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Dead Sea Scrolls

February 25, 2023

The Dead Sea Scrolls (also the Qumran Caves Scrolls) are ancient Jewish and Hebrew religious manuscripts discovered between 1946 and 1956 at the Qumran Caves in what was then Mandatory Palestine, near Ein Feshkha in the West Bank, on the northern shore of the Dead Sea. Dating from the 3rd century BCE to the 1st century CE,[1] the Dead Sea Scrolls are considered to be a keystone in the history of archaeology with great historical, religious, and linguistic significance because they include the oldest surviving manuscripts of entire books later included in the biblical canons, along with deuterocanonical and extra-biblical manuscripts which preserve evidence of the diversity of religious thought in late Second Temple Judaism. At the same time they cast new light on the emergence of Christianity and of Rabbinic Judaism.[2] Most of the scrolls are held by Israel in the Shrine of the Book at the Israel Museum, but their ownership is disputed by Jordan due to the Qumran Caves' history: following the End of the British Mandate for Palestine in 1947, Jordan occupied the area in the 1948 Arab–Israeli War, and Israel captured both the area and several Scrolls from Jordan in the 1967 Six Day War.[3] However, some of the scrolls are still in Jordan and are now displayed at The Jordan Museum in Amman. Ownership of the scrolls is also contested by the State of Palestine.[4]

Dead Sea Scrolls
The Psalms Scroll (11Q5), one of the 981 texts of the Dead Sea Scrolls
MaterialPapyrus, parchment and copper
WritingMostly Hebrew; Aramaic, Greek, and Nabataean-Aramaic
CreatedEst. 3rd century BCE to 1st century CE
Discovered1946/47–1956
Present locationIsrael Museum, Jerusalem; The Jordan Museum, Amman

Many thousands of written fragments have been discovered in the Dead Sea area. They represent the remnants of larger manuscripts damaged by natural causes or through human interference, with the vast majority holding only small scraps of text. However, a small number of well-preserved, almost intact manuscripts have survived – fewer than a dozen among those from the Qumran Caves.[1] Researchers have assembled a collection of 981 different manuscripts – discovered in 1946/47 and in 1956 – from 11 caves.[5] The 11 Qumran Caves lie in the immediate vicinity of the Hellenistic-period Jewish settlement at Khirbet Qumran in the eastern Judaean Desert, in the West Bank.[6] The caves are located about 1.5 km (1 mi) west of the northwest shore of the Dead Sea, whence they derive their name. Archaeologists have long associated the scrolls with the ancient Jewish sect called the Essenes, although some recent interpretations have challenged this connection and argue that priests in Jerusalem, or Zadokites, or other unknown Jewish groups wrote the scrolls.[7][8]

Most of the texts are Hebrew, with some written in Aramaic (for example the Son of God Text; in different regional dialects, including Nabataean), and a few in Greek.[9] Discoveries from the Judaean Desert add Latin (from Masada) and Arabic (from Khirbet al-Mird) texts.[10] Most of the texts are written on parchment, some on papyrus, and one on copper.[11] Scholarly consensus dates the scrolls from the last three centuries BCE and the first century CE,[1][12] though manuscripts from associated Judaean Desert sites are dated as early as the 8th century BCE and as late as the 11th century CE.[13] Bronze coins found at the same sites form a series beginning with John Hyrcanus (in office 135–104 BCE) and continuing until the period of the First Jewish–Roman War (66–73 CE), supporting the radiocarbon and paleographic dating of the scrolls.[14]

Owing to the poor condition of some of the scrolls, scholars have not identified all of their texts. The identified texts fall into three general groups:

  1. About 40% are copies of texts from the Hebrew Scriptures.
  2. Approximately another 30% are texts from the Second Temple period which ultimately were not canonized in the Hebrew Bible, like the Book of Enoch, the Book of Jubilees, the Book of Tobit, the Wisdom of Sirach, Psalms 152–155, etc.
  3. The remainder (roughly 30%) are sectarian manuscripts of previously unknown documents that shed light on the rules and beliefs of a particular group (sect) or groups within greater Judaism, like the Community Rule, the War Scroll, the Pesher on Habakkuk, and The Rule of the Blessing.[15][need quotation to verify]

Discovery

See also: Qumran
 
Caves at Qumran
 
Qumran cave 4, where ninety percent of the scrolls were found

The Dead Sea Scrolls were discovered in a series of 12 caves around the site originally known as the Ein Feshkha Caves near the Dead Sea in the West Bank (then part of Jordan) between 1946 and 1956 by Bedouin shepherds and a team of archeologists.[16] The practice of storing worn-out sacred manuscripts in earthenware vessels buried in the earth or within caves is related to the ancient Jewish custom of genizah.

Initial discovery (1946–1947)

The initial discovery by Bedouin shepherd Muhammed edh-Dhib, his cousin Jum'a Muhammed, and Khalil Musa took place between November 1946 and February 1947.[17][18] The shepherds discovered seven scrolls (see Scrolls and fragments) housed in jars in a cave near what is now known as the Qumran site. John C. Trever reconstructed the story of the scrolls from several interviews with the Bedouin. Edh-Dhib's cousin noticed the caves, but edh-Dhib himself was the first to actually fall into one (the cave now called Cave 1). He retrieved a handful of scrolls, which Trever identifies as the Isaiah Scroll, Habakkuk Commentary, and the Community Rule, and took them back to the camp to show to his family. None of the scrolls were destroyed in this process.[19] The Bedouin kept the scrolls hanging on a tent pole while they contemplated what they should do with them, periodically showing the scrolls to their people. At some point during this time, the Community Rule was split in two. The Bedouin first took the scrolls to a dealer named Ibrahim 'Ijha in Bethlehem. 'Ijha returned them, saying they were worthless, after being warned that they might have been stolen from a synagogue. Undaunted, the Bedouin went to a nearby market, where a Syrian Christian offered to buy them. A sheikh joined their conversation and suggested that they take the scrolls to Khalil Eskander Shahin, "Kando", a cobbler and part-time antiques dealer. The Bedouin and the dealers returned to the site, leaving one scroll with Kando and selling three others to a dealer for seven Jordanian pounds (approximately $28, or $340 in 2021 dollars).[19][20] The original scrolls continued to change hands after the Bedouin left them in the possession of a third party until a sale could be arranged. (see Ownership.)

In 1947 the original seven scrolls caught the attention of John C. Trever of the American Schools of Oriental Research (ASOR), who compared the script in the scrolls to that of the Nash Papyrus, the oldest biblical manuscript then known, and found similarities between them. In March the 1948 Arab–Israeli War prompted the move of some of the scrolls to Beirut, Lebanon for safekeeping. On 11 April 1948, Millar Burrows, head of the ASOR, announced the discovery of the scrolls in a general press release.

Search for the Qumran caves (1948–1949)

Early in September 1948, Metropolitan bishop Mar Samuel brought some additional scroll fragments that he had acquired to professor Ovid R. Sellers, the new director of ASOR. By the end of 1948, nearly two years after the discovery of the scrolls, scholars had yet to locate the original cave where the fragments had been found. With unrest in the country at that time, no large-scale search could be safely undertaken. Sellers tried to persuade the Syrians to assist in the search for the cave, but he was unable to pay their price. In early 1949, the government of Jordan granted permission to the Arab Legion to search the area in which the original Qumran cave was believed to exist. Consequently, Cave 1 was rediscovered on 28 January 1949 by Belgian United Nations observer captain Phillipe Lippens and Arab Legion captain Akkash el-Zebn.[21]

Qumran caves rediscovery and new scroll discoveries (1949–1951)

 
A view of the Dead Sea from a cave at Qumran in which some of the Dead Sea Scrolls were discovered.

The rediscovery of what became known as Cave 1 at Qumran prompted the initial excavation of the site from 15 February to 5 March 1949 by the Jordanian Department of Antiquities, led by Gerald Lankester Harding and Roland de Vaux.[22] The Cave 1 site yielded discoveries of additional Dead Sea Scroll fragments, linen cloth, jars, and other artifacts.[23]

Excavations of Qumran and new cave discoveries (1951–1956, 2017, 2021)

In November 1951, Roland de Vaux and his team from the ASOR began a full excavation of Qumran.[24] By February 1952, the Bedouin had discovered 30 fragments in what was to be designated Cave 2.[25] The discovery of a second cave eventually yielded 300 fragments from 33 manuscripts, including fragments of Jubilees and the Wisdom of Sirach written in Hebrew.[23][24] The following month, on 14 March 1952, the ASOR team discovered a third cave with fragments of Jubilees and the Copper Scroll.[25] Between September and December 1952, the fragments and scrolls of Caves 4, 5, and 6 were discovered by the ASOR teams.[24]

With the monetary value of the scrolls rising as their historical significance was made more public, the Bedouins and the ASOR archaeologists accelerated their search for the scrolls separately in the same general area of Qumran, which was more than one kilometer in length. Between 1953 and 1956, de Vaux led four more archaeological expeditions in the area to uncover scrolls and artifacts.[23] Cave 11 was discovered in 1956 and yielded the last fragments to be found in the vicinity of Qumran.[26]

Caves 4–10 are clustered in an area lying in relative proximity 150 m (160 yd) from Khirbet Qumran, while caves 1, 2, 3 and 11 are located 1 mile (1–2 kilometres) north, with Cave 3 the most remote.[27][28]

In February 2017, Hebrew University archaeologists announced the discovery of a new 12th cave.[29] There was one blank parchment found in a jar, but broken and empty scroll jars and pickaxes suggest that the cave was looted in the 1950s.[30]

In March 2021, Israeli archaeologists announced the discovery of dozens of fragments bearing biblical text, written in Greek, from the books of Zechariah and Nahum. This group of findings is believed to have been hidden in a cave between 132 and 136 CE during the Bar Kokhba revolt.[31] However, a 10,500-year-old basket hewn of woven reeds was also discovered in the Muraba'at caves in the Nahal Darga Reserve. Other discoveries included the remains of a child wrapped in cloth dated to around 6,000 years ago, and a cache of coins from the days of the Bar Kochba revolt.[32]

In 2021, more scrolls were discovered by Israeli authorities in a different cave near the Dead Sea called the Cave of Horror.[33][34]

Scrolls and fragments

See also: List of the Dead Sea Scrolls
 
The Isaiah Scroll (1QIsaa) contains almost the whole Book of Isaiah.

The 972 manuscripts found at Qumran were found primarily in two separate formats: as scrolls and as fragments of previous scrolls and texts. In the fourth cave the fragments were torn into up to 15,000 pieces. These small fragments created somewhat of a problem for scholars. G.L. Harding, director of the Jordanian Department of Antiquities, began working on piecing the fragments together but did not finish this before his death in 1979.[35]

Cave 1

Main article: List of manuscripts from Qumran Cave 1

The original seven scrolls from Cave 1 at Qumran are the Great Isaiah Scroll (1QIsaa), a second copy of Isaiah (1QIsab), the Community Rule Scroll (1QS), the Pesher Habakkuk (1QpHab), the War Scroll (1QM), the Thanksgiving Hymns (1QH), and the Genesis Apocryphon (1QapGen).[36]

Fragment or Scroll Identifier Fragment or Scroll Name Alternative Identifier English Bible Association Language Date/Script Description Reference

Qumran Cave 1

1QIsaa Great Isaiah Scroll Isaiah 1:1–31; 2:1–22; 3:1–5:30; 6:1–13; 7:1–25; 8:1–23; 9:1–20; 10:1–34; 11:1–45:25; 46:1–66:24 Hebrew 356–103 BCE/150–100 BCE Contains all 66 chapters with occasional lacunae and some missing words at the bottom of some columns [37][38]
1QIsab Isaiah cf. 1Q8 The Book of Isaiah Hebrew Hasmonean/Herodian A second copy of portions of the Book of Isaiah [39][40]
1QS Serekh ha-Yahad or "Community Rule" Hebrew cf. 4QSa-j = 4Q255–64, 5Q11 [41]
1QpHab Pesher on Habakkuk Habakkuk 1–2 Hebrew Later half of the 1st century BC Commentary on Habakkuk 1:2–17; 2:1–20 [42][43]
1QM Milhamah or War Scroll Hebrew cf. 4Q491, 4Q493; 11Q14?
1QHa Hodayot or Thanksgiving Hymns Hebrew Some parts are also preserved in 1QHb and 4QHa-f [44]
1QapGen Genesis Apocryphon Genesis 12:18–15:4 Aramaic 25 BCE–50 CE [45]
CTLevi Cairo Geniza or Testament of Levi Aramaic
1QGen Genesis 1Q1 Genesis 1:18–21; 3:11–14; 22:13–15; 23:17–19; 24:22–24 Hebrew Herodian [46][47]
1QExod Exodus 1Q2 Exodus 16:12–16; 19:24–20:2, 20:5–6; 20:25–21:1; 21:4–5 Hebrew Hellenistic-Roman [46][48]
1QpaleoLev Leviticus – Numbers 1Q3 Leviticus 11:10–11; 19:30–34; 20:20–24; 21:24–22:6; 23:4–8 and Numbers 1:48–50 Hebrew Hellenistic-Roman; Palaeo-Hebrew script [46][49]
1QDeuta Deuteronomy 1Q4 Deuteronomy 1:22–25; 4:47–49; 8:18–19; 9:27–28; 11:27–30; 13:1–6, 13–14; 14:21, 24–25; 16:4, 6–7 Hebrew Hellenistic-Roman [46][50][51]
1QDeutb 1Q5 Deuteronomy 1:9–13; 8:8–9; 9:10; 11:30–31; 15:14–15; 17:16; 21:8–9; 24:10–16; 25:13–18; 28:44–48; 29:9–20; 30:19–20; 31:1–10, 12–13; 32:17–29; 33:12–24 Hebrew Hellenistic-Roman [46][50][52]
1QJudg Judges 1Q6 Judges 6:20–22; 8:1(?); 9:2–6, 28–31, 40–43, 48–49 Hebrew Hellenistic-Roman [46][53]
1QSam Samuel 1Q7 2 Samuel 18:17–18; 20:6–10; 21:16–18; 23:9–12 Hebrew Hellenistic-Roman [46][54]
1QIsab Isaiah Parts of 1QIsab as 1Q8 Isaiah 7:22–25; 8:1; 10:17–19; 12:3–6; 13:1–8, 16–19; 15:3–9; 16:1–2, 7–11; 19:7–17, 20–25; 20:1; 22:11–18, 24–25; 23:1–4; 24:18–23; 25:1–8; 26:1–5; 28:15–20; 29:1–8; 30:10–14, 21–26; 35:4–5; 37:8–12; 38:12–22; 39:1–8; 40:2–3; 41:3–23; 43:1–13, 23–27; 44:21–28; 45:1–13; 46:3–13; 47:1–14; 48:17–22; 49:1–15; 50:7–11; 51:1–10; 52:7–15; 53:1–12; 54:1–6; 55:2–13; 56:1–12; 57:1–4, 17–21; 58:1–14; 59:1–8, 20–21; 60:1–22; 61:1–2; 62:2–12; 63:1–19; 64:1, 6–8; 65:17–25; 66:1–24 Hebrew Herodian [39][46]
1QEzek Ezekiel Parts of 1QIsab as 1Q9 Ezekiel 4:16–17; 5:1 Hebrew Hellenistic-Roman [46][55]
1QPsa Psalms 1Q10 Psalm 86:5–8; 92:12–14; 94:16; 95:11–96:2; 119:31–34, 43–48, 77–79 Hebrew Hellenistic-Roman [46][56]
1QPsb 1Q11 Psalm 126:6; 127:1–5; 128:3 Hebrew Hellenistic-Roman [46][57]
1QPsc 1Q12 Psalm 44:3–5, 7, 9, 23–25 Hebrew Herodian [46][58]
1QPhyl Phylactery 1Q13 Deuteronomy 5:23–27; 11:8–11 Hebrew Hellenistic-Roman 58 fragments from a Phylactery [50][59][60]
1QpMic Pesher on Micah 1Q14 Hebrew Herodian [59][61]
1QpZeph Pesher on Zephaniah 1Q15 Hebrew Hellenistic-Roman [59][62]
1QpPs Pesher on Psalms 1Q16 Hebrew Hellenistic-Roman [59][63]
1QJuba Jubilees 1Q17 Hebrew Hellenistic-Roman Jubilees [59][64]
1QJubb 1Q18 Hebrew Hasmonean Jubilees [59][65]
1QNoah Book of Noah 1Q19 Hebrew Herodian Parts of the lost Book of Noah [59][66]
1QapGen Fragments of the "Genesis Apocryphon" 1Q20 Aramaic Herodian [67][68]
1QTLevi / 1QALD Testament of Levi 1Q21 Aramaic Hasmonean Aramaic Levi Document [69][70]
1QDM "Dibrê Moshe" or "Words of Moses" 1Q22 Hebrew Hellenistic-Roman [69][71]
1QEnGiantsa Book of Giants 1Q23 Aramaic Hasmonean Enoch [72][73]
1QEnGiantsb Book of Giants 1Q24 Aramaic Hellenistic-Roman Enoch [72][74]
1Q Apocr.Prophecy "Apocryphal Prophecy" 1Q25 Hebrew Herodian [75][76]
1Q Instruction "Instruction" 1Q26 Hebrew Hasmonean [75][77]
1QMyst "The Book of Mysteries" 1Q27 Hebrew Hellenistic-Roman [75][78]
1QS or 1QSa "Rule of the Congregation" 1Q28 (1Q28a) Hebrew Hasmonean Fragment from "Community Rule" [75][79]
1QSb "Rule of the Blessing" or "Rule of the Benedictions" 1Q28b Hebrew Hasmonean [75][80]
1QapocrMoses B Apocryphon of Moses 1Q29 Hebrew Hellenistic-Roman "Liturgy of the Three Tongues of Fire" [75][81]
1Q Liturgical Text(?) A "Liturgical Text 1" 1Q30 Hebrew Hellenistic-Roman [75][82]
1Q Liturgical Text(?) B "Liturgical Text 2" 1Q31 Hebrew Hellenistic-Roman [75][83]
1QNJ(?) "New Jerusalem" 1Q32 Aramaic Herodian cf. 11Q18 [84][85]
1QM Fragment of the 1QM or "War Scroll" or "Milhamah" 1Q33 Deuteronomy 20:2–5; Numbers 10:9, 24:17–19; Isaiah 31:8 Hebrew 30–1 BCE

Early Herodian

[50][84]
1QPrFetes / 1QLitPr "Liturgical Prayers" or "Festival Prayers" 1Q34 Hebrew Herodian [84][86]
1QHb "Hodayot" or "Thanksgiving Hymns" 1Q35 Hebrew Herodian [84][87]
1Q Hymns "Hymns" 1Q36 Hebrew Hellenistic-Roman [84][88]
1Q Hymnic Composition(?) "Hymnic Composition" 1Q37 Hebrew Herodian [84][89]
1Q Hymnic Composition(?) "Hymnic Composition" 1Q38 Hebrew Hellenistic-Roman [84][90]
1Q Hymnic Composition(?) "Hymnic Composition" 1Q39 Hebrew Herodian [84][91]
1Q Hymnic Composition(?) "Hymnic Composition" 1Q40 Hebrew Hellenistic-Roman [84][92]
1Q41–70 1Q41–70 Hebrew Unclassified Fragments [93]
1QDana Daniel 1Q71 Daniel 1:10–17; 2:2–6 Hebrew Hellenistic-Roman [94]
1QDanb 1Q72 Daniel 3:22–30 Aramaic Hellenistic-Roman [95]

Cave 2

Main article: List of manuscripts from Qumran Cave 2
Fragment or Scroll Identifier Fragment or Scroll Name Alternative Identifier English Bible Association Language Date/Script Description Reference

Qumran Cave 2

2QGen Genesis 2Q1 Genesis 19:27–28; 36:6, 35–37 Hebrew Herodian [96][97]
2QExoda Exodus 2Q2 Exodus 1:11–14; 7:1–4; 9:27–29; 11:3–7; 12:32–41; 21:18–20(?); 26:11–13; 30:21(?), 23–25; 32:32–34 [96][98]
2QExodb 2Q3 Exodus 4:31; 12:26–27(?); 18:21–22; 21:37–22:2, 15–19; 27:17–19; 31:16–17; 19:9; 34:10 [96][99]
2QExodc 2Q4 Exodus 5:3–5 Hellenistic-Roman [96][100]
2QpaleoLev Leviticus 2Q5 Leviticus 11:22-29 Hasmonean; Palaeo-Hebrew script [96][101]
2QNuma Numbers 2Q6 Numbers 3:38–41, 51– 4:3 Hebrew Herodian [96][102]
2QNumb 2Q7 Numbers 33:47–53 [96][103]
2QNumc 2Q8 Numbers 7:88 [96][104]
2QNumd? 2Q9 Numbers 18:8–9 Hellenistic-Roman This fragment may belong to 2Q7; possibly = Leviticus 23:1–3 [96][105]
2QDeuta Deuteronomy 2Q10 Deuteronomy 1:7–9 Hebrew 50–25 BCE

Late Hasmonean or Early Herodian

[96][50]
2QDeutb 2Q11 Deuteronomy 17:12–15 Hebrew 30 BCE – 68 CE

Herodian

[96][50]
2QDeutc 2Q12 Deuteronomy 10:8–12 Hebrew 1–68 CE

Late Herodian

[96][50]
2QJer Jeremiah 2Q13 Jeremiah 42:7–11, 14; 43:8–11; 44:1–3, 12–14; 46:27–47:7; 48:7, 25–39, 43–45; 49:10 Hebrew Herodian Doubtfully identified fragments: 13:22; 32:24–25; 48:2–4, 41–42 [106][107]
2QPs Psalms 2Q14 Psalm 103:2–11; 104:6–11 [106][108]
2QJob Job 2Q15 Job 33:28–30 [106][109]
2QRutha Ruth 2Q16 Ruth 2:13–23; 3:1–8; 4:3–4 Hebrew Herodian [106][110]
2QRuthb 2Q17 Ruth 3:13–18 Hasmonean [106][111]
2QSir "Wisdom of Sirach" or "Ecclesiasticus" 2Q18 Sir 6:14–15 (or 1:19–20); 6:20–31 Hebrew Herodian Ben Sira [106][112]
2QJuba Book of Jubilees 2Q19 Genesis 25:7–9 Hebrew Herodian Jub 23:7–8 [106][113]
2QJubb Book of Jubilees 2Q20 Exodus 1:7; Genesis 50:26, 22 (different order) Jub 46:1–3 [114]
2QapMoses /2QapocrMoses(?) "Apocryphon of Moses" 2Q21 Hebrew Herodian Apocryphal writing about Moses [106][115]
2QapDavid /2QapocrDavid "Apocryphon of David" 2Q22 Hebrew Herodian Apocryphal writing about David [116][117]
2QapProph /2Qapocr.Prophecy "Apocryphal Prophecy" 2Q23 Hebrew Herodian Apocryphal prophetic text in six tiny fragments. [118][119]
2QNJ "New Jerusalem" 2Q24 Aramaic Herodian Description of the New Jerusalem. cf. 1Q32 ar, 11Q18 ar [118][120]
2Q Juridical Text "Juridical Text" 2Q25 Hebrew Herodian A juridical text [118][121]
2QEnGiants "Book of Giants" from "Enoch" 2Q26 Aramaic Herodian Now known as part of the "Book of Giants". cf. 6Q8 [122]
2Q27

2Q28 2Q29

2Q30 2Q31

2Q32 2Q33

2Q27

2Q28 2Q29

2Q30 2Q31

2Q32 2Q33

Unidentified Texts [93][118]
2QX1 2QX1 Debris in a box [118]

Cave 3

Main article: List of manuscripts from Qumran Cave 3
Fragment or Scroll Identifier Fragment or Scroll Name Alternative Identifier English Bible Association Language Date/Script Description Reference

Qumran Cave 3

3QEzek Ezekiel 3Q1 Ezekiel 16:31–33 Hebrew Herodian [118][123]
3QPs Psalms 3Q2 Psalm 2:6–7 Hebrew [124][125]
3QLam Lamentations 3Q3 Lamentations 1:10–12; 3:53–62 Hebrew [124][126]
3QpIsa Pesher on Isaiah 3Q4 Isaiah 1:1 Hebrew Herodian [124][127]
3QJub Jubilees 3Q5 Hebrew Herodian Jubilees 23:6–7, 12–13, 23 [124][128]
3QHymn Unidentified Hymn 3Q6 Hebrew Herodian Hymn of Praise [124][129]
3QTJud(?) Testament of Judah(?) 3Q7 Hebrew Herodian cf. 4Q484, 4Q538 [124][130]
3Q Text Mentioning Angel of Peace 3Q8 Hebrew Herodian Text about an Angel of Peace [124][131]
3QSectarian text 3Q9 Hebrew Herodian Possible unidentified Sectarian text [124][132]
3QUnc Unidentified 3Q10

3Q11

Hebrew Hellenistic-Roman Unclassified fragments [124]
3QUncA-B Unclassified fragments 3Q12

3Q13

Aramaic Hellenistic-Roman Unclassified fragments [133]
3QUncC Unidentified 3Q14 Hebrew? Hellenistic-Roman 21 unclassified fragments [134][135]
3QCopScr The Copper Scroll 3Q15 Hebrew Roman Copper plaque mentioning buried treasures [134][136]

Caves 4a and 4b

Main article: List of manuscripts from Qumran Cave 4
 
The Damascus Document Scroll, 4Q271Df, found in Cave 4
 
4Q7, a fragment of the book of Genesis found in Cave 4

Cave 4 was discovered in August 1952, and was excavated on 22–29 September 1952 by Gerald Lankester Harding, Roland de Vaux, and Józef Milik.[25][137] Cave 4 is actually two hand-cut caves (4a and 4b), but since the fragments were mixed, they are labeled as 4Q. Cave 4 is important both because of its visibility from the Qumran plateau and its productivity. It is visible from the plateau to the south of the Qumran settlement. It is by far the most productive of all Qumran caves, producing ninety percent of the Dead Sea Scrolls and scroll fragments (approx. 15,000 fragments from 500 different texts), including 9–10 copies of Jubilees, along with 21 tefillin and 7 mezuzot.

Cave 5

Main article: List of manuscripts from Qumran Cave 5

Cave 5 was discovered alongside Cave 6 in 1952, shortly after the discovery of Cave 4. Cave 5 produced approximately 25 manuscripts.[25]

Fragment or Scroll Identifier Fragment or Scroll Name Alternative Identifier English Bible Association Language Date/Script Description Reference

Qumran Cave 5

5QDeut Deuteronomy 5Q1 Deuteronomy 7:15–24; 8:5–9:2 Hebrew Early Hellenistic [50][366][367]
5QKgs Kings 5Q2 1 Kings 1:1,16–17,27–37 Hebrew Hasmonean [368][369]
5QIsa Isaiah 5Q3 Isaiah 40:16,18–19 Hebrew Herodian [368][370]
5QAmos Amos 5Q4 Amos 1:2–5 Hebrew [368]
5QPs Psalms 5Q5 Psalm 119:99–101,104,113–20,138–42 Hebrew Herodian [368][371]
5QLama Lamentations 5Q6 Lamentations 4:5–8,11–16,19–22; 5:1–13,16–17 Hebrew Herodian [368][372]
5QLamb 5Q7 Lamentations 4:17–20 Hebrew Herodian [368][373]
5QPhyl Phylactery 5Q8 Hebrew Hellenistic-Roman Phylactery in its unopened case [368][374]
5QapocrJosh or 5QToponyms Toponyms 5Q9 Hebrew Herodian Seven fragments with names of places [368][375]
5QapocrMal Apocryphon of Malachi 5Q10 Hebrew Hellenistic-Roman Apocryphon of Malachi [368][376]
5QS Rule of Community (Serek ha-Yahad) 5Q11 Hebrew Herodian [368][377]
5QD Damascus Document 5Q12 Hebrew Herodian Damascus Document [368][378]
5QRule or 5QRégle Rule of Community 5Q13 Hebrew Hellenistic-Roman Fragments related to 1QS [379][380]
5QCurses Curses 5Q14 Hebrew Herodian Liturgical compositions with curses [379][381]
5QNJ New Jerusalem Scroll 5Q15 Aramaic Hellenistic-Roman Description of the New Jerusalem [379][382]
5QUnid Unidentified 5Q16–5Q24 Hebrew Hellenistic-Roman Unidentified fragments [379]
5QUnc Unclassified 5Q25 Hebrew Hellenistic-Roman Unclassified fragments [379][383]

Cave 6

Main article: List of manuscripts from Qumran Cave 6

Cave 6 was discovered alongside Cave 5 in 1952, shortly after the discovery of Cave 4. Cave 6 contained fragments of about 31 manuscripts.[25]

List of groups of fragments collected from Wadi Qumran Cave 6:[384][385]

Fragment or Scroll Identifier Fragment or Scroll Name Alternative Identifier English Bible Association Language Date/Script Description Reference

Qumran Cave 6

6QpaleoGen Genesis 6Q1 Genesis 6:13–21 Hebrew Early Hellenistic; Palaeo-Hebrew script [386][387]
6QpaleoLev Leviticus 6Q2 Leviticus 8:12–13 Hebrew Early Hellenistic; Palaeo-Hebrew script [386][388]
pap6QDeut or 6QpapDeut(?) Deuteronomy 6Q3 Deuteronomy 26:19 Hebrew Hellenistic-Roman A few letters of Deuteronomy 26:19 on papyrus [386][50][389]
6QpapKgs Kings 6Q4 1 Kings 3:12–14; 12:28–31; 22:28–31; 2 Kings 5:26; 6:32; 7:8–10,20; 8:1–5; 9:1–2; 10:19–21 Hebrew Hasmonean Made up of 94 Fragments. [386][390]
pap6QPs or 6QpapPs(?) Psalms 6Q5 Psalm 78:36–37 Hebrew Herodian [391][392]
6QCant Song of Songs 6Q6 Song of Songs 1:1–7 Hebrew Herodian [391][393]
6QpapDan Daniel 6Q7 Daniel 8:20–21; 10:8–16; 11:33–36,38; 8:16–17 Hebrew Herodian 13 papyrus fragments. [391][394]
6QpapGiants or pap6QEnGiants Book of Giants from Enoch 6Q8 Aramaic Herodian Part of the "Book of Giants" [391][395]
6Qpap apocrSam-Kgs or pap6QapocrSam/Kgs Apocryphon on Samuel–Kings 6Q9 Hebrew Hasmonean Samuel–Kings apocryphon. Written on papyrus. [391][396]
6QpapaProph or pap6QProph Unidentified prophetic fragment 6Q10 Hebrew Hasmonean Prophetic text. Written in papyrus [391][397]
6QAllegory Allegory of the Vine 6Q11 Hebrew Herodian Fragment containing an Allegory mentioning a vine [391][398]
6QapProph An apocryphal prophecy 6Q12 Herodian [391][399]
6QPriestProph Priestly Prophecy 6Q13 Herodian A priestly prophecy [391][400]
6Q Apocalypse Apocalyptic text 6Q14 Aramaic Herodian Two fragments with apocalyptic text [391][401]
6QD Damascus Document 6Q15 Hebrew Herodian Damascus Document 4:19–21; 5:13–14,18–21; 6:1–2,20–21; 7:1 [391][402]
6QpapBened or pap6QBen papBenediction 6Q16 Herodian Blessings related 1QSb. On papyrus [403][404]
6QCalDoc Calendrical Document 6Q17 Herodian Calendric fragment [403][405]
pap6QHymn Hymn 6Q18 Herodian Fragment of a hymn, related to 1QM [403][406]
6Q Text Related to Genesis Genesis 6Q19 Possibly from Genesis Aramaic Herodian Related to Genesis 10:6,20 [403][407]
6QDeut(?) Deuteronomy 6Q20 Possibly from Deuteronomy Hebrew Hellenistic-Roman Related to Deuteronomy 11:10 [403][408]
6QfrgProph or 6Q Prophetic Text Possibly prophetic text 6Q21 Hebrew Herodian Prophetic fragment containing 5 words. [403][409]
pap6QUnidA Unclassified fragments 6Q22 Hebrew Herodian [403][410]
pap6QUnidA ar Unclassified fragments 6Q23 Aramaic Herodian Related to "Words of the Book of Michael" [403][411]
6QUnidB Unclassified fragments 6Q24 Hebrew Hellenistic-Roman [403][412]
6QUnidB Unclassified fragments 6Q25 Aramaic Herodian [403][413]
6QUnidB or 6QpapAccount or Contract Accounts or contracts 6Q26 Aramaic Hellenistic-Roman [403][414]
6QUnidB Unclassified fragments 6Q27–6Q28 Hebrew Hellenistic-Roman [403]
6QpapProv Proverbs 6Q30 Proverbs 11:4b–7a,10b Hebrew Roman Single six-line fragment [403][415]
6QUnidB Unclassified fragments 6Q31 Aramaic Herodian [403][416]

Cave 7

Main article: List of manuscripts from Qumran Cave 7
 
Dead Sea Scroll fragments 7Q4, 7Q5, and 7Q8 from Cave 7 in Qumran, written on papyrus.

