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Tetragrammaton

December 20, 2023

For other uses, see Tetragrammaton (disambiguation).
"YHWH" redirects here. For the historic Iron Age deity, see Yahweh. For the modern Jewish conception of God, see God in Judaism and God in Abrahamic religions. For the episode of the drama series Person of Interest, see YHWH (Person of Interest).

The Tetragrammaton (/ˌtɛtrəˈɡræmətɒn/ TET-rə-GRAM-ə-ton; from Ancient Greek τετραγράμματον (tetragrámmaton) '[consisting of] four letters'), or the Tetragram, is the four-letter Hebrew theonym יהוה‎ (transliterated as YHWH or YHVH), the name of God in the Hebrew Bible. The four letters, written and read from right to left (in Hebrew), are yodh, he, waw, and he.[1] The name may be derived from a verb that means "to be", "to exist", "to cause to become", or "to come to pass".[2] While there is no consensus about the structure and etymology of the name, the form Yahweh is now accepted almost universally, though the vocalization Jehovah continues to have wide usage.[3][4][5]

The Tetragrammaton in Phoenician (12th century BCE to 150 BCE), Paleo-Hebrew (10th century BCE to 135 CE), and square Hebrew (3rd century BCE to present) scripts

The books of the Torah and the rest of the Hebrew Bible except Esther, Ecclesiastes, and (with a possible instance of the short form יה‎ in verse 8:6) the Song of Songs contain this Hebrew name.[4] Observant Jews and those who follow Talmudic Jewish traditions do not pronounce יהוה‎ nor do they read aloud proposed transcription forms such as Yahweh or Yehovah; instead they replace it with a different term, whether in addressing or referring to the God of Israel. Common substitutions in Hebrew are אֲדֹנָי (Adonai, lit. transl. My Lords, Pluralis majestatis taken as singular) or Elohim (literally "gods" but treated as singular when meaning "God") in prayer, or HaShem ("The Name") in everyday speech.

Four letters edit

The letters, properly written and read from right to left (in Biblical Hebrew), are:

Hebrew Letter name Pronunciation
י‎ Yod [j]
ה‎ He [h]
ו‎ Waw [w], or placeholder for "O"/"U" vowel (see mater lectionis)
ה‎ He [h] (or often a silent letter at the end of a word)

Origins edit

Etymology edit

The Hebrew Bible explains it by the formula אֶהְיֶה אֲשֶׁר אֶהְיֶה‎ (’ehye ’ăšer ’ehye pronounced [ʔehˈje ʔaˈʃer ʔehˈje] transl. he – transl. I Am that I Am), the name of God revealed to Moses in Exodus 3:14.[6] This would frame Y-H-W-H as a derivation from the Hebrew triconsonantal root היה (h-y-h), "to be, become, come to pass", with a third person masculine י (y-) prefix, equivalent to English "he",[7][8] in place of the first person א ('-), thereby affording translations as "he who causes to exist",[9][10] "he who is",[8] etc.; although this would elicit the form Y-H-Y-H (יהיה‎), not Y-H-W-H. To rectify this, some scholars proposed that the Tetragrammaton represents a substitution of the medial y for w, an occasionally attested practice in Biblical Hebrew as both letters function as matres lectionis; others proposed that the Tetragrammaton derived instead from the triconsonantal root הוה (h-w-h), "to be, constitute", with the final form eliciting similar translations as those derived from h-y-h.

As such, the consensus among modern scholars considers that YHWH represents a verbal form, with the y- representing the third masculine verbal prefix of the verb hyh "to be", as indicated in the Hebrew Bible.[11]

Vocalisation edit

YHWH and Hebrew script edit

Main article: Mater lectionis
See also: Biblical Hebrew orthography, Hebrew diacritics, Tiberian vocalization, and Niqqud
 
Transcription of the divine name as ΙΑΩ in the 1st-century BCE Septuagint manuscript 4Q120

Like all letters in the Hebrew script, the letters in YHWH originally indicated consonants. In unpointed Biblical Hebrew, most vowels are not written, but some are indicated ambiguously, as certain letters came to have a secondary function indicating vowels (similar to the Latin use of I and V to indicate either the consonants /j, w/ or the vowels /i, u/). Hebrew letters used to indicate vowels are known as אִמּוֹת קְרִיאָה‎ (imot kri'a) or matres lectionis ("mothers of reading"). Therefore, it can be difficult to deduce how a word is pronounced from its spelling, and each of the four letters in the Tetragrammaton can individually serve as a mater lectionis.

Several centuries later, between the 5th through 10th centuries CE, the original consonantal text of the Hebrew Bible was provided with vowel marks by the Masoretes to assist reading. In places where the word to be read (the qere) differed from that indicated by the consonants of the written text (the ketiv), they wrote the qere in the margin as a note showing what was to be read. In such a case the vowel marks of the qere were written on the ketiv. For a few frequent words, the marginal note was omitted: these are called qere perpetuum.

One of the frequent cases was the Tetragrammaton, which according to later Rabbinite Jewish practices should not be pronounced but read as אֲדֹנָי (Adonai, lit. transl. My Lords, Pluralis majestatis taken as singular), or, if the previous or next word already was Adonai, as "Elohim" (אֱלֹהִים‎/"God"). Writing the vowel diacritics of these two words on the consonants YHVH produces יְהֹוָה‎ and יֱהֹוִה‎ respectively, ghost-words that would spell "Yehovah" and "Yehovih" respectively.[12][13]

The oldest complete or nearly complete manuscripts of the Masoretic Text with Tiberian vocalisation, such as the Aleppo Codex and the Leningrad Codex, both of the 10th or 11th century, mostly write יְהוָה‎ (yhwah), with no pointing on the first h. It could be because the o diacritic point plays no useful role in distinguishing between Adonai and Elohim and so is redundant, or it could point to the qere being שְׁמָא‎ (šəmâ), which is Aramaic for "the Name".

Yahweh edit

See also: Yahweh and Jehovah

The scholarly consensus is that the original pronunciation of the Tetragrammaton was Yahweh (יַהְוֶה‎): "The strong consensus of biblical scholarship is that the original pronunciation of the name YHWH ... was Yahweh."[14][15] R. R. Reno agrees that, when in the late first millennium Jewish scholars inserted indications of vowels into the Hebrew Bible, they signalled that what was pronounced was "Adonai" (Lord); non-Jews later combined the vowels of Adonai with the consonants of the Tetragrammaton and invented the name "Jehovah".[16] Paul Joüon and Takamitsu Muraoka state: "The Qre is יְהֹוָה‎ the Lord, whilst the Ktiv is probably יַהְוֶה‎ (according to ancient witnesses)", and they add: "Note 1: In our translations, we have used Yahweh, a form widely accepted by scholars, instead of the traditional Jehovah."[17] In 1869, Smith's Bible Dictionary, a collaborative work of noted scholars of the time, declared: "Whatever, therefore, be the true pronunciation of the word, there can be little doubt that it is not Jehovah."[18] Mark P. Arnold remarks that certain conclusions drawn from the pronunciation of יהוה‎ as "Yahweh" would be valid even if the scholarly consensus were not correct.[19] Thomas Römer holds that "the original pronunciation of Yhwh was 'Yahô' or 'Yahû'".[20] Max Reisel, in The Mysterious Name of YHWH, says that the "vocalisation of the Tetragrammaton must originally have been YeHūàH or YaHūàH."[21]

The element yahwi- (ia-wi) is found in Amorite personal names (e.g. yahwi-dagan), commonly denoted as the semantic equivalent of the Akkadian ibašši-DN. The latter refers to one existing which, in the context of deities, can also refer to one's eternal existence, which aligns with Bible verses such as Exodus 3:15 and views that ehye ’ăšer ’ehye can mean "I am the Existing One".[22] It also explains the ease of Israelites applying the Olam (or 'everlasting') epithet from El[23] to Yahweh.[24]

The adoption at the time of the Protestant Reformation of "Jehovah" in place of the traditional "Lord" in some new translations, vernacular or Latin, of the biblical Tetragrammaton stirred up dispute about its correctness. In 1711, Adriaan Reland published a book containing the text of 17th-century writings, five attacking and five defending it.[25] As critical of the use of "Jehovah" it incorporated writings by Johannes van den Driesche (1550–1616), known as Drusius; Sixtinus Amama (1593–1629); Louis Cappel (1585–1658); Johannes Buxtorf (1564–1629); Jacob Alting (1618–1679). Defending "Jehovah" were writings by Nicholas Fuller (1557–1626) and Thomas Gataker (1574–1654) and three essays by Johann Leusden (1624–1699). The opponents of "Jehovah" said that the Tetragrammaton should be pronounced as "Adonai" and in general do not speculate on what may have been the original pronunciation, although mention is made of the fact that some held that Jahve was that pronunciation.[26]

Almost two centuries after the 17th-century works reprinted by Reland, 19th-century Wilhelm Gesenius reported in his Thesaurus Philologicus on the main reasoning of those who argued either for יַהְוֹה‎/Yah[w]oh or יַהְוֶה‎/Yahweh as the original pronunciation of the Tetragrammaton, as opposed to יְהֹוָה‎/Yehovah. He explicitly cited the 17th-century writers mentioned by Reland as supporters of יְהֹוָה‎, as well as implicitly citing Johann David Michaelis (1717–1791) and Johann Friedrich von Meyer (1772–1849),[27] the latter of whom Johann Heinrich Kurtz described as the last of those "who have maintained with great pertinacity that יְהֹוָה‎ was the correct and original pointing".[28] Edward Robinson's translation of a work by Gesenius, gives Gesenius' personal view as: "My own view coincides with that of those who regard this name as anciently pronounced [יַהְוֶה‎/Yahweh] like the Samaritans."[29]

Non-biblical texts edit

Texts with Tetragrammaton edit

Current overviews begin with the Egyptian epigraphy.[30] A hieroglyphic inscription of the Pharaoh Amenhotep III (1402–1363 BCE) mentions a group of Shasu whom it calls "the Shasu of Yhw³" (read as: ja-h-wi or ja-h-wa). James D. G. Dunn and John W. Rogerson suggested that the Amenhotep III inscription may indicate that worship of Yahweh originated in an area to the southeast of Palestine.[31] A later inscription from the time of Ramesses II (1279–1213 BCE) in West Amara associates the Shasu nomads with S-rr, interpreted as Mount Seir, spoken of in some texts as where Yahweh comes from.[32][33] Frank Moore Cross says: "It must be emphasized that the Amorite verbal form is of interest only in attempting to reconstruct the proto-Hebrew or South Canaanite verbal form used in the name Yahweh. We should argue vigorously against attempts to take Amorite yuhwi and yahu as divine epithets."[34] Egyptologist Thomas Schneider argued for the existence of a theophoric name in a Book of the Dead papyrus dating to the late 18th or early 19th dynasty which he translated as ‘adōnī-rō‘ē-yāh, meaning "My lord is the shepherd of Yah".[35]

 
The Mesha Stele bears the earliest known reference (840 BCE) to the Israelite god Yahweh.[36]

The previously oldest known inscription of the Tetragrammaton dates to 840 BCE: the Mesha Stele mentions the Israelite god Yahweh.[36]

In 8th and 7th century theophorics Yahweh can be spelled IA, IA-u , and ia-. [37]

Roughly contemporary are pottery sherds and plaster inscriptions found at Kuntillet Ajrud with mentioning "Yahweh of Samaria and his Asherah" and "Yahweh of Teman and his Asherah".[38] A tomb inscription at Khirbet el-Qom also mentions Yahweh.[39][40][41] Dated slightly later (7th century BCE) there are an ostracon from the collections of Shlomo Moussaieff,[42][full citation needed] and two tiny silver amulet scrolls found at Ketef Hinnom that mention Yahweh.[43] Also a wall inscription, dated to the late 6th century BCE, with mention of Yahweh had been found in a tomb at Khirbet Beit Lei.[44]

 
YHWH in one of the Lachish letters

Yahweh is mentioned also in the Lachish letters (587 BCE) and the slightly earlier Tel Arad ostraca, and on a stone from Mount Gerizim (3rd or the beginning of the 2nd century BCE).[45]

Texts with similar theonyms edit

The theonyms YHW and YHH are found in the Elephantine papyri of about 500 BCE.[46] One ostracon with YH is thought to have lost the final letter of an original YHW.[47][48] These texts are in Aramaic, not the language of the Hebrew Tetragrammaton (YHWH) and, unlike the Tetragrammaton, are of three letters, not four. However, because they were written by Jews, they are assumed to refer to the same deity and to be either an abbreviated form of the Tetragrammaton or the original name from which the name YHWH developed.

Kristin De Troyer says that YHW or YHH, and also YH, are attested in the fifth and fourth-century BCE papyri from Elephantine and Wadi Daliyeh: "In both collections one can read the name of God as Yaho (or Yahu) and Ya".[49] The name YH (Yah/Jah), the first syllable of "Yahweh", appears 50 times in the Old Testament, 26 times alone (Exodus 15:2; 17:16; and 24 times in the Psalms), 24 times in the expression "Hallelujah".[50]

According to De Troyer, the short names, instead of being ineffable like "Yahweh", seem to have been in spoken use not only as elements of personal names but also in reference to God: "The Samaritans thus seem to have pronounced the Name of God as Jaho or Ja." She cites Theodoret (c. 393 – c. 460) as that the shorter names of God were pronounced by the Samaritans as "Iabe" and by the Jews as "Ia". She adds that the Bible also indicates that the short form "Yah" was spoken, as in the phrase "Halleluyah".[49]

The Patrologia Graeca texts of Theodoret differ slightly from what De Troyer says. In Quaestiones in Exodum 15 he says that Samaritans pronounced the name Ἰαβέ and Jews the name Άϊά.[51] (The Greek term Άϊά is a transcription of the Exodus 3:14 phrase אֶהְיֶה (ehyeh), "I am".)[52] In Haereticarum Fabularum Compendium 5.3, he uses the spelling Ἰαβαί.[53]

Magical papyri edit

Among the Jews in the Second Temple Period magical amulets became very popular. Representations of the Tetragrammaton name or combinations inspired by it in languages such as Greek and Coptic, giving some indication of its pronunciation, occur as names of powerful agents in Jewish magical papyri found in Egypt.[54] Iαβε Iave and Iαβα Yaba occurs frequently,[55] "apparently the Samaritan enunciation of the tetragrammaton YHWH (Yahweh)".[56]

The most commonly invoked god is Ιαω (Iaō), another vocalization of the tetragrammaton YHWH.[57] There is a single instance of the heptagram ιαωουηε (iaōouēe).[58]

Yāwē is found in an Ethiopian Christian list of magical names of Jesus, purporting to have been taught by him to his disciples.[55]

Vernacular evidence edit

Also relevant is the use of the name in theophoric names; there is a common Hebrew prefix form, Yeho or "Yehō-", and a common suffix form, "Yahū" or "-Yehū". These provide some corroborating evidence of how YHWH was pronounced.[59][self-published source?]

Hebrew Bible edit

Masoretic Text edit

According to the Jewish Encyclopedia it occurs 5,410 times in the Hebrew scriptures.[60] In the Hebrew Bible, the Tetragrammaton occurs 6828 times,[43]: 142  as can be seen in Kittel's Biblia Hebraica and the Biblia Hebraica Stuttgartensia. In addition, the marginal notes or masorah[note 1] indicate that in another 134 places, where the received text has the word Adonai, an earlier text had the Tetragrammaton.[61][note 2] which would add up to 142 additional occurrences. Even in the Dead Sea Scrolls practice varied with regard to use of the Tetragrammaton.[62] According to Brown–Driver–Briggs, יְהֹוָה‎ (qere אֲדֹנָי‎) occurs 6,518 times, and יֱהֹוִה‎ (qere אֱלֹהִים‎) 305 times in the Masoretic Text.

The first appearance of the Tetragrammaton is in the Book of Genesis 2:4.[63] The only books it does not appear in are Ecclesiastes, the Book of Esther, and Song of Songs.[43][4]

In the Book of Esther the Tetragrammaton does not appear, but it has been distinguished acrostic-wise in the initial or last letters of four consecutive words,[note 3] as indicated in Est 7:5 by writing the four letters in red in at least three ancient Hebrew manuscripts.[64][original research?]

The short form יָהּ‎/Yah (a digrammaton) "occurs 50 times if the phrase hallellu-Yah is included":[65][66] 43 times in the Psalms, once in Exodus 15:2; 17:16; Isaiah 12:2; 26:4, and twice in Isaiah 38:11. It also appears in the Greek phrase Ἁλληλουϊά (Alleluia, Hallelujah) in Revelation 19:1, 3, 4, 6.[67]

Other short forms are found as a component of theophoric Hebrew names in the Bible: jô- or jehô- (29 names) and -jāhû or -jāh (127 jnames). A form of jāhû/jehô appears in the name Elioenai (Elj(eh)oenai) in 1Ch 3:23–24; 4:36; 7:8; Ezr 22:22, 27; Neh 12:41.

The following graph shows the absolute number of occurrences of the Tetragrammaton (6828 in all) in the books in the Masoretic Text,[68] without relation to the length of the books.

Leningrad Codex edit

Six presentations of the Tetragrammaton with some or all of the vowel points of אֲדֹנָי‎ (Adonai) or אֱלֹהִים‎ (Elohim) are found in the Leningrad Codex of 1008–1010, as shown below. The close transcriptions do not indicate that the Masoretes intended the name to be pronounced in that way (see qere perpetuum).

Chapter and verse Masoretic Text display Close transcription of the display Ref. Explanation
Genesis 2:4 יְהוָה‎ Yǝhwāh [69] This is the first occurrence of the Tetragrammaton in the Hebrew Bible and shows the most common set of vowels used in the Masoretic Text. It is the same as the form used in Genesis 3:14 below, but with the dot (holam) on the first he left out, because it is a little redundant.
Genesis 3:14 יְהֹוָה‎ Yǝhōwāh [70] This is a set of vowels used rarely in the Masoretic Text, and are essentially the vowels from Adonai (with the hataf patakh reverting to its natural state as a shewa).
Judges 16:28 יֱהֹוִה‎ Yĕhōwih [71] When the Tetragrammaton is preceded by Adonai, it receives the vowels from the name Elohim instead. The hataf segol does not revert to a shewa because doing so could lead to confusion with the vowels in Adonai.
Genesis 15:2 יֱהוִה‎ Yĕhwih [72] Just as above, this uses the vowels from Elohim, but like the second version, the dot (holam) on the first he is omitted as redundant.
1 Kings 2:26 יְהֹוִה‎ Yǝhōwih [73] Here, the dot (holam) on the first he is present, but the hataf segol does get reverted to a shewa.
Ezekiel 24:24 יְהוִה‎ Yǝhwih [74] Here, the dot (holam) on the first he is omitted, and the hataf segol gets reverted to a shewa.

