borderlands History Vol 4 of Wiley Blackwell Concise History of the Modern World illustrated ed UNC Press Books p 82 ISBN 978 1469612966 4 dead link Archived copy www com Archived from the original on 30 November 2016 Retrieved 14 January 2022 a href Template Cite web html title Template Cite web cite web a CS1 maint archived copy as title link Cuba a Lonely Planet travel survival kit Lonely Planet January 1997 ISBN 9780864424037 The World Factbook cia gov 7 June 2022 Mendizabal I Sandoval K Berniell Lee G et al 2008 Genetic origin admixture and asymmetry in maternal and paternal human lineages in Cuba BMC Evol Biol 8 213 doi 10 1186 1471 2148 8 213 PMC 2492877 PMID 18644108 Chinese Food in Costa Rica www flavorandfortune com Archived from the original on 4 January 2016 Margaret Tyler Mitchell Scott Pentzer 2008 Costa Rica A Global Studies Handbook ABC CLIO ISBN 978 1 85109 992 4 Costa Rica People greenspun com Current Anthropological Literature Volumes 1 2 American Anthropological Association and the American Folk lore Society 1912 p 257 Current Anthropological Literature Volume 1 American Anthropological Association and the American Folk lore Society 1912 p 257 Current Anthropological Literature Volumes 1 2 American Anthropological Association and the American Folk lore Society 1912 p 257 George Charles Engerrand 1912 Note sur deux enfants nes d un chinois et d une mexicaine de race blanche in French reprint ed Librairie F Alcan p 125 Engerrand Georges 1912 Note sur deux enfants nes d un Chinois et d une Mexicaine de race blanche microform in French reprint ed F Alcan p 125 Robert Chao Romero 2011 The Chinese in Mexico 1882 1940 illustrated reprint ed University of Arizona Press p 86 ISBN 978 0816508198 Robert Chao Romero 2011 The Chinese in Mexico 1882 1940 illustrated reprint ed University of Arizona Press p 87 ISBN 978 0816508198 Robert Chao Romero 2011 The Chinese in Mexico 1882 1940 illustrated reprint ed University of Arizona Press p 88 ISBN 978 0816508198 Robert Chao Romero 2011 The Chinese in Mexico 1882 1940 illustrated reprint ed University of Arizona Press p 89 ISBN 978 0816508198 Grace Delgado 2013 Making the Chinese Mexican Global Migration Localism and Exclusion in the U S Mexico Borderlands illustrated ed Stanford University Press p 187 ISBN 978 0804783712 Julia Maria Schiavone Camacho 2012 Chinese Mexicans Transpacific Migration and the Search for a Homeland 1910 1960 illustrated ed Univ of North Carolina Press ISBN 9780807882597 Schiavone Camacho Julia Maria 2012 Expulsion of Chinese Men and Chinese Mexican Families from Sonora and Sinaloa Early 1930s North Carolina Scholarship doi 10 5149 9780807882597 schiavone camacho ISBN 9780807835401 Elliott Young 2014 Alien Nation Chinese Migration in the Americas from the Coolie Era Through World War II The David J Weber Series in the New Borderlands History illustrated ed UNC Press Books p 242 ISBN 978 1469612966 Lee Gutkind ed 2007 Hurricanes and Carnivals Essays by Chicanos Pochos Pachucos Mexicanos and Expatriates illustrated ed University of Arizona Press p 34 ISBN 978 0816526253 Thomas C Holt Laurie B Green Charles Reagan Wilson eds 2013 The New Encyclopedia of Southern Culture Volume 24 Race The New Encyclopedia of Southern Culture UNC Press Books ISBN 978 1469607245 Ramon Eduardo Ruiz 1993 Triumphs and Tragedy A History of the Mexican People reprint revised ed W W Norton amp Company p 383 ISBN 978 0393310665 PDF 20 October 2003 https web archive org web 20031020153728 http www2 census gov census 2000 datasets CQS B 3 pdf Archived from the original PDF on 20 October 2003 a href Template Cite web html title Template Cite web cite web a Missing or empty title help Archived copy Archived from the original on 2 October 2008 Retrieved 9 November 2008 a href Template Cite web html title Template Cite web cite web a CS1 maint archived copy as title link a b Census 1990 Ancestry Codes umich edu Clark Library University of Michigan 27 August 2007 Archived from the original on 2 May 2008 Chin Gabriel Hrishi Karthikeyan 2002 Preserving Racial Identity Population Patterns and the Application of Anti