Cave 7 yielded fewer than 20 fragments of Greek documents, including 7Q2 (the "Letter of Jeremiah" = Baruch 6), 7Q5 (which became the subject of much speculation in later decades), and a Greek copy of a scroll of Enoch.[417][418][419] Cave 7 also produced several inscribed potsherds and jars.[420]

Lists of groups of fragments collected from Wadi Qumran Cave 7:[384][385]

Fragment or Scroll Identifier Fragment or Scroll Name Alternative Identifier English Bible Association Language Date/Script Description Reference

Qumran Cave 7

7QpapLXXExod Exodus 7Q1 Exodus 28:4–7 Greek Hasmonean Greek fragment of Exodus [421]
7QpapEpJer Letter of Jeremiah 7Q2 Letter of Jeremiah verses 43–44 Greek Hasmonean Epistle of Jeremiah. On papyrus. [422]
7Q3 Unidentified 7Q3 Greek Herodian Unknown biblical text [423]
7Q4 Unidentified 7Q4 Greek Hasmonean Unknown biblical text [424]
7Q5 Unidentified 7Q5 Greek Herodian Unknown biblical text. Believed by some to be Mark 6:52–53 [425]
7Q6–18 Unidentified 7Q6–18 Greek Hellenistic-Roman; Herodian Very tiny unidentified fragments written on papyrus [93]
7Q papImprint Unidentified 7Q19 Greek Herodian Unidentified papyrus imprint. Very tiny fragments written on papyrus [426]

Cave 8

Main article: List of manuscripts from Qumran Cave 8

Cave 8, along with caves 7 and 9, was one of the only caves that are accessible by passing through the settlement at Qumran. Carved into the southern end of the Qumran plateau, cave 8 was excavated by archaeologists in 1957.

Cave 8 produced five fragments: Genesis (8QGen), Psalms (8QPs), a tefillin fragment (8QPhyl), a mezuzah (8QMez), and a hymn (8QHymn).[427] Cave 8 also produced several tefillin cases, a box of leather objects, tons of lamps, jars, and the sole of a leather shoe.[420]

List of groups of fragments collected from Wadi Qumran Cave 8:[384][385]

Fragment or Scroll Identifier Fragment or Scroll Name Alternative Identifier English Bible Association Language Date/Script Description Reference

Qumran Cave 8

8QGen Genesis 8Q1 Genesis 17:12–13, 15, 18–19; 18:20–22, 24–25 Hebrew Herodian [93]
8QPs Psalms 8Q2 Psalm 17:5–9, 14; 18:5–12 Hebrew Herodian [93]
8QPhyl Phylacteries 8Q3 Exodus 13:1–16; 12:43–51; 20:11

Deuteronomy 6:4–5; 6:1–3; 10:20–22; 10:12–19; 5:1–14; 10:13; 11:2–3; 10:21–22; 11:1; 11:6–12

Hebrew 1–100 CE

Herodian

Fragments from a "Phylactery" [50]
8QMez Mezuzah 8Q4 Deuteronomy 10:1–11:21 Hebrew 30 BCE–68 CE

Herodian

[50]
8QHymn Unidentified hymn 8Q5 Hebrew Herodian Non-biblical composition. [93]

Cave 9

Main article: List of manuscripts from Qumran Cave 9

Cave 9, along with caves 7 and 8, was one of the only caves that are accessible by passing through the settlement at Qumran. Carved into the southern end of the Qumran plateau, Cave 9 was excavated by archaeologists in 1957. There was only one fragment found in Cave 9.

Fragment or Scroll Identifier Fragment or Scroll Name Alternative Identifier English Bible Association Language Date/Script Description Reference

Qumran Cave 9

9Qpap Unidentified 9Q1 Hebrew Roman Written on papyrus. [428]

Cave 10

Main article: List of manuscripts from Qumran Cave 10

In Cave 10 archaeologists found two ostraca with writing on them, along with an unknown symbol on a grey stone slab.

Fragment or Scroll Identifier Fragment or Scroll Name Alternative Identifier English Bible Association Language Date/Script Description Reference

Qumran Cave 10

10QOstracon Ostracon 10Q1 Hebrew Two letters written on a piece of pottery. [18]

Cave 11

Main article: List of manuscripts from Qumran Cave 11
 
A view of part of the Temple Scroll that was found in Qumran Cave 11.

Cave 11 was discovered in 1956 and yielded 21 texts, some of which were quite long. The Temple Scroll, so called because more than half of it pertains to the construction of the Temple of Jerusalem, was found in Cave 11, and is by far the longest scroll. It is now 26.7 feet (8.15 m) long. Its original length may have been over 28 feet (8.75 m). The Temple Scroll was regarded by Yigael Yadin as "The Torah According to the Essenes". On the other hand, Hartmut Stegemann, a contemporary and friend of Yadin, believed the scroll was not to be regarded as such, but was a document without exceptional significance. Stegemann notes that it is not mentioned or cited in any known Essene writing.[429]

Also in Cave 11, an eschatological fragment about the biblical figure Melchizedek (11Q13) was found. Cave 11 also produced a copy of Jubilees, and a proto-Masoteric text of the Torah scroll (only a fragment of the Book of Leviticus surviving), known as the Paleo-Hebrew Leviticus Scroll.

According to former chief editor of the Dead Sea Scroll editorial team John Strugnell, there are at least four privately owned scrolls from Cave 11, that have not yet been made available for scholars. Among them is a complete Aramaic manuscript of the Book of Enoch.[430]

List of groups of fragments collected from Wadi Qumran Cave 11:

Fragment or Scroll Identifier Fragment or Scroll Name Alternative Identifier English Bible Association Language Date/Script Description Reference

Qumran Cave 11

11QpaleoLeva Paleo-Leviticusa 11Q1 Leviticus 4:24–26; 10:4–7; 11:27–32; 13:3–9; 13:39–43; 14:16–21; 14:52–15:5; 16:2–4; 16:34–17:5; 18:27–19:4; 20:1–6; 21:6–11; 22:21–27; 23:22–29; 24:9–14; 25:28–36; 26:17–26; 27:11–19 Hebrew Herodian/palaeo-Hebrew script [93]
11QLevb Leviticusb 11Q2 Leviticus Hebrew Herodian/palaeo-Hebrew script [93]
11QDeut Deuteronomy 11Q3 Deuteronomy 1:4–5; 2:28–30 Hebrew 50 CE

Late Herodian

[50]
11QEzek Ezekiel 11Q4 Ezekiel Hebrew Herodian [431][432]
11QPs The Great Psalms Scroll 11Q5 Psalms Hebrew Herodian A unique Psalms scroll with only about a quarter of the Masoretic psalms (in atypical order), three Syriac psalms, one from Ben Sira, and the only known copies of three more unique psalms—Plea for Deliverance, Apostrophe to Zion, and Hymn to the Creator—all of which are unattested by other sources, as well as the short text of David's Compositions. [93]
11QPsa Psalms 11Q5 Hebrew Herodian [93]
11QPsb 11Q6 Psalm 77:18–21; 78:1; 109:3–4; 118:1; 118:15–16; 119:163–165; 133:1–3; 141:10; 144:1–2 Hebrew Herodian [93]
11QPsc 11Q7 Psalm 2:1–8; 9:3–7; 12:5–9; 13:1–6; 14:1–6; 17:9–15; 18:1–12; 19:4–8; 25:2–7 Hebrew Herodian [93]
11QPsd 11Q8 Psalm 6:2–4; 9:3–6; 18:26–29; 18:39–42; 36:13; 37:1–4; 39:13–14; 40:1; 43:1–3; 45:6–8; 59:5–8; 68:1–5; 68:14–18; 78:5–12; 81:4–9; 86:11–14; 115:16–18; 116:1 Hebrew Herodian [93]
11QPse 11Q9 Psalm 50:3–7 Hebrew Herodian [93]
11QtgJob Targum Job 11Q10 Job Aramaic Herodian A unique Aramaic translation of the Book of Job; presents Job somewhat more favourably. [93]
11QapocrPs Apocryphal Psalms 11Q11 Psalm 91 Hebrew Herodian Apocryphal paraphrase of Psalms 91 [93]
11QJub Jubilees 11Q12 Hebrew Herodian Ethiopic text of Jubilees 4:6–11; 4:13–14; 4:16–17; 4:29–31; 5:1–2; 12:15–17; 12:28–29 [93]
11QMelch Melchizedek 11Q13 Contains Pesher/commentary on Leviticus 25:13; Deuteronomy 15:2; Psalm 7:8–9; 82:2; Isaiah 52:7; Daniel 9:25; Leviticus 25:9 Hebrew 50–25 BCE or 75–50 BCE

Late Hasmonean or Early Herodian

Describes a tenth jubilee and portrays Melchizedek as a messianic agent of salvation, using similar language to that used for Jesus in Hebrews, such as "Heavenly Prince Melchizedek" [93][50]
11Q Sefer ha-Milhamah Sefer ha-Milhamah ("The Book of War") 11Q14 Hebrew Herodian An account of the final eschatological battle of the Israelites and the Kittim (Romans), including a messianic figure named the "Prince of the Congregation." [93]
11QHymnsa Hymns 11Q15 Hebrew Herodian [93]
11QHymnsb 11Q16 Hebrew Herodian [93]
11QShirShabb Songs of the Sabbath Sacrifice 11Q17 Hebrew Herodian Collection of 13 hymns describing a heavenly temple service. [93]
11QNJ New Jerusalem 11Q18 Aramaic Herodian Appears to be an apocalyptic vision, including some architectural details of a very large city (cf. Ezekiel and Revelation) [93]
11QTa Temple Scroll 11Q19 Hebrew Herodian Rephrases the Pentateuch laws in the spirit of Deuteronomy, seeks to resolve biblical legal conflicts and expand ritual laws. [93]
11QTb Temple Scroll 11Q20 Hebrew Herodian [93]
11QTc 11Q21 Hebrew Herodian [93]
11Q Unidentified Unidentified 11Q22 Hebrew Hasmonean Unidentified fragments. [93]
11Q23 Hebrew Hellenistic-Roman [93]
11Q24 Aramaic Hasmonean [93]
11Q25 Hebrew Herodian [93]
11Q26 Hebrew Herodian [93]
11Q27 Hebrew Hellenistic-Roman [93]
11Q28 Hebrew Hellenistic-Roman [93]
11Q29 Serekh ha-Yahad related
11Q Unidentified Unidentified 11Q30 Hebrew Herodian Unidentified fragments. [93]
11Q Unidentified Unidentified 11Q31 Unidentified fragment [433]
11Q9999 Unidentified Hellenistic-Roman [93]

Cave 12

Cave 12 was discovered in February 2017 on cliffs west of Qumran, near the northwestern shore of the Dead Sea.[29] Archaeological examination found pickaxes and empty broken scroll jars, indicating that the cave had been discovered and looted in the 1950s. One of the joint Hebrew University of Jerusalem and Liberty University of Virginia project's lead researchers, Dr. Oren Gutfeld, stated, "Although at the end of the day no scroll was found, and instead we 'only' found a piece of parchment rolled up in a jug that was being processed for writing, the findings indicate beyond any doubt that the cave contained scrolls that were stolen."[30]

Fragments with unknown provenance

Some fragments of scrolls have neither significant archaeological provenance nor records that reveal in which designated Qumran cave area they were found. They are believed to have come from Wadi Qumran caves, but are just as likely to have come from other archaeological sites in the Judaean Desert area.[434] These fragments have therefore been designated to the temporary "X" series.

Fragment/Scroll # Fragment/Scroll Name KJV Bible Association Description
XQ1-3 "Tefillin from Qumran" Deuteronomy 5:1 – 6:3; 10:12 – 11:12.[434] First published in 1969; Phylacteries
XQ4 "Tefillin from Qumran" Phylacteries
XQ5a Jubilees 7:4–5
XQ5b Hymn
XQ6 Offering Small fragment with only one word in Aramaic.
XQ7 Unidentified fragment Strong possibility that it is part of 4QInstruction.
XQpapEn Book of Enoch 9:1 One small fragment written in Hebrew. = XQ8

Gallery

  •  

    Dead Sea Scroll 175, complete, Testimonia, from Qumran Cave 4, the Jordan Museum in Amman

  •  

    Dead Sea Scroll 28a from Qumran Cave 1, complete, the Jordan Museum in Amman

  •  

    The War Scroll, found in Qumran Cave 1.

  •  

    A portion of the second discovered copy of the Isaiah Scroll, 1QIsab.

  •  

    Part of Dead Sea Scroll 28a from Qumran Cave 1. The Jordan Museum, Amman

  •  

    Dead Sea Scroll, Pesher Isaiah, from Qumran Cave 4. The Jordan Museum, Amman

  •  

    Dead Sea Scroll 175, Testimonia, from Qumran Cave 4. The Jordan Museum, Amman

  •  

    Dead Sea Scroll 109, Qohelet or Ecclesiastes, from Qumran Cave 4. The Jordan Museum, Amman

  •  

    Dead Sea Scrolls at the Jordan Museum in Amman

  •  

    Strips of the Copper Dead Sea Scroll at the Jordan Museum, from Qumran Cave 3, 1st century CE

  •  

    Strip 11 of the Copper Dead Sea Scroll, from Qumran Cave 3, Jordan Museum

  •  

    Strip 15 of the Copper Dead Sea Scroll, from Qumran Cave 3, Jordan Museum

  •  

    Strip 13 of the Copper Dead Sea Scroll, from Qumran Cave 3, Jordan Museum

  •  

    Strips 1 and 2 of the Copper Dead Sea Scroll, from Qumran Cave 3, Jordan Museum

  •  

    Dead Sea Scroll 109, Qohelet or Ecclesiastes, from Qumran Cave 4, the Jordan Museum in Amman

  •  

    Dead Sea Scroll 109, Qohelet or Ecclesiastes, from Qumran Cave 4, at the Jordan Museum in Amman

  •  

    Dead Sea Scroll, Pesher Isaiah, from Qumran Cave 4, the Jordan Museum in Amman

  •  

    Dead Sea Scroll 175, Testimonia, from Qumran Cave 4, the Jordan Museum in Amman

  •  

    Detail, Dead Sea Scroll 175, Testimonia, from Qumran Cave 4, the Jordan Museum in Amman

  •  

    Dead Sea Scroll 28a from Qumran Cave 1, the Jordan Museum in Amman

  •  

    Part of Dead Sea Scroll 28a from Qumran Cave 1, the Jordan Museum in Amman

  •  

    Part of Dead Sea Scroll 28a from Qumran Cave 1, at the Jordan Museum in Amman

  •  

    Dead Sea Scroll fragment 5/6HEV PS found in the Cave of Letters at Nahal Hever

Origin

There has been much debate about the origin of the Dead Sea Scrolls. The dominant theory remains that the scrolls were produced by the Essenes, a sect of Jews living at nearby Qumran, but this theory has come to be challenged by several modern scholars.[435]

Qumran–Essene theory

Main article: Qumran-Essene hypothesis

The view among scholars, almost universally held until the 1990s, is the "Qumran–Essene" hypothesis originally posited by Roland Guérin de Vaux[436] and Józef Tadeusz Milik,[437] though independently both Eliezer Sukenik and Butrus Sowmy of St Mark's Monastery connected scrolls with the Essenes well before any excavations at Qumran.[438] The Qumran–Essene theory holds that the scrolls were written by the Essenes, or by another Jewish sectarian group, residing at Khirbet Qumran. They composed the scrolls and ultimately hid them in the nearby caves during the Jewish Revolt sometime between 66 and 68 CE. The site of Qumran was destroyed and the scrolls never recovered. A number of arguments are used to support this theory.

  • There are striking similarities between the description of an initiation ceremony of new members in the Community Rule and descriptions of the Essene initiation ceremony mentioned in the works of Flavius Josephus – a Jewish–Roman historian of the Second Temple period.
  • Josephus mentions the Essenes as sharing property among the members of the community, as does the Community Rule.
  • During the excavation of Khirbet Qumran, two inkwells and plastered elements thought to be tables were found, offering evidence that some form of writing was done there. More inkwells were discovered nearby. De Vaux called this area the "scriptorium" based upon this discovery.
  • Several Jewish ritual baths (Hebrew: מקוה, miqvah) were discovered at Qumran, offering evidence of an observant Jewish presence at the site.
  • Pliny the Elder (a geographer writing after the fall of Jerusalem in 70 CE) describes a group of Essenes living in a desert community on the northwest shore of the Dead Sea near the ruined town of 'Ein Gedi.

Qumran–Sectarian theory

Qumran–Sectarian theories are variations on the Qumran–Essene theory. The main point of departure from the Qumran–Essene theory is hesitation to link the Dead Sea Scrolls specifically with the Essenes. Most proponents of the Qumran–Sectarian theory understand a group of Jews living in or near Qumran to be responsible for the Dead Sea Scrolls, but do not necessarily conclude that the sectarians are Essenes.

A specific variation on the Qumran–Sectarian theory emerged in the 1990s that has gained much recent popularity is the work of Lawrence H. Schiffman, who proposes that the community was led by a group of Zadokite priests (Sadducees).[439] The most important document in support of this view is the "Miqsat Ma'ase Ha-Torah" (4QMMT), which cites purity laws (such as the transfer of impurities) identical to those attributed in rabbinic writings to the Sadducees. 4QMMT also reproduces a festival calendar that follows Sadducee principles for the dating of certain festival days.

Christian origin theory

Spanish Jesuit José O'Callaghan Martínez argued in the 1960s that one fragment (7Q5) preserves a portion of text from the New Testament Gospel of Mark 6:52–53.[440] This theory was scrutinized in the year 2000 by paleographic analysis of the particular fragment. However, this faced some contention, and O'Callaghan's theory remains an area of great dispute. Later analyses in 2004 and 2018 lent credence to O'Callaghan's original assertion.[citation needed]

Robert Eisenman has advanced the theory that some scrolls describe the early Christian community. Eisenman also argued that the careers of James the Just and Paul the Apostle correspond to events recorded in some of these documents.[441]

Jerusalem origin theory

Some scholars have argued that the scrolls were the product of Jews living in Jerusalem, who hid the scrolls in the caves near Qumran while fleeing from the Romans during the destruction of Jerusalem in 70 CE.[442] Karl Heinrich Rengstorf first proposed in the 1960s that the Dead Sea Scrolls originated at the library of the Jewish Temple in Jerusalem.[443] Later, Norman Golb suggested that the scrolls were the product of multiple libraries in Jerusalem, and not necessarily the Jerusalem Temple library.[444][445] Proponents of the Jerusalem origin theory point to the diversity of thought and handwriting among the scrolls as evidence against a Qumran origin of the scrolls. Several archaeologists have also accepted an origin of the scrolls other than Qumran, including Yizhar Hirschfeld[446] and more recently Yizhak Magen and Yuval Peleg,[447] who all understand the remains of Qumran to be those of a Hasmonean fort that was reused during later periods.

Physical characteristics

 
Fragments 1 and 2 of '7Q6' from Cave 7 are written on papyrus.

Radiocarbon dating

Main article: Carbon dating the Dead Sea Scrolls

Parchment from a number of the Dead Sea Scrolls has been carbon dated. The initial test performed in 1950 was on a piece of linen from one of the caves. This test gave an indicative dating of 33 CE plus or minus 200 years, eliminating early hypotheses relating the scrolls to the medieval period.[448] Since then two large series of tests have been performed on the scrolls themselves. The results were summarized by VanderKam and Flint, who said the tests give "strong reason for thinking that most of the Qumran manuscripts belong to the last two centuries BCE and the first century CE."[20]: 32 

Paleographic dating

Analysis of letter forms, or palaeography, was applied to the texts of the Dead Sea Scrolls by a variety of scholars in the field. Major linguistic analysis by Cross and Avigad dates fragments from 225 BCE to 50 CE.[449] These dates were determined by examining the size, variability, and style of the text.[450] The same fragments were later analyzed using radiocarbon dating and were dated to an estimated range of 385 BCE to 82 CE with a 68% accuracy rate.[449]

Ink and parchment

The scrolls were analyzed using a cyclotron at the University of California, Davis, where it was found that all black ink was carbon black.[451] The red ink on the scrolls was found to be made with cinnabar (HgS, mercury sulfide).[452] There are only four uses of this red ink in the entire collection of Dead Sea Scroll fragments.[452] The black inks found on the scrolls are mostly made of carbon soot from olive oil lamps.[453] Honey, oil, vinegar, and water were often added to the mixture to thin the ink to a proper consistency for writing.[453] Galls were sometimes added to the ink to make it more resilient.[453] In order to apply the ink to the scrolls, its writers used reed pens.[454]

The Dead Sea Scrolls were written on parchment made of processed animal hide known as vellum (approximately 85.5–90.5% of the scrolls), papyrus (estimated at 8–13% of the scrolls), and sheets of bronze composed of about 99% copper and 1% tin (approximately 1.5% of the scrolls).[454][455] For those scrolls written on animal hides, scholars with the Israeli Antiquities Authority, by use of DNA testing for assembly purposes, believe that there may be a hierarchy in the religious importance of the texts based on which type of animal was used to create the hide. Scrolls written on goat and calf hides are considered by scholars to be more significant in nature, while those written on gazelle or ibex are considered to be less religiously significant in nature.[456]

In addition, tests by the National Institute of Nuclear Physics in Sicily, Italy, have suggested that the origin of parchment of select Dead Sea Scroll fragments is from the Qumran area itself, by using X-ray and Particle-induced X-ray emission testing of the water used to make the parchment that were compared with the water from the area around the Qumran site.[457]

Preservation

 
Two of the pottery jars that held some of the Dead Sea Scrolls found at Qumran.
 
Two Dead Sea Scrolls jars at the Jordan Museum, Amman

The Dead Sea Scrolls that were found were originally preserved by the dry, arid, and low humidity conditions present within the Qumran area adjoining the Dead Sea.[458] In addition, the lack of the use of tanning materials on the parchment of the Dead Sea Scrolls and the very low airflow in the Qumran caves also contributed significantly to their preservation.[459] Some of the scrolls were found stored in clay jars within the Qumran caves, further helping to preserve them from deterioration. The original handling of the scrolls by archaeologists and scholars was done inappropriately, and, along with their storage in an uncontrolled environment, they began a process of more rapid deterioration than they had experienced at Qumran.[460] During the first few years in the late 1940s and early 1950s, adhesive tape used to join fragments and seal cracks caused significant damage to the documents.[460] The government of Jordan had recognized the urgency of protecting the scrolls from deterioration and the presence of the deterioration among the scrolls.[461] However, the government did not have adequate funds to purchase all the scrolls for their protection and agreed to have foreign institutions purchase the scrolls and have them held at their museum in Jerusalem until they could be "adequately studied".[461]

In early 1953, they were moved to the Palestine Archaeological Museum (commonly called the Rockefeller Museum)[462] in East Jerusalem and through their transportation suffered more deterioration and damage.[20]: 63–65  The museum was underfunded and had limited resources with which to examine the scrolls, and, as a result, conditions of the "scrollery" and storage area were left relatively uncontrolled by modern standards.[20] The museum had left most of the fragments and scrolls lying between window glass, trapping the moisture in with them, causing an acceleration in the deterioration process. During a portion of the conflict during the 1956 war waged by Israel, Britain and France against Egypt, the scrolls collection of the Palestine Archaeological Museum was stored in the vault of the Ottoman Bank in Amman, Jordan.[463] Damp conditions from temporary storage of the scrolls in the Ottoman Bank vault from 1956 to the Spring of 1957 led to a more rapid rate of deterioration of the scrolls. The conditions caused mildew to develop on the scrolls and fragments, and some fragments were partially destroyed or made illegible by the glue and paper of the manila envelopes in which they were stored while in the vault.[463] By 1958 it was noted that up to 5% of some of the scrolls had completely deteriorated.[461] Many of the texts had become illegible and many of the parchments had darkened considerably.[20][460]

Until the 1970s, the scrolls continued to deteriorate because of poor storage arrangements, exposure to different adhesives, and being trapped in moist environments.[460] Fragments written on parchment (rather than papyrus or bronze) in the hands of private collectors and scholars suffered an even worse fate than those in the hands of the museum, with large portions of fragments being reported to have disappeared by 1966.[464] In the late 1960s, the deterioration was becoming a major concern with scholars and museum officials alike. Scholars John Allegro and Sir Francis Frank were among the first to strongly advocate for better preservation techniques.[20] Early attempts made by both the British and Israel Museums to remove the adhesive tape ended up exposing the parchment to an array of chemicals, including "British Leather Dressing," and darkening some of them significantly.[20] In the 1970s and 1980s, other preservation attempts were made that included removing the glass plates and replacing them with cardboard and removing pressure against the plates that held the scrolls in storage; however, the fragments and scrolls continued to rapidly deteriorate during this time.[460]

In 1991, the Israeli Antiquities Authority established a temperature-controlled laboratory for the storage and preservation of the scrolls. The actions and preservation methods of Rockefeller Museum staff were concentrated on the removal of tape, oils, metals, salt, and other contaminants.[460] The fragments and scrolls are preserved using acid-free cardboard and stored in solander boxes in the climate-controlled storage area.[460]

Nine tiny phylactery slips were rediscovered by the Israel Antiquities Authority (IAA) in 2014, after they had been stored unopened for six decades following their excavation in 1952. The IAA is preparing to unroll the phylacteries or tefillin once a safe procedure has been decided upon.[465][466]

Photography and assembly

Since the Dead Sea Scrolls were initially held by different parties during and after the excavation process, they were not all photographed by the same organization.

First photographs by the American Schools of Oriental Research (1948)

The first individual person to photograph a portion of the collection was John C. Trever (1916–2006), a biblical scholar and archaeologist, who was a resident for the American Schools of Oriental Research.[20]: 68  He photographed three of the scrolls discovered in Cave 1 on 21 February 1948, both on black-and-white and standard color film.[20]: 26 [467][468] Although an amateur photographer, the quality of his photographs often exceeded the visibility of the scrolls themselves as, over the years, the ink of the texts quickly deteriorated after they were removed from their linen wrappings.

Infrared photography and plate assembly by the Palestine Archaeological Museum (1952–1967)

A majority of the collection from the Qumran caves was acquired by the Palestine Archaeological Museum. The museum had the scrolls photographed by Najib Albina, a local Arab photographer trained by Lewis Larsson of the American Colony in Jerusalem,[469] Between 1952 and 1967, Albina documented the five-stage process of the sorting and assembly of the scrolls, done by the curator and staff of the Palestine Archaeological Museum, using infrared photography. Using a process known today as broadband fluorescence infrared photography, or NIR photography, Najib and the team at the museum produced over 1,750 photographic plates of the scrolls and fragments.[20]: 68 [470][471][472] The photographs were taken with the scrolls laid out on animal skin, using large format film, which caused the text to stand out, making the plates especially useful for assembling fragments.[20]: 68  These are the earliest photographs of the museum's collection, which was the most complete in the world at the time, and they recorded the fragments and scrolls before their further decay in storage, so they are often considered the best recorded copies of the scrolls.[473]

Israel Antiquities Authority and NASA digital infrared imaging (1993–2012)

 
A previously unreadable fragment of the Dead Sea Scrolls photographed by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory using digital infrared technology. Translated into English it reads: "He wrote the words of Noah."