ĕ is hataf segol; ǝ is the pronounced form of plain shva.

Dead Sea Scrolls edit

In the Dead Sea Scrolls and other Hebrew and Aramaic texts the Tetragrammaton and some other names of God in Judaism (such as El or Elohim) were sometimes written in paleo-Hebrew script, showing that they were treated specially. Most of God's names were pronounced until about the 2nd century BCE. Then, as a tradition of non-pronunciation of the names developed, alternatives for the Tetragrammaton appeared, such as Adonai, Kurios and Theos.[49] The 4Q120, a Greek fragment of Leviticus (26:2–16) discovered in the Dead Sea scrolls (Qumran) has ιαω ("Iao"), the Greek form of the Hebrew trigrammaton YHW.[75] The historian John the Lydian (6th century) wrote: "The Roman Varro [116–27 BCE] defining him [that is the Jewish God] says that he is called Iao in the Chaldean mysteries" (De Mensibus IV 53). Van Cooten mentions that Iao is one of the "specifically Jewish designations for God" and "the Aramaic papyri from the Jews at Elephantine show that 'Iao' is an original Jewish term".[76][77]

The preserved manuscripts from Qumran show the inconsistent practice of writing the Tetragrammaton, mainly in biblical quotations: in some manuscripts is written in paleo-Hebrew script, square scripts or replaced with four dots or dashes (tetrapuncta).

The members of the Qumran community were aware of the existence of the Tetragrammaton, but this was not tantamount to granting consent for its existing use and speaking. This is evidenced not only by special treatment of the Tetragrammaton in the text, but by the recommendation recorded in the 'Rule of Association' (VI, 27): "Who will remember the most glorious name, which is above all [...]".[78]

The table below presents all the manuscripts in which the Tetragrammaton is written in paleo-Hebrew script,[note 4] in square scripts, and all the manuscripts in which the copyists have used tetrapuncta.

Copyists used the 'tetrapuncta' apparently to warn against pronouncing the name of God.[79] In the manuscript number 4Q248 is in the form of bars.

PALEO-HEBREW SQUARE TETRAPUNCTA
1Q11 (1QPsb) 2–5 3 (link: [1]) 2Q13 (2QJer) (link: [2]) 1QS VIII 14 (link: [3])
1Q14 (1QpMic) 1–5 1, 2 (link: [4]) 4Q27 (4QNumb) (link: [5]) 1QIsaa XXXIII 7, XXXV 15 (link: [6])
1QpHab VI 14; X 7, 14; XI 10 (link: [7]) 4Q37 (4QDeutj) (link: [8]) 4Q53 (4QSamc) 13 III 7, 7 (link: [9])
1Q15 (1QpZeph) 3, 4 (link: [10]) 4Q78 (4QXIIc) (link: [11]) 4Q175 (4QTest) 1, 19
2Q3 (2QExodb) 2 2; 7 1; 8 3 (link: [12] [13]) 4Q96 (4QPso (link: [14]) 4Q176 (4QTanḥ) 1–2 i 6, 7, 9; 1–2 ii 3; 8–10 6, 8, 10 (link: [15])
3Q3 (3QLam) 1 2 (link: [16]) 4Q158 (4QRPa) (link: [17]) 4Q196 (4QpapToba ar) 17 i 5; 18 15 (link: [18])
4Q20 (4QExodj) 1–2 3 (link: [19]) 4Q163 (4Qpap pIsac) I 19; II 6; 15–16 1; 21 9; III 3, 9; 25 7 (link: [20]) 4Q248 (history of the kings of Greece) 5 (link: [21])
4Q26b (4QLevg) linia 8 (link: [22]) 4QpNah (4Q169) II 10 (link: [23]) 4Q306 (4QMen of People Who Err) 3 5 (link: [24])
4Q38a (4QDeutk2) 5 6 (link: [25]) 4Q173 (4QpPsb) 4 2 (link: [26]) 4Q382 (4QparaKings et al.) 9+11 5; 78 2
4Q57 (4QIsac) (link: [27]) 4Q177 (4QCatena A) (link: [28]) 4Q391 (4Qpap Pseudo-Ezechiel) 36, 52, 55, 58, 65 (link: [29])
4Q161 (4QpIsaa) 8–10 13 (link: [30]) 4Q215a (4QTime of Righteousness) (link: [31]) 4Q462 (4QNarrative C) 7; 12 (link: [32])
4Q165 (4QpIsae) 6 4 (link: [33]) 4Q222 (4QJubg) (link: [34]) 4Q524 (4QTb)) 6–13 4, 5 (link: [35])
4Q171 (4QpPsa) II 4, 12, 24; III 14, 15; IV 7, 10, 19 (link: [36]) 4Q225 (4QPsJuba) (link: [37]) XḤev/SeEschat Hymn (XḤev/Se 6) 2 7
11Q2 (11QLevb) 2 2, 6, 7 (link: [38]) 4Q365 (4QRPc) (link: [39])
11Q5 (11QPsa)[80] (link: [40]) 4Q377 (4QApocryphal Pentateuch B) 2 ii 3, 5 (link: [41])
4Q382 (4Qpap paraKings) (link: [42])
11Q6 (11QPsb) (link: [43])
11Q7 (11QPsc) (link: [44])
11Q19 (11QTa)
11Q20 (11QTb) (link: [45])
11Q11 (11QapocrPs) (link: [46])

Septuagint edit

 
Tetragrammaton written in paleo-Hebrew script on Greek Minor Prophets Scroll from Nahal Hever

Editions of the Septuagint Old Testament are based on the complete or almost complete fourth-century manuscripts Codex Vaticanus, Codex Sinaiticus and Codex Alexandrinus and consistently use Κ[ύριο]ς, "Lord", where the Masoretic Text has the Tetragrammaton in Hebrew. This corresponds with the Jewish practice of replacing the Tetragrammaton with "Adonai" when reading the Hebrew word.[81][82][83]

However, five of the oldest manuscripts now extant (in fragmentary form) render the Tetragrammaton into Greek in a different way.[84]

Two of these are of the first century BCE: Papyrus Fouad 266 uses יהוה‎ in the normal Hebrew alphabet in the midst of its Greek text, and 4Q120 uses the Greek transcription of the name, ΙΑΩ. Three later manuscripts use 𐤉𐤄𐤅𐤄‎, the name יהוה‎ in Paleo-Hebrew script: the Greek Minor Prophets Scroll from Nahal Hever, Papyrus Oxyrhynchus 3522 and Papyrus Oxyrhynchus 5101.[85]

Other extant ancient fragments of Septuagint or Old Greek manuscripts provide no evidence on the use of the Tetragrammaton, Κύριος, or ΙΑΩ in correspondence with the Hebrew-text Tetragrammaton. They include the oldest known example, Papyrus Rylands 458.[86][87]

Scholars differ on whether in the original Septuagint translations the Tetragrammaton was represented by Κύριος,[88][89][90][91] by ΙΑΩ,[92] by the Tetragrammaton in either normal or Paleo-Hebrew form, or whether different translators used different forms in different books.[93]

Frank Shaw argues that the Tetragrammaton continued to be articulated until the second or third century CE and that the use of Ιαω was by no means limited to magical or mystical formulas, but was still normal in more elevated contexts such as that exemplified by Papyrus 4Q120. Shaw considers all theories that posit in the Septuagint a single original form of the divine name as merely based on a priori assumptions.[93] Accordingly, he declares: "The matter of any (especially single) 'original' form of the divine name in the LXX is too complex, the evidence is too scattered and indefinite, and the various approaches offered for the issue are too simplistic" to account for the actual scribal practices (p. 158). He holds that the earliest stages of the LXX's translation were marked by diversity (p. 262), with the choice of certain divine names depending on the context in which they appear (cf. Gen 4:26; Exod 3:15; 8:22; 28:32; 32:5; and 33:19). He treats of the related blank spaces in some Septuagint manuscripts and the setting of spaces around the divine name in 4Q120 and Papyrus Fouad 266b (p. 265), and repeats that "there was no one 'original' form but different translators had different feelings, theological beliefs, motivations, and practices when it came to their handling of the name" (p. 271).[93] His view has won the support of Anthony R. Meyer,[93] Bob Becking,[94] and (commenting on Shaw's 2011 dissertation on the subject) D.T. Runia.[95]

Mogens Müller says that, while no clearly Jewish manuscript of the Septuagint has been found with Κύριος representing the Tetragrammaton, other Jewish writings of the time show that Jews did use the term Κύριος for God, and it was because Christians found it in the Septuagint that they were able to apply it to Christ.[96] In fact, the deuterocanonical books of the Septuagint, written originally in Greek (e.g., Wisdom, 2 and 3 Maccabees), do speak of God as Κύριος and thus show that "the use of κύριος as a representation of יהוה‎ must be pre-Christian in origin".[97]

Similarly, while consistent use of Κύριος to represent the Tetragrammaton has been called "a distinguishing mark for any Christian LXX manuscript", Eugen J. Pentiuc says: "No definitive conclusion has been reached thus far."[98] And Sean McDonough denounces as implausible the idea that Κύριος did not appear in the Septuagint before the Christian era.[99]

Speaking of the Greek Minor Prophets Scroll from Nahal Hever, which is a kaige recension of the Septuagint, "a revision of the Old Greek text to bring it closer to the Hebrew text of the Bible as it existed in ca. 2nd-1st century BCE" (and thus not necessarily the original text), Kristin De Troyer remarks: "The problem with a recension is that one does not know what is the original form and what the recension. Hence, is the paleo-Hebrew Tetragrammaton secondary – a part of the recension – or proof of the Old Greek text? This debate has not yet been solved."

While some interpret the presence of the Tetragrammaton in Papyrus Fouad 266, the oldest Septuagint manuscript in which it appears, as an indication of what was in the original text, others see this manuscript as "an archaizing and hebraizing revision of the earlier translation κύριος".[100] Of this papyrus, De Troyer asks: "Is it a recension or not?" In this regard she says that Emanuel Tov notes that in this manuscript a second scribe inserted the four-letter Tetragrammaton where the first scribe left spaces large enough for the six-letter word Κύριος, and that Pietersma and Hanhart say the papyrus "already contains some pre-hexaplaric corrections towards a Hebrew text (which would have had the Tetragrammaton). She also mentions Septuagint manuscripts that have Θεός and one that has παντοκράτωρ where the Hebrew text has the Tetragrammaton. She concludes: "It suffices to say that in old Hebrew and Greek witnesses, God has many names. Most if not all were pronounced till about the second century BCE. As slowly onwards there developed a tradition of non-pronunciation, alternatives for the Tetragrammaton appeared. The reading Adonai was one of them. Finally, before Kurios became a standard rendering Adonai, the Name of God was rendered with Theos."[49] In the Book of Exodus alone, Θεός represents the Tetragrammaton 41 times.[101]

Robert J. Wilkinson says that the Greek Minor Prophets Scroll from Nahal Hever is also a kaige recension and thus not strictly a Septuagint text.[102]

Origen (Commentary on Psalms 2.2) said that in the most accurate manuscripts the name was written in an older form of the Hebrew characters, the paleo-Hebrew letters, not the square: "In the more accurate exemplars the (divine) name is written in Hebrew characters; not, however, in the current script, but in the most ancient." While Pietersma interprets this statement as referring to the Septuagint,[88] Wilkinson says one might assume that Origen refers specifically to the version of Aquila of Sinope, which follows the Hebrew text very closely, but he may perhaps refer to Greek versions in general.[103][104]

Manuscripts of the Septuagint and later Greek renderings edit

The great majority of extant manuscripts of the Old Testament in Greek, complete or fragmentary, dated to the ninth century CE or earlier, employ Κύριος to represent the Tetragrammaton of the Hebrew text. The following do not. They include the oldest now extant.

  1. Manuscripts of the Septuagint or recensions thereof
  2. Manuscripts of Greek translations made by Symmachus and Aquila of Sinope (2nd century CE)
    • 3rd century CE
    • 5th century CE
      • AqTaylor, this manuscript of the Aquila version is dated after the middle of the 5th century, but not later than the beginning of the 6th century.
      • AqBurkitt – a palimpsest manuscript of the Aquila version dated late 5th century or early 6th century.
  3. Manuscripts with Hexaplaric elements
    • 6th century CE
      • Codex Marchalianus – In addition to the Septuagint text of the prophets (with κς), the manuscript contains marginal notes from a hand "not much later than the original scribe" indicating Hexaplaric variations, each identified as from Aquila, Symmachus or Theodotion. Marginal notes on some of the prophets contain πιπι to indicate that κς in the text corresponds to the Tetragrammaton. Two marginal notes at Ezekiel 1:2 and 11:1 use the form ιαω with reference to the Tetragrammaton.[112]
    • 7th century CE
      • Taylor-Schechter 12.182 – a Hexapla manuscript with Tetragrammaton in Greek letters ΠΙΠΙ. It has Hebrew text transliterated into Greek, Aquila, Symmachus and the Septuagint.
    • 9th century CE
      • Ambrosiano O 39 sup. – the latest Greek manuscript containing the name of God is Origen's Hexapla, transmitting among other translations the text of the Septuagint, Aquila, Symmachus and Theodotion, and in three other unidentified Greek translations (Quinta, Sextus and Septima). This codex, copied from a much earlier original, comes from the late 9th century, and is stored in the Biblioteca Ambrosiana.

Patristic writings edit

 
Petrus Alphonsi's early 12th-century Tetragrammaton-Trinity diagram, rendering the name as "IEVE", which in contemporary letters is "IEUE".
 
Tetragrammaton at the Fifth Chapel of the Palace of Versailles, France.

According to the Catholic Encyclopedia (1910) and B. D. Eerdmans:[113][114]

  • Diodorus Siculus (1st century BCE) writes[115] Ἰαῶ (Iao);
  • Irenaeus (d. c. 202) reports[116] that the Gnostics formed a compound Ἰαωθ (Iaoth) with the last syllable of Sabaoth. He also reports[117] that the Valentinian heretics use Ἰαῶ (Iao);
  • Clement of Alexandria (d. c. 215) reports: "the mystic name of four letters which was affixed to those alone to whom the adytum was accessible, is called Ἰαοὺ" (Iaoú); manuscript variants also have the forms ἰαοῦε (Iaoúe) and ἰὰ οὐὲ.[118]
  • Origen (d. c. 254), Ἰαώ (Iao);[119]
  • Porphyry (d. c. 305) according to Eusebius (died 339),[120] Ἰευώ (Ieuo);
  • Epiphanius (died 404), who was born in Palestine and spent a considerable part of his life there, gives Ἰά (Ia) and Ἰάβε (pronounced at that time /ja'vε/) and explains Ἰάβε as meaning He who was and is and always exists.[121]
  • Jerome (died 420)[122] speaks of certain Greek writers who misunderstood the Hebrew letters יהוה‎ (read right-to-left) as the Greek letters ΠΙΠΙ (read left-to-right), thus changing YHWH to pipi.
  • Theodoret (d. c. 457) writes Ἰαώ (Iao);[123] he also reports[124] that the Samaritans say Ἰαβέ or Ἰαβαί (both pronounced at that time /ja'vε/), while the Jews say Ἀϊά (Aia).[55] (The latter is probably not יהוה‎ but אהיה‎ Ehyeh = "I am " or "I will be", Exod. 3:14 which the Jews counted among the names of God.)[55]
  • (Pseudo-)Jerome (4th/5th or 9th century),:[125] IAHO. This work was traditionally attributed to Jerome and, in spite of the view of one modern writer who in 1936 said it is "now believed to be genuine and to be dated before CE 392"[126] is still generally attributed to the 9th century[127] and to be non-authentic.[128][129]

Peshitta edit

The Peshitta (Syriac translation), probably in the second century,[130] uses the word "Lord" (ܡܳܪܝܳܐ, pronounced māryā or moryo (Western pronunciation) for the Tetragrammaton.[131]

Vulgate edit

The Vulgate (Latin translation) made from the Hebrew in the 4th century CE,[132] uses the word Dominus ("Lord"), a translation of the Hebrew word Adonai, for the Tetragrammaton.[131]

The Vulgate translation, though made not from the Septuagint but from the Hebrew text, did not depart from the practice used in the Septuagint. Thus, for most of its history, Christianity's translations of the Scriptures have used equivalents of Adonai to represent the Tetragrammaton. Only at about the beginning of the 16th century did Christian translations of the Bible appear combining the vowels of Adonai with the four (consonantal) letters of the Tetragrammaton.[133][134]

Usage in religious traditions edit

Judaism edit

Especially due to the existence of the Mesha Stele, the Jahwist tradition found in Exod. 3:15, and ancient Hebrew and Greek texts, biblical scholars widely hold that the Tetragrammaton and other names of God were spoken by the ancient Israelites and their neighbours.[9][49][135]: 40 

By at least the 3rd century BCE, the name was not pronounced in normal speech,[136] but only in certain ritual contexts. The Talmud relays this change occurred after the death of Simeon the Just (either Simon I or his great-great-grandson Simon II).[137] Philo calls the name ineffable, and says that it is lawful for those only whose ears and tongues are purified by wisdom to hear and utter it in a holy place (that is, for priests in the Temple). In another passage, commenting on Lev. 24:15: "If any one, I do not say should blaspheme against the Lord of men and gods, but should even dare to utter his name unseasonably, let him expect the penalty of death."[55] Some time after the destruction of the Second Temple, the spoken use of God's name as it was written ceased altogether, though knowledge of the pronunciation was perpetuated in rabbinic schools.[55]

Rabbinic sources suggest that the name of God was pronounced only once a year, by the high priest, on the Day of Atonement.[138] Others, including Maimonides, claim that the name was pronounced daily in the liturgy of the Temple in the priestly blessing of worshippers, after the daily sacrifice; in synagogues, though, a substitute (probably "Adonai") was used.[55] According to the Talmud, in the last generations before the fall of Jerusalem, the name was pronounced in a low tone so that the sounds were lost in the chant of the priests.[55] Since the destruction of Second Temple of Jerusalem in 70 CE, the Tetragrammaton has no longer been pronounced in the liturgy. However the pronunciation was still known in Babylonia in the latter part of the 4th century.[55]

Spoken prohibitions edit

The vehemence with which the utterance of the name is denounced in the Mishnah suggests that use of the name Yahweh was unacceptable in rabbinical Judaism. "He who pronounces the Name with its own letters has no part in the world to come!"[55] Such is the prohibition of pronouncing the Name as written that it is sometimes called the "Ineffable", "Unutterable", or "Distinctive Name", or "Explicit Name" ("Shem HaMephorash" in Hebrew).[139][140]

Halakha prescribes that although the Name is written יהוה‎ "yodh he waw he", if not preceded by (אֲדֹנָי, Adonai) then it is only to be pronounced "Adonai" and if preceded by "Adonai" then it is only to be pronounced as "Our God" (אֱלֹהֵינוּ, Eloheinu), or, in rare cases, as a repetition of Adonai, e.g., the Thirteen Attributes of Mercy (שְׁלוֹשׁ־עֶשְׂרֵה, Shelosh-'Esreh) in Exodus 34:6–7; the latter names too are regarded as holy names, and are only to be pronounced in prayer.[141][142] Thus when someone wants to refer in third person to either the written or spoken Name, the term HaShem "the Name" is used;[143][unreliable source?][144] and this handle itself can also be used in prayer.[note 5] The Masoretes added vowel points (niqqud) and cantillation marks to the manuscripts to indicate vowel usage and for use in ritual chanting of readings from the Bible in Jewish prayer in synagogues. To יהוה‎ they added the vowels for אֲדֹנָי (Adonai, lit. transl. My Lords, Pluralis majestatis taken as singular), the word to use when the text was read. While "HaShem" is the most common way to reference "the Name", the terms "HaMaqom" (lit. "The Place", i.e. "The Omnipresent") and "Raḥmana" (Aramaic, "Merciful") are used in the mishna and gemara, still used in the phrases "HaMaqom y'naḥem ethḥem" ("may The Omnipresent console you"), the traditional phrase used in sitting Shiva and "Raḥmana l'tzlan" ("may the Merciful save us" i.e. "God forbid").