Miscegenation Statutes to Asian Americans 1910 1950 Asian Law Journal 9 SSRN 283998 Benson Tong 2004 Asian American Children A Historical Handbook and Guide Greenwood Publishing Group ISBN 978 0 313 33042 1 Maria P P Root 2001 Love s Revolution Interracial Marriage Temple University Press p 180 ISBN 978 1 56639 826 8 Degrading Stereotypes Ruin Dating Experience Archived 4 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine Modelminority com 22 October 2002 Retrieved 11 December 2011 p 34 PDF Archived from the original PDF on 11 June 2016 Romanzo Adams 2005 Interracial Marriage in Hawaii Kessinger Publishing p 396 ISBN 978 1 4179 9268 3 Margaret M Schwertfeger 1982 Interethnic Marriage and Divorce in Hawaii A Panel Study of 1968 First Marriages Kessinger Publishing caucasian and portuguese women manying chinese males pattern Retrieved 9 January 2018 David Anthony Chiriboga Linda S Catron 1991 Divorce crisis challenge or relief NYU Press p 254 ISBN 978 0 8147 1450 8 Gary A Cretser Joseph J Leon 1982 in the United States Volume 5 Psychology Press p 58 ISBN 978 0 917724 60 2 Romanzo Adams 2005 Interracial Marriage in Hawaii Kessinger Publishing p 396 ISBN 978 1 4179 9268 3 United States Bureau of Education 1921 Bulletin Issues 13 18 U S G P O p 27 United States Office of Education 1920 Bulletin Issue 16 U S Dept of Health Education and Welfare Office of Education p 27 American Association of Physical Anthropologists Wistar Institute of Anatomy and Biology 1920 American journal of physical anthropology Volume 3 A R Liss p 492 Gary A Cretser Joseph J Leon 1982 Intermarriage in the United States Volume 5 Routledge p 111 ISBN 978 0 917724 60 2 American Genetic Association 1919 The Journal of heredity Volume 10 American Genetic Association p 42 American Genetic Association 1919 J hered Volume 10 American Genetic Association p 42 Alfred Emanuel Smith 1905 New Outlook Volume 81 Outlook Publishing Company Inc p 988 The Outlook Volume 81 Outlook Co 1905 p 988 Deacon Desley Russell Penny Woollacott Angela eds 2008 Australian wives in China anu edu au ANU Press doi 10 22459 TT 12 2008 ISBN 9781921536205 June Duncan Owen 2002 Mixed Matches Interracial Marriage in Australia illustrated ed UNSW Press p 11 ISBN 978 0868405810 June Duncan Owen 2002 Mixed Matches Interracial Marriage in Australia illustrated ed UNSW Press p 12 ISBN 978 0868405810 Gallipoli and the Anzacs The Anzac Walk Artillery Road Archived 25 May 2010 at the Wayback Machine 2009 Retrieved 26 May 2010 Hamilton 2008 p 7 Brisbane graveside ceremony for famed Gallipoli sniper Archived 4 October 2012 at the Wayback Machine Brisbane Times 18 May 2009 Retrieved 26 May 2010 Nash J 2008 The Aussie Assassin Archived 24 March 2012 at the Wayback Machine Gold Coast News 2 August 2008 Retrieved 26 May 2010 Hamilton John C M Gallipoli Sniper The life of Billy Sing Sydney Pan Macmillan Australia 2008 ISBN 978 1 4050 3865 2 p 12 Courtney Bob Anzac Gallipoli marksman Archived 8 June 2011 at the Wayback Machine The Joint Imperial War Museum Australian War Memorial Battlefield Study Tour to Gallipoli September 2000 p 3 Cusack Carole M Hartney Christopher 2010 Religion and Retributive Logic ISBN 978 9004178809 La comunidad china en el pais se duplico en los ultimos 5 anos Clarin com 27 September 2010 재외동포현황 Current Status of Overseas Compatriots South Korea Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Trade 2009 archived from the original on 23 October 2010 Teresa A Meade 2011 A History of Modern Latin America 1800 to the Present Vol 4 of Wiley Blackwell Concise History of the Modern World illustrated ed John Wiley amp Sons ISBN 978 1 4443 5811 7 External links EditAngloIndians com Anglo Indian resources amp matrimony Malaysian Dutch Descendants Project Maleisie be article on Malaysian Dutch Descendants Eurasians A Resource Guide Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Eurasian mixed ancestry amp oldid 1146215042, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

article

, read, download, free, free download, mp3, video, mp4, 3gp, jpg, jpeg, gif, png, picture, music, song, movie, book, game, games.