Beginning in 1993, the United States National Aeronautics and Space Administration used digital infrared imaging technology to produce photographs of Dead Sea Scrolls fragments.[474] In partnership with the Ancient Biblical Manuscript Center and West Semitic Research, NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory successfully worked to expand on the use of infrared photography previously used to evaluate ancient manuscripts by expanding the range of spectra at which images are photographed.[475] NASA used this multi-spectral imaging technique, adapted from its remote sensing and planetary probes, in order to reveal previously illegible text on fragments of the Dead Sea Scrolls.[475] The process uses a liquid crystal tunable filter in order to photograph the scrolls at specific wavelengths of light and, as a result, image distortion is significantly diminished.[474] This method was used with select fragments of the Dead Sea Scrolls to reveal text and details that cameras that take photographs using a larger light spectrum could not reveal.[474] The camera and digital imaging assembly was developed specifically for the purpose of photographing illegible ancient texts.[476]

On 18 December 2012[477] the first output of this project was launched together with Google on the dedicated site Deadseascrolls.org.il.[478] The site contains both digitizations of old images taken in the 1950s and about 1000 new images taken with the new NASA technology.[479]

Israel Antiquities Authority and DNA scroll assembly (2006–2020)

Scientists with the Israeli Antiquities Authority have used DNA from the parchment on which the Dead Sea Scrolls fragments were written, in concert with infrared digital photography, to assist in the reassembly of the scrolls. For scrolls written on parchment made from animal hide and papyrus, scientists with the museum are using DNA code to associate fragments with different scrolls and to help scholars determine which scrolls may hold greater significance based on the type of material that was used.[456] In a paper published in 2020 in the journal Cell, researchers from Tel Aviv University have shown that ancient DNA extracted from the ancient scrolls can be used to sort different scroll fragments not only based on the animal species but also based on variations in the nuclear genome of individual fragments. This effort enabled the researchers to match different fragments to each other based on their genetics and separate fragments which were falsely connected in the past.[480][481]

Israel Museum of Jerusalem and Google digitization project (2011–2016)

In partnership with Google, the Museum of Jerusalem is working to photograph the Dead Sea Scrolls and make them available to the public digitally, although not placing the images in the public domain.[482] The lead photographer of the project, Ardon Bar-Hama, and his team are utilizing the Alpa 12 MAX camera accompanied with a Leaf Aptus-II back in order to produce ultra-high resolution digital images of the scrolls and fragments.[483] With photos taken at 1,200 megapixels, the results are digital images that can be used to distinguish details that are invisible to the naked eye. In order to minimize damage to the scrolls and fragments, photographers are using a 1/4000th of a second exposure time and UV-protected flash tubes.[482] The digital photography project was estimated in 2011 to cost approximately 3.5 million U.S. dollars.[483]

Scholarly examination

 
Eleazar Sukenik examining one of the Dead Sea Scrolls in 1951.

After most of the scrolls and fragments were moved to the Palestine Archaeological Museum in 1953, scholars began to assemble them and log them for translation and study in a room that became known as the "scrollery".[484]

The text of the Dead Sea Scrolls is written in four different languages: Hebrew, Aramaic, Greek, and Nabataean.

Language Script Percentage of Documents Centuries of Known Use
Hebrew Assyrian block script[485] Estimated 76–79% 3rd century BCE to present
Hebrew Cryptic scripts "A" "B" and "C"[486][487][488] Estimated 0.9–1.0%[489] Unknown
Biblical Hebrew Paleo-Hebrew script[490] Estimated 1.0–1.5%[488] 10th century BCE to the 2nd century CE
Biblical Hebrew Paleo-Hebrew scribal script[490]
Aramaic Aramaic square script Estimated 16–17%[491] 8th century BCE to present
Greek Greek uncial script[490] Estimated 3%[488] 3rd century BCE to 8th century CE
Nabataean Nabataean script[492] Estimated 0.2%[492] 2nd century BCE to the 4th century CE

Publication

Physical publication and controversy

 
Scholars assembling Dead Sea Scrolls fragments at the Rockefeller Museum (formerly the Palestine Archaeological Museum).

Some of the fragments and scrolls were published early. Most of the longer, more complete scrolls were published soon after their discovery. All the writings in Cave 1 appeared in print between 1950 and 1956; those from eight other caves were released in 1963; and 1965 saw the publication of the Psalms Scroll from Cave 11. Their translations into English soon followed.

Controversy

Publication of the scrolls has taken many decades, and delays have been a source of academic controversy. The scrolls were controlled by a small group of scholars headed by John Strugnell, while a majority of scholars had access neither to the scrolls nor even to photographs of the text. Scholars such as Norman Golb, publishers and writers such as Hershel Shanks, and many others argued for decades for publishing the texts, so that they become available to researchers. This controversy only ended in 1991, when the Biblical Archaeology Society was able to publish the "Facsimile Edition of the Dead Sea Scrolls", after an intervention of the Israeli government and the Israeli Antiquities Authority (IAA).[493] In 1991 Emanuel Tov was appointed as the chairman of the Dead Sea Scrolls Foundation, and publication of the scrolls followed in the same year.

Physical description

The majority of the scrolls consist of tiny, brittle fragments, which were published at a pace considered by many to be excessively slow. During early assembly and translation work by scholars through the Rockefeller Museum from the 1950s through the 1960s, access to the unpublished documents was limited to the editorial committee.[citation needed]

Discoveries in the Judaean Desert (1955–2009)

The content of the scrolls was published in a 40-volume series by Oxford University Press between 1955 and 2009 known as Discoveries in the Judaean Desert.[494] In 1952 the Jordanian Department of Antiquities assembled a team of scholars to begin examining, assembling, and translating the scrolls with the intent of publishing them.[495] The initial publication, assembled by Dominique Barthélemy and Józef Milik, was published as Qumran Cave 1 in 1955.[494] After a series of other publications in the late 1980s and early 1990s and with the appointment of the respected Dutch-Israeli textual scholar Emanuel Tov as editor-in-chief of the Dead Sea Scrolls Publication Project in 1990 publication of the scrolls accelerated. Tov's team had published five volumes covering the Cave 4 documents by 1995. Between 1990 and 2009, Tov helped the team produce 32 volumes. The final volume, Volume XL, was published in 2009.

A Preliminary Edition of the Unpublished Dead Sea Scrolls (1991)

In 1991, researchers at Hebrew Union College in Cincinnati, Ohio, Ben Zion Wacholder and Martin Abegg, announced the creation of a computer program that used previously published scrolls to reconstruct the unpublished texts.[496] Officials at the Huntington Library in San Marino, California, led by Head Librarian William Andrew Moffett, announced that they would allow researchers unrestricted access to the library's complete set of photographs of the scrolls. In the fall of that year, Wacholder published 17 documents that had been reconstructed in 1988 from a concordance and had come into the hands of scholars outside of the International Team; in the same month, there occurred the discovery and publication of a complete set of facsimiles of the Cave 4 materials at the Huntington Library. Thereafter, the officials of the Israel Antiquities Authority agreed to lift their long-standing restrictions on the use of the scrolls.[497]

A Facsimile Edition of the Dead Sea Scrolls (1991)

After further delays, attorney William John Cox undertook representation of an "undisclosed client", who had provided a complete set of the unpublished photographs, and contracted for their publication. Professors Robert Eisenman and James Robinson indexed the photographs and wrote an introduction to A Facsimile Edition of the Dead Sea Scrolls, which was published by the Biblical Archaeology Society in 1991.[498] Following the publication of the Facsimile Edition, Professor Elisha Qimron sued Hershel Shanks, Eisenman, Robinson and the Biblical Archaeology Society for copyright infringement for publishing, without authorization or attribution, his decipherment of one of the scrolls, MMT. The District Court of Jerusalem found in favor of Qimron in September 1993.[499] The Court issued a restraining order, which prohibited the publication of the deciphered text, and ordered defendants to pay Qimron NIS 100,000 for infringing his copyright and the right of attribution. Defendants appealed the Supreme Court of Israel, which approved the District Court's decision, in August 2000. The Supreme Court further ordered that the defendants hand over to Qimron all the infringing copies.[500] The decision met Israeli and international criticism from copyright law scholars.[501][502][503][504][505]

The Facsimile Edition by Facsimile Editions Ltd, London, England (2007–2008)

In November 2007 the Dead Sea Scrolls Foundation commissioned the London publisher, Facsimile Editions Limited, to produce a facsimile edition of The Great Isaiah Scroll (1QIsa), The Order of the Community (1QS), and The Pesher to Habakkuk (1QpHab).[506][507] The facsimile was produced from 1948 photographs, and so more faithfully represents the condition of the Isaiah Scroll at the time of its discovery than does the current condition of the real Isaiah Scroll.[506]

Of the first three facsimile sets, one was exhibited at the Early Christianity and the Dead Sea Scrolls exhibition in Seoul, South Korea, and a second set was purchased by the British Library in London. A further 46 sets including facsimiles of three fragments from Cave 4 (now in the collection of the National Archaeological Museum in Amman, Jordan) Testimonia (4Q175), Pesher Isaiahb (4Q162) and Qohelet (4Q109) were announced in May 2009. The edition is strictly limited to 49 numbered sets of these reproductions on either specially prepared parchment paper or real parchment. The complete facsimile set (three scrolls including the Isaiah Scroll and the three Jordanian fragments) can be purchased for $60,000.[506]

The facsimiles have since been exhibited in Qumrân. Le secret des manuscrits de la mer Morte at the Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris, France (2010)[508] and Verbum Domini at the Vatican, Rome, Italy (2012).[509]

Digital publication

Olive Tree Bible Software (2000–2011)

The text of nearly all of the non-biblical scrolls has been recorded and tagged for morphology by Dr. Martin Abegg, Jr., the Ben Zion Wacholder Professor of Dead Sea Scroll Studies at Trinity Western University located in Langley, British Columbia, Canada.[510] It is available on handheld devices through Olive Tree Bible Software - BibleReader, on Macs and Windows via emulator through Accordance with a comprehensive set of cross references, and on Windows through Logos Bible Software and BibleWorks.

The Dead Sea Scrolls Reader (2005)

The text of almost all of the non-biblical texts from the Dead Sea Scrolls was released on CD-ROM by publisher E.J. Brill in 2005.[511] The 2,400 page, 6-volume series, was assembled by an editorial team led by Donald W. Parry and Emanuel Tov.[512] Unlike the text translations in the physical publication, Discoveries in the Judaean Desert, the texts are sorted by genres that include religious law, parabiblical texts, calendrical and sapiental texts, and poetic and liturgical works.[511]

The Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library

High-resolution images, including infrared photographs, of some of the Dead Sea Scrolls are now available online on two dedicated websites.

On 19 October 2010, it was announced[513] that Israeli Antiquities Authority would scan the documents using multi-spectral imaging technology developed by NASA to produce high-resolution images of the texts, and then, through a partnership with Google, make them available online free of charge,[514] on a searchable database and complemented by translation and other scholarly tools.

Related findings

Two silver scroll-shaped amulets dated c. 600 BCE and containing portions of the Priestly Blessing from the Book of Numbers were excavated in Jerusalem at Ketef Hinnom.

On 25 September 2011 the Israel Museum Digital Dead Sea Scrolls site went online.[515][516] It gives users access to searchable, high-resolution images of the scrolls, as well as short explanatory videos and background information on the texts and their history. As of May 2012, five complete scrolls from the Israel Museum have been digitized for the project and are now accessible online: the Great Isaiah Scroll, the Community Rule Scroll, the Commentary on Habakkuk Scroll, the Temple Scroll, and the War Scroll.

Biblical significance

See also: Biblical canon and Biblical manuscript

Before the discovery of the Dead Sea Scrolls, the oldest Hebrew-language manuscripts of the Bible were Masoretic texts dating to the 10th century CE, such as the Aleppo Codex.[517] Today, the oldest known extant manuscripts of the Masoretic Text date from approximately the 9th century. The biblical manuscripts found among the Dead Sea Scrolls push that date back a full thousand years, to the 2nd century BCE.[518] This was a significant discovery for Old Testament scholars who anticipated that the Dead Sea Scrolls would either affirm or repudiate the reliability of textual transmission from the original texts to the oldest Masoretic texts at hand. The discovery demonstrated the unusual accuracy of transmission over a thousand-year period, rendering it reasonable to believe that current Old Testament texts are reliable copies of the original works.

According to The Dead Sea Scrolls by Hebrew scholar Millar Burrows

Of the 166 words in Isaiah 53, there are only seventeen letters in question. Ten of these letters are simply a matter of spelling, which does not affect the sense. Four more letters are minor stylistic changes, such as conjunctions. The remaining three letters comprise the word "light," which is added in verse 11, and does not affect the meaning greatly.[519]

It is important to note that differences were found among fragments of texts. According to The Oxford Companion to Archaeology:

While some of the Qumran biblical manuscripts are nearly identical to the Masoretic, or traditional, Hebrew text of the Old Testament, some manuscripts of the books of Exodus and Samuel found in Cave Four exhibit dramatic differences in both language and content. In their astonishing range of textual variants, the Qumran biblical discoveries have prompted scholars to reconsider the once-accepted theories of the development of the modern biblical text from only three manuscript families: of the Masoretic text, of the Hebrew original of the Septuagint, and of the Samaritan Pentateuch. It is now becoming increasingly clear that the Old Testament scripture was extremely fluid until its canonization around A.D. 100.[520]

Biblical books found

There are 225 biblical texts included in the Dead Sea Scroll documents, or around 22% of the total, and with deuterocanonical books the number increases to 235.[521][522] The Dead Sea Scrolls contain parts of all but one of the books of the Tanakh of the Hebrew Bible and the Old Testament protocanon. They also include four of the deuterocanonical books included in Catholic and Eastern Orthodox Bibles: Tobit, Sirach, Baruch 6 (also known as the Letter or Epistle of Jeremiah), and Psalm 151.[521] The Book of Esther has not yet been found and scholars believe Esther is missing because, as a Jew, her marriage to a Persian king may have been looked down upon by the inhabitants of Qumran,[523] or because the book has the Purim festival which is not included in the Qumran calendar.[20]: 180  Listed below are the most represented books, along with the deuterocanonicals, of the Bible found among the Dead Sea Scrolls, including the number of translatable Dead Sea texts that represent a copy of scripture from each biblical book:[524][525]

Book Number found
Psalms 39
Deuteronomy 33
1 Enoch 25
Genesis 24
Isaiah 22
Jubilees 21
Exodus 18
Leviticus 17
Numbers 11
Minor Prophets 10[note 1]
Daniel 8
Jeremiah 6
Ezekiel 6
Job 6
Tobit 5[note 2]
Kings 4
Samuel 4
Judges 4[528]
Song of Songs (Canticles) 4
Ruth 4
Lamentations 4
Sirach 3
Ecclesiastes 2
Joshua 2

Non-biblical books

The majority of the texts found among the Dead Sea Scrolls are non-biblical in nature and were thought to be insignificant for understanding the composition or canonization of the biblical books, but a consensus has emerged which sees many of these works as being collected by the Essene community instead of being composed by them.[529] Scholars now recognize that some of these works were composed earlier than the Essene period, when some of the biblical books were still being written or redacted into their final form.[529]

Museum exhibitions and displays

 
Visitors examining Dead Sea Scrolls displayed at the Shrine of the Book in Jerusalem.
 
Strip of the Copper Scroll from Qumran Cave 3 written in the Hebrew Mishnaic dialect, on display at the Jordan Museum, Amman

Small portions of the Dead Sea Scrolls collections have been put on temporary display in exhibitions at museums and public venues around the world. The majority of these exhibitions took place in 1965 in the United States and the United Kingdom and from 1993 to 2011 in locations around the world. Many of the exhibitions were co-sponsored by either the Jordanian government (pre-1967) or the Israeli government (post-1967). Exhibitions were discontinued after 1965 due to the Six-Day War conflicts and have slowed down in post-2011 as the Israeli Antiquities Authority works to digitize the scrolls and place them in permanent cold storage.

The majority of the Dead Sea Scrolls collection was moved to Jerusalem's Shrine of the Book (a part of the Israel Museum) after the building's completion in April 1965.[530] The museum falls under the auspices of the Israel Antiquities Authority, an official agency of the Israeli government. The permanent Dead Sea Scrolls exhibition at the museum features a reproduction of the Great Isaiah Scroll, surrounded by reproductions of other fragments that include Community Rule, the War Scroll, and the Thanksgiving Psalms Scroll.[531][532]

Some of the Dead Sea Scrolls collection held by the Jordanian government prior to 1967 were stored in Amman rather than at the Palestine Archaeological Museum in East Jerusalem. As a consequence, that part of the collection remained in Jordanian hands under their Department of Antiquities. Since 2013, the part of the collection held by Jordan has been on display at The Jordan Museum in Amman.[533] Among the display items are artifacts from the Qumran site and the Copper Scroll.[534]

Ownership

 
Advertisement in The Wall Street Journal dated 1 June 1954 for four of the "Dead Sea Scrolls"

Upon their discovery in 1947 in what was then Mandatory Palestine, the Dead Sea Scrolls were first moved to the Palestine Archaeological Museum. The museum was managed by Jordan, along with all of East Jerusalem, from 1948 until 1967.

After Israel's occupation of the West Bank, including East Jerusalem, in 1967, the Palestine Archeological Museum (soon renamed the Rockefeller Archeological Museum) fell under Israeli administration, and the Dead Sea Scrolls collection held there was moved to the "Shrine of the Book", in the Israel Museum in West Jerusalem.[530] The Israel Museum falls under the auspices of the Israel Antiquities Authority, an official agency of the Israeli government. The permanent Dead Sea Scrolls exhibition at the museum features a reproduction of the Great Isaiah Scroll, surrounded by reproductions of other fragments that include Community Rule, the War Scroll, and the Thanksgiving Psalms Scroll.[531][532]

Some of the Dead Sea Scrolls collection held by the Jordanian government prior to 1967 were stored in Amman rather than at the Palestine Archaeological Museum in East Jerusalem. As a consequence, that part of the collection remained in Jordanian hands, under their Department of Antiquities. Since 2013, the part of the collection held by Jordan has been on display at The Jordan Museum in Amman.[533] Among the display items are artifacts from the Qumran site and the Copper Scroll.[534]

Israel claims ownership of the Dead Sea Scrolls collection currently housed at the Israel Museum. This claimed ownership is contested by both Jordan and the Palestinian Authority.[535]

Forgeries and claimed private ownership

Arrangements with the Bedouin left the scrolls in the hands of a third party until a profitable sale of them could be negotiated. That third party, George Isha'ya, was a member of the Syriac Orthodox Church, who soon contacted St Mark's Monastery in the hope of getting an appraisal of the nature of the texts. News of the find then reached Metropolitan Athanasius Yeshue Samuel, better known as Mar Samuel. After examining the scrolls and suspecting their antiquity, Mar Samuel expressed an interest in purchasing them. Four scrolls found their way into his hands: the Isaiah Scroll (1QIsaa), the Community Rule, the Habakkuk Pesher (a commentary on the book of Habakkuk), and the Genesis Apocryphon. More scrolls soon surfaced in the antiquities market, and Professor Eleazer Sukenik and Professor Benjamin Mazar, archaeologists at Hebrew University, soon found themselves in possession of three, The War Scroll, Thanksgiving Hymns, and another, more fragmented, Isaiah Scroll (1QIsab).

Four of the Dead Sea Scrolls eventually went up for sale in an advertisement on 1 June 1954, The Wall Street Journal.[536] On 1 July 1954, the scrolls, after delicate negotiations and accompanied by three people including the Metropolitan, arrived at the Waldorf-Astoria Hotel in New York. They were purchased by Professor Mazar and the son of Professor Sukenik, Yigael Yadin, for $250,000 (approximately $2,500,000 in 2021 dollars[537]), and brought to Jerusalem.[538]

Since 2002, many forgeries of Dead Sea Scrolls have appeared on black markets.[539]

In 2020, the Museum of the Bible in the United States (also known as Green Collection – Green Family) reported that all 16 purported "Dead Sea Scroll fragments" they had acquired between 2009 and 2014[540][541] were in fact modern forgeries.[542][543]

List of claimed private ownerships of Dead Sea Scroll fragments
Claimed Owner Year Acquired Number of Fragments/Scrolls Owned
Azusa Pacific University[544] 2009 5
Oriental Institute at the University of Chicago[545] 1956 1
Southwestern Baptist Theological Seminary[546] 2009; 2010; 2012 8
Israel Museum – Government of Israel[547][548] 1967 > 15,000
The Schøyen Collection owned by Martin Schøyen[549] 1980; 1994; 1995 115[540]
The Jordan Museum – Government of Jordan[533] 1947–1956 > 25
Syrian Orthodox Church's eastern U.S. archdiocese[550] 1
Ashland Theological Seminary[550] 1
Lanier Theological Library[550] 1
Pasadena Private Collection[550] 1

Ownership disputes

The official ownership of the Dead Sea Scrolls is disputed among Jordan, Israel, and the Palestinian Authority. The debate over the Dead Sea Scrolls stems from a more general Israeli–Palestinian conflict over land and state recognition.

Parties involved Party role Explanation of role
Jordan Disputant; minority owner Alleges that the Dead Sea Scrolls were stolen from the Palestine Archaeological Museum (now the Rockefeller Museum) operated by Jordan from 1966 until the Six-Day War when advancing Israeli forces took control of the museum, and that therefore they fall under the rules of the 1954 Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict.[551] Jordan regularly demands their return and petitions third-party countries that host the scrolls to return them to Jordan instead of to Israel, claiming they have legal documents that prove Jordanian ownership of the scrolls.[552]
Israel Disputant; current majority owner After the Six-Day War Israel seized the scrolls and moved them to the Shrine of the Book in the Israel Museum. Israel disputes Jordan's claim and states that Jordan never lawfully possessed the scrolls since it was an unlawful occupier of the museum and region.[553][554][555]
Palestine Disputant The Palestinian Authority also has a claim to the scrolls.[556]

Copyright disputes

There are three types of documents relating to the Dead Sea Scrolls in which copyright status can be considered ambiguous; the documents themselves, images taken of the documents, and reproductions of the documents. This ambiguity arises from differences in copyright law across different countries and the variable interpretation of such law.

In 1992 a copyright case Qimron v. Shanks was brought before the Israeli District court by scholar Elisha Qimron against Hershel Shanks of the Biblical Archaeology Society for violations of United States copyright law regarding his publishing of reconstructions of Dead Sea Scroll texts done by Qimron in A Facsimile Edition of the Dead Sea Scrolls which were included without his permission. Qimron's suit against the Biblical Archaeology Society was done on the grounds that the research they had published was his intellectual property as he had reconstructed about 40% of the published text. In 1993, the district court Judge Dalia Dorner ruled for the plaintiff, Elisha Qimron, in context of both United States and Israeli copyright law and granted the highest compensation allowed by law for aggravation in compensation against Hershel Shanks and others.[557] In an appeal in 2000 in front of Judge Aharon Barak, the verdict was upheld in Israeli Supreme Court in Qimron's favor.[558] The court case established the two main principles from which facsimiles are examined under copyright law of the United States and Israel: authorship and originality.

The court's ruling not only affirms that the "deciphered text" of the scrolls can fall under copyright of individuals or groups, but makes it clear that the Dead Sea Scrolls themselves do not fall under this copyright law and scholars have a degree of, in the words of U.S. copyright law professor David Nimmer, "freedom" in access. Nimmer has shown how this freedom was in the theory of law applicable, but how it did not exist in reality as the Israeli Antiquities Authority tightly controlled access to the scrolls and photographs of the scrolls.[557]

See also

Explanatory notes

  1. ^ 10 Scrolls containing fragments of all 12 of the "Minor Prophets" were found in Cave 4, although no fragment contains portions of more than three prophets.[526]
  2. ^ There are four Aramaic fragmentary texts of Tobit, and one Hebrew text.[527]
  1. ^ In 2022, D. Longacre and B. Strawn demonstrated this small fragment to be part of the larger manuscript 4QPsc, as opposed to a separate manuscript of the Psalms.