Written prohibitions edit

Main articles: Genizah, Names of God in Judaism § Erasing the name of God, and G’tt [de]

The written Tetragrammaton,[145] as well as six other names of God, must be treated with special sanctity. They cannot be disposed of regularly, lest they be desecrated, but are usually put in long-term storage or buried in Jewish cemeteries in order to retire them from use.[146] Similarly, writing the Tetragrammaton (or these other names) unnecessarily is prohibited, so as to avoid having them treated disrespectfully, an action that is forbidden. To guard the sanctity of the Name, sometimes a letter is substituted by a different letter in writing (e.g. יקוק), or the letters are separated by one or more hyphens, a practice applied also to the English name "God", which some Jews write as "G-d". Most Jewish authorities say that this practice is not obligatory for the English name.[147]

Kabbalah edit

See also: Kabbalah and Hasidic philosophy

Kabbalistic tradition holds that the correct pronunciation is known to a select few people in each generation, it is not generally known what this pronunciation is. There are two main schools of Kabbalah arising in 13th century Spain. These are called Theosophic Kabbalah represented by Rabbi Moshe De Leon and the Zohar, and the Kabbalah of Names or Prophetic Kabbalah whose main representative is Rabbi Abraham Abulafia of Saragossa. Rabbi Abulafia wrote many wisdom books and prophetic books where the name is used for meditation purposes from 1271 onwards. Abulafia put a lot of attention on Exodus 15 and the Songs of Moses. In this song it says "Yehovah is a Man of War, Yehovah is his name". For Abulafia the goal of prophecy was for a man to come to the level of prophecy and be called "Yehovah a man of war". Abulafia also used the tetragrammaton in a spiritual war against his spiritual enemies. For example, he prophesied in his book "The Sign", "Therefore, thus said YHWH, the God of Israel: Have no fear of the enemy" (See Hylton, A The Prophetic Jew Abraham Abulafia, 2015).

Moshe Chaim Luzzatto,[148] says that the tree of the Tetragrammaton "unfolds" in accordance with the intrinsic nature of its letters, "in the same order in which they appear in the Name, in the mystery of ten and the mystery of four." Namely, the upper cusp of the Yod is Arich Anpin and the main body of Yod is and Abba; the first Hei is Imma; the Vav is Ze`ir Anpin and the second Hei is Nukvah. It unfolds in this aforementioned order and "in the mystery of the four expansions" that are constituted by the following various spellings of the letters:

ע"ב/`AV : יו"ד ה"י וי"ו ה"י, so called "`AV" according to its gematria value ע"ב=70+2=72.

ס"ג/SaG: יו"ד ה"י וא"ו ה"י, gematria 63.

מ"ה/MaH: יו"ד ה"א וא"ו ה"א, gematria 45.

ב"ן/BaN: יו"ד ה"ה ו"ו ה"ה, gematria 52.

Luzzatto summarises, "In sum, all that exists is founded on the mystery of this Name and upon the mystery of these letters of which it consists. This means that all the different orders and laws are all drawn after and come under the order of these four letters. This is not one particular pathway but rather the general path, which includes everything that exists in the Sefirot in all their details and which brings everything under its order."[148]

Another parallel is drawn[by whom?] between the four letters of the Tetragrammaton and the Four Worlds: the י is associated with Atziluth, the first ה with Beri'ah, the ו with Yetzirah, and final ה with Assiah.

 
A tetractys of the letters of the Tetragrammaton adds up to 72 by gematria.

There are some[who?] who believe that the tetractys and its mysteries influenced the early kabbalists. A Hebrew tetractys in a similar way has the letters of the Tetragrammaton (the four lettered name of God in Hebrew scripture) inscribed on the ten positions of the tetractys, from right to left. It has been argued that the Kabbalistic Tree of Life, with its ten spheres of emanation, is in some way connected to the tetractys, but its form is not that of a triangle. The occult writer Dion Fortune says:

The point is assigned to Kether;
the line to Chokmah;
the two-dimensional plane to Binah;
consequently the three-dimensional solid naturally falls to Chesed.[149]

(The first three-dimensional solid is the tetrahedron.)

The relationship between geometrical shapes and the first four Sephirot is analogous to the geometrical correlations in tetractys, shown above under Pythagorean Symbol, and unveils the relevance of the Tree of Life with the tetractys.

Samaritans edit

The Samaritans shared the taboo of the Jews about the utterance of the name, and there is no evidence that its pronunciation was common Samaritan practice.[55][150] However Sanhedrin 10:1 includes the comment of Rabbi Mana II, "for example those Kutim who take an oath" would also have no share in the world to come, which suggests that Mana thought some Samaritans used the name in making oaths. (Their priests have preserved a liturgical pronunciation "Yahwe" or "Yahwa" to the present day.)[55] As with Jews, the use of Shema (שמא "the Name") remains the everyday usage of the name among Samaritans, akin to Hebrew "the Name" (Hebrew השם "HaShem").[143]

Christianity edit

 
Tetragrammaton by Francisco Goya: "The Name of God", YHWH in triangle, detail from fresco Adoration of the Name of God, 1772
 
The Tetragrammaton as represented in stained glass in an 1868 Episcopal Church in Iowa

It is assumed that early Jewish Christians inherited from Jews the practice of reading "Lord" where the Tetragrammaton appears in the Hebrew text (and where a few Greek manuscripts use it in the midst of their Greek translation). Gentile Christians, primarily non-Hebrew speaking and using Greek Scripture texts, may have read Κύριος ("Lord"), as in the Greek text of the New Testament and in their copies of the Greek Old Testament. This practice continued into the Latin Vulgate where Dominus ("Lord") represented the Tetragrammaton in the Latin text. At the Reformation, the Luther Bible used capitalized Herr ("Lord") in the German text of the Old Testament to represent the Tetragrammaton.[151]

In Christianity, when the Tetragrammaton is vocalized, the forms Yahweh or Jehovah are used.[5][152] Jah or Yah is an abbreviation of Jahweh/Yahweh, and often sees usage by Christians in the interjection "Hallelujah", meaning "Praise Jah", which is used to give God glory.[153]

Christian translations edit

The Septuagint (Greek translation), the Vulgate (Latin translation), and the Peshitta (Syriac translation)[131] use the word "Lord" (κύριος, kyrios, dominus, and ܡܳܪܝܳܐ, moryo respectively).

Use of the Septuagint by Christians in polemics with Jews led to its abandonment by the latter, making it a specifically Christian text. From it Christians made translations into Coptic, Arabic, Slavonic and other languages used in Oriental Orthodoxy and the Eastern Orthodox Church,[104][154] whose liturgies and doctrinal declarations are largely a cento of texts from the Septuagint, which they consider to be inspired at least as much as the Masoretic Text.[104][155] Within the Eastern Orthodox Church, the Greek text remains the norm for texts in all languages, with particular reference to the wording used in prayers.[156][157]

The Septuagint, with its use of Κύριος to represent the Tetragrammaton, was the basis also for Christian translations associated with the West, in particular the Vetus Itala, which survives in some parts of the liturgy of the Latin Church, and the Gothic Bible.

Christian translations of the Bible into English commonly use "LORD" in place of the Tetragrammaton in most passages, often in small capitals (or in all caps), so as to distinguish it from other words translated as "Lord".

Eastern Orthodoxy edit

The Eastern Orthodox Church considers the Septuagint text, which uses Κύριος (Lord), to be the authoritative text of the Old Testament,[104] and in its liturgical books and prayers it uses Κύριος in place of the Tetragrammaton in texts derived from the Bible.[158][159]: 247–248 

Catholicism edit

 
The Tetragrammaton on the Tympanum of the Roman Catholic Basilica of St. Louis, King of France in Missouri

In the Catholic Church, the first edition of the official Vatican Nova Vulgata Bibliorum Sacrorum Editio, editio typica, published in 1979, used the traditional Dominus when rendering the Tetragrammaton in the overwhelming majority of places where it appears; however, it also used the form Iahveh for rendering the Tetragrammaton in three known places:

In the second edition of the Nova Vulgata Bibliorum Sacrorum Editio, editio typica altera, published in 1986, these few occurrences of the form Iahveh were replaced with Dominus,[163][164][165] in keeping with the long-standing Catholic tradition of avoiding direct usage of the Ineffable Name.

On 29 June 2008, the Holy See reacted to the then still recent practice of pronouncing, within Catholic liturgy, the name of God represented by the Tetragrammaton. As examples of such vocalisation it mentioned "Yahweh" and "Yehovah". The early Christians, it said, followed the example of the Septuagint in replacing the name of God with "the Lord", a practice with important theological implications for their use of "the Lord" in reference to Jesus, as in Philippians 2:9–11 and other New Testament texts. It therefore directed that, "in liturgical celebrations, in songs and prayers the name of God in the form of the Tetragrammaton YHWH is neither to be used or pronounced"; and that translations of Biblical texts for liturgical use are to follow the practice of the Greek Septuagint and the Latin Vulgate, replacing the divine name with "the Lord" or, in some contexts, "God".[166] The United States Conference of Catholic Bishops welcomed this instruction, adding that it "provides also an opportunity to offer catechesis for the faithful as an encouragement to show reverence for the Name of God in daily life, emphasizing the power of language as an act of devotion and worship".[167]

Lutheranism and Anglicanism edit

In the Lutheran and Anglican psalters, the word LORD in "small capital letters [is used] to represent the tetragrammaton YHWH, the personal name of the deity". However, the Psalter of the 1979 Book of Common Prayer used by the Protestant Episcopal Church of the United States of America uses Yahweh in two places, Psalms 68:4 and Psalms 83:18. Also the Hymnal 1982 as used by the Episcopal Church uses the hymn, "Guide me, O thou great Jehovah", Hymn 690 The Christian Life. Aside from those instances, LORD is typically used in the Liturgy of the Episcopal Church.[168]

Usage in art edit

Since the 16th century, artists have been using the tetragrammaton as a symbol for God,[169] or for divine illumination.[170] Protestant artists avoided to allegorize God in human form, but rather wrote the Hebrew name of God. This was done in book illustrations since 1530, then on coins and medals as well.[171] Since the 17th century, both Protestant and Catholic artists have used the tetragrammaton in church decoration, on top of altars, or in center of frescos, often in rays of light or in a triangle.[172]

See also edit

References edit

Notes edit

  1. ^ masora parva (small) or masora marginalis: notes to the Masoretic Text, written in the margins of the left, right and between the columns and the comments on the top and bottom margins to masora magna (large).
  2. ^ C. D. Ginsburg in The Massorah. Compiled from manuscripts, London 1880, vol I, p. 25, 26, § 115 lists the 134 places where this practice is observed, and likewise in 8 places where the received text has Elohim (C. D. Ginsburg, Introduction to the Massoretico-Critical Edition of the Hebrew Bible, London 1897, s. 368, 369). These places are listed in: C.D. Ginsburg, The Massorah. Compiled from manuscripts, vol I, p. 26, § 116.
  3. ^ These are Est 1:20; 5:4, 13 and 7:7. The same acrostic has been seen in Exodus 3:14 and in the first four words of Psalm 96:11 ("Bible Gateway passage: 96:11 תהילים – The Westminster Leningrad Codex". from the original on 20 February 2015. Retrieved 25 February 2015.).
  4. ^ In some manuscripts the Tetragrammaton was replaced by the word ’El or ’Elohim written in Paleo-Hebrew script, they are: 1QpMic (1Q14) 12 3; 1QMyst (1Q27) II 11; 1QHa I (Suk. = Puech IX) 26; II (X) 34; VII (XV) 5; XV (VII) 25; 1QHb (1Q35) 1 5; 3QUnclassified fragments (3Q14) 18 2; 4QpPsb (4Q173) 5 4; 4QAges of Creation A (4Q180) 1 1; 4QMidrEschate?(4Q183) 2 1; 3 1; fr. 1 kol. II 3; 4QSd (4Q258) IX 8; 4QDb (4Q267) fr. 9 kol. i 2; kol. iv 4; kol. v 4; 4QDc (4Q268) 1 9; 4QComposition Concerning Divine Providence (4Q413) fr. 1–2 2, 4; 6QD (6Q15) 3 5; 6QpapHymn (6Q18) 6 5; 8 5; 10 3. W 4QShirShabbg (4Q406) 1 2; 3 2 występuje ’Elohim.
  5. ^ For example, in the common utterance and praise, "Barukh Hashem" (Blessed [i.e. the source of all] is Hashem), or "Hashem yishmor" (God protect [us])