References

Citations

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  3. ^ Lash, Mordechay; Goldstein, Yossi; Shai, Itzhaq (2020). "Underground-Archaeological Research in the West Bank, 1947–1968: Management, Complexity, and Israeli Involvement". Bulletin of the History of Archaeology. 30. doi:10.5334/bha-650. S2CID 229403120. Retrieved 21 August 2022.
  4. ^ Lyons, Martyn (2011). Books: a living history. Los Angeles: J. Paul Getty Museum. pp. 51–53.
  5. ^ . The Hebrew University of Jerusalem. Archived from the original on 2 June 2017. Retrieved 7 June 2017.
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  7. ^ Ofri, Ilani (13 March 2009). . Ha'aretz. Archived from the original on 6 January 2018. Retrieved 26 May 2017.
  8. ^ Golb, Norman (5 June 2009). "On the Jerusalem Origin of the Dead Sea Scrolls" (PDF). University of Chicago Oriental Institute. (PDF) from the original on 10 June 2010. Retrieved 11 May 2010.
  9. ^ Vermes, Geza (1977). The Dead Sea Scrolls. Qumran in Perspective. London: Collins. p. 15. ISBN 978-0002161428.
  10. ^ . Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library. Archived from the original on 6 October 2014. Retrieved 13 October 2014.
  11. ^ McCarthy, Rory (27 August 2008). "From papyrus to cyberspace". The Guardian. from the original on 22 December 2016. Retrieved 17 December 2016.
  12. ^ . Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library. Archived from the original on 13 October 2014. Retrieved 13 October 2014.
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  14. ^ Leaney, A. R. C. From Judaean Caves: The Story of the Dead Sea Scrolls. p. 27, Religious Education Press, 1961.
  15. ^ Abegg, Jr., Martin, Peter Flint, and Eugene Ulrich, , San Francisco: Harper, 2002.
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  21. ^ Trstensky, Frantisek. (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 26 March 2013. Retrieved 22 May 2012.
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  27. ^ Yizhar Hirschfeld (2002). (PDF). Liber Annuus. 52: 279–281. Archived from the original (PDF) on 17 May 2006. Retrieved 23 January 2016. Some of these caves, such as 4 and 5, are located ca. 160 yd from the site, while others, such as 1, 2, 3 and 11, are at a distance of 1 mile to its north (Fig. 12)
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  39. ^ a b 1Q8 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  40. ^ Fitzmyer 2008, pp. 15–16.
  41. ^ Fitzmyer 2008, p. 18.
  42. ^ Bruce, F.F.,"The Dead Sea Habakkuk Scroll," The Annual of Leeds University Oriental Society I (1958/59): 5–24.
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  46. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l Fitzmyer 2008, p. 19.
  47. ^ 1Q1 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  48. ^ 1Q2 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  49. ^ 1Q3 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  50. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag ah ai aj ak al am an ao ap aq ar as at au av aw ax ay az ba bb bc OakTree Software, Inc. Accordance 10: Bible Software. 2008.
  51. ^ 1Q4 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  52. ^ 1Q5 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  53. ^ 1Q6 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  54. ^ 1Q7 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  55. ^ 1Q9 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  56. ^ 1Q10 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  57. ^ 1Q11 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  58. ^ 1Q12 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  59. ^ a b c d e f g Fitzmyer 2008, p. 20.
  60. ^ 1Q13 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  61. ^ 1Q14 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  62. ^ 1Q15 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  63. ^ 1Q16 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  64. ^ 1Q17 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  65. ^ 1Q18 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  66. ^ 1Q19 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  67. ^ Fitzmyer 2008, pp. 20–21.
  68. ^ 1Q20 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  69. ^ a b Fitzmyer 2008, p. 21.
  70. ^ 1Q21 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  71. ^ 1Q22 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  72. ^ a b Fitzmyer 2008, pp. 21–22.
  73. ^ 1Q23 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  74. ^ 1Q24 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  75. ^ a b c d e f g h Fitzmyer 2008, p. 22.
  76. ^ 1Q25 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  77. ^ 1Q26 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  78. ^ 1Q27 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  79. ^ 1Q28 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  80. ^ 1Q28 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  81. ^ 1Q29 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  82. ^ 1Q30 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  83. ^ 1Q31 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  84. ^ a b c d e f g h i Fitzmyer 2008, p. 23.
  85. ^ 1Q32 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  86. ^ 1Q34 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  87. ^ 1Q35 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  88. ^ 1Q36 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  89. ^ 1Q37 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  90. ^ 1Q38 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  91. ^ 1Q39 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  92. ^ 1Q40 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  93. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag ah ai aj ak al am an ao ap aq ar "Leon Levy Collection". Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library. Israel Antiquities Authority. from the original on 24 January 2015. Retrieved 22 January 2015.
  94. ^ 1Q71 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  95. ^ 1Q72 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  96. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l Fitzmyer 2008, p. 25.
  97. ^ 2Q1 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  98. ^ 2Q2 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  99. ^ 2Q3 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  100. ^ 2Q4 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  101. ^ 2Q5 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  102. ^ 2Q6 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  103. ^ 2Q7 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  104. ^ 2Q8 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  105. ^ 2Q9 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  106. ^ a b c d e f g h Fitzmyer 2008, p. 26.
  107. ^ 2Q13 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  108. ^ 2Q14 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  109. ^ 2Q15 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  110. ^ 2Q16 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  111. ^ 2Q17 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  112. ^ 2Q18 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  113. ^ 2Q19 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  114. ^ 2Q20 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  115. ^ 2Q21 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  116. ^ Fitzmyer 2008, pp. 26–27.
  117. ^ 2Q22 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  118. ^ a b c d e f Fitzmyer 2008, p. 27.
  119. ^ 2Q23 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  120. ^ 2Q24 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  121. ^ 2Q25 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  122. ^ 2Q26 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  123. ^ 3Q1 at Leon Levy Collection
  124. ^ a b c d e f g h i Fitzmyer 2008, p. 28.
  125. ^ 3Q2 at Leon Levy Collection
  126. ^ 3Q3 at Leon Levy Collection
  127. ^ 3Q4 at Leon Levy Collection
  128. ^ 3Q5 at Leon Levy Collection
  129. ^ 3Q6 at Leon Levy Collection
  130. ^ 3Q7 at Leon Levy Collection
  131. ^ 3Q8 at Leon Levy Collection
  132. ^ 3Q9 at Leon Levy Collection
  133. ^ Fitzmyer 2008, pp. 28–29.
  134. ^ a b c d e f g h i Fitzmyer 2008, p. 29.
  135. ^ 3Q14 at Leon Levy Collection
  136. ^ 3Q15 at Leon Levy Collection
  137. ^ Milik (1957). Dix ans de découverte dans le désert de Juda [Discoveries in the Judaean Desert; Milik (1976)]. The Books of Enoch: Aramaic Fragments Qumran Cave 4 with the collaboration of Black M.
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  139. ^ 4Q2 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  140. ^ 4Q3 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  141. ^ 4Q4 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  142. ^ 4Q5 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  143. ^ 4Q6 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  144. ^ 4Q7 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  145. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l Fitzmyer 2008, p. 30.
  146. ^ 4Q8 4QGen h1 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  147. ^ 4Q8 4QGen h2 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  148. ^ 4Q8 4QGen h-para at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  149. ^ 4Q8 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  150. ^ 4Q9 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  151. ^ 4Q10 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  152. ^ 4Q11 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  153. ^ 4Q12 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  154. ^ 4Q13 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  155. ^ a b 4Q14 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  156. ^ 4Q15 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  157. ^ Martinez and Tigchelaar, The Dead Sea Scrolls Study Edition (Brill 1997): page 246
  158. ^ a b c d e f g Fitzmyer 2008, p. 31.
  159. ^ 4Q17 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  160. ^ 4Q18 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  161. ^ 4Q19 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  162. ^ 4Q20 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  163. ^ 4Q21 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  164. ^ 4Q22 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  165. ^ 4Q23 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  166. ^ Fitzmyer 2008, pp. 31–32.
  167. ^ 4Q24 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  168. ^ a b c d e f g Fitzmyer 2008, p. 32.
  169. ^ 4Q25 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  170. ^ 4Q26 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  171. ^ 4Q27 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  172. ^ 4Q28 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  173. ^ 4Q29 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  174. ^ Fitzmyer 2008, pp. 32–33.
  175. ^ a b c d e f g h i Fitzmyer 2008, p. 33.
  176. ^ a b c 4Q38 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library. Accessed 20 May 2013
  177. ^ a b c d e f g h i j Fitzmyer 2008, p. 34.
  178. ^ 4Q47 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  179. ^ Fitzmyer 2008, pp. 34–35.
  180. ^ 4Q48 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  181. ^ a b c d e f Fitzmyer 2008, p. 35.
  182. ^ 4Q49 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  183. ^ 4Q50 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  184. ^ 4Q51 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  185. ^ 4Q52 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  186. ^ 4Q53 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  187. ^ 4Q54 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  188. ^ a b c d e f g h Fitzmyer 2008, p. 36.
  189. ^ 4Q55 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  190. ^ 4Q56 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  191. ^ 4Q57 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  192. ^ 4Q58 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  193. ^ 4Q59 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  194. ^ 4Q60 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  195. ^ 4Q61 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  196. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Fitzmyer 2008, p. 37.
  197. ^ 4Q62 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  198. ^ 4Q63 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  199. ^ 4Q64 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  200. ^ 4Q65 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  201. ^ 4Q66 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  202. ^ 4Q67 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  203. ^ 4Q68 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  204. ^ 4Q69 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  205. ^ a b c Martinez and Tigchelaar, The Dead Sea Scrolls Study Edition (Brill 1997): page 270
  206. ^ a b c d e Schiffman, Lawrence; VanderKam, James (2008). Encyclopedia of the Dead Sea Scrolls. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780195084504.
  207. ^ a b c d e Flint, Peter (2013). The Dead Sea Scrolls. Nashville, TN: Abingdon Press. p. 68. ISBN 9780687494491.
  208. ^ a b c d e f g h i j Fitzmyer 2008, p. 38.
  209. ^ 4Q73 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  210. ^ 4Q74 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  211. ^ Sanderson 1997. DJD 15: 215–218.
  212. ^ 4Q75 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  213. ^ 4Q76 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  214. ^ 4Q77 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  215. ^ 4Q78 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  216. ^ a b c d e f g Fitzmyer 2008, p. 39.
  217. ^ 4Q79 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  218. ^ 4Q80 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  219. ^ 4Q81 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  220. ^ 4Q82 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  221. ^ 4Q83 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  222. ^ 4Q84 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  223. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l Fitzmyer 2008, p. 41.
  224. ^ 4Q85 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  225. ^ Longacre, Drew, and Brent A. Strawn. "A New Identification of a Psalm Manuscript from Qumran: 4Q85 + 4Q98c", Dead Sea Discoveries, doi: https://doi.org/10.1163/15685179-bja10037
  226. ^ a b c d e f g h i Fitzmyer 2008, p. 40.
  227. ^ 4Q86 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  228. ^ 4Q87 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  229. ^ 4Q88 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  230. ^ 4Q89 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  231. ^ 4Q90 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  232. ^ 4Q91 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  233. ^ 4Q92 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  234. ^ 4Q93 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  235. ^ 4Q94 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  236. ^ 4Q95 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  237. ^ 4Q96 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  238. ^ 4Q97 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  239. ^ 4Q98 4QPsr at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  240. ^ 4Q99 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  241. ^ a b c d e f g h i j Fitzmyer 2008, p. 42.
  242. ^ 4Q100 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  243. ^ 4Q101 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  244. ^ 4Q102 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  245. ^ 4Q103 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  246. ^ 4Q104 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  247. ^ 4Q105 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  248. ^ 4Q106 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  249. ^ 4Q107 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  250. ^ 4Q108 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  251. ^ a b c d e f g h i j Fitzmyer 2008, p. 43.
  252. ^ 4Q109 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  253. ^ 4Q110 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  254. ^ 4Q111 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  255. ^ 4Q112 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  256. ^ 4Q113 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  257. ^ 4Q114 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  258. ^ 4Q115 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  259. ^ 4Q116 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  260. ^ 4Q117 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  261. ^ 4Q118 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  262. ^ a b c d e f Fitzmyer 2008, p. 44.
  263. ^ 4Q119 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  264. ^ 4Q120 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  265. ^ 4Q121 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  266. ^ 4Q122 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  267. ^ 4Q123 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  268. ^ 4Q127 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  269. ^ Fitzmyer 2008, pp. 44–45.
  270. ^ 4Q128 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  271. ^ a b c d e f g h i Fitzmyer 2008, p. 45.
  272. ^ 4Q129 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  273. ^ 4Q130 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  274. ^ 4Q131 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  275. ^ 4Q132 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  276. ^ 4Q133 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  277. ^ 4Q134 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  278. ^ 4Q135 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  279. ^ 4Q136 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  280. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Fitzmyer 2008, p. 46.
  281. ^ 4Q138 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  282. ^ 4Q139 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  283. ^ 4Q140 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  284. ^ 4Q141 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  285. ^ 4Q142 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  286. ^ 4Q143 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  287. ^ 4Q144 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  288. ^ 4Q145 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  289. ^ 4Q146 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  290. ^ 4Q147 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  291. ^ 4Q148 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  292. ^ Fitzmyer 2008, pp. 46–47.
  293. ^ 4Q149 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  294. ^ a b c d e f Fitzmyer 2008, p. 47.
  295. ^ 4Q150 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  296. ^ 4Q151 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  297. ^ 4Q152 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  298. ^ 4Q153 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  299. ^ 4Q154 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  300. ^ 4Q155 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  301. ^ a b Wise, Michael O.; Abegg, Martin G.; Cook, Edward M. (2005). The Dead Sea Scrolls: A New Translation. New York: HarperCollins Publishers. p. 577. ISBN 9780060766627.
  302. ^ 4Q156 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  303. ^ Fitzmyer 2008, pp. 47–48.
  304. ^ 4Q157 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  305. ^ a b c d e Martinez and Tigchelaar, The Dead Sea Scrolls Study Edition (Brill 1997): page 305ff
  306. ^ 4Q158 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  307. ^ a b c Fitzmyer 2008, p. 48.
  308. ^ 4Q159 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  309. ^ 4Q160 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  310. ^ 4Q161 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  311. ^ 4Q162 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  312. ^ a b "The Qumran Library: Scrolls". Library of Congress.
  313. ^ a b c d Fitzmyer 2008, p. 49.
  314. ^ 4Q166 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  315. ^ 4Q167 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  316. ^ 4Q168 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  317. ^ 4Q169 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  318. ^ a b Fitzmyer 2008, p. 50.
  319. ^ 4Q174 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  320. ^ 4Q175 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  321. ^ 4Q179 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  322. ^ 4Q186 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  323. ^ 4Q196 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  324. ^ 4Q197 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  325. ^ 4Q198 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  326. ^ 4Q199 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  327. ^ 4Q200 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  328. ^ 4Q201 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  329. ^ Fitzmyer 2008, pp. 54–55.
  330. ^ Fitzmyer 2008, p. 55.
  331. ^ 4Q215 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  332. ^ Gault, Brian P. (2010) "Fragments of Canticles at Qumran". Revue de Qumran. p.352
  333. ^ 4Q246 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  334. ^ a b c d Fitzmyer 2008, p. 62.
  335. ^ 4Q252 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  336. ^ 4Q253 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  337. ^ 4Q254 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  338. ^ 4Q254a-820 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  339. ^ 4Q258 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  340. ^ 4Q285 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  341. ^ 4Q299 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  342. ^ 4Q300 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  343. ^ 4Q301 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  344. ^ Fitzmyer 2008, p. 74.
  345. ^ 4Q364 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  346. ^ a b c Fitzmyer 2008, p. 75.
  347. ^ 4Q365 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  348. ^ 4Q366 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  349. ^ 4Q367 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  350. ^ 4Q378 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  351. ^ 4Q379 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  352. ^ 4Q385 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  353. ^ 4Q394 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  354. ^ 4Q400 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  355. ^ 4Q434 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  356. ^ 4Q483 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  357. ^ 4Q521 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  358. ^ Buitenwerf, Rieuwerd, The Gog and Magog Tradition in Revelation 20:8, in, H. J. de Jonge, Johannes Tromp, eds., The book of Ezekiel and its influence, Ashgate Publishing, Ltd., 2007, p.172; scheduled to be published in Charlesworth's edition, volume 9
  359. ^ 4Q523 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  360. ^ Fitzmyer 2008, p. 98.
  361. ^ 4Q539 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  362. ^ 4Q541 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  363. ^ 4Q542 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  364. ^ 4Q555 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  365. ^ "Uncovered in Jerusalem, 9 tiny unopened Dead Sea Scrolls". The Times of Israel.
  366. ^ Fitzmyer 2008, pp. 104–1

February 25, 2023
dead, scrolls, also, qumran, caves, scrolls, ancient, jewish, hebrew, religious, manuscripts, discovered, between, 1946, 1956, qumran, caves, what, then, mandatory, palestine, near, feshkha, west, bank, northern, shore, dead, dating, from, century, century, co. The Dead Sea Scrolls also the Qumran Caves Scrolls are ancient Jewish and Hebrew religious manuscripts discovered between 1946 and 1956 at the Qumran Caves in what was then Mandatory Palestine near Ein Feshkha in the West Bank on the northern shore of the Dead Sea Dating from the 3rd century BCE to the 1st century CE 1 the Dead Sea Scrolls are considered to be a keystone in the history of archaeology with great historical religious and linguistic significance because they include the oldest surviving manuscripts of entire books later included in the biblical canons along with deuterocanonical and extra biblical manuscripts which preserve evidence of the diversity of religious thought in late Second Temple Judaism At the same time they cast new light on the emergence of Christianity and of Rabbinic Judaism 2 Most of the scrolls are held by Israel in the Shrine of the Book at the Israel Museum but their ownership is disputed by Jordan due to the Qumran Caves history following the End of the British Mandate for Palestine in 1947 Jordan occupied the area in the 1948 Arab Israeli War and Israel captured both the area and several Scrolls from Jordan in the 1967 Six Day War 3 However some of the scrolls are still in Jordan and are now displayed at The Jordan Museum in Amman Ownership of the scrolls is also contested by the State of Palestine 4 Dead Sea ScrollsThe Psalms Scroll 11Q5 one of the 981 texts of the Dead Sea ScrollsMaterialPapyrus parchment and copperWritingMostly Hebrew Aramaic Greek and Nabataean AramaicCreatedEst 3rd century BCE to 1st century CEDiscovered1946 47 1956Present locationIsrael Museum Jerusalem The Jordan Museum AmmanMany thousands of written fragments have been discovered in the Dead Sea area They represent the remnants of larger manuscripts damaged by natural causes or through human interference with the vast majority holding only small scraps of text However a small number of well preserved almost intact manuscripts have survived fewer than a dozen among those from the Qumran Caves 1 Researchers have assembled a collection of 981 different manuscripts discovered in 1946 47 and in 1956 from 11 caves 5 The 11 Qumran Caves lie in the immediate vicinity of the Hellenistic period Jewish settlement at Khirbet Qumran in the eastern Judaean Desert in the West Bank 6 The caves are located about 1 5 km 1 mi west of the northwest shore of the Dead Sea whence they derive their name Archaeologists have long associated the scrolls with the ancient Jewish sect called the Essenes although some recent interpretations have challenged this connection and argue that priests in Jerusalem or Zadokites or other unknown Jewish groups wrote the scrolls 7 8 Most of the texts are Hebrew with some written in Aramaic for example the Son of God Text in different regional dialects including Nabataean and a few in Greek 9 Discoveries from the Judaean Desert add Latin from Masada and Arabic from Khirbet al Mird texts 10 Most of the texts are written on parchment some on papyrus and one on copper 11 Scholarly consensus dates the scrolls from the last three centuries BCE and the first century CE 1 12 though manuscripts from associated Judaean Desert sites are dated as early as the 8th century BCE and as late as the 11th century CE 13 Bronze coins found at the same sites form a series beginning with John Hyrcanus in office 135 104 BCE and continuing until the period of the First Jewish Roman War 66 73 CE supporting the radiocarbon and paleographic dating of the scrolls 14 Owing to the poor condition of some of the scrolls scholars have not identified all of their texts The identified texts fall into three general groups About 40 are copies of texts from the Hebrew Scriptures Approximately another 30 are texts from the Second Temple period which ultimately were not canonized in the Hebrew Bible like the Book of Enoch the Book of Jubilees the Book of Tobit the Wisdom of Sirach Psalms 152 155 etc The remainder roughly 30 are sectarian manuscripts of previously unknown documents that shed light on the rules and beliefs of a particular group sect or groups within greater Judaism like the Community Rule the War Scroll the Pesher on Habakkuk and The Rule of the Blessing 15 need quotation to verify Contents 1 Discovery 1 1 Initial discovery 1946 1947 1 2 Search for the Qumran caves 1948 1949 1 3 Qumran caves rediscovery and new scroll discoveries 1949 1951 1 4 Excavations of Qumran and new cave discoveries 1951 1956 2017 2021 2 Scrolls and fragments 2 1 Cave 1 2 2 Cave 2 2 3 Cave 3 2 4 Caves 4a and 4b 2 5 Cave 5 2 6 Cave 6 2 7 Cave 7 2 8 Cave 8 2 9 Cave 9 2 10 Cave 10 2 11 Cave 11 2 12 Cave 12 2 13 Fragments with unknown provenance 2 14 Gallery 3 Origin 3 1 Qumran Essene theory 3 2 Qumran Sectarian theory 3 3 Christian origin theory 3 4 Jerusalem origin theory 4 Physical characteristics 4 1 Radiocarbon dating 4 2 Paleographic dating 4 3 Ink and parchment 4 4 Preservation 5 Photography and assembly 5 1 First photographs by the American Schools of Oriental Research 1948 5 2 Infrared photography and plate assembly by the Palestine Archaeological Museum 1952 1967 5 3 Israel Antiquities Authority and NASA digital infrared imaging 1993 2012 5 4 Israel Antiquities Authority and DNA scroll assembly 2006 2020 5 5 Israel Museum of Jerusalem and Google digitization project 2011 2016 6 Scholarly examination 7 Publication 7 1 Physical publication and controversy 7 1 1 Controversy 7 1 2 Physical description 7 1 3 Discoveries in the Judaean Desert 1955 2009 7 1 4 A Preliminary Edition of the Unpublished Dead Sea Scrolls 1991 7 1 5 A Facsimile Edition of the Dead Sea Scrolls 1991 7 1 6 The Facsimile Edition by Facsimile Editions Ltd London England 2007 2008 7 2 Digital publication 7 2 1 Olive Tree Bible Software 2000 2011 7 2 2 The Dead Sea Scrolls Reader 2005 7 2 3 The Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library 7 3 Related findings 8 Biblical significance 8 1 Biblical books found 8 2 Non biblical books 9 Museum exhibitions and displays 10 Ownership 10 1 Forgeries and claimed private ownership 10 2 Ownership disputes 10 3 Copyright disputes 11 See also 12 Explanatory notes 13 References 13 1 Citations 13 2 General and cited sources 13 2 1 Books 13 2 2 Other sources 14 Further reading 15 External linksDiscoverySee also Qumran Caves at Qumran Qumran cave 4 where ninety percent of the scrolls were found The Dead Sea Scrolls were discovered in a series of 12 caves around the site originally known as the Ein Feshkha Caves near the Dead Sea in the West Bank then part of Jordan between 1946 and 1956 by Bedouin shepherds and a team of archeologists 16 The practice of storing worn out sacred manuscripts in earthenware vessels buried in the earth or within caves is related to the ancient Jewish custom of genizah Initial discovery 1946 1947 The initial discovery by Bedouin shepherd Muhammed edh Dhib his cousin Jum a Muhammed and Khalil Musa took place between November 1946 and February 1947 17 18 The shepherds discovered seven scrolls see Scrolls and fragments housed in jars in a cave near what is now known as the Qumran site John C Trever reconstructed the story of the scrolls from several interviews with the Bedouin Edh Dhib s cousin noticed the caves but edh Dhib himself was the first to actually fall into one the cave now called Cave 1 He retrieved a handful of scrolls which Trever identifies as the Isaiah Scroll Habakkuk Commentary and the Community Rule and took them back to the camp to show to his family None of the scrolls were destroyed in this process 19 The Bedouin kept the scrolls hanging on a tent pole while they contemplated what they should do with them periodically showing the scrolls to their people At some point during this time the Community Rule was split in two The Bedouin first took the scrolls to a dealer named Ibrahim Ijha in Bethlehem Ijha returned them saying they were worthless after being warned that they might have been stolen from a synagogue Undaunted the Bedouin went to a nearby market where a Syrian Christian offered to buy them A sheikh joined their conversation and suggested that they take the scrolls to Khalil Eskander Shahin Kando a cobbler and part time antiques dealer The Bedouin and the dealers returned to the site leaving one scroll with Kando and selling three others to a dealer for seven Jordanian pounds approximately 28 or 340 in 2021 dollars 19 20 The original scrolls continued to change hands after the Bedouin left them in the possession of a third party until a sale could be arranged see Ownership In 1947 the original seven scrolls caught the attention of John C Trever of the American Schools of Oriental Research ASOR who compared the script in the scrolls to that of the Nash Papyrus the oldest biblical manuscript then known and found similarities between them In March the 1948 Arab Israeli War prompted the move of some of the scrolls to Beirut Lebanon for safekeeping On 11 April 1948 Millar Burrows head of the ASOR announced the discovery of the scrolls in a general press release Search for the Qumran caves 1948 1949 Early in September 1948 Metropolitan bishop Mar Samuel brought some additional scroll fragments that he had acquired to professor Ovid R Sellers the new director of ASOR By the end of 1948 nearly two years after the discovery of the scrolls scholars had yet to locate the original cave where the fragments had been found With unrest in the country at that time no large scale search could be safely undertaken Sellers tried to persuade the Syrians to assist in the search for the cave but he was unable to pay their price In early 1949 the government of Jordan granted permission to the Arab Legion to search the area in which the original Qumran cave was believed to exist Consequently Cave 1 was rediscovered on 28 January 1949 by Belgian United Nations observer captain Phillipe Lippens and Arab Legion captain Akkash el Zebn 21 Qumran caves rediscovery and new scroll discoveries 1949 1951 A view of the Dead Sea from a cave at Qumran in which some of the Dead Sea Scrolls were discovered The rediscovery of what became known as Cave 1 at Qumran prompted the initial excavation of the site from 15 February to 5 March 1949 by the Jordanian Department of Antiquities led by Gerald Lankester Harding and Roland de Vaux 22 The Cave 1 site yielded discoveries of additional Dead Sea Scroll fragments linen cloth jars and other artifacts 23 Excavations of Qumran and new cave discoveries 1951 1956 2017 2021 In November 1951 Roland de Vaux and his team from the ASOR began a full excavation of Qumran 24 By February 1952 the Bedouin had discovered 30 fragments in what was to be designated Cave 2 25 The discovery of a second cave eventually yielded 300 fragments from 33 manuscripts including fragments of Jubilees and the Wisdom of Sirach written in Hebrew 23 24 The following month on 14 March 1952 the ASOR team discovered a third cave with fragments of Jubilees and the Copper Scroll 25 Between September and December 1952 the fragments and scrolls of Caves 4 5 and 6 were discovered by the ASOR teams 24 With the monetary value of the scrolls rising as their historical significance was made more public the Bedouins and the ASOR archaeologists accelerated their search for the scrolls separately in the same general area of Qumran which was more than one kilometer in length Between 1953 and 1956 de Vaux led four more archaeological expeditions in the area to uncover scrolls and artifacts 23 Cave 11 was discovered in 1956 and yielded the last fragments to be found in the vicinity of Qumran 26 Caves 4 10 are clustered in an area lying in relative proximity 150 m 160 yd from Khirbet Qumran while caves 1 2 3 and 11 are located 1 mile 1 2 kilometres north with Cave 3 the most remote 27 28 In February 2017 Hebrew University archaeologists announced the discovery of a new 12th cave 29 There was one blank parchment found in a jar but broken and empty scroll jars and pickaxes suggest that the cave was looted in the 1950s 30 In March 2021 Israeli archaeologists announced the discovery of dozens of fragments bearing biblical text written in Greek from the books of Zechariah and Nahum This group of findings is believed to have been hidden in a cave between 132 and 136 CE during the Bar Kokhba revolt 31 However a 10 500 year old basket hewn of woven reeds was also discovered in the Muraba at caves in the Nahal Darga Reserve Other discoveries included the remains of a child wrapped in cloth dated to around 6 000 years ago and a cache of coins from the days of the Bar Kochba revolt 32 In 2021 more scrolls were discovered by Israeli authorities in a different cave near the Dead Sea called the Cave of Horror 33 34 Scrolls and fragmentsSee also List of the Dead Sea Scrolls This section needs to be updated Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information May 2012 The Isaiah Scroll 1QIsaa contains almost the whole Book of Isaiah The 972 manuscripts found at Qumran were found primarily in two separate formats as scrolls and as fragments of previous scrolls and texts In the fourth cave the fragments were torn into up to 15 000 pieces These small fragments created somewhat of a problem for scholars G L Harding director of the Jordanian Department of Antiquities began working on piecing the fragments together but did not finish this before his death in 1979 35 Cave 1 Main article List of manuscripts from Qumran Cave 1 The original seven scrolls from Cave 1 at Qumran are the Great Isaiah Scroll 1QIsaa a second copy of Isaiah 1QIsab the Community Rule Scroll 1QS the Pesher Habakkuk 1QpHab the War Scroll 1QM the Thanksgiving Hymns 1QH and the Genesis Apocryphon 1QapGen 36 Fragment or Scroll Identifier Fragment or Scroll Name Alternative Identifier English Bible Association Language Date Script Description ReferenceQumran Cave 11QIsaa Great Isaiah Scroll Isaiah 1 1 31 2 1 22 3 1 5 30 6 1 13 7 1 25 8 1 23 9 1 20 10 1 34 11 1 45 25 46 1 66 24 Hebrew 356 103 BCE 150 100 BCE Contains all 66 chapters with occasional lacunae and some missing words at the bottom of some columns 37 38 1QIsab Isaiah cf 1Q8 The Book of Isaiah Hebrew Hasmonean Herodian A second copy of portions of the Book of Isaiah 39 40 1QS Serekh ha Yahad or Community Rule Hebrew cf 4QSa j 4Q255 64 5Q11 41 1QpHab Pesher on Habakkuk Habakkuk 1 2 Hebrew Later half of the 1st century BC Commentary on Habakkuk 1 2 17 2 1 20 42 43 1QM Milhamah or War Scroll Hebrew cf 4Q491 4Q493 11Q14 1QHa Hodayot or Thanksgiving Hymns Hebrew Some parts are also preserved in 1QHb and 4QHa f 44 1QapGen Genesis Apocryphon Genesis 12 18 15 4 Aramaic 25 BCE 50 CE 45 CTLevi Cairo Geniza or Testament of Levi Aramaic1QGen Genesis 1Q1 Genesis 1 18 21 3 11 14 22 13 15 23 17 19 24 22 24 Hebrew Herodian 46 47 1QExod Exodus 1Q2 Exodus 16 12 16 19 24 20 2 20 5 6 20 25 21 1 21 4 5 Hebrew Hellenistic Roman 46 48 1QpaleoLev Leviticus Numbers 1Q3 Leviticus 11 10 11 19 30 34 20 20 24 21 24 22 6 23 4 8 and Numbers 1 48 50 Hebrew Hellenistic Roman Palaeo Hebrew script 46 49 1QDeuta Deuteronomy 1Q4 Deuteronomy 1 22 25 4 47 49 8 18 19 9 27 28 11 27 30 13 1 6 13 14 14 21 24 25 16 4 6 7 Hebrew Hellenistic Roman 46 50 51 1QDeutb 1Q5 Deuteronomy 1 9 13 8 8 9 9 10 11 30 31 15 14 15 17 16 21 8 9 24 10 16 25 13 18 28 44 48 29 9 20 30 19 20 31 1 10 12 13 32 17 29 33 12 24 Hebrew Hellenistic Roman 46 50 52 1QJudg Judges 1Q6 Judges 6 20 22 8 1 9 2 6 28 31 40 43 48 49 Hebrew Hellenistic Roman 46 53 1QSam Samuel 1Q7 2 Samuel 18 17 18 20 6 10 21 16 18 23 9 12 Hebrew Hellenistic Roman 46 54 1QIsab Isaiah Parts of 1QIsab as 1Q8 Isaiah 7 22 25 8 1 10 17 19 12 3 6 13 1 8 16 19 15 3 9 16 1 2 7 11 19 7 17 20 25 20 1 22 11 18 24 25 23 1 4 24 18 23 25 1 8 26 1 5 28 15 20 29 1 8 30 10 14 21 26 35 4 5 37 8 12 38 12 22 39 1 8 40 2 3 41 3 23 43 1 13 23 27 44 21 28 45 1 13 46 3 13 47 1 14 48 17 22 49 1 15 50 7 11 51 1 10 52 7 15 53 1 12 54 1 6 55 2 13 56 1 12 57 1 4 17 21 58 1 14 59 1 8 20 21 60 1 22 61 1 2 62 2 12 63 1 19 64 1 6 8 65 17 25 66 1 24 Hebrew Herodian 39 46 1QEzek Ezekiel Parts of 1QIsab as 1Q9 Ezekiel 4 16 17 5 1 Hebrew Hellenistic Roman 46 55 1QPsa Psalms 1Q10 Psalm 86 5 8 92 12 14 94 16 95 11 96 2 119 31 34 43 48 77 79 Hebrew Hellenistic Roman 46 56 1QPsb 1Q11 Psalm 126 6 127 1 5 128 3 Hebrew Hellenistic Roman 46 57 1QPsc 1Q12 Psalm 44 3 5 7 9 23 25 Hebrew Herodian 46 58 1QPhyl Phylactery 1Q13 Deuteronomy 5 23 27 11 8 11 Hebrew Hellenistic Roman 58 fragments from a Phylactery 50 59 60 1QpMic Pesher on Micah 1Q14 Hebrew Herodian 59 61 1QpZeph Pesher on Zephaniah 1Q15 Hebrew Hellenistic Roman 59 62 1QpPs Pesher on Psalms 1Q16 Hebrew Hellenistic Roman 59 63 1QJuba Jubilees 1Q17 Hebrew Hellenistic Roman Jubilees 59 64 1QJubb 1Q18 Hebrew Hasmonean Jubilees 59 65 1QNoah Book of Noah 1Q19 Hebrew Herodian Parts of the lost Book of Noah 59 66 1QapGen Fragments of the Genesis Apocryphon 1Q20 Aramaic Herodian 67 68 1QTLevi 1QALD Testament of Levi 1Q21 Aramaic Hasmonean Aramaic Levi Document 69 70 1QDM Dibre Moshe or Words of Moses 1Q22 Hebrew Hellenistic Roman 69 71 1QEnGiantsa Book of Giants 1Q23 Aramaic Hasmonean Enoch 72 73 1QEnGiantsb Book of Giants 1Q24 Aramaic Hellenistic Roman Enoch 72 74 1Q Apocr Prophecy Apocryphal Prophecy 1Q25 Hebrew Herodian 75 76 1Q Instruction Instruction 1Q26 Hebrew Hasmonean 75 77 1QMyst The Book of Mysteries 1Q27 Hebrew Hellenistic Roman 75 78 1QS or 1QSa Rule of the Congregation 1Q28 1Q28a Hebrew Hasmonean Fragment from Community Rule 75 79 1QSb Rule of the Blessing or Rule of the Benedictions 1Q28b Hebrew Hasmonean 75 80 1QapocrMoses B Apocryphon of Moses 1Q29 Hebrew Hellenistic Roman Liturgy of the Three Tongues of Fire 75 81 1Q Liturgical Text A Liturgical Text 1 1Q30 Hebrew Hellenistic Roman 75 82 1Q Liturgical Text B Liturgical Text 2 1Q31 Hebrew Hellenistic Roman 75 83 1QNJ New Jerusalem 1Q32 Aramaic Herodian cf 11Q18 84 85 1QM Fragment of the 1QM or War Scroll or Milhamah 1Q33 Deuteronomy 20 2 5 Numbers 10 9 24 17 19 Isaiah 31 8 Hebrew 30 1 BCE Early Herodian 50 84 1QPrFetes 1QLitPr Liturgical Prayers or Festival Prayers 1Q34 Hebrew Herodian 84 86 1QHb Hodayot or Thanksgiving Hymns 1Q35 Hebrew Herodian 84 87 1Q Hymns Hymns 1Q36 Hebrew Hellenistic Roman 84 88 1Q Hymnic Composition Hymnic Composition 1Q37 Hebrew Herodian 84 89 1Q Hymnic Composition Hymnic Composition 1Q38 Hebrew Hellenistic Roman 84 90 1Q Hymnic Composition Hymnic Composition 1Q39 Hebrew Herodian 84 91 1Q Hymnic Composition Hymnic Composition 1Q40 Hebrew Hellenistic Roman 84 92 1Q41 70 1Q41 70 Hebrew Unclassified Fragments 93 1QDana Daniel 1Q71 Daniel 1 10 17 2 2 6 Hebrew Hellenistic Roman 94 1QDanb 1Q72 Daniel 3 22 30 Aramaic Hellenistic Roman 95 Cave 2 Main article List of manuscripts from Qumran Cave 2 Fragment or Scroll Identifier Fragment or Scroll Name Alternative Identifier English Bible Association Language Date Script Description ReferenceQumran Cave 22QGen Genesis 2Q1 Genesis 19 27 28 36 6 35 37 Hebrew Herodian 96 97 2QExoda Exodus 2Q2 Exodus 1 11 14 7 1 4 9 27 29 11 3 7 12 32 41 21 18 20 26 11 13 30 21 23 25 32 32 34 96 98 2QExodb 2Q3 Exodus 4 31 12 26 27 18 21 22 21 37 22 2 15 19 27 17 19 31 16 17 19 9 34 10 96 99 2QExodc 2Q4 Exodus 5 3 5 Hellenistic Roman 96 100 2QpaleoLev Leviticus 2Q5 Leviticus 11 22 29 Hasmonean Palaeo Hebrew script 96 101 2QNuma Numbers 2Q6 Numbers 3 38 41 51 4 3 Hebrew Herodian 96 102 2QNumb 2Q7 Numbers 33 47 53 96 103 2QNumc 2Q8 Numbers 7 88 96 104 2QNumd 2Q9 Numbers 18 8 9 Hellenistic Roman This fragment may belong to 2Q7 possibly Leviticus 23 1 3 96 105 2QDeuta Deuteronomy 2Q10 Deuteronomy 1 7 9 Hebrew 50 25 BCE Late Hasmonean or Early Herodian 96 50 2QDeutb 2Q11 Deuteronomy 17 12 15 Hebrew 30 BCE 68 CE Herodian 96 50 2QDeutc 2Q12 Deuteronomy 10 8 12 Hebrew 1 68 CE Late Herodian 96 50 2QJer Jeremiah 2Q13 Jeremiah 42 7 11 14 43 8 11 44 1 3 12 14 46 27 47 7 48 7 25 39 43 45 49 10 Hebrew Herodian Doubtfully identified fragments 13 22 32 24 25 48 2 4 41 42 106 107 2QPs Psalms 2Q14 Psalm 103 2 11 104 6 11 106 108 2QJob Job 2Q15 Job 33 28 30 106 109 2QRutha Ruth 2Q16 Ruth 2 13 23 3 1 8 4 3 4 Hebrew Herodian 106 110 2QRuthb 2Q17 Ruth 3 13 18 Hasmonean 106 111 2QSir Wisdom of Sirach or Ecclesiasticus 2Q18 Sir 6 14 15 or 1 19 20 6 20 31 Hebrew Herodian Ben Sira 106 112 2QJuba Book of Jubilees 2Q19 Genesis 25 7 9 Hebrew Herodian Jub 23 7 8 106 113 2QJubb Book of Jubilees 2Q20 Exodus 1 7 Genesis 50 26 22 different order Jub 46 1 3 114 2QapMoses 2QapocrMoses Apocryphon of Moses 2Q21 Hebrew Herodian Apocryphal writing about Moses 106 115 2QapDavid 2QapocrDavid Apocryphon of David 2Q22 Hebrew Herodian Apocryphal writing about David 116 117 2QapProph 2Qapocr Prophecy Apocryphal Prophecy 2Q23 Hebrew Herodian Apocryphal prophetic text in six tiny fragments 118 119 2QNJ New Jerusalem 2Q24 Aramaic Herodian Description of the New Jerusalem cf 1Q32 ar 11Q18 ar 118 120 2Q Juridical Text Juridical Text 2Q25 Hebrew Herodian A juridical text 118 121 2QEnGiants Book of Giants from Enoch 2Q26 Aramaic Herodian Now known as part of the Book of Giants cf 6Q8 122 2Q27 2Q28 2Q292Q30 2Q312Q32 2Q33 2Q27 2Q28 2Q292Q30 2Q312Q32 2Q33 Unidentified Texts 93 118 2QX1 2QX1 Debris in a box 118 Cave 3 Main article List of manuscripts from Qumran Cave 3 Fragment or Scroll Identifier Fragment or Scroll Name Alternative Identifier English Bible Association Language Date Script Description ReferenceQumran Cave 33QEzek Ezekiel 3Q1 Ezekiel 16 31 33 Hebrew Herodian 118 123 3QPs Psalms 3Q2 Psalm 2 6 7 Hebrew 124 125 3QLam Lamentations 3Q3 Lamentations 1 10 12 3 53 62 Hebrew 124 126 3QpIsa Pesher on Isaiah 3Q4 Isaiah 1 1 Hebrew Herodian 124 127 3QJub Jubilees 3Q5 Hebrew Herodian Jubilees 23 6 7 12 13 23 124 128 3QHymn Unidentified Hymn 3Q6 Hebrew Herodian Hymn of Praise 124 129 3QTJud Testament of Judah 3Q7 Hebrew Herodian cf 4Q484 4Q538 124 130 3Q Text Mentioning Angel of Peace 3Q8 Hebrew Herodian Text about an Angel of Peace 124 131 3QSectarian text 3Q9 Hebrew Herodian Possible unidentified Sectarian text 124 132 3QUnc Unidentified 3Q10 3Q11 Hebrew Hellenistic Roman Unclassified fragments 124 3QUncA B Unclassified fragments 3Q12 3Q13 Aramaic Hellenistic Roman Unclassified fragments 133 3QUncC Unidentified 3Q14 Hebrew Hellenistic Roman 21 unclassified fragments 134 135 3QCopScr The Copper Scroll 3Q15 Hebrew Roman Copper plaque mentioning buried treasures 134 136 Caves 4a and 4b Main article List of manuscripts from Qumran Cave 4 The Damascus Document Scroll 4Q271Df found in Cave 4 4Q7 a fragment of the book of Genesis found in Cave 4 Cave 4 was discovered in August 1952 and was excavated on 22 29 September 1952 by Gerald Lankester Harding Roland de Vaux and Jozef Milik 25 137 Cave 4 is actually two hand cut caves 4a and 4b but since the fragments were mixed they are labeled as 4Q Cave 4 is important both because of its visibility from the Qumran plateau and its productivity It is visible from the plateau to the south of the Qumran settlement It is by far the most productive of all Qumran caves producing ninety percent of the Dead Sea Scrolls and scroll fragments approx 15 000 fragments from 500 different texts including 9 10 copies of Jubilees along with 21 tefillin and 7 mezuzot Fragment or Scroll Identifier Fragment or Scroll Name Alternative Identifier English Bible Association Language Date Script Description ReferenceQumran Cave 44QGen Exoda Genesis Exodus 4Q1 Genesis 8 20 21 Exodus 1 4 5 3 17 6 4 21 25 7 5 13 15 20 8 20 22 9 8 22 14 27 38 39 42 43 34 17 21 Hebrew Hasmonean Fragments from Genesis to Numbers 134 138 4QGenb Genesis 4Q2 Genesis 1 1 27 2 14 19 4 2 4 5 13 Hebrew Roman Fragment of Genesis 134 139 4QGenc 4Q3 Genesis 40 41 Hebrew Herodian Fragments of Genesis 134 140 4QGend 4Q4 Genesis 1 18 27 Hebrew Hasmonean Fragments of Genesis on the Beginning of Creation 134 141 4QGene 4Q5 Genesis 36 37 40 43 49 Hebrew Herodian Fragments of Genesis 134 142 4QGenf 4Q6 Genesis 48 1 11 Hebrew Hasmonean Fragments of Genesis 134 143 4QGeng 4Q7 Genesis 1 1 11 13 22 2 6 7 Hebrew Hasmonean Fragments of Genesis about Creation 134 144 4QGenh 4QGenh1 4Q8 Genesis 1 8 10 Hebrew Herodian Fragments of Genesis about the beginning to early mankind 145 146 4QGenh2 4Q8a Genesis 2 17 18 145 147 4QGenh para 4Q8b Genesis 12 4 5 A paraphrase of Genesis 145 148 4QGenh title 4Q8c Genesis The title of a Genesis manuscript 145 149 4QGenj 4Q9 Genesis 41 43 45 Hebrew Herodian Fragments of Genesis 145 150 4QGenk 4Q10 Genesis 1 9 14 16 27 28 2 1 3 3 1 2 Hebrew Herodian Fragments of Genesis 145 151 4QpaleoGen Exodl Paleo Genesis Exodus 4Q11 Genesis 50 26 Exodus 1 1 5 2 10 22 25 3 1 4 17 21 8 13 15 19 21 9 25 29 33 35 10 1 5 11 4 10 12 1 11 42 46 14 15 24 16 2 7 13 14 18 20 23 25 26 31 33 35 17 1 3 5 11 18 17 24 19 24 25 20 1 2 22 23 24 23 5 16 25 7 20 26 29 37 27 1 6 14 28 33 35 40 42 36 34 36 Hebrew Hasmonean Paleo Hebrew script Fragments of Genesis and Exodus 145 152 4QpaleoGenm Paleo Genesis 4Q12 Genesis 26 21 28 Exodus 6 25 30 7 1 19 29 8 1 5 12 26 9 5 16 19 21 35 10 1 12 19 28 11 8 10 12 1 2 6 8 13 15 17 22 31 32 34 39 13 3 7 12 13 14 3 5 8 9 25 26 15 23 27 16 1 4 5 7 8 31 35 17 1 16 18 1 27 19 1 7 17 23 25 20 1 18 19 21 5 6 13 14 22 32 22 3 4 6 7 11 13 16 30 23 15 16 19 31 24 1 4 6 11 25 11 12 20 29 31 34 26 8 15 21 30 27 1 3 9 14 18 19 28 3 4 8 12 22 24 26 28 30 43 29 1 5 20 22 25 31 41 30 10 12 18 29 31 34 38 31 1 8 13 15 32 2 19 25 30 33 12 23 34 1 3 10 13 15 18 20 24 27 28 35 1 36 21 24 37 9 16 Hebrew Hasmonean Paleo Hebrew script Fragment from Genesis 145 153 4QExodb Exodus 4Q13 Exodus 1 1 6 16 12 2 2 18 3 13 4 8 5 3 14 Hebrew Herodian Fragments of Exodus about Slavery in Egypt 145 154 4QExodc 4Q14 Exodus 7 17 19 20 23 7 26 8 1 8 5 14 16 18 22 9 10 11 15 20 22 25 27 35 10 1 5 7 9 12 19 23 24 11 9 10 12 12 16 31 48 13 18 14 3 14 3 13 17 1 18 12 Hebrew Herodian Fragments of Exodus 145 155 4QExodd 4Q15 Exodus 13 15 16 followed directly by 15 1 Hebrew Hasmonean Fragments of Exodus about the Passover and a Hymn 145 156 157 4QExode 4Q16 Exodus 13 3 5 15 16 Hebrew Hasmonean Fragments of Exodus about the Passover and a Hymn 145 155 4QExod Levf Exodus Leviticus 4Q17 Exodus 38 18 22 39 3 19 20 24 40 8 27 Leviticus 1 13 15 17 2 1 Hebrew Early Hellenistic Fragments of Exodus and Leviticus 158 159 4QExodg Exodus 4Q18 Exodus 14 21 27 Hebrew Hasmonean Fragments of Exodus 158 160 4QExodh 4Q19 Exodus 6 3 6 Hebrew Herodian Fragments of Exodus 158 161 4QExodj 4Q20 Exodus 7 28 8 2 Hebrew Herodian Fragments of Exodus 158 162 4QExodk 4Q21 Exodus 36 9 10 Hebrew Roman Fragments of Exodus 158 163 4QpaleoExodm olim 4QExa Paleo Exodus 4Q22 Exodus 6 25 7 19 29 8 1 5 12 22 9 5 16 19 21 35 10 12 19 28 11 8 12 2 6 8 13 15 17 22 31 32 34 39 13 3 8 12 13 37 9 16 Hebrew Hasmonean Paleo Hebrew script Fragments of Exodus 164 158 4QLev Numa Leviticus Numbers 4Q23 Leviticus 13 32 33 14 22 34 40 54 15 10 11 19 24 16 15 29 27 5 13 35 4 5 Hebrew Hasmonean Fragments of Leviticus 158 165 4QLevb Leviticus 4Q24 Leviticus 1 11 17 2 1 15 3 1 8 14 21 17 20 24 22 1 33 23 1 25 40 24 2 23 25 28 29 45 49 51 52 Hebrew Hasmonean Fragments of Leviticus 166 167 4QLevc 4Q25 Leviticus 1 1 7 3 16 4 6 12 14 23 28 5 12 13 8 26 28 Hebrew Hellenistic Roman Fragments of Leviticus 168 169 4QLevd 4Q26 Leviticus 14 27 29 33 36 15 20 24 17 2 11 Hebrew Hellenistic Roman Fragments of Leviticus 168 170 4QLeve 4Q26a Leviticus 2 4 6 11 18 3 2 4 5 8 19 34 37 20 1 3 27 21 4 9 12 21 24 22 4 6 11 17 Hebrew Hellenistic Roman Fragments of Leviticus 93 168 4QLevg 4Q26b Leviticus 7 19 26 Hebrew Hellenistic Roman Fragments of Leviticus 93 168 4QNumb Numbers 4Q27 Numbers 11 31 12 11 13 7 24 15 41 16 11 14 16 17 12 17 18 25 19 6 20 12 13 16 17 19 29 21 1 2 12 13 22 5 21 31 34 37 38 41 23 6 13 15 21 22 27 24 10 25 4 8 16 18 26 1 5 7 10 12 14 34 62 27 5 7 8 10 18 19 21 23 28 13 17 28 30 31 29 10 13 16 18 26 30 30 1 3 5 9 15 16 31 2 6 21 25 30 33 35 36 38 43 44 46 32 1 7 10 13 17 19 23 30 35 37 39 41 33 1 4 23 25 28 31 45 47 48 50 52 34 4 9 19 21 23 35 3 5 12 14 15 18 25 27 28 33 36 2 4 7 Hebrew Herodian Fragments of Numbers A few lines are written in red ink 168 171 4QDeuta Deuteronomy 4Q28 Deuteronomy 23 26 24 8 Hebrew 175 150 BCE Transitional Archaic to Hasmonean Fragments of Deuteronomy 50 168 172 4QDeutb 4Q29 Deuteronomy 29 24 27 30 3 14 31 9 17 24 30 32 1 3 Hebrew 150 100 BCE Early Hasmonean Fragments of Deuteronomy 50 168 173 4QDeutc 4Q30 Deuteronomy 3 25 26 4 13 17 31 32 7 3 4 8 1 5 9 11 12 17 19 29 10 1 2 5 8 11 2 4 9 13 18 19 12 18 19 26 30 31 13 5 7 11 12 16 15 1 5 15 19 16 2 3 5 11 20 17 7 15 18 1 26 19 27 2 24 28 14 18 20 22 25 29 30 48 50 61 29 17 19 31 16 19 32 3 Hebrew 150 100 BCE Hasmonean Fragments of Deuteronomy 50 174 4QDeutd 4Q31 Deuteronomy 2 24 33 3 14 29 4 1 Hebrew 124 75 BCE Middle Hasmonean Fragments of Deuteronomy 50 175 4QDeute 4Q32 Deuteronomy 3 24 7 12 16 21 26 8 1 16 Hebrew 50 25 BCE Late Hasmonean Fragments of Deuteronomy 50 175 4QDeutf 4Q33 Deuteronomy 4 23 27 7 22 26 8 2 14 9 6 7 17 17 18 18 6 10 18 22 19 17 21 20 1 6 21 4 12 22 12 19 23 21 26 24 2 7 25 3 9 26 18 27 10 Hebrew 75 50 BCE Late Hasmonean Fragments of Deuteronomy 50 175 4QDeutg 4Q34 Deuteronomy 9 12 14 23 18 20 24 16 22 25 1 5 14 19 26 1 5 28 21 25 27 29 Hebrew 1 25 CE Middle Herodian Fragments of Deuteronomy 50 175 4QDeuth 4Q35 Deuteronomy 1 1 17 22 23 29 41 43 2 6 28 30 19 21 31 9 11 33 9 22 Hebrew 50 1 BCE Transitional Hasmonean to Early Herodian Fragments of Deuteronomy 50 175 4QDeuti 4Q36 Deuteronomy 20 9 13 21 23 22 1 9 23 6 8 12 16 22 26 24 1 Hebrew 100 50 BCE Late Hasmonean Fragments of Deuteronomy 50 175 4QDeutj 4Q37 Exodus 12 43 44 46 51 13 1 5 Deuteronomy 5 1 11 13 15 21 33 6 1 3 8 5 10 11 6 10 12 13 30 17 18 32 7 8 Hebrew 50 CE Late Herodian Fragments of Exodus and Deuteronomy 50 175 4QDeutk1 4Q38 Deuteronomy 5 28 31 11 6 13 32 17 18 22 23 25 27 Hebrew 30 1 BCE Early Herodian Fragments of Deuteronomy 50 175 176 4QDeutk2 4Q38a Deuteronomy 19 8 16 20 6 19 21 16 23 22 26 24 1 3 25 19 26 1 5 18 19 27 1 Hebrew 30 1 BCE Early Herodian Fragments of Deuteronomy 50 175 176 4QDeutk3 4Q38b Deuteronomy 30 16 18 Hebrew 50 CE Late Herodian Fragments of Deuteronomy 177 176 4QDeutl 4Q39 Deuteronomy 10 1 14 15 28 67 68 29 2 5 31 12 33 1 2 34 4 6 8 Hebrew 50 CE Late Hasmonean Fragments of Deuteronomy about choosing Life or Death 50 177 4QDeutm 4Q40 Deuteronomy 3 18 22 4 32 33 7 18 22 Hebrew 50 1 BCE Transitional Hasmonean to Herodian Fragments of Deuteronomy 50 177 4QDeutn All Souls Deuteronomy 4Q41 Deuteronomy 5 1 33 6 1 8 5 10 Hebrew 30 1 BCE Early Herodian Fragments of Deuteronomy 50 177 4QDeuto Deuteronomy 4Q42 Deuteronomy 2 8 4 30 34 5 1 5 8 9 28 15 18 33 36 47 52 58 62 29 22 25 Hebrew 75 50 BCE Late Hasmonean Fragments of Deuteronomy 50 177 4QDeutp 4Q43 Deuteronomy 6 4 11 Hebrew 75 50 BCE Late Hasmonean Fragments of Deuteronomy about Loving God 50 177 4QDeutq 4Q44 Deuteronomy 32 9 10 37 43 Hebrew 50 BCE 25 CE Late Hasmonean or Early Herodian Fragments of Deuteronomy 50 177 4QpaleoDeutr Paleo Deuteronomy 4Q45 Deuteronomy 7 2 7 16 25 11 28 30 12 1 11 12 13 19 14 19 22 26 29 15 5 6 8 10 19 2 3 21 8 9 22 3 6 12 15 28 15 18 20 30 7 8 32 2 8 10 11 13 14 33 35 33 2 8 29 34 1 2 Hebrew 100 25 BCE Paleo Hebrew script Fragments of Deuteronomy 50 177 4QpaleoDeuts 4Q46 Deuteronomy 26 14 15 Hebrew 250 200 BCE Archaic Paleo Hebrew script Fragments of Deuteronomy about giving Tithes 50 177 4QJosha Joshua 4Q47 Joshua 8 34 35 5 2 7 6 5 10 7 12 17 8 3 14 18 10 2 5 8 11 Hebrew Hasmonean Fragments of Joshua 177 178 4QJoshb 4Q48 Joshua 2 11 12 3 15 16 4 1 3 17 11 15 179 180 4QJudga Judges 4Q49 Judges 6 2 6 11 13 Hebrew Herodian Fragments of Judges 181 182 4QJudgb 4Q50 Judges 19 5 7 21 12 25 181 183 4QSama Samuel 4Q51 1 Samuel 1 9 11 13 17 18 22 26 28 2 1 10 16 36 3 1 4 18 21 4 9 12 5 8 12 6 1 7 12 13 16 18 20 21 7 1 8 9 20 9 6 8 11 12 16 24 10 3 18 25 27 11 1 7 12 12 7 8 14 19 14 24 25 28 34 47 51 15 24 32 17 3 6 24 4 5 8 9 14 23 25 3 12 20 21 25 26 39 40 26 10 12 21 23 27 8 12 28 1 2 22 25 30 28 30 31 2 4 2 Samuel 2 5 16 25 27 29 32 3 1 8 23 39 4 1 4 9 12 5 1 3 6 16 6 2 9 12 18 7 23 29 8 2 8 10 4 7 18 19 11 2 12 16 20 12 4 5 8 9 13 20 30 31 13 1 6 13 34 36 39 14 1 3 18 19 15 1 6 27 31 16 1 2 11 13 17 18 21 23 18 2 7 9 11 19 7 12 20 2 3 9 14 23 26 21 1 2 4 6 15 17 22 30 51 23 1 6 24 16 20 Hebrew Herodian Fragments of 1 Samuel and 2 Samuel 181 184 4QSamb 4Q52 1 Samuel 16 1 11 19 10 17 20 27 42 21 1 10 23 9 17 Hebrew Early Hellenistic Fragments of 1 Samuel 181 185 4QSamc 4Q53 1 Samuel 25 30 32 2 Samuel 14 7 33 15 1 15 Hebrew Hasmonean Fragments of 1 Samuel and 2 Samuel 181 186 4QKgs Kings 4Q54 1 Kings 7 31 41 8 1 9 16 18 Hebrew Herodian Fragments of 1 Kings 181 187 4QIsaa Isaiah 4Q55 Isaiah 1 1 3 2 7 10 4 5 6 6 4 7 11 12 15 12 4 6 13 4 6 17 9 14 19 9 14 20 1 6 21 1 2 4 16 22 13 25 23 1 12 Hebrew Hasmonean Fragments of Isaiah 188 189 4QIsab 4Q56 Isaiah 1 1 6 2 3 16 3 14 22 5 15 28 9 10 11 11 7 9 12 2 13 3 18 17 8 14 18 1 5 7 19 1 25 20 1 4 21 11 14 22 24 25 24 2 26 1 5 7 19 35 9 10 36 1 2 37 2932 39 1 8 40 1 4 22 26 41 8 11 43 12 15 44 19 28 45 20 25 46 1 3 49 21 23 51 14 16 52 2 7 53 11 12 61 1 3 64 5 11 65 1 66 24 Hebrew Herodian 188 190 4QIsac 4Q57 Isaiah 9 3 12 10 23 32 11 4 11 15 16 12 1 14 1 5 13 22 10 14 23 8 18 24 1 15 19 23 25 1 2 8 12 30 8 17 33 2 8 16 23 45 1 4 6 13 48 10 13 17 19 50 7 11 51 1 16 52 10 15 53 1 3 6 8 54 3 17 55 1 6 66 20 24 Hebrew 188 191 4QIsad 4Q58 Isaiah 46 10 13 47 1 6 8 9 48 8 22 49 1 15 52 4 7 53 8 12 54 1 11 57 9 21 58 1 3 5 7 Hebrew 188 192 4QIsae 