Citations edit

  1. ^ The word "tetragrammaton" originates from tetra "four" + γράμμα gramma (gen. grammatos) "letter" "Online Etymology Dictionary". from the original on 12 October 2007. Retrieved 23 December 2007.
  2. ^ Kitz, Anne Marie (2019). "The Verb *yahway". Journal of Biblical Literature. 138 (1): 39–62. doi:10.15699/jbl.1381.2019.508716.
  3. ^ Botterweck, G. Johannes; Ringgren, Helmer, eds. (1986). Theological Dictionary of the Old Testament. Vol. 5. Translated by Green, David E. William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company. p. 500. ISBN 0-8028-2329-7. from the original on 23 January 2021. Retrieved 19 May 2020.
  4. ^ a b c Geoffrey William Bromiley; Erwin Fahlbusch; Jan Milic Lochman; John Mbiti; Jaroslav Pelikan; Lukas Vischer, eds. (2008). "Yahweh". The Encyclopedia of Christianity. Vol. 5. Translated by Geoffrey William Bromiley. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing ; Brill. pp. 823–824. ISBN 978-90-04-14596-2. from the original on 6 August 2020. Retrieved 24 February 2020.
  5. ^ a b Valentin, Benjamin (2015). Theological Cartographies: Mapping the Encounter with God, Humanity, and Christ. Westminster John Knox Press. p. 16. ISBN 978-1-61164-553-8.
  6. ^ Exodus 3:14
  7. ^ Translation notes for "Genesis Chapter 1 (KJV)".
  8. ^ a b It thus probably means "he causes to be, to become, etc." It has הוה (h-w-h) as a variant form, The New Brown–Driver–Briggs-Gesenius Hebrew and English Lexicon With an Appendix Containing the Biblical Aramaic by Frances Brown, with the cooperation of S. R. Driver and Charles Briggs (1907), p. 217ff (entry יהוה listed under root הוה).
  9. ^ a b "Names Of God". JewishEncyclopedia.com. from the original on 14 November 2011. Retrieved 18 November 2011.
  10. ^ Albright, William Foxwell (1957). From the Stone Age to Christianity: Monotheism and the Historical Process. New York: Doubleday. p. 259. ISBN 9781592443390.
  11. ^ Lewis, Theodore J. (2020). The Origin and Character of God. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 214. ISBN 978-0-19-007254-4.
  12. ^ Botterweck, G. Johannes; Ringgren, Helmer, eds. (1979). Theological Dictionary of the Old Testament, Volume 3. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. ISBN 978-0-8028-2327-4. from the original on 24 February 2021. Retrieved 29 October 2016.
  13. ^ Samuelson, Norbert (2006). Jewish Philosophy: An Historical Introduction. A&C Black. p. 42. ISBN 978-0-8264-9244-9. from the original on 26 February 2022. Retrieved 29 October 2016.
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  18. ^ Smith, William (1872). Dictionary of the Bible. Vol. 2. p. 1239. from the original on 24 November 2021. Retrieved 4 July 2020.
  19. ^ Arnold, Mark P. (2015). Revealing the Name: An Investigation of the Divine Character through a Conversation Analysis of the Dialogues between God and Moses in the Book of Exodus (PhD thesis). Gloucestershire: University of Gloucestershire. p. 28. from the original on 30 January 2020. Retrieved 8 February 2020.
  20. ^ Römer, Thomas (2015). The Invention of God. Translated by Geuss, Raymond. Harvard University Press. pp. 32–33. ISBN 9780674504974. from the original on 12 August 2020. Retrieved 27 July 2020.
  21. ^ Reisel, M. (2018). The Mysterious Name of YHWH. Netherlands: Brill. p. 74. ISBN 9789004354876.
  22. ^ Stone 2000, p. 624.
  23. ^ Cross 1997, p. 19.
  24. ^ Lewis, Theodore J. (2020). The Origin and Character of God: Ancient Israelite Religion through the Lens of Divinity. Oxford University Press. pp. 209–286. doi:10.1093/oso/9780190072544.003.0006 – via Oxford Academic.
  25. ^ Reeland 1707.
  26. ^ Reeland 1707, p. 392.
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  28. ^ Kurtz, Johann Heinrich (1859). . Translated by Edersheim, A. p. 214. Archived from the original on 19 November 2020.
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  32. ^ Coogan, Michael David (2001). The Oxford History of the Biblical World. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 107. ISBN 9780195139372. from the original on 26 February 2022. Retrieved 19 May 2020.
  33. ^ Smith, Mark S. (2001). The Origins of Biblical Monotheism: Israel's Polytheistic Background and the Ugaritic Texts. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 201. ISBN 9780199881178. from the original on 26 February 2022. Retrieved 19 May 2020.
  34. ^ Cross 1997, pp. 61–63.
  35. ^ Schneider 2007.
  36. ^ a b Lemaire, André (1994). (PDF). Biblical Archaeology Review. Washington, D.C.: Biblical Archaeology Society. 20 (3). ISSN 0098-9444. Archived from the original (PDF) on 31 March 2012.
  37. ^ u and i-u.4 The sign IA can be r and so the first two spellings can be taken either ing to the later from Y6 in Hebrew, or as Ya' writing ia-a-u' contains the vowel a which acts as the ambiguous IA sign, and may either be an e the shorter forms, or an alternative to them, ju alternatives Yahu and Yo. Stephanie Dalley Vetus Testamentum LX, 1990
  38. ^ Bonanno, Anthony (23 February 1986). Archaeology and Fertility Cult in the Ancient Mediterranean: Papers Presented at the First International Conference on Archaeology of the Ancient Mediterranean, University of Malta, 2-5 September 1985. John Benjamins. ISBN 9060322886. from the original on 18 January 2022. Retrieved 19 May 2020.
  39. ^ Keel, Othmar; Uehlinger, Christoph (1998). Gods, Goddesses, And Images of God. Bloomsbury Academic. ISBN 9780567085917. from the original on 15 June 2021. Retrieved 19 May 2020.
  40. ^ Becking, Bob (1 January 2001). Only One God?: Monotheism in Ancient Israel and the Veneration of the Goddess Asherah. A&C Black. ISBN 9781841271996. from the original on 21 April 2020. Retrieved 19 May 2020.
  41. ^ Cross 1997, p. 61.
  42. ^ Lindenberger, James M. (5 January 2003). Ancient Aramaic and Hebrew Letters (Second ed.). Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literature. pp. 110, 111.
  43. ^ a b c Knight, Douglas A.; Levine, Amy-Jill (2011). The Meaning of the Bible: What the Jewish Scriptures and Christian Old Testament Can Teach Us (1st ed.). New York: HarperOne. ISBN 978-0062098597.
  44. ^ Naveh, Joseph (1963). "Old Hebrew Inscriptions in a Burial Cave". Israel Exploration Journal. 13 (2): 74–92.
  45. ^ Davis, G. (2004). Ancient Hebrew inscriptions: Corpus and Concordance. Vol. 2. Cambridge. p. 18.
  46. ^ Vincent, A. (1937). La religion des judéo-araméens d'Éléphantine (in French). Paris: Geuthner.
  47. ^ Porten, B. (1968). Archives from Elephantine, The Life of an Ancient Jewish Military Colony. Berkeley – Los Angeles: University of California Press. pp. 105–106.
  48. ^ D. N. Freedman (1974). "YHWH". Theological Dictionary of the Old Testament. Vol. 5. Eerdmans. p. 504. ISBN 0802823297.
  49. ^ a b c d e De Troyer 2005.
  50. ^ Becchio & Schadé 2006, p. 463.
  51. ^ Jacques-Paul Migne (1860). Patrologiae cursus completus, series graeca. Vol. 80. pp. col. 244. from the original on 13 August 2020. Retrieved 28 July 2020. English translation: Walter Woodburn Hyde, Paganism to Christianity in the Roman Empire (Wipf and Stock 2008), p. 80 13 August 2020 at the Wayback Machine
  52. ^ Toy, Crawford Howell; Blau, Ludwig. . Jewish Encyclopedia. Archived from the original on 26 February 2020.
  53. ^ Jacques-Paul Migne (1864). Patrologiae cursus completus, series graeca. Vol. 83. pp. col. 460. from the original on 17 April 2015. Retrieved 3 March 2016.
  54. ^ B. Alfrink, La prononciation 'Jehova' du tétragramme, O.T.S. V (1948) 43–62.
  55. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l Moore, George Foot (1911). "Jehovah" . In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 15 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 311–314.
  56. ^ Betz, Hans Dieter, ed. (1986). The Greek Magical Papyri in Translation (PDF). University of Chicago Press. p. 335. (PDF) from the original on 20 September 2020. Retrieved 11 October 2020.
  57. ^ Evans, Luke; Aaron, Ralph (2015). Recipes for Love: A Semiotic Analysis of the Tools in the Erotic Magical Papyri (PDF). Durham University. p. 26. (PDF) from the original on 3 December 2020. Retrieved 11 October 2020.
  58. ^ K. Preisendanz, Papyri Graecae Magicae, Leipzig-Berlin, I, 1928 and II, 1931.
  59. ^ . Members.fortunecity.com. Archived from the original on 2 December 2011. Retrieved 18 November 2011.
  60. ^ Toy, Crawford Howell; Blau, Ludwig. "Tetragrammaton". Jewish Encyclopedia. from the original on 16 February 2021. Retrieved 2 February 2021.
  61. ^ C. D. Ginsburg. The Massorah. Translated into English with a critical and exegetical commentary. Vol. IV. p. 28,§115.
  62. ^ Steven Ortlepp (2010). Pronunciation of the Tetragrammaton: A Historico-Linguistic Approach. Lulu.com. p. 60. ISBN 978-1-4452-7220-7. from the original on 26 February 2022. Retrieved 29 November 2016.
  63. ^ The Bible translator. Vol. 56. United Bible Societies. 2005. p. 71.; Nelson's expository dictionary of the Old Testament. Merrill Frederick Unger, William White. 1980. p. 229.
  64. ^ The Name of Jehovah in the Book of Esther. 3 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine, appendix 60, Companion Bible.
  65. ^ G.H. Parke-Taylor (2006). Yahweh: The Divine Name in the Bible. Waterloo, Ontario: Wilfrid Laurier University Press. ISBN 9780889206526. from the original on 8 January 2022. Retrieved 19 May 2020.
  66. ^ G. Lisowsky, Konkordanz zum hebräischen Alten Testament, Stuttgart 1958, p. 1612. Basic information about the form Jāh, see L. Koehler, W. Baumgartner, J.J. Stamm, Wielki słownik hebrajsko-polski i aramejsko-polski Starego Testamentu (Great Dictionary of the Hebrew-Aramaic-Polish and Polish Old Testament), Warszawa 2008, vol 1, p. 327, code No. 3514.
  67. ^ George, Abbot-Smith (1922). Manual Greek Lexicon of the New Testament. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. p. 21.
  68. ^ E. Jenni, C. Westermann, Theological Lexicon of the Old Testament, Hendrickson Publishers 1997, page 685.
  69. ^ "Genesis 2:4 in the Unicode/XML Leningrad Codex". Tanach.us. from the original on 14 September 2014. Retrieved 18 November 2011.
  70. ^ "Genesis 3:14 in the Unicode/XML Leningrad Codex". Tanach.us. from the original on 14 September 2014. Retrieved 18 November 2011.
  71. ^ "Judges 16:28 in the Unicode/XML Leningrad Codex". Tanach.us. from the original on 14 September 2014. Retrieved 18 November 2011.
  72. ^ "Genesis 15:2 in the Unicode/XML Leningrad Codex". Tanach.us. from the original on 14 September 2014. Retrieved 18 November 2011.
  73. ^ "1 Kings 2:26 in the Unicode/XML Leningrad Codex". Tanach.us. from the original on 14 September 2014. Retrieved 18 November 2011.
  74. ^ "Ezekiel 24:24 in the Unicode/XML Leningrad Codex". Tanach.us. from the original on 14 September 2014. Retrieved 18 November 2011.
  75. ^ Bezalel Porten, Archives from Elephantine: The life of an ancient Jewish military colony, 1968, University of California Press, pp. 105, 106.
  76. ^ Stern M., Greek and Latin Authors on Jews and Judaism (1974–84) 1:172; Schafer P., Judeophobia: Attitudes toward the Jews in the Ancient World (1997) 232; Cowley A., Aramaic Papyri of the 5th century (1923); Kraeling E.G., The Brooklyn Museum Aramaic Papyri: New Documents of the 5th century BCE from the Jewish Colony at Elephantine (1953)
  77. ^ Sufficient examination of the subject is available at Sean McDonough's YHWH at Patmos (1999), pp 116 to 122 and George van Kooten's The Revelation of the Name YHWH to Moses (2006), pp 114, 115, 126–136. It is worth mentioning a fundamental, though aged, source about the subject: Adolf Deissmann's Bible studies: Contributions chiefly from papyri and inscriptions to the history of the language, the literature, and the religion of Hellenistic Judaism and primitive Christianity (1909), at chapter "Greek transcriptions of the Tetragrammaton".
  78. ^ Translated by: P. Muchowski, Rękopisy znad Morza Martwego. Qumran – Wadi Murabba‘at – Masada, Kraków 1996, pp. 31.
  79. ^ Tov 2018, p. 206.
  80. ^ A complete list: A. Sanders, The Psalms Scroll of Qumran Cave 11 (11QPsa), serie Discoveries of the Judaean Desert of Jordan IV, pp. 9.
  81. ^ T. Muraoka. A Greek-Hebrew/Aramaic Two-way Index to the Septuagint. Peeters Publishers 2010. p. 72.
  82. ^ Muraoka, T. A Greek-Hebrew/Aramaic Two-way Index to the Septuagint. Peeters Publishers 2010. p. 56.
  83. ^ Hatch, E.; Redpath, H. A. (1975). A Concordance to the Septuagint: And the Other Greek Versions of the Old Testament (Including the Apocryphal Books). Vol. I. pp. 630–648.
  84. ^ H. Bietenhard, "Lord", in the New International Dictionary of New Testament Theology, C. Brown (gen. ed.), Grand Rapids, Michigan: Zondervan, 1986, Vol. 2, p. 512, ISBN 0310256208
  85. ^ Metzger, Bruce M. (17 September 1981). Manuscripts of the Greek Bible: An Introduction to Palaeography. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780195365320. from the original on 26 February 2022. Retrieved 19 May 2020.
  86. ^ Hiebert, Cox & Gentry 2001, p. 125.
  87. ^ Tov 2018, p. 304.
  88. ^ a b Pietersma 1984, p. 90.
  89. ^ Rösel, Martin (June 2007). "The Reading and Translation of the Divine Name in the Masoretic Tradition and the Greek Pentateuch". Journal for the Study of the Old Testament. 31 (4): 411. doi:10.1177/0309089207080558. ISSN 0309-0892. S2CID 170886081. from the original on 27 December 2020. Retrieved 25 August 2020.
  90. ^ Perkins, Larry. ""ΚΥΡΙΟΣ – Articulation and Non-articulation in Greek Exodus" in Bulletin of the International Organization for Septuagint and Cognate Studies, volume 41 (2008), p. 23" (PDF). (PDF) from the original on 2 August 2020. Retrieved 6 August 2020.
  91. ^ "Larry Perkins, "ΚΥΡΙΟΣ – Proper Name or Title in Greek Exodus", p. 6" (PDF). (PDF) from the original on 29 November 2020. Retrieved 6 August 2020.
  92. ^ Skehan 1957, pp. 148–160.
  93. ^ a b c d Shaw, F. "The Earliest Non-Mystical Jewish Use of Ιαω". www.jhsonline.org. from the original on 2 December 2018. Retrieved 2 December 2018.
  94. ^ ThLZ – 2016 Nr. 11 / Shaw, Frank / The Earliest Non-Mystical Jewish Use of IAO. / Bob Becking 2 December 2018 at the Wayback Machine Theologische Literaturzeitung, 241 (2016), pp. 1203–1205.
  95. ^ Runia, D. T. (28 October 2011). Philo of Alexandria: An Annotated Bibliography 1997-2006. BRILL. pp. 229–230. ISBN 978-9004210806. from the original on 26 February 2022. Retrieved 19 May 2020.; David T. Runia, Philo of Alexandria: An Annotated Bibliography 1997–2006 (BRILL 2012), pp. 229–230 19 July 2018 at the Wayback Machine
  96. ^ Müller, Mogens (1996). "The First Bible of the Church: A Plea for the Septuagint". Journal for the Study of the Old Testament. A&C Black. 1 (206): 118. ISBN 978-1-85075571-5. from the original on 26 February 2022. Retrieved 3 March 2016.
  97. ^ Rösel, Martin (June 2007). "The Reading and Translation of the Divine Name in the Masoretic Tradition and the Greek Pentateuch". Journal for the Study of the Old Testament. 31 (4): 425. doi:10.1177/0309089207080558. ISSN 0309-0892. S2CID 170886081. from the original on 27 December 2020. Retrieved 25 August 2020.
  98. ^ Pentiuc, Eugen J. (2014). "The Old Testament in Eastern Orthodox Tradition". Septuagint Manuscripts and Printed Editions. Oxford University Press USA. pp. 77–78. ISBN 978-0-19533123-3. from the original on 26 February 2022. Retrieved 3 March 2016.
  99. ^ Sean M. McDonough (1999). "2: The Use of the Name YHWH". YHWH at Patmos: Rev. 1:4 in Its Hellenistic and Early Jewish Setting, Wissenschaftliche Untersuchungen zum Neuen Testament. Mohr Siebeck. p. 60. ISBN 978-31-6147055-4. from the original on 26 January 2021. Retrieved 3 March 2016.
  100. ^ Wurthwein & Fischer 2014, p. 264.
  101. ^ Pietersma & Wright 2007, p. 46.
  102. ^ Wilkinson 2015, p. 55.
  103. ^ Wilkinson 2015, p. 70.
  104. ^ a b c d Phillips, Andrew. "The Septuagint". Orthodox England (journal). from the original on 26 September 2014. Retrieved 13 September 2014.
  105. ^ Z. Aly, L. Koenen, Three Rolls of the Early Septuagint: Genesis and Deuteronomy, Bonn 1980, s. 5, 6.
  106. ^ Meron Piotrkowski; Geoffrey Herman; Saskia Doenitz, eds. (2018). Sources and Interpretation in Ancient Judaism: Studies for Tal Ilan at Sixty. BRILL. p. 149. ISBN 9789004366985. from the original on 26 February 2022. Retrieved 19 May 2020.
  107. ^ a b Tov 2018, p. 231.
  108. ^ Michael P. Theophilos. Recently Discovered Greek Papyri and Parchment of the Psalter from the Oxford Oxyrhynchus Manuscripts: Implications for Scribal Practice and Textual Transmission 14 March 2019 at the Wayback Machine. Australian Catholic University.
  109. ^ Thomas J. Kraus (2007). Ad Fontes: Original Manuscripts and Their Significance for Studying Early Christianity: Selected Essays. Texts and Editions for New Testament Study. Vol. 3. BRILL. p. 3. ISBN 9789004161825. from the original on 26 February 2022. Retrieved 19 May 2020.
  110. ^ Larry W. Hurtado (2006). The Earliest Christian Artifacts: Manuscripts and Christian Origins. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. p. 214. ISBN 9780802828958. from the original on 26 February 2022. Retrieved 19 May 2020.
  111. ^ Wessely, Carl (1911). Studien zur Palaeographie und Papyruskunde. Vol. XI. Leipzig: H. Hassel-Verlag. p. 171.
  112. ^ Bruce M. Metzger. Manuscripts of the Greek Bible: An Introduction to Palaeography 12 August 2020 at the Wayback Machine. Oxford University Press; 17 September 1981. ISBN 978-0-19-536532-0. pp. 94–95 (commentary on p. 94, image of a page from the manuscript on p. 95), cited also on p. 35 fn. 66.
  113. ^ Eerdmans 1948, pp. 1–29.
  114. ^ Maas 1910.
  115. ^ "Among the Jews Moses referred his laws to the god who is invoked as Iao (Gr. Ιαώ)." (Diodorus Siculus, Bibliotheca Historica I, 94:2)
  116. ^ Irenaeus, "Against Heresies", II, xxxv, 3, in P. G., VII, col. 840.
  117. ^ Irenaeus, "Against Heresies", I, iv, 1, in P.G., VII, col. 481.
  118. ^ Stromata v,6,34; see Karl Wilhelm Dindorf, ed. (1869). Clementis Alexandrini Opera (in Greek). Vol. III. Oxford: Clarendon Press. p. 27. ἀτὰρ καὶ τὸ τετράγραμμον ὄνομα τὸ μυστικόν, ὃ περιέκειντο οἷς μόνοις τὸ ἄδυτον βάσιμον ἦν· λέγεται δὲ Ἰαοὺ [also ἰαοῦε; ἰὰ οὐὲ]
  119. ^ Origen, "In Joh.", II, 1, in P.G., XIV, col. 105 16 January 2017 at the Wayback Machine, where a footnote says that the last part of the name of Jeremiah refers to what the Samaritans expressed as Ἰαβαί, Eusebius as Ἰευώ, Theodoretus as Ἀϊά and the ancient Greeks as Ἰαώ.
  120. ^ Eusebius, Praeparatio evangelica I, ix, in P.G., XXI, col. 72 A; and also ibid. X, ix, in P.G., XXI, col. 808 B.
  121. ^ Epiphanius, Panarion, I, iii, 40, in P.G., XLI, col. 685
  122. ^ Jerome, "Ep. xxv ad Marcell.", in P. L., XXII, col. 429.
  123. ^ "the word Nethinim means in Hebrew 'gift of Iao', that is of the God who is" (Theodoret, "Quaest. in I Paral.", cap. ix, in P. G., LXXX, col. 805 C)
  124. ^ Theodoret, "Ex. quaest.", xv, in P. G., LXXX, col. 244 and "Haeret. Fab.", V, iii, in P. G., LXXXIII, col. 460 11 December 2021 at the Wayback Machine
  125. ^ "nomen Domini apud Hebraeos quatuor litterarum est, jod, he, vau, he: quod proprie Dei vocabulum sonat: et legi potest JAHO, et Hebraei ἄῤῥητον, id est, ineffabile opinatur." ("Breviarium in Psalmos. Psalm. viii.", in P.L., XXVI, col. 838 A)
  126. ^ ZATW (W. de Gruyter, 1936. p. 266)
  127. ^ "British Library". from the original on 26 February 2022. Retrieved 23 September 2020.
  128. ^ McNamara, Martin J. (1 February 2000). The Psalms in the Early Irish Church. Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 49. ISBN 978-0-567-54034-8.
  129. ^ "Manuscrits de Cîteaux". from the original on 27 November 2020. Retrieved 23 September 2020.
  130. ^ Sebastian P. Brock The Bible in the Syriac Tradition St. Ephrem Ecumenical Research Institute, 1988. Quote Page 17: "The Peshitta Old Testament was translated directly from the original Hebrew text, and most Biblical scholars believe that the Peshitta New Testament directly from the original Greek. The so-called ""deuterocanonical" books, or "Apocrypha" were all translated from Greek, with ..."
  131. ^ a b c Bloch, Joshua (1919). "The Authorship of the Peshitta". The American Journal of Semitic Languages and Literatures. 35 (4): 215–222. doi:10.1086/369885. ISSN 1062-0516. JSTOR 528619. S2CID 170883669.
  132. ^ Adam Kamesar. Jerome, Greek Scholarship, and the Hebrew Bible: A Study of the Quaestiones Hebraicae in Genesim. Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1993. ISBN 9780198147275. page 97.
  133. ^ In the 7th paragraph of Introduction to the Old Testament of the New English Bible, Sir Godfry Driver wrote 26 April 2006 at the Wayback Machine, "The early translators generally substituted 'Lord' for [YHWH]. [...] The Reformers preferred Jehovah, which first appeared as Iehouah in 1530 A.D., in Tyndale's translation of the Pentateuch (Exodus 6.3), from which it passed into other Protestant Bibles."
  134. ^ "Clifford Hubert Durousseau, "Yah: A Name of God" in Jewish Bible Quarterly, Vol. 42, No. 1, January–March 2014" (PDF). (PDF) from the original on 12 September 2014. Retrieved 13 September 2014.
  135. ^ Miller, Patrick D. (2000). The Religion of Ancient Israel. London: Westminster John Knox Press. ISBN 978-0664221454. from the original on 1 May 2016. Retrieved 3 March 2016.
  136. ^ Harris, Stephen L. (1985), Understanding the Bible: A Reader's Introduction (2nd ed.), Palo Alto, California: Mayfield, p. 21
  137. ^ Yoma; Tosefta Sotah, 13
  138. ^ William David Davies, Louis Finkelstein, Steven T. Katz, The Cambridge History of Judaism: The Late Roman-Rabbinic Period (2006), p. 779: "The text clearly testifies that the pronunciation of the Ineffable Name was one of the climaxes of the Sacred Service: it was entrusted exclusively to the High Priest once a year on the Day of Atonement in the Holy of Holies."
  139. ^ For example, see Weiss, Saul; Soloveitchik, Joseph Dov (February 2005). Insights of Rabbi Joseph B. Soloveitchik. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 9. ISBN 978-0-7425-4469-7. from the original on 26 January 2021. Retrieved 19 May 2020. and Rozen, Minna (1992). Jewish Identity and Society in the 17th century. J. C. B. Mohr. p. 67. ISBN 978-3-16-145770-8. from the original on 26 February 2022. Retrieved 19 May 2020.
  140. ^ Rösel, Martin (June 2007). "The Reading and Translation of the Divine Name in the Masoretic Tradition and the Greek Pentateuch". Journal for the Study of the Old Testament. 31 (4): 418. doi:10.1177/0309089207080558. ISSN 0309-0892. S2CID 170886081. from the original on 27 December 2020. Retrieved 25 August 2020. It is in this book that we find the strictest prohibition against pronouncing the name of the Lord. The Hebrew of 24.16, which may be translated as 'And he that blasphemes/curses (3B?) the name of the Lord (9H9J), he shall surely be put to death', in the LXX is subjected to a ...
  141. ^ "They [the Priests, when reciting the Priestly Blessing, when the Temple stood] recite [God's] name – i.e., the name yod-hei-vav-hei, as it is written. This is what is referred to as the 'explicit name' in all sources. In the country [that is, outside the Temple], it is read [using another one of God's names], א-ד-נ-י ('Adonai'), for only in the Temple is this name [of God] recited as it is written." – Mishneh Torah Maimonides, Laws of Prayer and Priestly Blessings, 14:10
  142. ^ Kiddushin 71a states, "I am not referred to as [My name] is written. My name is written yod-hei-vav-hei and it is pronounced 'Adonai'."
  143. ^ a b Stanley S. Seidner, "HaShem: Uses through the Ages", Unpublished paper, Rabbinical Society Seminar, Los Angeles, California, 1987.
  144. ^ For example, two common prayer books are titled "Tehillat Hashem" and "Avodat Hashem". Or, a person may tell a friend, "Hashem helped me to perform a great mitzvah today."
  145. ^ See Deut. 12:2–4: "You must destroy all the sites at which the nations you are to dispossess worshiped their gods...tear down their altars...and cut down the images of their gods, obliterating their name from that site. Do not do the same thing to Hashem (YHWH) your God."
  146. ^ "Based on the Talmud (Shavuot 35a-b), Maimonides (Hilkhot Yesodei HaTorah, Chapter 6), and the Shulchan Arukh (Yoreh Deah 276:9) it is prohibited to erase or obliterate the seven Hebrew names for God found in the Torah (in addition to the above, there is E-l, E-loha, Tzeva-ot, Sha-dai,...).
  147. ^ "Why do some Jews write "G-d" instead of "God"?". ReformJudaism.org. 19 February 2014. from the original on 9 December 2018. Retrieved 9 December 2018.
  148. ^ a b In קל"ח פתחי חכמה by Rabbi Moshe Chaim Luzzato, Opening #31; English translation in book "138 Openings of Wisdom" by Rabbi Avraham Greenbaum, 2008, also viewable at http://www.breslev.co.il/articles/spirituality_and_faith/kabbalah_and_mysticism/the_name_of_havayah.aspx?id=10847&language=english 6 November 2011 at the Wayback Machine, accessed 12 March 2012
  149. ^ The Mystical Qabalah, Dion Fortune, Chapter XVIII, 25
  150. ^ The Talmud Yerushalmi and Graeco-Roman culture: Volume 3 – Page 152 Peter Schäfer, Catherine Hezser – 2002 " In fact, there is no proof in any other rabbinic writing that Samaritans used to pronounce the Divine Name when they took an oath. The only evidence for Sarmaritans uttering the Tetragrammaton at that ..."
  151. ^ Cameron, Euan (1 April 2019). The Annotated Luther, Volume 6: The Interpretation of Scripture. Fortress Press. pp. 62–63. ISBN 978-1-5064-6043-7.
  152. ^ "The Name of God in the Liturgy". United States Conference of Catholic Bishops. 2008. …pronouncing the God of Israel's proper name," known as the holy or divine tetragrammaton, written with four consonants, YHWH, in the Hebrew alphabet. In order to vocalize it, it is necessary to introduce vowels that alter the written and spoken forms of the name (i.e. "Yahweh" or "Jehovah").
  153. ^ Loewen, Jacob A. (2020). The Bible in Cross Cultural Perspective (Revised ed.). William Carey Publishing. p. 182. ISBN 978-1-64508-304-7. Shorter forms of Yahweh: The name Yahweh also appears in a shortened form, transliterated Jah (pronounced Yah) in the Revised Version and the American Standard Version, either in the text or footnote: "my song is Jah" (Ex 15:2); "by Jah, his name" (Ps 68:4); "I shall not see Jah in Jah's land (Is 38:11). It is common also in such often untranslated compounds as hallelujah 'praise Jah' (Ps 135:3; 146:10, 148:14), and in proper names like Elijah, 'my God is Jah,' Adonijah, 'my Lord is Jah,' Isaiah, 'Jah has saved.'
  154. ^ . Archived from the original on 4 May 2010.
  155. ^ "HTC: An Orthodox Critique of Bible Translations". from the original on 7 October 2014. Retrieved 15 September 2014.
  156. ^ "orthodoxresearchinstitute.org". from the original on 16 May 2013. Retrieved 15 September 2014.
  157. ^ Fairbarn, Donald (2002). Eastern Orthodoxy through Western Eyes. Westminster John Knox Press. p. 34. ISBN 978-0-66422497-4. from the original on 25 February 2021. Retrieved 19 May 2020.
  158. ^ Pentiuc, Eugen J. (April 2014). The Old Testament in Eastern Orthodox Tradition. Oxford University Press USA. p. 77. ISBN 978-0-19-533123-3.
  159. ^ McGuckin, John Anthony (15 December 2010). The Encyclopedia of Eastern Orthodox Christianity. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-1-4443-9254-8.
  160. ^ "Dixítque íterum Deus ad Móysen: «Hæc dices fíliis Israel: Iahveh (Qui est), Deus patrum vestrórum, Deus Abraham, Deus Isaac et Deus Iacob misit me ad vos; hoc nomen mihi est in ætérnum, et hoc memoriále meum in generatiónem et generatiónem." (Exodus 3:15).
  161. ^ "Dominus quasi vir pugnator; Iahveh nomen eius!" (Exodus 15:3).
  162. ^ "Aedificavitque Moyses altare et vocavit nomen eius Iahveh Nissi (Dominus vexillum meum)" (Exodus 17:15).
  163. ^ "Exodus 3:15: Dixítque íterum Deus ad Móysen: «Hæc dices fíliis Israel: Dominus, Deus patrum vestrórum, Deus Abraham, Deus Isaac et Deus Iacob misit me ad vos; hoc nomen mihi est in ætérnum, et hoc memoriále meum in generatiónem et generatiónem."
  164. ^ "Exodus 15:3: Dominus quasi vir pugnator; Dominus nomen eius!"
  165. ^ "Exodus 17:15: Aedificavitque Moyses altare et vocavit nomen eius Dominus Nissi (Dominus vexillum meum)"
  166. ^ "Letter of the Congregation for Divine Worship and the Discipline of the Sacraments (PDF)" (PDF). (PDF) from the original on 8 August 2016. Retrieved 17 May 2016.
  167. ^ (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 25 November 2014. Retrieved 15 May 2014.
  168. ^ Pfatteicher, Philip H. (1990). Commentary on the Lutheran Book of Worship: Lutheran Liturgy in Its Ecumenical Context. Augsburg Fortress. p. 384. ISBN 978-0-8006-0392-2.
  169. ^ Keller, Bettina (2009). Barocke Sakristeien in Süddeutschland. Chicago and London: Imhof. p. 155. ISBN 9783865683304.
  170. ^ Cosgrove, Denis (1999). "Global Illumination and Enlightenment in the Geographies of Vincenzo Coronelli and Athansius Kircher". Geography and Enlightenment. Chicago, Illinois and London, England: University of Chicago Press. pp. 53–54. ISBN 0226487210.
  171. ^ Rodov, Ilia (2017). "Capturing the Ineffable: the Tetragrammaton in Synagogue Art of Romanian Moldavia". The Paths of Daniel. Studies in Judaism and Jewish Culture in Honor of Rabbi Professor Daniel Sperber. Ramat Gan: Bar-Ilan University Press. p. 202. ISBN 9789652264015.
  172. ^ Zeitschrift für Kirchengeschichte (vol. 67). 1955. p. 149.