4Q59 Isaiah 2 1 4 7 17 20 8 2 14 9 17 20 10 1 10 11 14 15 12 1 6 13 1 4 14 1 13 20 24 59 15 16 Hebrew 188 193 4QIsaf 4Q60 Isaiah 1 10 16 18 31 2 1 3 5 13 14 25 6 3 8 10 13 7 16 18 23 25 8 1 4 11 20 4 6 22 14 22 25 24 1 3 27 1 5 6 8 12 28 6 9 16 18 22 24 29 8 Hebrew Hasmonean 188 194 4QIsag 4Q61 Isaiah 42 14 25 43 1 4 17 24 Hebrew Herodian 188 195 4QIsah 4Q61 Isaiah 42 4 11 Hebrew Herodian 188 4QIsai 4Q62 Isaiah 56 7 8 57 5 8 Hebrew Hasmonean 196 197 4QIsaj 4Q63 Isaiah 1 1 6 Hebrew Herodian 196 198 4QIsak 4Q64 Isaiah 28 26 29 9 Hebrew Hasmonean 196 199 4QIsal 4Q65 Isaiah 7 14 15 8 11 14 Hebrew Hasmonean 196 200 4QIsam 4Q66 Isaiah 60 20 61 1 3 6 Hebrew Hasmonean 196 201 4QIsan Isaiah 4Q67 Isaiah 58 13 14 Hebrew Hasmonean Fragments of Isaiah including elements on punishment 4Q67 and God s blessings for his people 4Q67 4Q69a 196 202 4QIsao 4Q68 Isaiah 14 28 15 2 196 203 4QIsap 4Q69 Isaiah 5 28 30 Hebrew Hasmonean 196 204 205 4QIsaq 4Q69a Isaiah 54 10 13 196 205 4QIsar 4Q69b Isaiah 30 23 196 205 4QJera Jeremiah 4Q70 Jeremiah 6 30 7 1 2 15 19 28 9 2 7 15 10 9 14 23 11 3 6 19 20 12 3 7 13 16 17 13 1 7 22 23 or 22 3 27 14 4 7 15 1 2 17 8 26 18 15 23 19 1 20 14 18 21 1 22 3 16 26 10 Hebrew 200 BCE 1 BCE Fragments of Jeremiah 196 206 207 4QJerb 4Q71 Jeremiah 9 22 25 10 1 21 206 207 208 4QJerc 4Q72 Jeremiah 4 5 13 16 8 1 3 21 23 9 1 5 10 12 13 19 8 9 20 2 5 7 9 13 15 21 7 10 22 4 6 10 28 25 7 8 15 17 24 26 26 10 13 27 1 3 13 15 30 6 9 10 17 17 24 31 1 14 19 26 33 16 20 206 207 208 4QJerd olim 4QJerb 4Q72a Jeremiah 43 2 10 206 207 208 4QJere olim 4QJerb 4Q72b Jeremiah 50 4 6 206 207 208 4QEzea Ezekiel 4Q73 Ezekiel 10 5 16 17 22 11 1 11 23 14 15 17 18 44 47 41 3 6 Hebrew Herodian Fragments of Ezekiel 208 209 4QEzeb 4Q74 Ezekiel 1 10 13 16 17 19 24 208 210 211 4QEzec 4Q75 Ezekiel 24 2 3 208 212 4QXIIa The Twelve Minor Prophets 4Q76 Zechariah 14 18 Malachi 2 10 3 24 Jonah 1 1 5 7 2 1 7 3 2 Hebrew Herodian Fragments of the Twelve Minor Prophets 208 213 4QXIIb 4Q77 Zephaniah 1 1 2 2 13 15 3 19 20 Haggai 1 1 2 2 2 4 208 214 4QXIIc 4Q78 Hosea 2 13 15 3 2 4 4 1 19 5 1 7 12 13 13 3 10 15 14 1 6 Joel 1 10 20 2 1 8 23 4 6 21 Amos 1 1 2 11 16 3 1 15 4 1 2 6 13 14 7 1 16 Zephaniah 2 15 3 1 2 Malachi 3 6 7 208 215 4QXIId 4Q79 Hosea 1 6 2 5 216 217 4QXIIe 4Q80 Haggai 2 18 19 20 21 Zechariah 1 4 6 8 10 13 15 2 10 14 3 2 10 4 1 4 5 8 6 5 8 2 4 6 7 12 7 12 216 218 4QXIIf 4Q81 Jonah 1 6 8 10 16 Micah 5 1 2 216 219 4QXIIg 4Q82 Hosea 2 1 5 14 19 22 25 3 1 5 4 1 10 11 13 14 6 3 4 8 11 7 1 12 13 13 16 8 1 9 1 4 9 17 10 1 14 11 2 5 6 11 12 1 15 13 1 6 8 11 13 14 9 10 Joel 1 12 14 2 2 13 4 4 9 11 14 17 19 20 Amos 1 3 15 2 1 7 9 15 16 3 1 2 4 4 9 5 1 2 9 18 6 1 4 6 14 7 1 7 12 14 17 8 1 5 11 14 9 1 5 6 14 15 Obadiah 1 5 8 12 14 15 Jonah 1 1 9 2 3 11 3 1 3 4 5 11 Micah 1 7 12 15 2 3 4 3 12 4 1 2 5 6 7 7 8 7 2 3 20 Nahum 1 7 9 2 9 11 3 1 3 17 Habakkuk 2 4 Zephaniah 3 3 5 Zechariah 10 11 12 11 1 2 12 1 3 216 220 4QPsa Psalms 4Q83 Psalm 5 9 13 6 1 4 25 15 31 24 25 33 1 12 35 2 14 20 26 28 36 1 9 38 2 12 16 23 47 2 53 4 7 54 1 6 56 4 62 13 63 2 4 66 16 20 67 1 7 69 1 19 71 1 14 Hebrew Hasmonean Fragments of Psalms 216 221 4QPsb 4Q84 Psalm 91 5 8 12 15 92 4 8 13 15 93 5 94 1 4 8 14 17 18 21 22 96 2 98 4 99 5 6 100 1 2 102 5 10 29 103 1 6 9 14 20 21 112 4 5 113 1 115 2 3 116 17 19 118 1 3 6 11 18 20 23 26 29 Hebrew Herodian 216 222 4QPsc amp 4QPst n 1 4Q85 4Q98c Psalm 16 7 9 18 3 14 16 18 33 41 27 12 14 28 1 2 4 35 27 28 37 18 19 45 8 11 49 1 17 50 14 23 51 1 5 52 6 11 53 1 Psalm 88 15 17 Hebrew Herodian 216 223 224 225 4QPsd 4Q86 Psalm 146 10 147 1 3 13 17 20 104 1 5 8 11 14 15 22 25 33 35 Hebrew Hasmonean 226 227 4QPse 4Q87 Psalm 76 10 12 77 1 78 6 7 31 33 81 2 3 86 10 11 88 1 4 89 44 46 50 53 104 1 3 20 21 105 22 24 36 45 109 13 115 15 18 116 1 3 120 6 125 2 5 126 1 5 129 8 130 1 3 Hebrew Herodian 226 228 4QPsf 4Q88 Psalm 22 14 17 107 2 4 8 11 13 15 18 19 22 30 35 109 4 6 25 28 Apostrophe to Zion Apostrophe to Judah Eschatological Hymn Hebrew Hasmonean 226 229 4QPsg 4Q89 Psalm 119 37 43 44 46 49 50 73 81 83 90 Hebrew Herodian 226 230 4QPsh 4Q90 Psalm 119 10 21 Hebrew Herodian 226 231 4QPsj 4Q91 Psalm 48 1 7 49 6 9 12 15 17 Hebrew Herodian 226 232 4QPsk 4Q92 Psalm 26 7 12 27 1 30 9 13 135 7 16 Hebrew Hasmonean 226 233 4QPsl 4Q93 Psalm 104 3 5 11 12 Hebrew Herodian 226 234 4QPsm 4Q94 Psalm 93 3 5 95 3 6 97 6 9 98 4 8 Hebrew Herodian 226 235 4QPsn 4Q95 Psalm 135 6 9 11 12 136 23 24 Hebrew Herodian 236 223 4QPso 4Q96 Psalm 114 7 115 1 2 4 116 3 5 7 10 Hebrew Herodian 223 237 4QPsp olim 4Q237 4Q97 Psalm 143 2 4 6 8 Hebrew Herodian 223 238 4QPsq Psalms 4Q98 Psalm 31 24 25 33 1 18 35 4 20 Hebrew Herodian Fragments of Psalms including elements on putting one s hope in God 4Q98d the earth shaking at the presence of God 4Q98e the blessings of God s Children and the struggle of the wicked 4Q98f 223 4QPsr 4Q98a Psalm 26 7 12 27 1 30 9 13 223 239 4QPss 4Q98b Psalm 5 8 13 6 1 223 4QPst see 4QPsc 4Q98c Psalm 88 15 17 223 4QPsu 4Q98d Psalm 42 5 223 4QPsv olim 4QPsu frg 2 4Q98e Psalm 99 1 223 4QPsw 4Q98f Psalm 112 1 9 223 4QPsx olim 4Q236 4Q98g Psalm 89 20 22 26 23 27 28 31 223 4QJoba Job 4Q99 Job 31 14 19 32 3 4 33 10 11 24 26 28 30 35 16 36 7 11 13 27 32 33 37 1 5 14 15 Hebrew Hasmonean Fragments of Job 240 241 4QJobb 4Q100 Job 8 15 17 9 27 13 4 14 4 6 31 20 21 Herodian 241 242 4QpaleoJobc Paleo Job 4Q101 Job 13 18 20 23 27 14 13 18 Hebrew Early Hellenistic Paleo Hebrew script Fragment of Job 241 243 4QProva Proverbs 4Q102 Proverbs 1 27 33 2 1 Hebrew Herodian Fragments of Proverbs 241 244 4QProvb 4Q103 Proverbs 13 6 9 14 5 10 12 13 31 35 15 1 8 19 31 7 9 11 Hebrew Herodian 241 245 4QRutha Ruth 4Q104 Ruth 1 1 12 Hebrew Hasmonean Fragments of Ruth 241 246 4QRuthb 4Q105 Ruth 1 1 6 12 15 Hebrew Herodian 241 247 4QCanta Canticles Song of Songs 4Q106 Song of Songs 3 4 5 7 11 4 1 7 6 11 12 7 1 7 Hebrew Herodian Fragments of Pesher on Song of Songs Canticles including an introduction 4Q106 241 248 4QCantb 4Q107 Song of Songs 2 9 17 3 1 2 5 9 11 4 1 3 8 11 14 16 5 1 Hebrew Herodian 241 249 4QCantc 4Q108 Song of Songs 3 7 8 Hebrew Hellenistic Roman 241 250 4QQoha Ecclesiastes 4Q109 Ecclesiastes 5 13 17 6 1 3 8 12 7 1 10 19 20 Hebrew Hasmonean Fragments of Ecclesiastes 251 252 4QQohb 4Q110 Ecclesiastes 1 10 15 Hebrew Herodian 251 253 4QLam Lamentations 4Q111 Lamentations 1 1 15 17 16 18 2 5 Hebrew Herodian Fragments of Lamentations 251 254 4QDana Daniel 4Q112 Daniel 1 16 20 2 9 11 19 49 3 1 2 4 29 30 5 5 7 12 14 16 19 7 5 7 25 28 8 1 5 10 16 20 11 13 16 Hebrew Hasmonean Fragments of Daniel 251 255 4QDanb 4Q113 Daniel 5 10 12 14 16 19 22 6 8 22 27 29 7 1 6 11 26 28 8 1 8 13 16 Hebrew Herodian 251 256 4QDanc 4Q114 Daniel 10 5 9 11 16 21 11 1 2 13 17 25 29 Hebrew Hasmonean 251 257 4QDand 4Q115 Daniel 3 8 10 23 25 4 5 9 12 16 7 15 23 Hebrew Herodian 251 258 4QDane 4Q116 Daniel 9 12 17 Hebrew Hasmonean 251 259 4QEzra Ezra 4Q117 Ezra 4 2 6 9 11 5 17 6 1 5 Hebrew Hasmonean Fragments of Ezra Nehemiah 251 260 4QChr 4QChron Chronicles 4Q118 2 Chronicles 28 27 29 1 3 Hebrew Herodian Fragments of 2 Chronicles 251 261 4QLXXLeva gr Septuagint Leviticus 4Q119 Leviticus 26 2 16 Greek Hasmonean Fragments of Leviticus 262 263 4QpapLXXLevb pap4QLXXLevb gr 4Q120 Leviticus 1 11 2 3 5 7 8 3 4 7 9 14 4 3 4 6 8 10 11 18 19 26 28 30 5 6 8 10 16 24 6 1 5 Greek Hasmonean 97 fragments of Leviticus Contains IAW for the tetragrammaton 262 264 4QLXXNumb gr Septuagint Numbers 4Q121 Numbers 3 40 43 50 51 4 1 5 9 11 16 3 39 Greek Herodian Fragments of Numbers 262 265 4QLXXDeut gr Septuagint Deuteronomy 4Q122 Deuteronomy 11 4 Greek Early Hellenistic Fragments of Deuteronomy 50 262 266 4QpaleoparaJosh Paraphrase on Joshua 4Q123 Joshua Hebrew Paleo Hebrew script Rewritten Joshua 262 267 4Qpap paraExod pap4QParaExod gr Paraphrase on Exodus 4Q127 Exodus Greek Herodian Rewritten Exodus 262 268 4Qphyla Phylactery Scrolls 4Q128 Deuteronomy 5 1 14 27 6 3 10 12 11 21 Exodus 12 43 13 7 Hebrew Hellenistic Roman Fragments of Deuteronomy and Exodus 50 269 270 4Qphylb 4Q129 Exodus 13 9 16 Hebrew Hellenistic Roman 50 271 272 4Qphylc 4Q130 Exodus 13 13 16 Deuteronomy 6 4 9 11 13 21 Hebrew Hellenistic Roman 50 271 273 4Qphyld 4Q131 Deuteronomy 11 13 21 Hebrew Hellenistic Roman 50 271 274 4Qphyle 4Q132 Exodus 13 1 10 Hebrew Hellenistic Roman 271 275 4Qphylf 4Q133 Exodus 13 11 16 Hebrew Hellenistic Roman 271 276 4Qphylg 4Q134 Deuteronomy 5 1 21 Exodus 13 11 12 Hebrew Hellenistic Roman 50 271 277 4Qphylh 4Q135 Deuteronomy 5 22 6 5 Exodus 13 14 16 Hebrew Hellenistic Roman 50 271 278 4Qphyli 4Q136 Deuteronomy 6 6 7 11 13 21 Exodus 12 43 13 10 Hebrew Hellenistic Roman 50 271 279 4Qphylj olim 4Qphyla 4Q137 Deuteronomy 5 24 32 6 2 3 Hebrew 50 271 4Qphylk 4Q138 Deuteronomy 10 12 11 17 Hebrew Hellenistic Roman 50 280 281 4Qphyll 4Q139 Deuteronomy 5 7 24 Hebrew Hellenistic Roman 50 280 282 4Qphylm 4Q140 Exodus 12 44 13 10 Deuteronomy 5 33 6 5 Hebrew Hellenistic Roman 50 280 283 4Qphyln 4Q141 Deuteronomy 32 14 20 32 33 Hebrew Hellenistic Roman 50 280 284 4Qphylo 4Q142 Deuteronomy 5 1 16 6 7 9 Hebrew Hellenistic Roman 50 280 285 4Qphylp 4Q143 Deuteronomy 10 22 11 3 18 21 Hebrew Hellenistic Roman 50 280 286 4Qphylq 4Q144 Exodus 13 4 9 Deuteronomy 11 4 18 Hebrew Hellenistic Roman 50 280 287 4Qphylr 4Q145 Exodus 13 1 10 Hebrew Hellenistic Roman 280 288 4QPhyls 4Q146 Deuteronomy 11 19 21 Hebrew Hellenistic Roman 50 280 289 4Qphylt 4Q147 Hebrew Hellenistic Roman Could not be deciphered 280 290 4Qphylu 4Q148 Hebrew Hellenistic Roman 280 291 4QMeza Mezuzah Scrolls 4Q149 Hebrew Hasmonean Fragments of Exodus and Deuteronomy 292 293 4QMezb 4Q150 Deuteronomy 6 5 6 10 14 11 2 Hebrew Herodian 294 295 4QMezc 4Q151 Deuteronomy 5 27 6 9 10 12 20 Hebrew Herodian 294 296 4QMezd 4Q152 Deuteronomy 6 5 7 Hebrew Herodian 294 297 4QMeze 4Q153 Deuteronomy 11 17 18 Hebrew Hellenistic Roman 294 298 4QMezf 4Q154 Deuteronomy 13 1 4 Hebrew Hasmonean 294 299 4QMezg 4Q155 Hebrew Hellenistic Roman 294 300 4QtgLev Targum of Leviticus 4Q156 Leviticus 16 12 15 18 21 Aramaic Hasmonean Fragments of Leviticus 301 302 4QtgJob Targum of Job 4Q157 Job 3 5 6 4 17 5 4 Aramaic Herodian Fragments of Job 301 303 304 4QRPa Reworked Pentateuch A 4Q158 Genesis 32 25 30 32 31 Exodus 3 12 4 27 28 19 17 23 24 4 6 20 12 17 19 21 Samaritan 22 26 21 15 25 32 37 22 1 13 30 32 34 Deuteronomy 5 30 31 21 1 10 Hebrew Herodian Reworked Pentateuch 50 305 306 307 4QOrdinancesa Ordinances A 4Q159 Hebrew Herodian Non biblical composition 307 308 4QVisSam Vision of Samuel 4Q160 Hebrew Hasmonean Non biblical composition 307 309 4QpIsaiaha Pesher on Isaiah 4Q161 Hebrew Herodian Non biblical composition 310 4QpIsaiahb 4Q162 Hebrew Herodian Non biblical composition 311 4QpHosA Pesher on Hosea A 4Q166 Hebrew Herodian Hosea Commentary Scroll 312 313 314 4QpHosB Pesher on Hosea B 4Q167 Hebrew Herodian 313 315 4QpMic Pesher on Micah 4Q168 Hebrew Herodian Micah Commentary 313 316 4QpNah Pesher on Nahum 4Q169 Nahum 1 3 6 2 12 14 3 1 5 6 9 10 12 14 Hebrew Herodian Containing the term The Seekers after Smooth Things 313 317 4Q Eschatological Commentary A Florilegium or Midrash on the Last Days 4Q174 2 Samuel 7 10 14 1 Chronicles 17 9 13 Exodus 15 17 18 Amos 9 11 Psalm 1 1 Isaiah 8 11 Ezekiel 37 23 Psalm 2 1 Daniel 12 10 11 32 Deuteronomy 33 8 11 12 19 21 Hebrew Herodian Quotations from biblical passages with midrashic commentary 318 319 4QTest Testimonia 4Q175 Deuteronomy 5 28 29 18 18 19 33 8 11 Numbers 24 15 17 Joshua 6 26 quoted in Psalms of Joshua 4Q379 frag 22 Hebrew Herodian Hasmonean script A list of quotations Messianic Anthology or Testimonia 50 318 320 4QapocrLamA Apocryphal Lamentations A 4Q179 Lamentations Hebrew Herodian cf 4Q501 321 4Q Horoscope Physiognomies Horoscopes 4Q186 Hebrew Herodian 322 4QpapTobita Tobit 4Q196 Tobit Aramaic Hasmonean On Papyrus cf 4Q501 323 4QTobitb Tobit 4Q197 Tobit Aramaic Herodian cf 4Q501 324 4QTobitc Tobit 4Q198 Tobit Aramaic Hasmonean cf 4Q501 325 4QTobitd Tobit 4Q199 Tobit Aramaic Hasmonean cf 4Q501 326 4QTobite Tobit 4Q200 Tobit Hebrew Herodian cf 4Q501 327 4QEna The Enoch Scroll 4Q201a Aramaic Hasmonean 312 328 4QALD 4QLevia f ar The Aramaic Levi Document ALD 4Q213 4Q213a 4Q213b 4Q214 4Q214a 4Q214b Aramaic Hasmonean Multiple compositions 329 4QTNaph Testament of Naphtali 4Q215 Hebrew Herodian 330 331 4QCanta Pesher on Canticles Song of Songs 4Q240 Song of Songs Hebrew Herodian Included in Milik s original list but this fragment has never been located 332 4QapocrDan Aramaic Apocalypse or The Son of God Text 4Q246 Aramaic Herodian 333 4QCommentary on Gen A 4QCommGenA Commentary Pesher on Genesis 4Q252 Genesis 6 3 7 10 8 18 9 24 27 11 31 15 9 17 17 20 18 31 32 with Deuteronomy 13 16 17 20 11 14 22 10 12 28 3 4 36 12 49 3 4 10 with Jeremiah 33 17 20 21 Hebrew Herodian Fragments commentary of Genesis 334 335 4QCommentary on Gen B 4QCommGenB 4Q253 Genesis Hebrew Herodian 334 336 4QCommentary on Gen C 4QCommGenC 4Q254 Genesis 9 24 25 22 5 17 Hebrew Herodian 334 337 4QCommentary on Gen D olim 4QpGenc 4Q254a 820 Genesis 6 15 Hebrew Herodian 334 338 4QSd Serekh ha Yahad or Community Rule 4Q258 Hebrew Herodian cf 1QSd 339 4QD The Damascus Document 4Q265 273 Hebrew Hasmonean cf 4QDa g 4Q266 272 4QDa e 4Q266 270 5Q12 6Q15 4Q265 73 93 4Q Sefer ha Milhamah Rule of War 4Q285 Hebrew Herodian cf 11Q14 340 4QMysta The Book of MysteriesThe Book of Secrets 4Q299 Hebrew Herodian 341 4QMystb 4Q300 Hebrew Herodian 342 4QMystc The Book of MysteriesThe Book of Secrets 4Q301 Hebrew Herodian 343 4QRPb Reworked Pentateuch 4Q364 Genesis 25 18 21 26 7 8 27 39 28 6 29 32 33 30 8 14 26 36 31 47 53 32 18 20 26 30 34 2 35 28 37 7 8 38 14 21 44 30 34 45 1 21 27 48 14 15 Exodus 21 14 22 19 17 24 12 14 18 25 1 2 26 1 33 35 Numbers 14 16 20 33 31 49 20 17 18 Deuteronomy 2 8 14 30 37 3 2 18 23 9 6 7 12 18 21 25 27 29 10 1 4 6 7 10 13 22 11 1 2 6 9 23 24 14 24 26 Hebrew Late Hasmonean or Herodian Reworked Pentateuch 50 305 344 345 4QRPc 4Q365 Exodus 8 13 19 9 9 12 10 19 20 14 10 12 21 15 6 21 22 26 17 3 5 18 13 16 26 34 36 28 16 20 29 20 22 30 27 38 31 1 2 35 2 5 36 32 38 37 29 38 1 7 39 1 19 Leviticus 11 1 3 17 25 32 33 39 46 13 6 8 15 19 51 52 16 6 7 18 25 29 23 42 44 24 1 2 25 7 9 26 17 32 27 34 Numbers 1 1 5 3 26 30 4 47 49 7 1 78 80 8 11 12 9 15 23 10 1 4 13 11 25 28 30 15 26 29 17 20 24 27 11 36 1 2 Deuteronomy 2 24 19 20 21 20 1 Hebrew Late Hasmonean Early Herodian 50 305 346 347 4QRPd 4Q366 Exodus 21 35 37 22 1 5 Leviticus 24 20 22 25 39 43 Numbers 29 14 25 32 39 30 1 Deuteronomy 16 13 14 14 13 21 Hebrew Herodian 50 305 346 348 4QRPe 4Q367 Leviticus 11 47 12 1 8 13 1 15 14 15 19 1 4 9 15 20 13 27 30 34 Hebrew Hasmonean 305 346 349 4QapocrJosha Apocryphon of Joshua 4Q378 Hebrew Herodian Texts drawing on the content of Joshua Exodus and Numbers 350 4QapocrJoshb 4Q379 Hebrew Hasmonean 351 4QpsEzek Pseudo Ezekiel 4Q3854Q385b4Q385c4Q3864Q3884Q391 Hebrew Herodian 352 4QMMT 4Q Cal Doc D Miqsat Ma ase Ha Torah or Some Precepts of the Law or the Halakhic Letter 4Q394 399 Hebrew Herodian 353 4Q Non Canonical Psalms A Songs of Sabbath Sacrifice or the Angelic Liturgy 4Q400 407 Hebrew Hasmonean cf 11Q5 6 354 4QInstruction Sapiential Work A 4Q415 418 Hebrew Herodian 93 4QParaphrase Paraphrase of Genesis and Exodus Hebrew4Q Barkhi Nafshia Barkhi Nafshi Apocryphal Psalms 4Q434 Hebrew Herodian 15 fragments likely hymns of thanksgiving praising God for his power and expressing thanks 355 4Q Apocr Psalm and Prayer Hymn to King Jonathan or The Prayer For King Jonathan Scroll 4Q448 Psalms 154 Hebrew Hasmonean In addition to parts of Psalms 154 it contains a prayer mentioning King Jonathan 93 4QpapGen or papJub pap Genesis or pap Jubilees 4Q483 Genesis 1 28 29 or Book of Jubilees Hebrew Herodian 356 4QShira b Songs of the Sageor Songs of the Maskil 4Q510 511 Hebrew Herodian 93 4Q Messianic Apocalypse Messianic Apocalypse 4Q521 Hebrew Hasmonean Made up of two fragments 357 4Q Jonathan 4Q523 Hebrew Hasmonean MeKleine Fragmente z T gesetzlichen Inhalts Fragment is legal in content PAM number 41 944 358 359 4QTempleScrollb Temple Scroll 4Q524 Hebrew Hasmonean 93 360 4QBeatitudes 4Q525 Matthew 5 3 12 Beatitudes Hebrew Herodian 93 4Q TJoseph Testament of Joseph 4Q539 Aramaic Hasmonean 361 4QapocrLevi b Testament of Levid 4Q541 Aramaic Hasmonean Aramaic frag also called 4QApocryphon of Levib ar 362 4QTKohath 4QTQahat Testament of Qahat 4Q542 Aramaic Hasmonean 363 4QNJc New Jerusalem 4Q555 Aramaic Herodian cf 1Q32 2Q24 5Q15 11Q18 364 4QGenn Genesis 4Q576 Genesis 34 7 10 50 3 Hebrew Hasmonean 93 Unnumbered Hebrew Nine unopened fragments recently rediscovered in storage 365 Cave 5 Main article List of manuscripts from Qumran Cave 5 Cave 5 was discovered alongside Cave 6 in 1952 shortly after the discovery of Cave 4 Cave 5 produced approximately 25 manuscripts 25 Fragment or Scroll Identifier Fragment or Scroll Name Alternative Identifier English Bible Association Language Date Script Description ReferenceQumran Cave 55QDeut Deuteronomy 5Q1 Deuteronomy 7 15 24 8 5 9 2 Hebrew Early Hellenistic 50 366 367 5QKgs Kings 5Q2 1 Kings 1 1 16 17 27 37 Hebrew Hasmonean 368 369 5QIsa Isaiah 5Q3 Isaiah 40 16 18 19 Hebrew Herodian 368 370 5QAmos Amos 5Q4 Amos 1 2 5 Hebrew 368 5QPs Psalms 5Q5 Psalm 119 99 101 104 113 20 138 42 Hebrew Herodian 368 371 5QLama Lamentations 5Q6 Lamentations 4 5 8 11 16 19 22 5 1 13 16 17 Hebrew Herodian 368 372 5QLamb 5Q7 Lamentations 4 17 20 Hebrew Herodian 368 373 5QPhyl Phylactery 5Q8 Hebrew Hellenistic Roman Phylactery in its unopened case 368 374 5QapocrJosh or 5QToponyms Toponyms 5Q9 Hebrew Herodian Seven fragments with names of places 368 375 5QapocrMal Apocryphon of Malachi 5Q10 Hebrew Hellenistic Roman Apocryphon of Malachi 368 376 5QS Rule of Community Serek ha Yahad 5Q11 Hebrew Herodian 368 377 5QD Damascus Document 5Q12 Hebrew Herodian Damascus Document 368 378 5QRule or 5QRegle Rule of Community 5Q13 Hebrew Hellenistic Roman Fragments related to 1QS 379 380 5QCurses Curses 5Q14 Hebrew Herodian Liturgical compositions with curses 379 381 5QNJ New Jerusalem Scroll 5Q15 Aramaic Hellenistic Roman Description of the New Jerusalem 379 382 5QUnid Unidentified 5Q16 5Q24 Hebrew Hellenistic Roman Unidentified fragments 379 5QUnc Unclassified 5Q25 Hebrew Hellenistic Roman Unclassified fragments 379 383 Cave 6 Main article List of manuscripts from Qumran Cave 6 Cave 6 was discovered alongside Cave 5 in 1952 shortly after the discovery of Cave 4 Cave 6 contained fragments of about 31 manuscripts 25 List of groups of fragments collected from Wadi Qumran Cave 6 384 385 Fragment or Scroll Identifier Fragment or Scroll Name Alternative Identifier English Bible Association Language Date Script Description ReferenceQumran Cave 66QpaleoGen Genesis 6Q1 Genesis 6 13 21 Hebrew Early Hellenistic Palaeo Hebrew script 386 387 6QpaleoLev Leviticus 6Q2 Leviticus 8 12 13 Hebrew Early Hellenistic Palaeo Hebrew script 386 388 pap6QDeut or 6QpapDeut Deuteronomy 6Q3 Deuteronomy 26 19 Hebrew Hellenistic Roman A few letters of Deuteronomy 26 19 on papyrus 386 50 389 6QpapKgs Kings 6Q4 1 Kings 3 12 14 12 28 31 22 28 31 2 Kings 5 26 6 32 7 8 10 20 8 1 5 9 1 2 10 19 21 Hebrew Hasmonean Made up of 94 Fragments 386 390 pap6QPs or 6QpapPs Psalms 6Q5 Psalm 78 36 37 Hebrew Herodian 391 392 6QCant Song of Songs 6Q6 Song of Songs 1 1 7 Hebrew Herodian 391 393 6QpapDan Daniel 6Q7 Daniel 8 20 21 10 8 16 11 33 36 38 8 16 17 Hebrew Herodian 13 papyrus fragments 391 394 6QpapGiants or pap6QEnGiants Book of Giants from Enoch 6Q8 Aramaic Herodian Part of the Book of Giants 391 395 6Qpap apocrSam Kgs or pap6QapocrSam Kgs Apocryphon on Samuel Kings 6Q9 Hebrew Hasmonean Samuel Kings apocryphon Written on papyrus 391 396 6QpapaProph or pap6QProph Unidentified prophetic fragment 6Q10 Hebrew Hasmonean Prophetic text Written in papyrus 391 397 6QAllegory Allegory of the Vine 6Q11 Hebrew Herodian Fragment containing an Allegory mentioning a vine 391 398 6QapProph An apocryphal prophecy 6Q12 Herodian 391 399 6QPriestProph Priestly Prophecy 6Q13 Herodian A priestly prophecy 391 400 6Q Apocalypse Apocalyptic text 6Q14 Aramaic Herodian Two fragments with apocalyptic text 391 401 6QD Damascus Document 6Q15 Hebrew Herodian Damascus Document 4 19 21 5 13 14 18 21 6 1 2 20 21 7 1 391 402 6QpapBened or pap6QBen papBenediction 6Q16 Herodian Blessings related 1QSb On papyrus 403 404 6QCalDoc Calendrical Document 6Q17 Herodian Calendric fragment 403 405 pap6QHymn Hymn 6Q18 Herodian Fragment of a hymn related to 1QM 403 406 6Q Text Related to Genesis Genesis 6Q19 Possibly from Genesis Aramaic Herodian Related to Genesis 10 6 20 403 407 6QDeut Deuteronomy 6Q20 Possibly from Deuteronomy Hebrew Hellenistic Roman Related to Deuteronomy 11 10 403 408 6QfrgProph or 6Q Prophetic Text Possibly prophetic text 6Q21 Hebrew Herodian Prophetic fragment containing 5 words 403 409 pap6QUnidA Unclassified fragments 6Q22 Hebrew Herodian 403 410 pap6QUnidA ar Unclassified fragments 6Q23 Aramaic Herodian Related to Words of the Book of Michael 403 411 6QUnidB Unclassified fragments 6Q24 Hebrew Hellenistic Roman 403 412 6QUnidB Unclassified fragments 6Q25 Aramaic Herodian 403 413 6QUnidB or 6QpapAccount or Contract Accounts or contracts 6Q26 Aramaic Hellenistic Roman 403 414 6QUnidB Unclassified fragments 6Q27 6Q28 Hebrew Hellenistic Roman 403 6QpapProv Proverbs 6Q30 Proverbs 11 4b 7a 10b Hebrew Roman Single six line fragment 403 415 6QUnidB Unclassified fragments 6Q31 Aramaic Herodian 403 416 Cave 7 Main article List of manuscripts from Qumran Cave 7 Dead Sea Scroll fragments 7Q4 7Q5 and 7Q8 from Cave 7 in Qumran written on papyrus Cave 7 yielded fewer than 20 fragments of Greek documents including 7Q2 the Letter of Jeremiah Baruch 6 7Q5 which became the subject of much speculation in later decades and a Greek copy of a scroll of Enoch 417 418 419 Cave 7 also produced several inscribed potsherds and jars 420 Lists of groups of fragments collected from Wadi Qumran Cave 7 384 385 Fragment or Scroll Identifier Fragment or Scroll Name Alternative Identifier English Bible Association Language Date Script Description ReferenceQumran Cave 77QpapLXXExod Exodus 7Q1 Exodus 28 4 7 Greek Hasmonean Greek fragment of Exodus 421 7QpapEpJer Letter of Jeremiah 7Q2 Letter of Jeremiah verses 43 44 Greek Hasmonean Epistle of Jeremiah On papyrus 422 7Q3 Unidentified 7Q3 Greek Herodian Unknown biblical text 423 7Q4 Unidentified 7Q4 Greek Hasmonean Unknown biblical text 424 7Q5 Unidentified 7Q5 Greek Herodian Unknown biblical text Believed by some to be Mark 6 52 53 425 7Q6 18 Unidentified 7Q6 18 Greek Hellenistic Roman Herodian Very tiny unidentified fragments written on papyrus 93 7Q papImprint Unidentified 7Q19 Greek Herodian Unidentified papyrus imprint Very tiny fragments written on papyrus 426 Cave 8 Main article List of manuscripts from Qumran Cave 8 Cave 8 along with caves 7 and 9 was one of the only caves that are accessible by passing through the settlement at Qumran Carved into the southern end of the Qumran plateau cave 8 was excavated by archaeologists in 1957 Cave 8 produced five fragments Genesis 8QGen Psalms 8QPs a tefillin fragment 8QPhyl a mezuzah 8QMez and a hymn 8QHymn 427 Cave 8 also produced several tefillin cases a box of leather objects tons of lamps jars and the sole of a leather shoe 420 List of groups of fragments collected from Wadi Qumran Cave 8 384 385 Fragment or Scroll Identifier Fragment or Scroll Name Alternative Identifier English Bible Association Language Date Script Description ReferenceQumran Cave 88QGen Genesis 8Q1 Genesis 17 12 13 15 18 19 18 20 22 24 25 Hebrew Herodian 93 8QPs Psalms 8Q2 Psalm 17 5 9 14 18 5 12 Hebrew Herodian 93 8QPhyl Phylacteries 8Q3 Exodus 13 1 16 12 43 51 20 11 Deuteronomy 6 4 5 6 1 3 10 20 22 10 12 19 5 1 14 10 13 11 2 3 10 21 22 11 1 11 6 12 Hebrew 1 100 CE Herodian Fragments from a Phylactery 50 8QMez Mezuzah 8Q4 Deuteronomy 10 1 11 21 Hebrew 30 BCE 68 CE Herodian 50 8QHymn Unidentified hymn 8Q5 Hebrew Herodian Non biblical composition 93 Cave 9 Main article List of manuscripts from Qumran Cave 9 Cave 9 along with caves 7 and 8 was one of the only caves that are accessible by passing through the settlement at Qumran Carved into the southern end of the Qumran plateau Cave 9 was excavated by archaeologists in 1957 There was only one fragment found in Cave 9 Fragment or Scroll Identifier Fragment or Scroll Name Alternative Identifier English Bible Association Language Date Script Description ReferenceQumran Cave 99Qpap Unidentified 9Q1 Hebrew Roman Written on papyrus 428 Cave 10 Main article List of manuscripts from Qumran Cave 10 In Cave 10 archaeologists found two ostraca with writing on them along with an unknown symbol on a grey stone slab Fragment or Scroll Identifier Fragment or Scroll Name Alternative Identifier English Bible Association Language Date Script Description ReferenceQumran Cave 1010QOstracon Ostracon 10Q1 Hebrew Two letters written on a piece of pottery 18 Cave 11 Main article List of manuscripts from Qumran Cave 11 A view of part of the Temple Scroll that was found in Qumran Cave 11 Cave 11 was discovered in 1956 and yielded 21 texts some of which were quite long The Temple Scroll so called because more than half of it pertains to the construction of the Temple of Jerusalem was found in Cave 11 and is by far the longest scroll It is now 26 7 feet 8 15 m long Its original length may have been over 28 feet 8 75 m The Temple Scroll was regarded by Yigael Yadin as The Torah According to the Essenes On the other hand Hartmut Stegemann a contemporary and friend of Yadin believed the scroll was not to be regarded as such but was a document without exceptional significance Stegemann notes that it is not mentioned or cited in any known Essene writing 429 Also in Cave 11 an eschatological fragment about the biblical figure Melchizedek 11Q13 was found Cave 11 also produced a copy of Jubilees and a proto Masoteric text of the Torah scroll only a fragment of the Book of Leviticus surviving known as the Paleo Hebrew Leviticus Scroll According to former chief editor of the Dead Sea Scroll editorial team John Strugnell there are at least four privately owned scrolls from Cave 11 that have not yet been made available for scholars Among them is a complete Aramaic manuscript of the Book of Enoch 430 List of groups of fragments collected from Wadi Qumran Cave 11 Fragment or Scroll Identifier Fragment or Scroll Name Alternative Identifier English Bible Association Language Date Script Description ReferenceQumran Cave 1111QpaleoLeva Paleo Leviticusa 11Q1 Leviticus 4 24 26 10 4 7 11 27 32 13 3 9 13 39 43 14 16 21 14 52 15 5 16 2 4 16 34 17 5 18 27 19 4 20 1 6 21 6 11 22 21 27 23 22 29 24 9 14 25 28 36 26 17 26 27 11 19 Hebrew Herodian palaeo Hebrew script 93 11QLevb Leviticusb 11Q2 Leviticus Hebrew Herodian palaeo Hebrew script 93 11QDeut Deuteronomy 11Q3 Deuteronomy 1 4 5 2 28 30 Hebrew 50 CE Late Herodian 50 11QEzek Ezekiel 11Q4 Ezekiel Hebrew Herodian 431 432 11QPs The Great Psalms Scroll 11Q5 Psalms Hebrew Herodian A unique Psalms scroll with only about a quarter of the Masoretic psalms in atypical order three Syriac psalms one from Ben Sira and the only known copies of three more unique psalms Plea for Deliverance Apostrophe to Zion and Hymn to the Creator all of which are unattested by other sources as well as the short text of David s Compositions 93 11QPsa Psalms 11Q5 Hebrew Herodian 93 11QPsb 11Q6 Psalm 77 18 21 78 1 109 3 4 118 1 118 15 16 119 163 165 133 1 3 141 10 144 1 2 Hebrew Herodian 93 11QPsc 11Q7 Psalm 2 1 8 9 3 7 12 5 9 13 1 6 14 1 6 17 9 15 18 1 12 19 4 8 25 2 7 Hebrew Herodian 93 11QPsd 11Q8 Psalm 6 2 4 9 3 6 18 26 29 18 39 42 36 13 37 1 4 39 13 14 40 1 43 1 3 45 6 8 59 5 8 68 1 5 68 14 18 78 5 12 81 4 9 86 11 14 115 16 18 116 1 Hebrew Herodian 93 11QPse 11Q9 Psalm 50 3 7 Hebrew Herodian 93 11QtgJob Targum Job 11Q10 Job Aramaic Herodian A unique Aramaic translation of the Book of Job presents Job somewhat more favourably 93 11QapocrPs Apocryphal Psalms 11Q11 Psalm 91 Hebrew Herodian Apocryphal paraphrase of Psalms 91 93 11QJub Jubilees 11Q12 Hebrew Herodian Ethiopic text of Jubilees 4 6 11 4 13 14 4 16 17 4 29 31 5 1 2 12 15 17 12 28 29 93 11QMelch Melchizedek 11Q13 Contains Pesher commentary on Leviticus 25 13 Deuteronomy 15 2 Psalm 7 8 9 82 2 Isaiah 52 7 Daniel 9 25 Leviticus 25 9 Hebrew 50 25 BCE or 75 50 BCE Late Hasmonean or Early Herodian Describes a tenth jubilee and portrays Melchizedek as a messianic agent of salvation using similar language to that used for Jesus in Hebrews such as Heavenly Prince Melchizedek 93 50 11Q Sefer ha Milhamah Sefer ha Milhamah The Book of War 11Q14 Hebrew Herodian An account of the final eschatological battle of the Israelites and the Kittim Romans including a messianic figure named the Prince of the Congregation 93 11QHymnsa Hymns 11Q15 Hebrew Herodian 93 11QHymnsb 11Q16 Hebrew Herodian 93 11QShirShabb Songs of the Sabbath Sacrifice 11Q17 Hebrew Herodian Collection of 13 hymns describing a heavenly temple service 93 11QNJ New Jerusalem 11Q18 Aramaic Herodian Appears to be an apocalyptic vision including some architectural details of a very large city cf Ezekiel and Revelation 93 11QTa Temple Scroll 11Q19 Hebrew Herodian Rephrases the Pentateuch laws in the spirit of Deuteronomy seeks to resolve biblical legal conflicts and expand ritual laws 93 11QTb Temple Scroll 11Q20 Hebrew Herodian 93 11QTc 11Q21 Hebrew Herodian 93 11Q Unidentified Unidentified 11Q22 Hebrew Hasmonean Unidentified fragments 93 11Q23 Hebrew Hellenistic Roman 93 11Q24 Aramaic Hasmonean 93 11Q25 Hebrew Herodian 93 11Q26 Hebrew Herodian 93 11Q27 Hebrew Hellenistic Roman 93 11Q28 Hebrew Hellenistic Roman 93 11Q29 Serekh ha Yahad related11Q Unidentified Unidentified 11Q30 Hebrew Herodian Unidentified fragments 93 11Q Unidentified Unidentified 11Q31 Unidentified fragment 433 11Q9999 Unidentified Hellenistic Roman 93 Cave 12 Cave 12 was discovered in February 2017 on cliffs west of Qumran near the northwestern shore of the Dead Sea 29 Archaeological examination found pickaxes and empty broken scroll jars indicating that the cave had been discovered and looted in the 1950s One of the joint Hebrew University of Jerusalem and Liberty University of Virginia project s lead researchers Dr Oren Gutfeld stated Although at the end of the day no scroll was found and instead we only found a piece of parchment rolled up in a jug that was being processed for writing the findings indicate beyond any doubt that the cave contained scrolls that were stolen 30 Fragments with unknown provenance Some fragments of scrolls have neither significant archaeological provenance nor records that reveal in which designated Qumran cave area they were found They are believed to have come from Wadi Qumran caves but are just as likely to have come from other archaeological sites in the Judaean Desert area 434 These fragments have therefore been designated to the temporary X series Fragment Scroll Fragment Scroll Name KJV Bible Association DescriptionXQ1 3 Tefillin from Qumran Deuteronomy 5 1 6 3 10 12 11 12 434 First published in 1969 PhylacteriesXQ4 Tefillin from Qumran PhylacteriesXQ5a Jubilees 7 4 5XQ5b HymnXQ6 Offering Small fragment with only one word in Aramaic XQ7 Unidentified fragment Strong possibility that it is part of 4QInstruction XQpapEn Book of Enoch 9 1 One small fragment written in Hebrew XQ8Gallery Dead Sea Scroll 175 complete Testimonia from Qumran Cave 4 the Jordan Museum in Amman Dead Sea Scroll 28a from Qumran Cave 1 complete the Jordan Museum in Amman The War Scroll found in Qumran Cave 1 A portion of the second discovered copy of the Isaiah Scroll 1QIsab Part of Dead Sea Scroll 28a from Qumran Cave 1 The Jordan Museum Amman Dead Sea Scroll Pesher Isaiah from Qumran Cave 4 The Jordan Museum Amman Dead Sea Scroll 175 Testimonia from Qumran Cave 4 The Jordan Museum Amman Dead Sea Scroll 109 Qohelet or Ecclesiastes from Qumran Cave 4 The Jordan Museum Amman Dead Sea Scrolls at the Jordan Museum in Amman Strips of the Copper Dead Sea Scroll at the Jordan Museum from Qumran Cave 3 1st century CE Strip 11 of the Copper Dead Sea Scroll from Qumran Cave 3 Jordan Museum Strip 15 of the Copper Dead Sea Scroll from Qumran Cave 3 Jordan Museum Strip 13 of the Copper Dead Sea Scroll from Qumran Cave 3 Jordan Museum Strips 1 and 2 of the Copper Dead Sea Scroll from Qumran Cave 3 Jordan Museum Dead Sea Scroll 109 Qohelet or Ecclesiastes from Qumran Cave 4 the Jordan Museum in Amman Dead Sea Scroll 109 Qohelet or Ecclesiastes from Qumran Cave 4 at the Jordan Museum in Amman Dead Sea Scroll Pesher Isaiah from Qumran Cave 4 the Jordan Museum in Amman Dead Sea Scroll 175 Testimonia from Qumran Cave 4 the Jordan Museum in Amman Detail Dead Sea Scroll 175 Testimonia from Qumran Cave 4 the Jordan Museum in Amman Dead Sea Scroll 28a from Qumran Cave 1 the Jordan Museum in Amman Part of Dead Sea Scroll 28a from Qumran Cave 1 the Jordan Museum in Amman Part of Dead Sea Scroll 28a from Qumran Cave 1 at the Jordan Museum in Amman Dead Sea Scroll fragment 5 6HEV PS found in the Cave of Letters at Nahal HeverOriginThere has been much debate about the origin of the Dead Sea Scrolls The dominant theory remains that the scrolls were produced by the Essenes a sect of Jews living at nearby Qumran but this theory has come to be challenged by several modern scholars 435 Qumran Essene theory Main article Qumran Essene hypothesis The view among scholars almost universally held until the 1990s is the Qumran Essene hypothesis originally posited by Roland Guerin de Vaux 436 and Jozef Tadeusz Milik 437 though independently both Eliezer Sukenik and Butrus Sowmy of St Mark s Monastery connected scrolls with the Essenes well before any excavations at Qumran 438 The