Sources edit

  • Barton, John (17 May 2022). "Tetragrammaton". In Louth, Andrew (ed.). The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (4 ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780199642465.
  • Becchio, Bruno; Schadé, Schadé (2006). Encyclopedia of World Religions. Foreign Media Group. ISBN 978-1-60136-000-7. from the original on 25 January 2021. Retrieved 29 July 2020.
  • Cross, Frank Moore (1997). Canaanite Myth and Hebrew Epic (reprint ed.). Harvard University Press. pp. 61–63. ISBN 0674091760. from the original on 19 August 2020. Retrieved 19 May 2020.
  • De Troyer, Kristin (2005). "The Names of God. Their Pronunciation and Their Translation. A Digital Tour of Some of the Main Witnesses". Lectio Difficilior: European Electronic Journal for Feminist Exegesis. Theol. Fakultät der Universität Bern (2). ISSN 1661-3317. OCLC 174649029. from the original on 11 July 2020. Retrieved 9 December 2009.
  • Eerdmans, Bernardus D. (1948). [The Name Jahu ] ; (The Name Jahu). Brill. from the original on 11 May 2021. Retrieved 11 May 2021.
  • Hiebert, Robert J.V.; Cox, Claude E.; Gentry, Peter J. (2001). The Old Greek Psalter: Studies in Honour of Albert Pietersma. Bloomsbury. ISBN 978-0-567-37628-2. from the original on 9 October 2021. Retrieved 6 August 2020.
  • Maas, Anthony John (1910). "Jehovah" . In Herbermann, Charles (ed.). Catholic Encyclopedia. Vol. 8. New York: Robert Appleton Company.
  • Pietersma, Albert (1984), "Kyrios or Tetragram: A Renewed Quest for the Original LXX", in Albert Pietersma; Claude Cox (eds.), De Septuaginta: Studies in Honour of John William Wevers on his sixty-fifth birthday (PDF), Mississauga: Benben, (PDF) from the original on 7 May 2021, retrieved 6 August 2020
  • Pietersma, Albert; Wright, Benjamin G. (2007). A New English Translation of the Septuagint. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-972394-2. from the original on 9 October 2021. Retrieved 6 August 2020.
  • Reeland, Adrian (1707). Decas exercitationum philologicarum de vera pronuntiatione nominis Jehova, quarum quinque priores lectionem Jehova impugnant, posteriores tuentur. Cum praefatione Adriani Relandi. Johannis Coster. from the original on 26 January 2021. Retrieved 10 November 2020.
  • Schneider, Thomas (2007). "The First Documented Occurrence [sic] of the God Yahweh? (Book of the Dead Princeton "Roll 5")". Journal of Ancient Near Eastern Religions. 7 (2): 113–120. doi:10.1163/156921207783876422.
  • Skehan, Patrick W. (1957). "The Qumran Manuscripts and Textual Criticism". Vetus Testamentum (supp. 4): 148–160., reprinted in Frank Moore Cross; Šěmaryahū Ṭalmōn (1975). Qumran and the History of the Biblical Text. Harvard University Press. p. 221. ISBN 978-0-674-74362-5. from the original on 11 August 2020. Retrieved 6 August 2020.
  • Stone, Robert E. II (2000). "I Am Who I Am". In Freedman, David Noel; Myers, Allen C. (eds.). Eerdmans Dictionary of the Bible. Eerdmans. ISBN 9789053565032.
  • Tov, Emanuel (2018). Scribal Practices and Approaches Reflected in the Texts Found in the Judean Desert. BRILL. ISBN 978-90-474-1434-6. from the original on 16 August 2021. Retrieved 6 August 2020.
  • Wilkinson, Robert J. (2015). Tetragrammaton: Western Christians and the Hebrew Name of God: From the Beginnings to the Seventeenth Century. BRILL. ISBN 978-90-04-28817-1. from the original on 9 October 2021. Retrieved 6 August 2020.
  • Wurthwein, Ernst; Fischer, Alexander Achilles (2014). The Text of the Old Testament: An Introduction to the Biblia Hebraica. Wm. B. Eerdmans. ISBN 978-0-8028-6680-6. from the original on 9 October 2021. Retrieved 6 August 2020.