Qumran Essene theory holds that the scrolls were written by the Essenes or by another Jewish sectarian group residing at Khirbet Qumran They composed the scrolls and ultimately hid them in the nearby caves during the Jewish Revolt sometime between 66 and 68 CE The site of Qumran was destroyed and the scrolls never recovered A number of arguments are used to support this theory There are striking similarities between the description of an initiation ceremony of new members in the Community Rule and descriptions of the Essene initiation ceremony mentioned in the works of Flavius Josephus a Jewish Roman historian of the Second Temple period Josephus mentions the Essenes as sharing property among the members of the community as does the Community Rule During the excavation of Khirbet Qumran two inkwells and plastered elements thought to be tables were found offering evidence that some form of writing was done there More inkwells were discovered nearby De Vaux called this area the scriptorium based upon this discovery Several Jewish ritual baths Hebrew מקוה miqvah were discovered at Qumran offering evidence of an observant Jewish presence at the site Pliny the Elder a geographer writing after the fall of Jerusalem in 70 CE describes a group of Essenes living in a desert community on the northwest shore of the Dead Sea near the ruined town of Ein Gedi Qumran Sectarian theory Qumran Sectarian theories are variations on the Qumran Essene theory The main point of departure from the Qumran Essene theory is hesitation to link the Dead Sea Scrolls specifically with the Essenes Most proponents of the Qumran Sectarian theory understand a group of Jews living in or near Qumran to be responsible for the Dead Sea Scrolls but do not necessarily conclude that the sectarians are Essenes A specific variation on the Qumran Sectarian theory emerged in the 1990s that has gained much recent popularity is the work of Lawrence H Schiffman who proposes that the community was led by a group of Zadokite priests Sadducees 439 The most important document in support of this view is the Miqsat Ma ase Ha Torah 4QMMT which cites purity laws such as the transfer of impurities identical to those attributed in rabbinic writings to the Sadducees 4QMMT also reproduces a festival calendar that follows Sadducee principles for the dating of certain festival days Christian origin theory Spanish Jesuit Jose O Callaghan Martinez argued in the 1960s that one fragment 7Q5 preserves a portion of text from the New Testament Gospel of Mark 6 52 53 440 This theory was scrutinized in the year 2000 by paleographic analysis of the particular fragment However this faced some contention and O Callaghan s theory remains an area of great dispute Later analyses in 2004 and 2018 lent credence to O Callaghan s original assertion citation needed Robert Eisenman has advanced the theory that some scrolls describe the early Christian community Eisenman also argued that the careers of James the Just and Paul the Apostle correspond to events recorded in some of these documents 441 Jerusalem origin theory Some scholars have argued that the scrolls were the product of Jews living in Jerusalem who hid the scrolls in the caves near Qumran while fleeing from the Romans during the destruction of Jerusalem in 70 CE 442 Karl Heinrich Rengstorf first proposed in the 1960s that the Dead Sea Scrolls originated at the library of the Jewish Temple in Jerusalem 443 Later Norman Golb suggested that the scrolls were the product of multiple libraries in Jerusalem and not necessarily the Jerusalem Temple library 444 445 Proponents of the Jerusalem origin theory point to the diversity of thought and handwriting among the scrolls as evidence against a Qumran origin of the scrolls Several archaeologists have also accepted an origin of the scrolls other than Qumran including Yizhar Hirschfeld 446 and more recently Yizhak Magen and Yuval Peleg 447 who all understand the remains of Qumran to be those of a Hasmonean fort that was reused during later periods Physical characteristics Fragments 1 and 2 of 7Q6 from Cave 7 are written on papyrus Radiocarbon dating Main article Carbon dating the Dead Sea Scrolls Parchment from a number of the Dead Sea Scrolls has been carbon dated The initial test performed in 1950 was on a piece of linen from one of the caves This test gave an indicative dating of 33 CE plus or minus 200 years eliminating early hypotheses relating the scrolls to the medieval period 448 Since then two large series of tests have been performed on the scrolls themselves The results were summarized by VanderKam and Flint who said the tests give strong reason for thinking that most of the Qumran manuscripts belong to the last two centuries BCE and the first century CE 20 32 Paleographic dating Analysis of letter forms or palaeography was applied to the texts of the Dead Sea Scrolls by a variety of scholars in the field Major linguistic analysis by Cross and Avigad dates fragments from 225 BCE to 50 CE 449 These dates were determined by examining the size variability and style of the text 450 The same fragments were later analyzed using radiocarbon dating and were dated to an estimated range of 385 BCE to 82 CE with a 68 accuracy rate 449 Ink and parchment The scrolls were analyzed using a cyclotron at the University of California Davis where it was found that all black ink was carbon black 451 The red ink on the scrolls was found to be made with cinnabar HgS mercury sulfide 452 There are only four uses of this red ink in the entire collection of Dead Sea Scroll fragments 452 The black inks found on the scrolls are mostly made of carbon soot from olive oil lamps 453 Honey oil vinegar and water were often added to the mixture to thin the ink to a proper consistency for writing 453 Galls were sometimes added to the ink to make it more resilient 453 In order to apply the ink to the scrolls its writers used reed pens 454 The Dead Sea Scrolls were written on parchment made of processed animal hide known as vellum approximately 85 5 90 5 of the scrolls papyrus estimated at 8 13 of the scrolls and sheets of bronze composed of about 99 copper and 1 tin approximately 1 5 of the scrolls 454 455 For those scrolls written on animal hides scholars with the Israeli Antiquities Authority by use of DNA testing for assembly purposes believe that there may be a hierarchy in the religious importance of the texts based on which type of animal was used to create the hide Scrolls written on goat and calf hides are considered by scholars to be more significant in nature while those written on gazelle or ibex are considered to be less religiously significant in nature 456 In addition tests by the National Institute of Nuclear Physics in Sicily Italy have suggested that the origin of parchment of select Dead Sea Scroll fragments is from the Qumran area itself by using X ray and Particle induced X ray emission testing of the water used to make the parchment that were compared with the water from the area around the Qumran site 457 Preservation Two of the pottery jars that held some of the Dead Sea Scrolls found at Qumran Two Dead Sea Scrolls jars at the Jordan Museum Amman The Dead Sea Scrolls that were found were originally preserved by the dry arid and low humidity conditions present within the Qumran area adjoining the Dead Sea 458 In addition the lack of the use of tanning materials on the parchment of the Dead Sea Scrolls and the very low airflow in the Qumran caves also contributed significantly to their preservation 459 Some of the scrolls were found stored in clay jars within the Qumran caves further helping to preserve them from deterioration The original handling of the scrolls by archaeologists and scholars was done inappropriately and along with their storage in an uncontrolled environment they began a process of more rapid deterioration than they had experienced at Qumran 460 During the first few years in the late 1940s and early 1950s adhesive tape used to join fragments and seal cracks caused significant damage to the documents 460 The government of Jordan had recognized the urgency of protecting the scrolls from deterioration and the presence of the deterioration among the scrolls 461 However the government did not have adequate funds to purchase all the scrolls for their protection and agreed to have foreign institutions purchase the scrolls and have them held at their museum in Jerusalem until they could be adequately studied 461 In early 1953 they were moved to the Palestine Archaeological Museum commonly called the Rockefeller Museum 462 in East Jerusalem and through their transportation suffered more deterioration and damage 20 63 65 The museum was underfunded and had limited resources with which to examine the scrolls and as a result conditions of the scrollery and storage area were left relatively uncontrolled by modern standards 20 The museum had left most of the fragments and scrolls lying between window glass trapping the moisture in with them causing an acceleration in the deterioration process During a portion of the conflict during the 1956 war waged by Israel Britain and France against Egypt the scrolls collection of the Palestine Archaeological Museum was stored in the vault of the Ottoman Bank in Amman Jordan 463 Damp conditions from temporary storage of the scrolls in the Ottoman Bank vault from 1956 to the Spring of 1957 led to a more rapid rate of deterioration of the scrolls The conditions caused mildew to develop on the scrolls and fragments and some fragments were partially destroyed or made illegible by the glue and paper of the manila envelopes in which they were stored while in the vault 463 By 1958 it was noted that up to 5 of some of the scrolls had completely deteriorated 461 Many of the texts had become illegible and many of the parchments had darkened considerably 20 460 Until the 1970s the scrolls continued to deteriorate because of poor storage arrangements exposure to different adhesives and being trapped in moist environments 460 Fragments written on parchment rather than papyrus or bronze in the hands of private collectors and scholars suffered an even worse fate than those in the hands of the museum with large portions of fragments being reported to have disappeared by 1966 464 In the late 1960s the deterioration was becoming a major concern with scholars and museum officials alike Scholars John Allegro and Sir Francis Frank were among the first to strongly advocate for better preservation techniques 20 Early attempts made by both the British and Israel Museums to remove the adhesive tape ended up exposing the parchment to an array of chemicals including British Leather Dressing and darkening some of them significantly 20 In the 1970s and 1980s other preservation attempts were made that included removing the glass plates and replacing them with cardboard and removing pressure against the plates that held the scrolls in storage however the fragments and scrolls continued to rapidly deteriorate during this time 460 In 1991 the Israeli Antiquities Authority established a temperature controlled laboratory for the storage and preservation of the scrolls The actions and preservation methods of Rockefeller Museum staff were concentrated on the removal of tape oils metals salt and other contaminants 460 The fragments and scrolls are preserved using acid free cardboard and stored in solander boxes in the climate controlled storage area 460 Nine tiny phylactery slips were rediscovered by the Israel Antiquities Authority IAA in 2014 after they had been stored unopened for six decades following their excavation in 1952 The IAA is preparing to unroll the phylacteries or tefillin once a safe procedure has been decided upon 465 466 Photography and assemblySince the Dead Sea Scrolls were initially held by different parties during and after the excavation process they were not all photographed by the same organization First photographs by the American Schools of Oriental Research 1948 The first individual person to photograph a portion of the collection was John C Trever 1916 2006 a biblical scholar and archaeologist who was a resident for the American Schools of Oriental Research 20 68 He photographed three of the scrolls discovered in Cave 1 on 21 February 1948 both on black and white and standard color film 20 26 467 468 Although an amateur photographer the quality of his photographs often exceeded the visibility of the scrolls themselves as over the years the ink of the texts quickly deteriorated after they were removed from their linen wrappings Infrared photography and plate assembly by the Palestine Archaeological Museum 1952 1967 A majority of the collection from the Qumran caves was acquired by the Palestine Archaeological Museum The museum had the scrolls photographed by Najib Albina a local Arab photographer trained by Lewis Larsson of the American Colony in Jerusalem 469 Between 1952 and 1967 Albina documented the five stage process of the sorting and assembly of the scrolls done by the curator and staff of the Palestine Archaeological Museum using infrared photography Using a process known today as broadband fluorescence infrared photography or NIR photography Najib and the team at the museum produced over 1 750 photographic plates of the scrolls and fragments 20 68 470 471 472 The photographs were taken with the scrolls laid out on animal skin using large format film which caused the text to stand out making the plates especially useful for assembling fragments 20 68 These are the earliest photographs of the museum s collection which was the most complete in the world at the time and they recorded the fragments and scrolls before their further decay in storage so they are often considered the best recorded copies of the scrolls 473 Israel Antiquities Authority and NASA digital infrared imaging 1993 2012 A previously unreadable fragment of the Dead Sea Scrolls photographed by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory using digital infrared technology Translated into English it reads He wrote the words of Noah Beginning in 1993 the United States National Aeronautics and Space Administration used digital infrared imaging technology to produce photographs of Dead Sea Scrolls fragments 474 In partnership with the Ancient Biblical Manuscript Center and West Semitic Research NASA s Jet Propulsion Laboratory successfully worked to expand on the use of infrared photography previously used to evaluate ancient manuscripts by expanding the range of spectra at which images are photographed 475 NASA used this multi spectral imaging technique adapted from its remote sensing and planetary probes in order to reveal previously illegible text on fragments of the Dead Sea Scrolls 475 The process uses a liquid crystal tunable filter in order to photograph the scrolls at specific wavelengths of light and as a result image distortion is significantly diminished 474 This method was used with select fragments of the Dead Sea Scrolls to reveal text and details that cameras that take photographs using a larger light spectrum could not reveal 474 The camera and digital imaging assembly was developed specifically for the purpose of photographing illegible ancient texts 476 On 18 December 2012 477 the first output of this project was launched together with Google on the dedicated site Deadseascrolls org il 478 The site contains both digitizations of old images taken in the 1950s and about 1000 new images taken with the new NASA technology 479 Israel Antiquities Authority and DNA scroll assembly 2006 2020 Scientists with the Israeli Antiquities Authority have used DNA from the parchment on which the Dead Sea Scrolls fragments were written in concert with infrared digital photography to assist in the reassembly of the scrolls For scrolls written on parchment made from animal hide and papyrus scientists with the museum are using DNA code to associate fragments with different scrolls and to help scholars determine which scrolls may hold greater significance based on the type of material that was used 456 In a paper published in 2020 in the journal Cell researchers from Tel Aviv University have shown that ancient DNA extracted from the ancient scrolls can be used to sort different scroll fragments not only based on the animal species but also based on variations in the nuclear genome of individual fragments This effort enabled the researchers to match different fragments to each other based on their genetics and separate fragments which were falsely connected in the past 480 481 Israel Museum of Jerusalem and Google digitization project 2011 2016 In partnership with Google the Museum of Jerusalem is working to photograph the Dead Sea Scrolls and make them available to the public digitally although not placing the images in the public domain 482 The lead photographer of the project Ardon Bar Hama and his team are utilizing the Alpa 12 MAX camera accompanied with a Leaf Aptus II back in order to produce ultra high resolution digital images of the scrolls and fragments 483 With photos taken at 1 200 megapixels the results are digital images that can be used to distinguish details that are invisible to the naked eye In order to minimize damage to the scrolls and fragments photographers are using a 1 4000th of a second exposure time and UV protected flash tubes 482 The digital photography project was estimated in 2011 to cost approximately 3 5 million U S dollars 483 Scholarly examination Eleazar Sukenik examining one of the Dead Sea Scrolls in 1951 After most of the scrolls and fragments were moved to the Palestine Archaeological Museum in 1953 scholars began to assemble them and log them for translation and study in a room that became known as the scrollery 484 The text of the Dead Sea Scrolls is written in four different languages Hebrew Aramaic Greek and Nabataean Language Script Percentage of Documents Centuries of Known UseHebrew Assyrian block script 485 Estimated 76 79 3rd century BCE to presentHebrew Cryptic scripts A B and C 486 487 488 Estimated 0 9 1 0 489 UnknownBiblical Hebrew Paleo Hebrew script 490 Estimated 1 0 1 5 488 10th century BCE to the 2nd century CEBiblical Hebrew Paleo Hebrew scribal script 490 Aramaic Aramaic square script Estimated 16 17 491 8th century BCE to presentGreek Greek uncial script 490 Estimated 3 488 3rd century BCE to 8th century CENabataean Nabataean script 492 Estimated 0 2 492 2nd century BCE to the 4th century CEPublicationPhysical publication and controversy Scholars assembling Dead Sea Scrolls fragments at the Rockefeller Museum formerly the Palestine Archaeological Museum Some of the fragments and scrolls were published early Most of the longer more complete scrolls were published soon after their discovery All the writings in Cave 1 appeared in print between 1950 and 1956 those from eight other caves were released in 1963 and 1965 saw the publication of the Psalms Scroll from Cave 11 Their translations into English soon followed Controversy Publication of the scrolls has taken many decades and delays have been a source of academic controversy The scrolls were controlled by a small group of scholars headed by John Strugnell while a majority of scholars had access neither to the scrolls nor even to photographs of the text Scholars such as Norman Golb publishers and writers such as Hershel Shanks and many others argued for decades for publishing the texts so that they become available to researchers This controversy only ended in 1991 when the Biblical Archaeology Society was able to publish the Facsimile Edition of the Dead Sea Scrolls after an intervention of the Israeli government and the Israeli Antiquities Authority IAA 493 In 1991 Emanuel Tov was appointed as the chairman of the Dead Sea Scrolls Foundation and publication of the scrolls followed in the same year Physical description The majority of the scrolls consist of tiny brittle fragments which were published at a pace considered by many to be excessively slow During early assembly and translation work by scholars through the Rockefeller Museum from the 1950s through the 1960s access to the unpublished documents was limited to the editorial committee citation needed Discoveries in the Judaean Desert 1955 2009 The content of the scrolls was published in a 40 volume series by Oxford University Press between 1955 and 2009 known as Discoveries in the Judaean Desert 494 In 1952 the Jordanian Department of Antiquities assembled a team of scholars to begin examining assembling and translating the scrolls with the intent of publishing them 495 The initial publication assembled by Dominique Barthelemy and Jozef Milik was published as Qumran Cave 1 in 1955 494 After a series of other publications in the late 1980s and early 1990s and with the appointment of the respected Dutch Israeli textual scholar Emanuel Tov as editor in chief of the Dead Sea Scrolls Publication Project in 1990 publication of the scrolls accelerated Tov s team had published five volumes covering the Cave 4 documents by 1995 Between 1990 and 2009 Tov helped the team produce 32 volumes The final volume Volume XL was published in 2009 A Preliminary Edition of the Unpublished Dead Sea Scrolls 1991 In 1991 researchers at Hebrew Union College in Cincinnati Ohio Ben Zion Wacholder and Martin Abegg announced the creation of a computer program that used previously published scrolls to reconstruct the unpublished texts 496 Officials at the Huntington Library in San Marino California led by Head Librarian William Andrew Moffett announced that they would allow researchers unrestricted access to the library s complete set of photographs of the scrolls In the fall of that year Wacholder published 17 documents that had been reconstructed in 1988 from a concordance and had come into the hands of scholars outside of the International Team in the same month there occurred the discovery and publication of a complete set of facsimiles of the Cave 4 materials at the Huntington Library Thereafter the officials of the Israel Antiquities Authority agreed to lift their long standing restrictions on the use of the scrolls 497 A Facsimile Edition of the Dead Sea Scrolls 1991 After further delays attorney William John Cox undertook representation of an undisclosed client who had provided a complete set of the unpublished photographs and contracted for their publication Professors Robert Eisenman and James Robinson indexed the photographs and wrote an introduction to A Facsimile Edition of the Dead Sea Scrolls which was published by the Biblical Archaeology Society in 1991 498 Following the publication of the Facsimile Edition Professor Elisha Qimron sued Hershel Shanks Eisenman Robinson and the Biblical Archaeology Society for copyright infringement for publishing without authorization or attribution his decipherment of one of the scrolls MMT The District Court of Jerusalem found in favor of Qimron in September 1993 499 The Court issued a restraining order which prohibited the publication of the deciphered text and ordered defendants to pay Qimron NIS 100 000 for infringing his copyright and the right of attribution Defendants appealed the Supreme Court of Israel which approved the District Court s decision in August 2000 The Supreme Court further ordered that the defendants hand over to Qimron all the infringing copies 500 The decision met Israeli and international criticism from copyright law scholars 501 502 503 504 505 The Facsimile Edition by Facsimile Editions Ltd London England 2007 2008 In November 2007 the Dead Sea Scrolls Foundation commissioned the London publisher Facsimile Editions Limited to produce a facsimile edition of The Great Isaiah Scroll 1QIsa The Order of the Community 1QS and The Pesher to Habakkuk 1QpHab 506 507 The facsimile was produced from 1948 photographs and so more faithfully represents the condition of the Isaiah Scroll at the time of its discovery than does the current condition of the real Isaiah Scroll 506 Of the first three facsimile sets one was exhibited at the Early Christianity and the Dead Sea Scrolls exhibition in Seoul South Korea and a second set was purchased by the British Library in London A further 46 sets including facsimiles of three fragments from Cave 4 now in the collection of the National Archaeological Museum in Amman Jordan Testimonia 4Q175 Pesher Isaiahb 4Q162 and Qohelet 4Q109 were announced in May 2009 The edition is strictly limited to 49 numbered sets of these reproductions on either specially prepared parchment paper or real parchment The complete facsimile set three scrolls including the Isaiah Scroll and the three Jordanian fragments can be purchased for 60 000 506 The facsimiles have since been exhibited in Qumran Le secret des manuscrits de la mer Morte at the Bibliotheque Nationale Paris France 2010 508 and Verbum Domini at the Vatican Rome Italy 2012 509 Digital publication Olive Tree Bible Software 2000 2011 The text of nearly all of the non biblical scrolls has been recorded and tagged for morphology by Dr Martin Abegg Jr the Ben Zion Wacholder Professor of Dead Sea Scroll Studies at Trinity Western University located in Langley British Columbia Canada 510 It is available on handheld devices through Olive Tree Bible Software BibleReader on Macs and Windows via emulator through Accordance with a comprehensive set of cross references and on Windows through Logos Bible Software and BibleWorks The Dead Sea Scrolls Reader 2005 The text of almost all of the non biblical texts from the Dead Sea Scrolls was released on CD ROM by publisher E J Brill in 2005 511 The 2 400 page 6 volume series was assembled by an editorial team led by Donald W Parry and Emanuel Tov 512 Unlike the text translations in the physical publication Discoveries in the Judaean Desert the texts are sorted by genres that include religious law parabiblical texts calendrical and sapiental texts and poetic and liturgical works 511 The Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library High resolution images including infrared photographs of some of the Dead Sea Scrolls are now available online on two dedicated websites On 19 October 2010 it was announced 513 that Israeli Antiquities Authority would scan the documents using multi spectral imaging technology developed by NASA to produce high resolution images of the texts and then through a partnership with Google make them available online free of charge 514 on a searchable database and complemented by translation and other scholarly tools Related findings Two silver scroll shaped amulets dated c 600 BCE and containing portions of the Priestly Blessing from the Book of Numbers were excavated in Jerusalem at Ketef Hinnom On 25 September 2011 the Israel Museum Digital Dead Sea Scrolls site went online 515 516 It gives users access to searchable high resolution images of the scrolls as well as short explanatory videos and background information on the texts and their history As of May 2012 update five complete scrolls from the Israel Museum have been digitized for the project and are now accessible online the Great Isaiah Scroll the Community Rule Scroll the Commentary on Habakkuk Scroll the Temple Scroll and the War Scroll Biblical significanceSee also Biblical canon and Biblical manuscript Before the discovery of the Dead Sea Scrolls the oldest Hebrew language manuscripts of the Bible were Masoretic texts dating to the 10th century CE such as the Aleppo Codex 517 Today the oldest known extant manuscripts of the Masoretic Text date from approximately the 9th century The biblical manuscripts found among the Dead Sea Scrolls push that date back a full thousand years to the 2nd century BCE 518 This was a significant discovery for Old Testament scholars who anticipated that the Dead Sea Scrolls would either affirm or repudiate the reliability of textual transmission from the original texts to the oldest Masoretic texts at hand The discovery demonstrated the unusual accuracy of transmission over a thousand year period rendering it reasonable to believe that current Old Testament texts are reliable copies of the original works According to The Dead Sea Scrolls by Hebrew scholar Millar Burrows Of the 166 words in Isaiah 53 there are only seventeen letters in question Ten of these letters are simply a matter of spelling which does not affect the sense Four more letters are minor stylistic changes such as conjunctions The remaining three letters comprise the word light which is added in verse 11 and does not affect the meaning greatly 519 It is important to note that differences were found among fragments of texts According to The Oxford Companion to Archaeology While some of the Qumran biblical manuscripts are nearly identical to the Masoretic or traditional Hebrew text of the Old Testament some manuscripts of the books of Exodus and Samuel found in Cave Four exhibit dramatic differences in both language and content In their astonishing range of textual variants the Qumran biblical discoveries have prompted scholars to reconsider the once accepted theories of the development of the modern biblical text from only three manuscript families of the Masoretic text of the Hebrew original of the Septuagint and of the Samaritan Pentateuch It is now becoming increasingly clear that the Old Testament scripture was extremely fluid until its canonization around A D 100 520 Biblical books found There are 225 biblical texts included in the Dead Sea Scroll documents or around 22 of the total and with deuterocanonical books the number increases to 235 521 522 The Dead Sea Scrolls contain parts of all but one of the books of the Tanakh of the Hebrew Bible and the Old Testament protocanon They also include four of the deuterocanonical books included in Catholic and Eastern Orthodox Bibles Tobit Sirach Baruch 6 also known as the Letter or Epistle of Jeremiah and Psalm 151 521 The Book of Esther has not yet been found and scholars believe Esther is missing because as a Jew her marriage to a Persian king may have been looked down upon by the inhabitants of Qumran 523 or because the book has the Purim festival which is not included in the Qumran calendar 20 180 Listed below are the most represented books along with the deuterocanonicals of the Bible found among the Dead Sea Scrolls including the number of translatable Dead Sea texts that represent a copy of scripture from each biblical book 524 525 Book Number foundPsalms 39Deuteronomy 331 Enoch 25Genesis 24Isaiah 22Jubilees 21Exodus 18Leviticus 17Numbers 11Minor Prophets 10 note 1 Daniel 8Jeremiah 6Ezekiel 6Job 6Tobit 5 note 2 Kings 4Samuel 4Judges 4 528 Song of Songs Canticles 4Ruth 4Lamentations 4Sirach 3Ecclesiastes 2Joshua 2Non biblical books The majority of the texts found among the Dead Sea Scrolls are non biblical in nature and were thought to be insignificant for understanding the composition or canonization of the biblical books but a consensus has emerged which sees many of these works as being collected by the Essene community instead of being composed by them 529 Scholars now recognize that some of these works were composed earlier than the Essene period when some of the biblical books were still being written or redacted into their final form 529 Museum exhibitions and displays Visitors examining Dead Sea Scrolls displayed at the Shrine of the Book in Jerusalem Strip of the Copper Scroll from Qumran Cave 3 written in the Hebrew Mishnaic dialect on display at the Jordan Museum Amman Small portions of the Dead Sea Scrolls collections have been put on temporary display in exhibitions at museums and public venues around the world The majority of these exhibitions took place in 1965 in the United States and the United Kingdom and from 1993 to 2011 in locations around the world Many of the exhibitions were co sponsored by either the Jordanian government pre 1967 or the Israeli government post 1967 Exhibitions were discontinued after 1965 due to the Six Day War conflicts and have slowed down in post 2011 as the Israeli Antiquities Authority works to digitize the scrolls and place them in permanent cold storage The majority of the Dead Sea Scrolls collection was moved to Jerusalem s Shrine of the Book a part of the Israel Museum after the building s completion in April 1965 530 The museum falls under the auspices of the Israel Antiquities Authority an official agency of the Israeli government The permanent Dead Sea Scrolls exhibition at the museum features a reproduction of the Great Isaiah Scroll surrounded by reproductions of other fragments that include Community Rule the War Scroll and the Thanksgiving Psalms Scroll 531 532 Some of the Dead Sea Scrolls collection held by the Jordanian government prior to 1967 were stored in Amman rather than at the Palestine Archaeological Museum in East Jerusalem As a consequence that part of the collection remained in Jordanian hands under their Department of Antiquities Since 2013 the part of the collection held by Jordan has been on display at The Jordan Museum in Amman 533 Among the display items are artifacts from the Qumran site and the Copper Scroll 534 Ownership Advertisement in The Wall Street Journal dated 1 June 1954 for four of the Dead Sea Scrolls Upon their discovery in 1947 in what was then Mandatory Palestine the Dead Sea Scrolls were first moved to the Palestine Archaeological Museum The museum was managed by Jordan along with all of East Jerusalem from 1948 until 1967 After Israel s occupation of the West Bank including East Jerusalem in 1967 the Palestine Archeological Museum soon renamed the Rockefeller Archeological Museum fell under Israeli administration and the Dead Sea