External links edit

 
Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article "Tetragrammaton".
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December 20, 2023
tetragrammaton, other, uses, disambiguation, yhwh, redirects, here, historic, iron, deity, yahweh, modern, jewish, conception, judaism, abrahamic, religions, episode, drama, series, person, interest, yhwh, person, interest, gram, from, ancient, greek, τετραγρά. For other uses see Tetragrammaton disambiguation YHWH redirects here For the historic Iron Age deity see Yahweh For the modern Jewish conception of God see God in Judaism and God in Abrahamic religions For the episode of the drama series Person of Interest see YHWH Person of Interest The Tetragrammaton ˌ t ɛ t r e ˈ ɡ r ae m e t ɒ n TET re GRAM e ton from Ancient Greek tetragrammaton tetragrammaton consisting of four letters or the Tetragram is the four letter Hebrew theonym יהוה transliterated as YHWH or YHVH the name of God in the Hebrew Bible The four letters written and read from right to left in Hebrew are yodh he waw and he 1 The name may be derived from a verb that means to be to exist to cause to become or to come to pass 2 While there is no consensus about the structure and etymology of the name the form Yahweh is now accepted almost universally though the vocalization Jehovah continues to have wide usage 3 4 5 The Tetragrammaton in Phoenician 12th century BCE to 150 BCE Paleo Hebrew 10th century BCE to 135 CE and square Hebrew 3rd century BCE to present scriptsThe books of the Torah and the rest of the Hebrew Bible except Esther Ecclesiastes and with a possible instance of the short form יה in verse 8 6 the Song of Songs contain this Hebrew name 4 Observant Jews and those who follow Talmudic Jewish traditions do not pronounce יהוה nor do they read aloud proposed transcription forms such as Yahweh or Yehovah instead they replace it with a different term whether in addressing or referring to the God of Israel Common substitutions in Hebrew are א ד נ י Adonai lit transl My Lords Pluralis majestatis taken as singular or Elohim literally gods but treated as singular when meaning God in prayer or HaShem The Name in everyday speech Contents 1 Four letters 2 Origins 2 1 Etymology 3 Vocalisation 3 1 YHWH and Hebrew script 3 2 Yahweh 4 Non biblical texts 4 1 Texts with Tetragrammaton 4 1 1 Texts with similar theonyms 4 1 2 Magical papyri 4 1 3 Vernacular evidence 5 Hebrew Bible 5 1 Masoretic Text 5 2 Leningrad Codex 5 3 Dead Sea Scrolls 6 Septuagint 6 1 Manuscripts of the Septuagint and later Greek renderings 7 Patristic writings 8 Peshitta 9 Vulgate 10 Usage in religious traditions 10 1 Judaism 10 1 1 Spoken prohibitions 10 1 2 Written prohibitions 10 1 3 Kabbalah 10 2 Samaritans 10 3 Christianity 10 3 1 Christian translations 10 3 2 Eastern Orthodoxy 10 3 3 Catholicism 10 3 4 Lutheranism and Anglicanism 11 Usage in art 12 See also 13 References 13 1 Notes 13 2 Citations 13 3 Sources 14 External linksFour letters editThe letters properly written and read from right to left in Biblical Hebrew are Hebrew Letter name Pronunciationי Yod j ה He h ו Waw w or placeholder for O U vowel see mater lectionis ה He h or often a silent letter at the end of a word Origins editEtymology edit The Hebrew Bible explains it by the formula א ה י ה א ש ר א ה י ה ehye ăser ehye pronounced ʔehˈje ʔaˈʃer ʔehˈje transl he transl I Am that I Am the name of God revealed to Moses in Exodus 3 14 6 This would frame Y H W H as a derivation from the Hebrew triconsonantal root היה h y h to be become come to pass with a third person masculine י y prefix equivalent to English he 7 8 in place of the first person א thereby affording translations as he who causes to exist 9 10 he who is 8 etc although this would elicit the form Y H Y H יהיה not Y H W H To rectify this some scholars proposed that the Tetragrammaton represents a substitution of the medial y for w an occasionally attested practice in Biblical Hebrew as both letters function as matres lectionis others proposed that the Tetragrammaton derived instead from the triconsonantal root הוה h w h to be constitute with the final form eliciting similar translations as those derived from h y h As such the consensus among modern scholars considers that YHWH represents a verbal form with the y representing the third masculine verbal prefix of the verb hyh to be as indicated in the Hebrew Bible 11 Vocalisation editYHWH and Hebrew script edit Main article Mater lectionis See also Biblical Hebrew orthography Hebrew diacritics Tiberian vocalization and Niqqud nbsp Transcription of the divine name as IAW in the 1st century BCE Septuagint manuscript 4Q120Like all letters in the Hebrew script the letters in YHWH originally indicated consonants In unpointed Biblical Hebrew most vowels are not written but some are indicated ambiguously as certain letters came to have a secondary function indicating vowels similar to the Latin use of I and V to indicate either the consonants j w or the vowels i u Hebrew letters used to indicate vowels are known as א מ ו ת ק ר יא ה imot kri a or matres lectionis mothers of reading Therefore it can be difficult to deduce how a word is pronounced from its spelling and each of the four letters in the Tetragrammaton can individually serve as a mater lectionis Several centuries later between the 5th through 10th centuries CE the original consonantal text of the Hebrew Bible was provided with vowel marks by the Masoretes to assist reading In places where the word to be read the qere differed from that indicated by the consonants of the written text the ketiv they wrote the qere in the margin as a note showing what was to be read In such a case the vowel marks of the qere were written on the ketiv For a few frequent words the marginal note was omitted these are called qere perpetuum One of the frequent cases was the Tetragrammaton which according to later Rabbinite Jewish practices should not be pronounced but read as א ד נ י Adonai lit transl My Lords Pluralis majestatis taken as singular or if the previous or next word already was Adonai as Elohim א ל ה ים God Writing the vowel diacritics of these two words on the consonants YHVH produces י ה ו ה and י ה ו ה respectively ghost words that would spell Yehovah and Yehovih respectively 12 13 The oldest complete or nearly complete manuscripts of the Masoretic Text with Tiberian vocalisation such as the Aleppo Codex and the Leningrad Codex both of the 10th or 11th century mostly write י הו ה yhwah with no pointing on the first h It could be because the o diacritic point plays no useful role in distinguishing between Adonai and Elohim and so is redundant or it could point to the qere being ש מ א sema which is Aramaic for the Name Yahweh edit See also Yahweh and Jehovah The scholarly consensus is that the original pronunciation of the Tetragrammaton was Yahweh י ה ו ה The strong consensus of biblical scholarship is that the original pronunciation of the name YHWH was Yahweh 14 15 R R Reno agrees that when in the late first millennium Jewish scholars inserted indications of vowels into the Hebrew Bible they signalled that what was pronounced was Adonai Lord non Jews later combined the vowels of Adonai with the consonants of the Tetragrammaton and invented the name Jehovah 16 Paul Jouon and Takamitsu Muraoka state The Qre is י ה ו ה the Lord whilst the Ktiv is probably י ה ו ה according to ancient witnesses and they add Note 1 In our translations we have used Yahweh a form widely accepted by scholars instead of the traditional Jehovah 17 In 1869 Smith s Bible Dictionary a collaborative work of noted scholars of the time declared Whatever therefore be the true pronunciation of the word there can be little doubt that it is not Jehovah 18 Mark P Arnold remarks that certain conclusions drawn from the pronunciation of יהוה as Yahweh would be valid even if the scholarly consensus were not correct 19 Thomas Romer holds that the original pronunciation of Yhwh was Yaho or Yahu 20 Max Reisel in The Mysterious Name of YHWH says that the vocalisation of the Tetragrammaton must originally have been YeHuaH or YaHuaH 21 The element yahwi ia wi is found in Amorite personal names e g yahwi dagan commonly denoted as the semantic equivalent of the Akkadian ibassi DN The latter refers to one existing which in the context of deities can also refer to one s eternal existence which aligns with Bible verses such as Exodus 3 15 and views that ehye ăser ehye can mean I am the Existing One 22 It also explains the ease of Israelites applying the Olam or everlasting epithet from El 23 to Yahweh 24 The adoption at the time of the Protestant Reformation of Jehovah in place of the traditional Lord in some new translations vernacular or Latin of the biblical Tetragrammaton stirred up dispute about its correctness In 1711 Adriaan Reland published a book containing the text of 17th century writings five attacking and five defending it 25 As critical of the use of Jehovah it incorporated writings by Johannes van den Driesche 1550 1616 known as Drusius Sixtinus Amama 1593 1629 Louis Cappel 1585 1658 Johannes Buxtorf 1564 1629 Jacob Alting 1618 1679 Defending Jehovah were writings by Nicholas Fuller 1557 1626 and Thomas Gataker 1574 1654 and three essays by Johann Leusden 1624 1699 The opponents of Jehovah said that the Tetragrammaton should be pronounced as Adonai and in general do not speculate on what may have been the original pronunciation although mention is made of the fact that some held that Jahve was that pronunciation 26 Almost two centuries after the 17th century works reprinted by Reland 19th century Wilhelm Gesenius reported in his Thesaurus Philologicus on the main reasoning of those who argued either for י ה ו ה Yah w oh or י ה ו ה Yahweh as the original pronunciation of the Tetragrammaton as opposed to י ה ו ה Yehovah He explicitly cited the 17th century writers mentioned by Reland as supporters of י ה ו ה as well as implicitly citing Johann David Michaelis 1717 1791 and Johann Friedrich von Meyer 1772 1849 27 the latter of whom Johann Heinrich Kurtz described as the last of those who have maintained with great pertinacity that י ה ו ה was the correct and original pointing 28 Edward Robinson s translation of a work by Gesenius gives Gesenius personal view as My own view coincides with that of those who regard this name as anciently pronounced י ה ו ה Yahweh like the Samaritans 29 Non biblical texts editTexts with Tetragrammaton edit Current overviews begin with the Egyptian epigraphy 30 A hieroglyphic inscription of the Pharaoh Amenhotep III 1402 1363 BCE mentions a group of Shasu whom it calls the Shasu of Yhw read as ja h wi or ja h wa James D G Dunn and John W Rogerson suggested that the Amenhotep III inscription may indicate that worship of Yahweh originated in an area to the southeast of Palestine 31 A later inscription from the time of Ramesses II 1279 1213 BCE in West Amara associates the Shasu nomads with S rr interpreted as Mount Seir spoken of in some texts as where Yahweh comes from 32 33 Frank Moore Cross says It must be emphasized that the Amorite verbal form is of interest only in attempting to reconstruct the proto Hebrew or South Canaanite verbal form used in the name Yahweh We should argue vigorously against attempts to take Amorite yuhwi and yahu as divine epithets 34 Egyptologist Thomas Schneider argued for the existence of a theophoric name in a Book of the Dead papyrus dating to the late 18th or early 19th dynasty which he translated as adōni rō e yah meaning My lord is the shepherd of Yah 35 nbsp The Mesha Stele bears the earliest known reference 840 BCE to the Israelite god Yahweh 36 The previously oldest known inscription of the Tetragrammaton dates to 840 BCE the Mesha Stele mentions the Israelite god Yahweh 36 In 8th and 7th century theophorics Yahweh can be spelled IA IA u and ia 37 Roughly contemporary are pottery sherds and plaster inscriptions found at Kuntillet Ajrud with mentioning Yahweh of Samaria and his Asherah and Yahweh of Teman and his Asherah 38 A tomb inscription at Khirbet el Qom also mentions Yahweh 39 40 41 Dated slightly later 7th century BCE there are an ostracon from the collections of Shlomo Moussaieff 42 full citation needed and two tiny silver amulet scrolls found at Ketef Hinnom that mention Yahweh 43 Also a wall inscription dated to the late 6th century BCE with mention of Yahweh had been found in a tomb at Khirbet Beit Lei 44 nbsp YHWH in one of the Lachish lettersYahweh is mentioned also in the Lachish letters 587 BCE and the slightly earlier Tel Arad ostraca and on a stone from Mount Gerizim 3rd or the beginning of the 2nd century BCE 45 Texts with similar theonyms edit The theonyms YHW and YHH are found in the Elephantine papyri of about 500 BCE 46 One ostracon with YH is thought to have lost the final letter of an original YHW 47 48 These texts are in Aramaic not the language of the Hebrew Tetragrammaton YHWH and unlike the Tetragrammaton are of three letters not four However because they were written by Jews they are assumed to refer to the same deity and to be either an abbreviated form of the Tetragrammaton or the original name from which the name YHWH developed Kristin De Troyer says that YHW or YHH and also YH are attested in the fifth and fourth century BCE papyri from Elephantine and Wadi Daliyeh In both collections one can read the name of God as Yaho or Yahu and Ya 49 The name YH Yah Jah the first syllable of Yahweh appears 50 times in the Old Testament 26 times alone Exodus 15 2 17 16 and 24 times in the Psalms 24 times in the expression Hallelujah 50 According to De Troyer the short names instead of being ineffable like Yahweh seem to have been in spoken use not only as elements of personal names but also in reference to God The Samaritans thus seem to have pronounced the Name of God as Jaho or Ja She cites Theodoret c 393 c 460 as that the shorter names of God were pronounced by the Samaritans as Iabe and by the Jews as Ia She adds that the Bible also indicates that the short form Yah was spoken as in the phrase Halleluyah 49 The Patrologia Graeca texts of Theodoret differ slightly from what De Troyer says In Quaestiones in Exodum 15 he says that Samaritans pronounced the name Ἰabe and Jews the name Aia 51 The Greek term Aia is a transcription of the Exodus 3 14 phrase א ה י ה ehyeh I am 52 In Haereticarum Fabularum Compendium 5 3 he uses the spelling Ἰabai 53 Magical papyri edit Among the Jews in the Second Temple Period magical amulets became very popular Representations of the Tetragrammaton name or combinations inspired by it in languages such as Greek and Coptic giving some indication of its pronunciation occur as names of powerful agents in Jewish magical papyri found in Egypt 54 Iabe Iave and Iaba Yaba occurs frequently 55 apparently the Samaritan enunciation of the tetragrammaton YHWH Yahweh 56 The most commonly invoked god is Iaw Iaō another vocalization of the tetragrammaton YHWH 57 There is a single instance of the heptagram iawoyhe iaōouee 58 Yawe is found in an Ethiopian Christian list of magical names of Jesus purporting to have been taught by him to his disciples 55 Vernacular evidence edit Also relevant is the use of the name in theophoric names there is a common Hebrew prefix form Yeho or Yehō and a common suffix form Yahu or Yehu These provide some corroborating evidence of how YHWH was pronounced 59 self published source Hebrew Bible editMasoretic Text edit According to the Jewish Encyclopedia it occurs 5 410 times in the Hebrew scriptures 60 In the Hebrew Bible the Tetragrammaton occurs 6828 times 43 142 as can be seen in Kittel s Biblia Hebraica and the Biblia Hebraica Stuttgartensia In addition the marginal notes or masorah note 1 indicate that in another 134 places where the received text has the word Adonai an earlier text had the Tetragrammaton 61 note 2 which would add up to 142 additional occurrences Even in the Dead Sea Scrolls practice varied with regard to use of the Tetragrammaton 62 According to Brown Driver Briggs י ה ו ה qere א ד נ י occurs 6 518 times and י ה ו ה qere א ל ה ים 305 times in the Masoretic Text The first appearance of the Tetragrammaton is in the Book of Genesis 2 4 63 The only books it does not appear in are Ecclesiastes the Book of Esther and Song of Songs 43 4 In the Book of Esther the Tetragrammaton does not appear but it has been distinguished acrostic wise in the initial or last letters of four consecutive words note 3 as indicated in Est 7 5 by writing the four letters in red in at least three ancient Hebrew manuscripts 64 original research The short form י ה Yah a digrammaton occurs 50 times if the phrase hallellu Yah is included 65 66 43 times in the Psalms once in Exodus 15 2 17 16 Isaiah 12 2 26 4 and twice in Isaiah 38 11 It also appears in the Greek phrase Ἁllhloyia Alleluia Hallelujah in Revelation 19 1 3 4 6 67 Other short forms are found as a component of theophoric Hebrew names in the Bible jo or jeho 29 names and jahu or jah 127 jnames A form of jahu jeho appears in the name Elioenai Elj eh oenai in 1Ch 3 23 24 4 36 7 8 Ezr 22 22 27 Neh 12 41 The following graph shows the absolute number of occurrences of the Tetragrammaton 6828 in all in the books in the Masoretic Text 68 without relation to the length of the books Leningrad Codex edit Six presentations of the Tetragrammaton with some or all of the vowel points of א ד נ י Adonai or א ל ה ים Elohim are found in the Leningrad Codex of 1008 1010 as shown below The close transcriptions do not indicate that the Masoretes intended the name to be pronounced in that way see qere perpetuum Chapter and verse Masoretic Text display Close transcription of the display Ref ExplanationGenesis 2 4 י הו ה Yǝhwah 69 This is the first occurrence of the Tetragrammaton in the Hebrew Bible and shows the most common set of vowels used in the Masoretic Text It is the same as the form used in Genesis 3 14 below but with the dot holam on the first he left out because it is a little redundant Genesis 3 14 י ה ו ה Yǝhōwah 70 This is a set of vowels used rarely in the Masoretic Text and are essentially the vowels from Adonai with the hataf patakh reverting to its natural state as a shewa Judges 16 28 י ה ו ה Yĕhōwih 71 When the Tetragrammaton is preceded by Adonai it receives the vowels from the name Elohim instead The hataf segol does not revert to a shewa because doing so could lead to confusion with the vowels in Adonai Genesis 15 2 י הו ה Yĕhwih 72 Just as above this uses the vowels from Elohim but like the second version the dot holam on the first he is omitted as redundant 1 Kings 2 26 י ה ו ה Yǝhōwih 73 Here the dot holam on the first he is present but the hataf segol does get reverted to a shewa Ezekiel 24 24 י הו ה Yǝhwih 74 Here the dot holam on the first he is omitted and the hataf segol gets reverted to a shewa ĕ is hataf segol ǝ is the pronounced form of plain shva Dead Sea Scrolls edit In the Dead Sea Scrolls and other Hebrew and Aramaic texts the Tetragrammaton and some other names of God in Judaism such as El or Elohim were sometimes written in paleo Hebrew script showing that they were treated specially Most of God s names were pronounced until about the 2nd century BCE Then as a tradition of non pronunciation of the names developed alternatives for the Tetragrammaton appeared such as Adonai Kurios and Theos 49 The 4Q120 a Greek fragment of Leviticus 26 2 16 discovered in the Dead Sea scrolls Qumran has iaw Iao the Greek form of the Hebrew trigrammaton YHW 75 The historian John the Lydian 6th century wrote The Roman Varro 116 27 BCE defining him that is the Jewish God says that he is called Iao in the Chaldean mysteries De Mensibus IV 53 Van Cooten mentions that Iao is one of the specifically Jewish designations for God and the Aramaic papyri from the Jews at Elephantine show that Iao is an original Jewish term 76 77 The preserved manuscripts from Qumran show the inconsistent practice of writing the Tetragrammaton mainly in biblical quotations in some manuscripts is written in paleo Hebrew script square scripts or replaced with four dots or dashes tetrapuncta The