Scrolls collection held there was moved to the Shrine of the Book in the Israel Museum in West Jerusalem 530 The Israel Museum falls under the auspices of the Israel Antiquities Authority an official agency of the Israeli government The permanent Dead Sea Scrolls exhibition at the museum features a reproduction of the Great Isaiah Scroll surrounded by reproductions of other fragments that include Community Rule the War Scroll and the Thanksgiving Psalms Scroll 531 532 Some of the Dead Sea Scrolls collection held by the Jordanian government prior to 1967 were stored in Amman rather than at the Palestine Archaeological Museum in East Jerusalem As a consequence that part of the collection remained in Jordanian hands under their Department of Antiquities Since 2013 the part of the collection held by Jordan has been on display at The Jordan Museum in Amman 533 Among the display items are artifacts from the Qumran site and the Copper Scroll 534 Israel claims ownership of the Dead Sea Scrolls collection currently housed at the Israel Museum This claimed ownership is contested by both Jordan and the Palestinian Authority 535 Forgeries and claimed private ownership Arrangements with the Bedouin left the scrolls in the hands of a third party until a profitable sale of them could be negotiated That third party George Isha ya was a member of the Syriac Orthodox Church who soon contacted St Mark s Monastery in the hope of getting an appraisal of the nature of the texts News of the find then reached Metropolitan Athanasius Yeshue Samuel better known as Mar Samuel After examining the scrolls and suspecting their antiquity Mar Samuel expressed an interest in purchasing them Four scrolls found their way into his hands the Isaiah Scroll 1QIsaa the Community Rule the Habakkuk Pesher a commentary on the book of Habakkuk and the Genesis Apocryphon More scrolls soon surfaced in the antiquities market and Professor Eleazer Sukenik and Professor Benjamin Mazar archaeologists at Hebrew University soon found themselves in possession of three The War Scroll Thanksgiving Hymns and another more fragmented Isaiah Scroll 1QIsab Four of the Dead Sea Scrolls eventually went up for sale in an advertisement on 1 June 1954 The Wall Street Journal 536 On 1 July 1954 the scrolls after delicate negotiations and accompanied by three people including the Metropolitan arrived at the Waldorf Astoria Hotel in New York They were purchased by Professor Mazar and the son of Professor Sukenik Yigael Yadin for 250 000 approximately 2 500 000 in 2021 dollars 537 and brought to Jerusalem 538 Since 2002 many forgeries of Dead Sea Scrolls have appeared on black markets 539 In 2020 the Museum of the Bible in the United States also known as Green Collection Green Family reported that all 16 purported Dead Sea Scroll fragments they had acquired between 2009 and 2014 540 541 were in fact modern forgeries 542 543 List of claimed private ownerships of Dead Sea Scroll fragments Claimed Owner Year Acquired Number of Fragments Scrolls OwnedAzusa Pacific University 544 2009 5Oriental Institute at the University of Chicago 545 1956 1Southwestern Baptist Theological Seminary 546 2009 2010 2012 8Israel Museum Government of Israel 547 548 1967 gt 15 000The Schoyen Collection owned by Martin Schoyen 549 1980 1994 1995 115 540 The Jordan Museum Government of Jordan 533 1947 1956 gt 25Syrian Orthodox Church s eastern U S archdiocese 550 1Ashland Theological Seminary 550 1Lanier Theological Library 550 1Pasadena Private Collection 550 1Ownership disputes The official ownership of the Dead Sea Scrolls is disputed among Jordan Israel and the Palestinian Authority The debate over the Dead Sea Scrolls stems from a more general Israeli Palestinian conflict over land and state recognition Parties involved Party role Explanation of roleJordan Disputant minority owner Alleges that the Dead Sea Scrolls were stolen from the Palestine Archaeological Museum now the Rockefeller Museum operated by Jordan from 1966 until the Six Day War when advancing Israeli forces took control of the museum and that therefore they fall under the rules of the 1954 Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict 551 Jordan regularly demands their return and petitions third party countries that host the scrolls to return them to Jordan instead of to Israel claiming they have legal documents that prove Jordanian ownership of the scrolls 552 Israel Disputant current majority owner After the Six Day War Israel seized the scrolls and moved them to the Shrine of the Book in the Israel Museum Israel disputes Jordan s claim and states that Jordan never lawfully possessed the scrolls since it was an unlawful occupier of the museum and region 553 554 555 Palestine Disputant The Palestinian Authority also has a claim to the scrolls 556 Copyright disputes This section needs attention from an expert in law The specific problem is Complexity of copyright law surrounding historical documents in the United States and other nations WikiProject Law may be able to help recruit an expert June 2012 There are three types of documents relating to the Dead Sea Scrolls in which copyright status can be considered ambiguous the documents themselves images taken of the documents and reproductions of the documents This ambiguity arises from differences in copyright law across different countries and the variable interpretation of such law In 1992 a copyright case Qimron v Shanks was brought before the Israeli District court by scholar Elisha Qimron against Hershel Shanks of the Biblical Archaeology Society for violations of United States copyright law regarding his publishing of reconstructions of Dead Sea Scroll texts done by Qimron in A Facsimile Edition of the Dead Sea Scrolls which were included without his permission Qimron s suit against the Biblical Archaeology Society was done on the grounds that the research they had published was his intellectual property as he had reconstructed about 40 of the published text In 1993 the district court Judge Dalia Dorner ruled for the plaintiff Elisha Qimron in context of both United States and Israeli copyright law and granted the highest compensation allowed by law for aggravation in compensation against Hershel Shanks and others 557 In an appeal in 2000 in front of Judge Aharon Barak the verdict was upheld in Israeli Supreme Court in Qimron s favor 558 The court case established the two main principles from which facsimiles are examined under copyright law of the United States and Israel authorship and originality The court s ruling not only affirms that the deciphered text of the scrolls can fall under copyright of individuals or groups but makes it clear that the Dead Sea Scrolls themselves do not fall under this copyright law and scholars have a degree of in the words of U S copyright law professor David Nimmer freedom in access Nimmer has shown how this freedom was in the theory of law applicable but how it did not exist in reality as the Israeli Antiquities Authority tightly controlled access to the scrolls and photographs of the scrolls 557 See alsoAncient Hebrew writings Book of Mysteries Cairo Geniza Jordan Lead Codices Ketef Hinnom scrolls 7th 6th century BCE oldest items containing biblical text a variation of Numbers 6 24 26 etc Nag Hammadi library Oxyrhynchus Papyri Teacher of RighteousnessExplanatory notes 10 Scrolls containing fragments of all 12 of the Minor Prophets were found in Cave 4 although no fragment contains portions of more than three prophets 526 There are four Aramaic fragmentary texts of Tobit and one Hebrew text 527 In 2022 D Longacre and B Strawn demonstrated this small fragment to be part of the larger manuscript 4QPsc as opposed to a separate manuscript of the Psalms ReferencesCitations a b c The Digital Dead Sea Scrolls Nature and Significance Israel Museum Jerusalem Archived from the original on 1 October 2014 Retrieved 13 October 2014 Dead Sea Scrolls Definition Discovery History amp Facts Britannica www britannica com Retrieved 17 November 2021 Lash Mordechay Goldstein Yossi Shai Itzhaq 2020 Underground Archaeological Research in the West Bank 1947 1968 Management Complexity and Israeli Involvement Bulletin of the History of Archaeology 30 doi 10 5334 bha 650 S2CID 229403120 Retrieved 21 August 2022 Lyons Martyn 2011 Books a living history Los Angeles J Paul Getty Museum pp 51 53 Hebrew University Archaeologists Find 12th Dead Sea Scrolls Cave The Hebrew University of Jerusalem Archived from the original on 2 June 2017 Retrieved 7 June 2017 Donahue Michelle Z 10 February 2017 New Dead Sea Scroll Find May Help Detect Forgeries nationalgeographic com Archived from the original on 15 June 2018 Retrieved 19 November 2017 Ofri Ilani 13 March 2009 Scholar The Essenes Dead Sea Scroll authors never existed Ha aretz Archived from the original on 6 January 2018 Retrieved 26 May 2017 Golb Norman 5 June 2009 On the Jerusalem Origin of the Dead Sea Scrolls PDF University of Chicago Oriental Institute Archived PDF from the original on 10 June 2010 Retrieved 11 May 2010 Vermes Geza 1977 The Dead Sea Scrolls Qumran in Perspective London Collins p 15 ISBN 978 0002161428 Languages and Scripts Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library Archived from the original on 6 October 2014 Retrieved 13 October 2014 McCarthy Rory 27 August 2008 From papyrus to cyberspace The Guardian Archived from the original on 22 December 2016 Retrieved 17 December 2016 The Digital Library Introduction Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library Archived from the original on 13 October 2014 Retrieved 13 October 2014 The Digital Library Introduction Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library Archived from the original on 13 October 2014 Retrieved 13 October 2014 Leaney A R C From Judaean Caves The Story of the Dead Sea Scrolls p 27 Religious Education Press 1961 Abegg Jr Martin Peter Flint and Eugene Ulrich The Dead Sea Scrolls Bible The Oldest Known Bible Translated for the First Time into English San Francisco Harper 2002 Dead Sea Scrolls virtualreligion net Archived from the original on 5 February 2005 Retrieved 25 January 2005 Humphries Mark Early Christianity Archived 14 February 2019 at the Wayback Machine 2006 a b Evans Craig Guide to the Dead Sea Scrolls 2010 a b Trever John C The Dead Sea Scrolls Gorgias Press LLC 2003 a b c d e f g h i j k l VanderKam James Flint Peter 2005 The Meaning of the Dead Sea Scrolls Their Significance For Understanding the Bible Judaism Jesus and Christianity A amp C Black p 5 ISBN 978 0567084682 Archived from the original on 9 October 2013 Retrieved 15 March 2013 Trstensky Frantisek The Archaeological Site of Qumran and the Personality of Roland De Vaux PDF Archived from the original PDF on 26 March 2013 Retrieved 22 May 2012 VanderKam James C The Dead Sea Scrolls Today Grand Rapids Eerdmans 1994 p 9 ISBN missing a b c S S L Frantisek Trstensky The Archaeological Site of Qumran and the Personality of Roland De Vaux PDF Archived from the original PDF on 26 March 2013 Retrieved 22 May 2012 a b c Dead Sea Scrolls Timetable The Gnostic Society Library Archived from the original on 16 August 2003 Retrieved 23 May 2012 a b c d e VanderKam James C The Dead Sea Scrolls Today Grand Rapids Eerdmans 1994 pp 10 11 Digital Dead Sea Scrolls at the Israel Museum Jerusalem Discovery imj org il Archived from the original on 18 June 2012 Retrieved 23 May 2012 Yizhar Hirschfeld 2002 Qumran in the Second Temple Period Reassessing the Archaeological Evidence PDF Liber Annuus 52 279 281 Archived from the original PDF on 17 May 2006 Retrieved 23 January 2016 Some of these caves such as 4 and 5 are located ca 160 yd from the site while others such as 1 2 3 and 11 are at a distance of 1 mile to its north Fig 12 Martinez Tigchelaar 1999 The Dead Sea Scrolls Edition Caves 1 to 11 amp more Enoch Aramaic fragments and translation by Milik Henoc au pays des aromates pp 413 425 430 a b Hebrew University Archaeologists Find 12th Dead Sea Scrolls Cave Press release Hebrew University of Jerusalem 8 February 2017 Archived from the original on 9 February 2017 Retrieved 9 February 2017 a b McKernan Bethan 2017 New Dead Sea Scrolls cave filled with ancient artefacts discovered for first time in 60 years The Independent Archived from the original on 15 November 2017 Retrieved 2 November 2017 Zion Ilan 16 March 2021 Israeli experts announce discovery of more Dead Sea scrolls APNews Retrieved 16 March 2021 Israel Finds New Dead Sea Scrolls First Such Discovery in 60 Years Haaretz 16 March 2021 Kershner Isabel 16 March 2021 Israel Reveals Newly Discovered Fragments of Dead Sea Scrolls The New York Times ISSN 0362 4331 Retrieved 2 April 2021 Newly discovered fragments of Dead Sea Scrolls reveal hidden ancient Bible texts NBC News Retrieved 2 April 2021 Wise Michael Abegg Jr Martin Cook Edward 2005 The Dead Sea Scrolls New York Harper San Francisco pp 5 ISBN 978 0060766627 Les manuscrits de la Mer Morte avec textes originaux traduits en francais par I Fortunato Vermes Geza The Complete Dead Sea Scrolls in English London Penguin 1998 ISBN 0140245014 The Great Isaiah Scroll at The Digital Dead Sea Scrolls The Israel Museum Jerusalem Fitzmyer 2008 pp 14 15 a b 1Q8 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library Fitzmyer 2008 pp 15 16 Fitzmyer 2008 p 18 Bruce F F The Dead Sea Habakkuk Scroll The Annual of Leeds University Oriental Society I 1958 59 5 24 Fitzmyer 2008 p 16 Fitzmyer 2008 pp 16 18 Schiffman Lawrence H 2000 Encyclopedia of the Dead Sea Scrolls New York N Y Oxford University Press a b c d e f g h i j k l Fitzmyer 2008 p 19 1Q1 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library 1Q2 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library 1Q3 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag ah ai aj ak al am an ao ap aq ar as at au av aw ax ay az ba bb bc OakTree Software Inc Accordance 10 Bible Software 2008 1Q4 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library 1Q5 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library 1Q6 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library 1Q7 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library 1Q9 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library 1Q10 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library 1Q11 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library 1Q12 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library a b c d e f g Fitzmyer 2008 p 20 1Q13 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library 1Q14 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library 1Q15 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library 1Q16 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library 1Q17 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library 1Q18 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library 1Q19 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library Fitzmyer 2008 pp 20 21 1Q20 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library a b Fitzmyer 2008 p 21 1Q21 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library 1Q22 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library a b Fitzmyer 2008 pp 21 22 1Q23 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library 1Q24 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library a b c d e f g h Fitzmyer 2008 p 22 1Q25 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library 1Q26 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library 1Q27 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library 1Q28 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library 1Q28 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library 1Q29 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library 1Q30 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library 1Q31 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library a b c d e f g h i Fitzmyer 2008 p 23 1Q32 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library 1Q34 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library 1Q35 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library 1Q36 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library 1Q37 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library 1Q38 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library 1Q39 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library 1Q40 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag ah ai aj ak al am an ao ap aq ar Leon Levy Collection Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library Israel Antiquities Authority Archived from the original on 24 January 2015 Retrieved 22 January 2015 1Q71 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library 1Q72 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library a b c d e f g h i j k l Fitzmyer 2008 p 25 2Q1 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library 2Q2 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library 2Q3 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library 2Q4 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library 2Q5 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library 2Q6 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library 2Q7 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library 2Q8 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library 2Q9 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library a b c d e f g h Fitzmyer 2008 p 26 2Q13 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library 2Q14 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library 2Q15 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library 2Q16 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library 2Q17 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library 2Q18 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library 2Q19 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library 2Q20 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library 2Q21 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library Fitzmyer 2008 pp 26 27 2Q22 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library a b c d e f Fitzmyer 2008 p 27 2Q23 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library 2Q24 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library 2Q25 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library 2Q26 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library 3Q1 at Leon Levy Collection a b c d e f g h i Fitzmyer 2008 p 28 3Q2 at Leon Levy Collection 3Q3 at Leon Levy Collection 3Q4 at Leon Levy Collection 3Q5 at Leon Levy Collection 3Q6 at Leon Levy Collection 3Q7 at Leon Levy Collection 3Q8 at Leon Levy Collection 3Q9 at Leon Levy Collection Fitzmyer 2008 pp 28 29 a b c d e f g h i Fitzmyer 2008 p 29 3Q14 at Leon Levy Collection 3Q15 at Leon Levy Collection Milik 1957 Dix ans de decouverte dans le desert de Juda Discoveries in the Judaean Desert Milik 1976 The Books of Enoch Aramaic Fragments Qumran Cave 4 with the collaboration of Black M 4Q1 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library 4Q2 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library 4Q3 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library 4Q4 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library 4Q5 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library 4Q6 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library 4Q7 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library a b c d e f g h i j k l Fitzmyer 2008 p 30 4Q8 4QGen h1 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library 4Q8 4QGen h2 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library 4Q8 4QGen h para at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library 4Q8 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library 4Q9 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library 4Q10 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library 4Q11 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library 4Q12 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library 4Q13 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library a b 4Q14 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library 4Q15 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library Martinez and Tigchelaar The Dead Sea Scrolls Study Edition Brill 1997 page 246 a b c d e f g Fitzmyer 2008 p 31 4Q17 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library 4Q18 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library 4Q19 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library 4Q20 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library 4Q21 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library 4Q22 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library 4Q23 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library Fitzmyer 2008 pp 31 32 4Q24 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library a b c d e f g Fitzmyer 2008 p 32 4Q25 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library 4Q26 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library 4Q27 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library 4Q28 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library 4Q29 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library Fitzmyer 2008 pp 32 33 a b c d e f g h i Fitzmyer 2008 p 33 a b c 4Q38 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library Accessed 20 May 2013 a b c d e f g h i j Fitzmyer 2008 p 34 4Q47 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library Fitzmyer 2008 pp 34 35 4Q48 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library a b c d e f Fitzmyer 2008 p 35 4Q49 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library 4Q50 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library 4Q51 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library 4Q52 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library 4Q53 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library 4Q54 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library a b c d e f g h Fitzmyer 2008 p 36 4Q55 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library 4Q56 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library 4Q57 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library 4Q58 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library 4Q59 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library 4Q60 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library 4Q61 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library a b c d e f g h i j k Fitzmyer 2008 p 37 4Q62 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library 4Q63 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library 4Q64 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library 4Q65 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library 4Q66 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library 4Q67 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library 4Q68 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library 4Q69 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library a b c Martinez and Tigchelaar The Dead Sea Scrolls Study Edition Brill 1997 page 270 a b c d e Schiffman Lawrence VanderKam James 2008 Encyclopedia of the Dead Sea Scrolls Oxford University Press ISBN 9780195084504 a b c d e Flint Peter 2013 The Dead Sea Scrolls Nashville TN Abingdon Press p 68 ISBN 9780687494491 a b c d e f g h i j Fitzmyer 2008 p 38 4Q73 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library 4Q74 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library Sanderson 1997 DJD 15 215 218 4Q75 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library 4Q76 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library 4Q77 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library 4Q78 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library a b c d e f g Fitzmyer 2008 p 39 4Q79 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library 4Q80 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library 4Q81 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library 4Q82 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library 4Q83 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library 4Q84 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library a b c d e f g h i j k l Fitzmyer 2008 p 41 4Q85 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library Longacre Drew and Brent A Strawn A New Identification of a Psalm Manuscript from Qumran 4Q85 4Q98c Dead Sea Discoveries doi https doi org 10 1163 15685179 bja10037 a b c d e f g h i Fitzmyer 2008 p 40 4Q86 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library 4Q87 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library 4Q88 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library 4Q89 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library 4Q90 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library 4Q91 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library 4Q92 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library 4Q93 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library 4Q94 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library 4Q95 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library 4Q96 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library 4Q97 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library 4Q98 4QPsr at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library 4Q99 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library a b c d e f g h i j Fitzmyer 2008 p 42 4Q100 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library 4Q101 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library 4Q102 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library 4Q103 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library 4Q104 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library 4Q105 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library 4Q106 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library 4Q107 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library 4Q108 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library a b c d e f g h i j Fitzmyer 2008 p 43 4Q109 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library 4Q110 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library 4Q111 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library 4Q112 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library 4Q113 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library 4Q114 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library 4Q115 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library 4Q116 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library 4Q117 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library 4Q118 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library a b c d e f Fitzmyer 2008 p 44 4Q119 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library 4Q120 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library 4Q121 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library 4Q122 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library 4Q123 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library 4Q127 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library Fitzmyer 2008 pp 44 45 4Q128 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library a b c d e f g h i Fitzmyer 2008 p 45 4Q129 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library 4Q130 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library 4Q131 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library 4Q132 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library 4Q133 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library 4Q134 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library 4Q135 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library 4Q136 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library a b c d e f g h i j k Fitzmyer 2008 p 46 4Q138 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library 4Q139 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library 4Q140 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library 4Q141 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library 4Q142 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library 4Q143 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library 4Q144 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library 4Q145 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library 4Q146 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library 4Q147 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library 4Q148 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library Fitzmyer 2008 pp 46 47 4Q149 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library a b c d e f Fitzmyer 2008 p 47 4Q150 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library 4Q151 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library 4Q152 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library 4Q153 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library 4Q154 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library 4Q155 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library a b Wise Michael O Abegg Martin G Cook Edward M 2005 The Dead Sea Scrolls A New Translation New York HarperCollins Publishers p 577 ISBN 9780060766627 4Q156 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library Fitzmyer 2008 pp 47 48 4Q157 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library a b c d e Martinez and Tigchelaar The Dead Sea Scrolls Study Edition Brill 1997 page 305ff 4Q158 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library a b c Fitzmyer 2008 p 48 4Q159 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library 4Q160 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library 4Q161 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library 4Q162 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library a b The Qumran Library Scrolls Library of Congress a b c d Fitzmyer 2008 p 49 4Q166 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library 4Q167 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library 4Q168 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library 4Q169 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library a b Fitzmyer 2008 p 50 4Q174 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library 4Q175 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library 4Q179 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library 4Q186 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library 4Q196 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library 4Q197 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library 4Q198 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library 4Q199 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library 4Q200 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library 4Q201 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library Fitzmyer 2008 pp 54 55 Fitzmyer 2008 p 55 4Q215 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library Gault Brian P 2010 Fragments of Canticles at Qumran Revue de Qumran p 352 4Q246 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library a b c d Fitzmyer 2008 p 62 4Q252 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library 4Q253 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library 4Q254 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library 4Q254a 820 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library 4Q258 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library 4Q285 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library 4Q299 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library 4Q300 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library 4Q301 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library Fitzmyer 2008 p 74 4Q364 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library a b c Fitzmyer 2008 p 75 4Q365 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library 4Q366 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library 4Q367 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library 4Q378 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library 4Q379 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library 4Q385 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library 4Q394 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library 4Q400 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library 4Q434 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library 4Q483 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library 4Q521 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library Buitenwerf Rieuwerd The Gog and Magog Tradition in Revelation 20 8 in H J de Jonge Johannes Tromp eds The book of Ezekiel and its influence Ashgate Publishing Ltd 2007 p 172 scheduled to be published in Charlesworth s edition volume 9 4Q523 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library Fitzmyer 2008 p 98 4Q539 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library 4Q541 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library 4Q542 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library 4Q555 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library Uncovered in Jerusalem 9 tiny unopened Dead Sea Scrolls The Times of Israel Fitzmyer 2008 pp 104 1, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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