members of the Qumran community were aware of the existence of the Tetragrammaton but this was not tantamount to granting consent for its existing use and speaking This is evidenced not only by special treatment of the Tetragrammaton in the text but by the recommendation recorded in the Rule of Association VI 27 Who will remember the most glorious name which is above all 78 The table below presents all the manuscripts in which the Tetragrammaton is written in paleo Hebrew script note 4 in square scripts and all the manuscripts in which the copyists have used tetrapuncta Copyists used the tetrapuncta apparently to warn against pronouncing the name of God 79 In the manuscript number 4Q248 is in the form of bars PALEO HEBREW SQUARE TETRAPUNCTA1Q11 1QPsb 2 5 3 link 1 2Q13 2QJer link 2 1QS VIII 14 link 3 1Q14 1QpMic 1 5 1 2 link 4 4Q27 4QNumb link 5 1QIsaa XXXIII 7 XXXV 15 link 6 1QpHab VI 14 X 7 14 XI 10 link 7 4Q37 4QDeutj link 8 4Q53 4QSamc 13 III 7 7 link 9 1Q15 1QpZeph 3 4 link 10 4Q78 4QXIIc link 11 4Q175 4QTest 1 192Q3 2QExodb 2 2 7 1 8 3 link 12 13 4Q96 4QPso link 14 4Q176 4QTanḥ 1 2 i 6 7 9 1 2 ii 3 8 10 6 8 10 link 15 3Q3 3QLam 1 2 link 16 4Q158 4QRPa link 17 4Q196 4QpapToba ar 17 i 5 18 15 link 18 4Q20 4QExodj 1 2 3 link 19 4Q163 4Qpap pIsac I 19 II 6 15 16 1 21 9 III 3 9 25 7 link 20 4Q248 history of the kings of Greece 5 link 21 4Q26b 4QLevg linia 8 link 22 4QpNah 4Q169 II 10 link 23 4Q306 4QMen of People Who Err 3 5 link 24 4Q38a 4QDeutk2 5 6 link 25 4Q173 4QpPsb 4 2 link 26 4Q382 4QparaKings et al 9 11 5 78 24Q57 4QIsac link 27 4Q177 4QCatena A link 28 4Q391 4Qpap Pseudo Ezechiel 36 52 55 58 65 link 29 4Q161 4QpIsaa 8 10 13 link 30 4Q215a 4QTime of Righteousness link 31 4Q462 4QNarrative C 7 12 link 32 4Q165 4QpIsae 6 4 link 33 4Q222 4QJubg link 34 4Q524 4QTb 6 13 4 5 link 35 4Q171 4QpPsa II 4 12 24 III 14 15 IV 7 10 19 link 36 4Q225 4QPsJuba link 37 XḤev SeEschat Hymn XḤev Se 6 2 711Q2 11QLevb 2 2 6 7 link 38 4Q365 4QRPc link 39 11Q5 11QPsa 80 link 40 4Q377 4QApocryphal Pentateuch B 2 ii 3 5 link 41 4Q382 4Qpap paraKings link 42 11Q6 11QPsb link 43 11Q7 11QPsc link 44 11Q19 11QTa 11Q20 11QTb link 45 11Q11 11QapocrPs link 46 Septuagint edit nbsp Tetragrammaton written in paleo Hebrew script on Greek Minor Prophets Scroll from Nahal HeverEditions of the Septuagint Old Testament are based on the complete or almost complete fourth century manuscripts Codex Vaticanus Codex Sinaiticus and Codex Alexandrinus and consistently use K yrio s Lord where the Masoretic Text has the Tetragrammaton in Hebrew This corresponds with the Jewish practice of replacing the Tetragrammaton with Adonai when reading the Hebrew word 81 82 83 However five of the oldest manuscripts now extant in fragmentary form render the Tetragrammaton into Greek in a different way 84 Two of these are of the first century BCE Papyrus Fouad 266 uses יהוה in the normal Hebrew alphabet in the midst of its Greek text and 4Q120 uses the Greek transcription of the name IAW Three later manuscripts use 𐤉𐤄𐤅𐤄 the name יהוה in Paleo Hebrew script the Greek Minor Prophets Scroll from Nahal Hever Papyrus Oxyrhynchus 3522 and Papyrus Oxyrhynchus 5101 85 Other extant ancient fragments of Septuagint or Old Greek manuscripts provide no evidence on the use of the Tetragrammaton Kyrios or IAW in correspondence with the Hebrew text Tetragrammaton They include the oldest known example Papyrus Rylands 458 86 87 Scholars differ on whether in the original Septuagint translations the Tetragrammaton was represented by Kyrios 88 89 90 91 by IAW 92 by the Tetragrammaton in either normal or Paleo Hebrew form or whether different translators used different forms in different books 93 Frank Shaw argues that the Tetragrammaton continued to be articulated until the second or third century CE and that the use of Iaw was by no means limited to magical or mystical formulas but was still normal in more elevated contexts such as that exemplified by Papyrus 4Q120 Shaw considers all theories that posit in the Septuagint a single original form of the divine name as merely based on a priori assumptions 93 Accordingly he declares The matter of any especially single original form of the divine name in the LXX is too complex the evidence is too scattered and indefinite and the various approaches offered for the issue are too simplistic to account for the actual scribal practices p 158 He holds that the earliest stages of the LXX s translation were marked by diversity p 262 with the choice of certain divine names depending on the context in which they appear cf Gen 4 26 Exod 3 15 8 22 28 32 32 5 and 33 19 He treats of the related blank spaces in some Septuagint manuscripts and the setting of spaces around the divine name in 4Q120 and Papyrus Fouad 266b p 265 and repeats that there was no one original form but different translators had different feelings theological beliefs motivations and practices when it came to their handling of the name p 271 93 His view has won the support of Anthony R Meyer 93 Bob Becking 94 and commenting on Shaw s 2011 dissertation on the subject D T Runia 95 Mogens Muller says that while no clearly Jewish manuscript of the Septuagint has been found with Kyrios representing the Tetragrammaton other Jewish writings of the time show that Jews did use the term Kyrios for God and it was because Christians found it in the Septuagint that they were able to apply it to Christ 96 In fact the deuterocanonical books of the Septuagint written originally in Greek e g Wisdom 2 and 3 Maccabees do speak of God as Kyrios and thus show that the use of kyrios as a representation of יהוה must be pre Christian in origin 97 Similarly while consistent use of Kyrios to represent the Tetragrammaton has been called a distinguishing mark for any Christian LXX manuscript Eugen J Pentiuc says No definitive conclusion has been reached thus far 98 And Sean McDonough denounces as implausible the idea that Kyrios did not appear in the Septuagint before the Christian era 99 Speaking of the Greek Minor Prophets Scroll from Nahal Hever which is a kaige recension of the Septuagint a revision of the Old Greek text to bring it closer to the Hebrew text of the Bible as it existed in ca 2nd 1st century BCE and thus not necessarily the original text Kristin De Troyer remarks The problem with a recension is that one does not know what is the original form and what the recension Hence is the paleo Hebrew Tetragrammaton secondary a part of the recension or proof of the Old Greek text This debate has not yet been solved While some interpret the presence of the Tetragrammaton in Papyrus Fouad 266 the oldest Septuagint manuscript in which it appears as an indication of what was in the original text others see this manuscript as an archaizing and hebraizing revision of the earlier translation kyrios 100 Of this papyrus De Troyer asks Is it a recension or not In this regard she says that Emanuel Tov notes that in this manuscript a second scribe inserted the four letter Tetragrammaton where the first scribe left spaces large enough for the six letter word Kyrios and that Pietersma and Hanhart say the papyrus already contains some pre hexaplaric corrections towards a Hebrew text which would have had the Tetragrammaton She also mentions Septuagint manuscripts that have 8eos and one that has pantokratwr where the Hebrew text has the Tetragrammaton She concludes It suffices to say that in old Hebrew and Greek witnesses God has many names Most if not all were pronounced till about the second century BCE As slowly onwards there developed a tradition of non pronunciation alternatives for the Tetragrammaton appeared The reading Adonai was one of them Finally before Kurios became a standard rendering Adonai the Name of God was rendered with Theos 49 In the Book of Exodus alone 8eos represents the Tetragrammaton 41 times 101 Robert J Wilkinson says that the Greek Minor Prophets Scroll from Nahal Hever is also a kaige recension and thus not strictly a Septuagint text 102 Origen Commentary on Psalms 2 2 said that in the most accurate manuscripts the name was written in an older form of the Hebrew characters the paleo Hebrew letters not the square In the more accurate exemplars the divine name is written in Hebrew characters not however in the current script but in the most ancient While Pietersma interprets this statement as referring to the Septuagint 88 Wilkinson says one might assume that Origen refers specifically to the version of Aquila of Sinope which follows the Hebrew text very closely but he may perhaps refer to Greek versions in general 103 104 Manuscripts of the Septuagint and later Greek renderings edit The great majority of extant manuscripts of the Old Testament in Greek complete or fragmentary dated to the ninth century CE or earlier employ Kyrios to represent the Tetragrammaton of the Hebrew text The following do not They include the oldest now extant Manuscripts of the Septuagint or recensions thereof 1st century BCE 4QpapLXXLevb fragments of the Book of Leviticus chapters 1 to 5 In two verses 3 12 4 27 the Tetragrammaton of the Hebrew Bible is represented by Greek IAW Papyrus Fouad 266b 848 fragments of Deuteronomy chapters 10 to 33 105 The Tetragrammaton appears in square Hebrew Aramaic script According to a disputed view the first copyist left a blank space marked with a dot and another inscribed the letters 1st century CE Papyrus Oxyrhynchus 3522 contains parts of two verses of chapter 42 of the Book of Job and has the Tetragrammaton in paleo Hebrew letters Greek Minor Prophets Scroll from Nahal Hever in three fragments whose contents were published separately Se2grXII LXXIEJ 12 has the Tetragrammaton in 1 place 8HevXII a LXXVTS 10a in 24 places in whole or part 8HevXII b LXXVTS 10b in 4 places 1st to 2nd century Papyrus Oxyrhynchus 5101 contains fragments of the Book of Psalms It has YHWH in Paleo Hebrew script 106 107 108 3rd century CE Papyrus Oxyrhynchus 1007 contains Genesis 2 and 3 The divine name is written with a double yodh Papyrus Oxyrhynchus 656 fragments of the Book of Genesis chapters 14 to 27 Has Kyrios where the first copyist left blank spaces Papyrus Berlin 17213 fragments of the Book of Genesis chapter 19 One space is left blank Emanuel Tov thinks it indicated the end of a paragraph 107 It has been dated to 3rd century CE Manuscripts of Greek translations made by Symmachus and Aquila of Sinope 2nd century CE 3rd century CE Papyrus Vindobonensis Greek 39777 Has the Tetragrammaton in archaic Hebrew script 109 110 111 5th century CE AqTaylor this manuscript of the Aquila version is dated after the middle of the 5th century but not later than the beginning of the 6th century AqBurkitt a palimpsest manuscript of the Aquila version dated late 5th century or early 6th century Manuscripts with Hexaplaric elements 6th century CE Codex Marchalianus In addition to the Septuagint text of the prophets with ks the manuscript contains marginal notes from a hand not much later than the original scribe indicating Hexaplaric variations each identified as from Aquila Symmachus or Theodotion Marginal notes on some of the prophets contain pipi to indicate that ks in the text corresponds to the Tetragrammaton Two marginal notes at Ezekiel 1 2 and 11 1 use the form iaw with reference to the Tetragrammaton 112 7th century CE Taylor Schechter 12 182 a Hexapla manuscript with Tetragrammaton in Greek letters PIPI It has Hebrew text transliterated into Greek Aquila Symmachus and the Septuagint 9th century CE Ambrosiano O 39 sup the latest Greek manuscript containing the name of God is Origen sHexapla transmitting among other translations the text of the Septuagint Aquila Symmachus and Theodotion and in three other unidentified Greek translations Quinta Sextus and Septima This codex copied from a much earlier original comes from the late 9th century and is stored in the Biblioteca Ambrosiana Patristic writings edit nbsp Petrus Alphonsi s early 12th century Tetragrammaton Trinity diagram rendering the name as IEVE which in contemporary letters is IEUE nbsp Tetragrammaton at the Fifth Chapel of the Palace of Versailles France According to the Catholic Encyclopedia 1910 and B D Eerdmans 113 114 Diodorus Siculus 1st century BCE writes 115 Ἰaῶ Iao Irenaeus d c 202 reports 116 that the Gnostics formed a compound Ἰaw8 Iaoth with the last syllable of Sabaoth He also reports 117 that the Valentinian heretics use Ἰaῶ Iao Clement of Alexandria d c 215 reports the mystic name of four letters which was affixed to those alone to whom the adytum was accessible is called Ἰaoὺ Iaou manuscript variants also have the forms ἰaoῦe Iaoue and ἰὰ oὐὲ 118 Origen d c 254 Ἰaw Iao 119 Porphyry d c 305 according to Eusebius died 339 120 Ἰeyw Ieuo Epiphanius died 404 who was born in Palestine and spent a considerable part of his life there gives Ἰa Ia and Ἰabe pronounced at that time ja ve and explains Ἰabe as meaning He who was and is and always exists 121 Jerome died 420 122 speaks of certain Greek writers who misunderstood the Hebrew letters יהוה read right to left as the Greek letters PIPI read left to right thus changing YHWH to pipi Theodoret d c 457 writes Ἰaw Iao 123 he also reports 124 that the Samaritans say Ἰabe or Ἰabai both pronounced at that time ja ve while the Jews say Ἀia Aia 55 The latter is probably not יהוה but אהיה Ehyeh I am or I will be Exod 3 14 which the Jews counted among the names of God 55 Pseudo Jerome 4th 5th or 9th century 125 IAHO This work was traditionally attributed to Jerome and in spite of the view of one modern writer who in 1936 said it is now believed to be genuine and to be dated before CE 392 126 is still generally attributed to the 9th century 127 and to be non authentic 128 129 Peshitta editThe Peshitta Syriac translation probably in the second century 130 uses the word Lord ܡ ܪܝ ܐ pronounced marya or moryo Western pronunciation for the Tetragrammaton 131 Vulgate editThe Vulgate Latin translation made from the Hebrew in the 4th century CE 132 uses the word Dominus Lord a translation of the Hebrew word Adonai for the Tetragrammaton 131 The Vulgate translation though made not from the Septuagint but from the Hebrew text did not depart from the practice used in the Septuagint Thus for most of its history Christianity s translations of the Scriptures have used equivalents of Adonai to represent the Tetragrammaton Only at about the beginning of the 16th century did Christian translations of the Bible appear combining the vowels of Adonai with the four consonantal letters of the Tetragrammaton 133 134 Usage in religious traditions editJudaism edit Especially due to the existence of the Mesha Stele the Jahwist tradition found in Exod 3 15 and ancient Hebrew and Greek texts biblical scholars widely hold that the Tetragrammaton and other names of God were spoken by the ancient Israelites and their neighbours 9 49 135 40 By at least the 3rd century BCE the name was not pronounced in normal speech 136 but only in certain ritual contexts The Talmud relays this change occurred after the death of Simeon the Just either Simon I or his great great grandson Simon II 137 Philo calls the name ineffable and says that it is lawful for those only whose ears and tongues are purified by wisdom to hear and utter it in a holy place that is for priests in the Temple In another passage commenting on Lev 24 15 If any one I do not say should blaspheme against the Lord of men and gods but should even dare to utter his name unseasonably let him expect the penalty of death 55 Some time after the destruction of the Second Temple the spoken use of God s name as it was written ceased altogether though knowledge of the pronunciation was perpetuated in rabbinic schools 55 Rabbinic sources suggest that the name of God was pronounced only once a year by the high priest on the Day of Atonement 138 Others including Maimonides claim that the name was pronounced daily in the liturgy of the Temple in the priestly blessing of worshippers after the daily sacrifice in synagogues though a substitute probably Adonai was used 55 According to the Talmud in the last generations before the fall of Jerusalem the name was pronounced in a low tone so that the sounds were lost in the chant of the priests 55 Since the destruction of Second Temple of Jerusalem in 70 CE the Tetragrammaton has no longer been pronounced in the liturgy However the pronunciation was still known in Babylonia in the latter part of the 4th century 55 Spoken prohibitions edit The vehemence with which the utterance of the name is denounced in the Mishnah suggests that use of the name Yahweh was unacceptable in rabbinical Judaism He who pronounces the Name with its own letters has no part in the world to come 55 Such is the prohibition of pronouncing the Name as written that it is sometimes called the Ineffable Unutterable or Distinctive Name or Explicit Name Shem HaMephorash in Hebrew 139 140 Halakha prescribes that although the Name is written יהוה yodh he waw he if not preceded by א ד נ י Adonai then it is only to be pronounced Adonai and if preceded by Adonai then it is only to be pronounced as Our God א ל ה ינו Eloheinu or in rare cases as a repetition of Adonai e g the Thirteen Attributes of Mercy ש לו ש ע ש ר ה Shelosh Esreh in Exodus 34 6 7 the latter names too are regarded as holy names and are only to be pronounced in prayer 141 142 Thus when someone wants to refer in third person to either the written or spoken Name the term HaShem the Name is used 143 unreliable source 144 and this handle itself can also be used in prayer note 5 The Masoretes added vowel points niqqud and cantillation marks to the manuscripts to indicate vowel usage and for use in ritual chanting of readings from the Bible in Jewish prayer in synagogues To יהוה they added the vowels for א ד נ י Adonai lit transl My Lords Pluralis majestatis taken as singular the word to use when the text was read While HaShem is the most common way to reference the Name the terms HaMaqom lit The Place i e The Omnipresent and Raḥmana Aramaic Merciful are used in the mishna and gemara still used in the phrases HaMaqom y naḥem ethḥem may The Omnipresent console you the traditional phrase used in sitting Shiva and Raḥmana l tzlan may the Merciful save us i e God forbid Written prohibitions edit Main articles Genizah Names of God in Judaism Erasing the name of God and G tt de The written Tetragrammaton 145 as well as six other names of God must be treated with special sanctity They cannot be disposed of regularly lest they be desecrated but are usually put in long term storage or buried in Jewish cemeteries in order to retire them from use 146 Similarly writing the Tetragrammaton or these other names unnecessarily is prohibited so as to avoid having them treated disrespectfully an action that is forbidden To guard the sanctity of the Name sometimes a letter is substituted by a different letter in writing e g יקוק or the letters are separated by one or more hyphens a practice applied also to the English name God which some Jews write as G d Most Jewish authorities say that this practice is not obligatory for the English name 147 Kabbalah edit See also Kabbalah and Hasidic philosophy Kabbalistic tradition holds that the correct pronunciation is known to a select few people in each generation it is not generally known what this pronunciation is There are two main schools of Kabbalah arising in 13th century Spain These are called Theosophic Kabbalah represented by Rabbi Moshe De Leon and the Zohar and the Kabbalah of Names or Prophetic Kabbalah whose main representative is Rabbi Abraham Abulafia of Saragossa Rabbi Abulafia wrote many wisdom books and prophetic books where the name is used for meditation purposes from 1271 onwards Abulafia put a lot of attention on Exodus 15 and the Songs of Moses In this song it says Yehovah is a Man of War Yehovah is his name For Abulafia the goal of prophecy was for a man to come to the level of prophecy and be called Yehovah a man of war Abulafia also used the tetragrammaton in a spiritual war against his spiritual enemies For example he prophesied in his book The Sign Therefore thus said YHWH the God of Israel Have no fear of the enemy See Hylton A The Prophetic Jew Abraham Abulafia 2015 Moshe Chaim Luzzatto 148 says that the tree of the Tetragrammaton unfolds in accordance with the intrinsic nature of its letters in the same order in which they appear in the Name in the mystery of ten and the mystery of four Namely the upper cusp of the Yod is Arich Anpin and the main body of Yod is and Abba the first Hei is Imma the Vav is Ze ir Anpin and the second Hei is Nukvah It unfolds in this aforementioned order and in the mystery of the four expansions that are constituted by the following various spellings of the letters ע ב AV יו ד ה י וי ו ה י so called AV according to its gematria value ע ב 70 2 72 ס ג SaG יו ד ה י וא ו ה י gematria 63 מ ה MaH יו ד ה א וא ו ה א gematria 45 ב ן BaN יו ד ה ה ו ו ה ה gematria 52 Luzzatto summarises In sum all that exists is founded on the mystery of this Name and upon the mystery of these letters of which it consists This means that all the different orders and laws are all drawn after and come under the order of these four letters This is not one particular pathway but rather the general path which includes everything that exists in the Sefirot in all their details and which brings everything under its order 148 Another parallel is drawn by whom between the four letters of the Tetragrammaton and the Four Worlds the י is associated with Atziluth the first ה with Beri ah the ו with Yetzirah and final ה with Assiah nbsp A tetractys of the letters of the Tetragrammaton adds up to 72 by gematria There are some who who believe that the tetractys and its mysteries influenced the early kabbalists A Hebrew tetractys in a similar way has the letters of the Tetragrammaton the four lettered name of God in Hebrew scripture inscribed on the ten positions of the tetractys from right to left It has been argued that the Kabbalistic Tree of Life with its ten spheres of emanation is in some way connected to the tetractys but its form is not that of a triangle The occult writer Dion Fortune says The point is assigned to Kether the line to Chokmah the two dimensional plane to Binah consequently the three dimensional solid naturally falls to Chesed 149 The first three dimensional solid is the tetrahedron The relationship between geometrical shapes and the first four Sephirot is analogous to the geometrical correlations in tetractys shown above under Pythagorean Symbol and unveils the relevance of the Tree of Life with the tetractys Samaritans edit The Samaritans shared the taboo of the Jews about the utterance of the name and there is no evidence that its pronunciation was common Samaritan practice 55 150 However Sanhedrin 10 1 includes the comment of Rabbi Mana II for example those Kutim who take an oath would also have no share in the world to come which suggests that Mana thought some Samaritans used the name in making oaths Their priests have preserved a liturgical pronunciation Yahwe or Yahwa to the present day 55 As with Jews the use of Shema שמא the Name remains the everyday usage of the name among Samaritans akin to Hebrew the Name Hebrew השם HaShem 143 Christianity edit nbsp Tetragrammaton by Francisco Goya The Name of God YHWH in triangle detail from fresco Adoration of the Name of God 1772 nbsp The Tetragrammaton as represented in stained glass in an 1868 Episcopal Church in IowaIt is assumed that early Jewish Christians inherited from Jews the practice of reading Lord where the Tetragrammaton appears in the Hebrew text and where a few Greek manuscripts use it in the midst of their Greek translation Gentile Christians primarily non Hebrew speaking and using Greek Scripture texts may have read Kyrios Lord as in the Greek text of the New Testament and in their copies of the Greek Old Testament This practice continued into the Latin Vulgate where Dominus Lord represented the Tetragrammaton in the Latin text At the Reformation the Luther Bible used capitalized Herr Lord in the German text of the Old Testament to represent the Tetragrammaton 151 In Christianity when the Tetragrammaton is vocalized the forms Yahweh or Jehovah are used 5 152 Jah or Yah is an abbreviation of Jahweh Yahweh and often sees usage by Christians in the interjection Hallelujah meaning Praise Jah which is used to give God glory 153 Christian translations edit The Septuagint Greek translation the Vulgate Latin translation and the Peshitta Syriac translation 131 use the word Lord kyrios kyrios dominus and ܡ ܪܝ ܐ moryo respectively Use of the Septuagint by Christians in polemics with Jews led to its abandonment by the latter making it a specifically Christian text From it Christians made translations into Coptic Arabic Slavonic and other languages used in Oriental Orthodoxy and the Eastern Orthodox Church 104 154 whose liturgies and doctrinal declarations are largely a cento of texts from the Septuagint which they consider to be inspired at least as much as the Masoretic Text 104 155 Within the Eastern Orthodox Church the Greek text remains the norm for texts in all languages with particular reference to the wording used in prayers 156 157 The Septuagint with its use of Kyrios to represent the Tetragrammaton was the basis also for Christian translations associated with the West in particular the Vetus Itala which survives in some parts of the liturgy of the Latin Church and the Gothic Bible Christian translations of the Bible into English commonly use LORD in place of the Tetragrammaton in most passages often in small capitals or in all caps so as to distinguish it from other words translated as Lord Eastern Orthodoxy edit The Eastern Orthodox Church considers the Septuagint text which uses Kyrios Lord to be the authoritative text of the Old Testament 104 and in its liturgical books and prayers it uses Kyrios in place of the Tetragrammaton in texts derived from the Bible 158 159 247 248 Catholicism edit nbsp The Tetragrammaton on the Tympanum of the Roman Catholic Basilica of St Louis King of France in MissouriIn the Catholic Church the first edition of the official Vatican Nova Vulgata Bibliorum Sacrorum Editio editio typica published in 1979 used the traditional Dominus when rendering the Tetragrammaton in the overwhelming majority of places where it appears however it also used the form Iahveh for rendering the Tetragrammaton in three known places Exodus 3 15 160 Exodus 15 3 161 Exodus 17 15 162 In the second edition of the Nova Vulgata Bibliorum Sacrorum Editio editio typica altera published in 1986 these few occurrences of the form Iahveh were replaced with Dominus 163 164 165 in keeping with the long standing Catholic tradition of avoiding direct usage of the Ineffable Name On 29 June 2008 the Holy See reacted to the then still recent practice of pronouncing within Catholic liturgy the name of God represented by the Tetragrammaton As examples of such vocalisation it mentioned Yahweh and Yehovah The early Christians it said followed the example of the Septuagint in replacing the name of God with the Lord a practice with important theological implications for their use of the Lord in reference to Jesus as in Philippians 2 9 11 and other New Testament texts It therefore directed that in liturgical celebrations in songs and prayers the name of God in the form of the Tetragrammaton YHWH is neither to be used or pronounced and that translations of Biblical texts for liturgical use are to follow the practice of the Greek Septuagint and the Latin Vulgate replacing the divine name with the Lord or in some contexts God 166 The United States Conference of Catholic Bishops welcomed this instruction adding that it provides also an opportunity to offer catechesis for the faithful as an encouragement to show reverence for the Name of God in daily life emphasizing the power of language as an act of devotion and worship 167 Lutheranism and Anglicanism edit In the Lutheran and Anglican psalters the word LORD in small capital letters is used to represent the tetragrammaton YHWH the personal name of the deity However the Psalter of the 1979 Book of Common Prayer used by the Protestant Episcopal Church of the United States of America uses Yahweh in two places Psalms 68 4 and Psalms 83 18 Also the Hymnal 1982 as used by the Episcopal Church uses the hymn Guide me O thou great Jehovah Hymn 690 The Christian Life Aside from those instances LORD is typically used in the Liturgy of the Episcopal Church 168 Usage in art editSince the 16th century artists have been using the tetragrammaton as a symbol for God 169 or for divine illumination 170 Protestant artists avoided to allegorize God in human form but rather wrote the Hebrew name of God This was done in book illustrations since 1530 then on coins and medals as well 171 Since the 17th century both Protestant and Catholic artists have used the tetragrammaton in church decoration on top of altars or in center of frescos often in rays of light or in a triangle 172 See also editAllah the common Arabic word for God I Am that I Am Muqattaʿat Names of God Names and titles of God in the New Testament List of Tetragrammatons in art in AustriaReferences editNotes edit masora parva small or masora marginalis notes to the Masoretic Text written in the margins of the left right and between the columns and the comments on the top and bottom margins to masora magna large C D Ginsburg in The Massorah Compiled from manuscripts London 1880 vol I p 25 26 115 lists the 134 places where this practice is observed and likewise in 8 places where the received text has Elohim C D Ginsburg Introduction to the Massoretico Critical Edition of the Hebrew Bible London 1897 s 368 369 These places are listed in C D Ginsburg The Massorah Compiled from manuscripts vol I p 26 116 These are Est 1 20 5 4 13 and 7 7 The same acrostic has been seen in Exodus 3 14 and in the first four words of Psalm 96 11 Bible Gateway passage 96 11 תהילים The Westminster Leningrad Codex Archived from the original on 20 February 2015 Retrieved 25 February 2015 In some manuscripts the Tetragrammaton was replaced by the word El or Elohim written in Paleo Hebrew script they are 1QpMic 1Q14 12 3 1QMyst 1Q27 II 11 1QHa I Suk Puech IX 26 II X 34 VII XV 5 XV VII 25 1QHb 1Q35 1 5 3QUnclassified fragments 3Q14 18 2 4QpPsb 4Q173 5 4 4QAges of Creation A 4Q180 1 1 4QMidrEschate 4Q183 2 1 3 1 fr 1 kol II 3 4QSd 4Q258 IX 8 4QDb 4Q267 fr 9 kol i 2 kol iv 4 kol v 4 4QDc 4Q268 1 9 4QComposition Concerning Divine Providence 4Q413 fr 1 2 2 4 6QD 6Q15 3 5 6QpapHymn 6Q18 6 5 8 5 10 3 W 4QShirShabbg 4Q406 1 2 3 2 wystepuje Elohim For example in the common utterance and praise Barukh Hashem Blessed i e the source of all is Hashem or Hashem yishmor God protect us Citations edit The word tetragrammaton originates from tetra four gramma gramma gen grammatos letter Online Etymology Dictionary Archived from the original on 12 October 2007 Retrieved 23 December 2007 Kitz Anne Marie 2019 The Verb yahway Journal of Biblical Literature 138 1 39 62 doi 10 15699 jbl 1381 2019 508716 Botterweck G Johannes Ringgren Helmer eds 1986 Theological Dictionary of the Old Testament Vol 5 Translated by Green David E William B Eerdmans Publishing Company p 500 ISBN 0 8028 2329 7 Archived from the original on 23 January 2021 Retrieved 19 May 2020 a b c Geoffrey William Bromiley Erwin Fahlbusch Jan Milic Lochman John Mbiti Jaroslav Pelikan Lukas Vischer eds 2008 Yahweh The Encyclopedia of Christianity Vol 5 Translated by Geoffrey William Bromiley Wm B Eerdmans Publishing Brill pp 823 824 ISBN 978 90 04 14596 2 Archived from the original on 6 August 2020 Retrieved 24 February 2020 a b Valentin Benjamin 2015 Theological Cartographies Mapping the Encounter with God Humanity and Christ Westminster John Knox Press p 16 ISBN 978 1 61164 553 8 Exodus 3 14 Translation notes for Genesis Chapter 1 KJV a b It thus probably means he causes to be to become etc It has הוה h w h as a variant form The New Brown Driver Briggs Gesenius Hebrew and English Lexicon With an Appendix Containing the Biblical Aramaic by Frances Brown with the cooperation of S R Driver and Charles Briggs 1907 p 217ff entry יהוה listed under root הוה a b Names Of God JewishEncyclopedia com Archived from the original on 14 November 2011 Retrieved 18 November 2011 Albright William Foxwell 1957 From the Stone Age to Christianity Monotheism and the Historical Process New York Doubleday p 259 ISBN 9781592443390 Lewis Theodore J 2020 The Origin and Character of God Oxford Oxford University Press p 214 ISBN 978 0 19 007254 4 Botterweck G Johannes Ringgren Helmer eds 1979 Theological Dictionary of the Old Testament Volume 3 Wm B Eerdmans Publishing ISBN 978 0 8028 2327 4 Archived from the original on 24 February 2021 Retrieved 29 October 2016 Samuelson Norbert 2006 Jewish Philosophy An Historical Introduction A amp C Black p 42 ISBN 978 0 8264 9244 9 Archived from the original on 26 February 2022 Retrieved 29 October 2016 Alter Robert 2018 The Hebrew Bible A Translation with Commentary W W Norton amp Company ISBN 9780393292503 Archived from the original on 24 November 2021 Retrieved 19 May 2020 Reno R R 2010 Genesis Brazos Press ISBN 9781587430916 Archived from the original on 25 February 2021 Retrieved 19 May 2020 Reno R R 2010 Genesis Brazos Press ISBN 9781587430916 Archived from the original on 25 February 2021 Retrieved 19 May 2020 Jouon Paul Muraoka T 1996 A Grammar of Biblical Hebrew Subsidia Biblica Part One Orthography and Phonetics Rome Editrice Pontificio Istituto Biblio ISBN 978 8876535956 Smith William 1872 Dictionary of the Bible Vol 2 p 1239 Archived from the original on 24 November 2021 Retrieved 4 July 2020 Arnold Mark P 2015 Revealing the Name An Investigation of the Divine Character through a Conversation Analysis of the Dialogues between God and Moses in the Book of Exodus PhD thesis Gloucestershire University of Gloucestershire p 28 Archived from the original on 30 January 2020 Retrieved 8 February 2020 Romer Thomas 2015 The Invention of God Translated by Geuss Raymond Harvard University Press pp 32 33 ISBN 9780674504974 Archived from the original on 12 August 2020 Retrieved 27 July 2020 Reisel M 2018 The Mysterious Name of YHWH Netherlands Brill p 74 ISBN 9789004354876 Stone 2000 p 624 Cross 1997 p 19 Lewis Theodore J 2020 The Origin and Character of God Ancient Israelite Religion through the Lens of Divinity Oxford University Press pp 209 286 doi 10 1093 oso 9780190072544 003 0006 via Oxford Academic Reeland 1707 Reeland 1707 p 392 Gesenius Wilhelm 1839 Thesaurus Philologicus Criticus Linguae Hebraeae et Chaldaeae veteris testamenti Vol 2 pp 575 577 Archived from the original on 2 January 2022 Retrieved 17 November 2020 Kurtz Johann Heinrich 1859 History of the Old Covenant Translated by Edersheim A p 214 Archived from the original on 19 November 2020 Gesenius Wilhelm 1844 A Hebrew and English Lexicon of the Old Testament Including the Biblical Chaldee Crocker and Brewster p 389 Archived from the original on 26 February 2022 Fleming Daniel E 2020 Yahweh before Israel Cambridge New York Melbourne New Delhi Singapore Cambridge University Press ISBN 1 108 83507 4 Dunn James D G Rogerson John William 2003 Eerdmans Commentary on the Bible Eerdmans p 3 ISBN 9780802837110 Archived from the original on 12 August 2020 Retrieved 27 July 2020 Coogan Michael David 2001 The Oxford History of the Biblical World Oxford Oxford University Press p 107 ISBN 9780195139372 Archived from the original on 26 February 2022 Retrieved 19 May 2020 Smith Mark S 2001 The Origins of Biblical Monotheism Israel s Polytheistic Background and the Ugaritic Texts Oxford Oxford University Press p 201 ISBN 9780199881178 Archived from the original on 26 February 2022 Retrieved 19 May 2020 Cross 1997 pp 61 63 Schneider 2007 a b Lemaire Andre 1994 House of David Restored in Moabite Inscription PDF Biblical Archaeology Review Washington D C Biblical Archaeology Society 20 3 ISSN 0098 9444 Archived from the original PDF on 31 March 2012 u and i u 4 The sign IA can be r and so the first two spellings can be taken either ing to the later from Y6 in Hebrew or as Ya writing ia a u contains the vowel a which acts as the ambiguous IA sign and may either be an e the shorter forms or an alternative to them ju alternatives Yahu and Yo Stephanie Dalley Vetus Testamentum LX 1990 Bonanno Anthony 23 February 1986 Archaeology and Fertility Cult in the Ancient Mediterranean Papers Presented at the First International Conference on Archaeology of the Ancient Mediterranean University of Malta 2 5 September 1985 John Benjamins ISBN 9060322886 Archived from the original on 18 January 2022 Retrieved 19 May 2020 Keel Othmar Uehlinger Christoph 1998 Gods Goddesses And Images of God Bloomsbury Academic ISBN 9780567085917 Archived from the original on 15 June 2021 Retrieved 19 May 2020 Becking Bob 1 January 2001 Only One God Monotheism in Ancient Israel and the Veneration of the Goddess Asherah A amp C Black ISBN 9781841271996 Archived from the original on 21 April 2020 Retrieved 19 May 2020 Cross 1997 p 61 Lindenberger James M 5 January 2003 Ancient Aramaic and Hebrew Letters Second ed Atlanta Society of Biblical Literature pp 110 111 a b c Knight Douglas A Levine Amy Jill 2011 The Meaning of the Bible What the Jewish Scriptures and Christian Old Testament Can Teach Us 1st ed New York HarperOne ISBN 978 0062098597 Naveh Joseph 1963 Old Hebrew Inscriptions in a Burial Cave Israel Exploration Journal 13 2 74 92 Davis G 2004 Ancient Hebrew inscriptions Corpus and Concordance Vol 2 Cambridge p 18 Vincent A 1937 La religion des judeo arameens d Elephantine in French Paris Geuthner Porten B 1968 Archives from Elephantine The Life of an Ancient Jewish Military Colony Berkeley Los Angeles University of California Press pp 105 106 D N Freedman 1974 YHWH Theological Dictionary of the Old Testament Vol 5 Eerdmans p 504 ISBN 0802823297 a b c d e De Troyer 2005 Becchio amp Schade 2006 p 463 Jacques Paul Migne 1860 Patrologiae cursus completus series graeca Vol 80 pp col 244 Archived from the original on 13 August 2020 Retrieved 28 July 2020 English translation Walter Woodburn Hyde Paganism to Christianity in the Roman Empire Wipf and Stock 2008 p 80 Archived 13 August 2020 at the Wayback Machine Toy Crawford Howell Blau Ludwig Tetragrammaton Jewish Encyclopedia Archived from the original on 26 February 2020 Jacques Paul Migne 1864 Patrologiae cursus completus series graeca Vol 83 pp col 460 Archived from the original on 17 April 2015 Retrieved 3 March 2016 B Alfrink La prononciation Jehova du tetragramme O T S V 1948 43 62 a b c d e f g h i j k l Moore George Foot 1911 Jehovah In Chisholm Hugh ed Encyclopaedia Britannica Vol 15 11th ed Cambridge University Press pp 311 314 Betz Hans Dieter ed 1986 The Greek Magical Papyri in Translation PDF University of Chicago Press p 335 Archived PDF from the original on 20 September 2020 Retrieved 11 October 2020 Evans Luke Aaron Ralph 2015 Recipes for Love A Semiotic Analysis of the Tools in the Erotic Magical Papyri PDF Durham University p 26 Archived PDF from the original on 3 December 2020 Retrieved 11 October 2020 K Preisendanz Papyri Graecae Magicae Leipzig Berlin I 1928 and II 1931 AnsonLetter htm Members fortunecity com Archived from the original on 2 December 2011 Retrieved 18 November 2011 Toy Crawford Howell Blau Ludwig Tetragrammaton Jewish Encyclopedia Archived from the original on 16 February 2021 Retrieved 2 February 2021 C D Ginsburg The Massorah Translated into English with a critical and exegetical commentary Vol IV p 28 115 Steven Ortlepp 2010 Pronunciation of the Tetragrammaton A Historico Linguistic Approach Lulu com p 60 ISBN 978 1 4452 7220 7 Archived from the original on 26 February 2022 Retrieved 29 November 2016 The Bible translator Vol 56 United Bible Societies 2005 p 71 Nelson s expository dictionary of the Old Testament Merrill Frederick Unger William White 1980 p 229 The Name of Jehovah in the Book of Esther Archived 3 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine appendix 60 Companion Bible G H Parke Taylor 2006 Yahweh The Divine Name in the Bible Waterloo Ontario Wilfrid Laurier University Press ISBN 9780889206526 Archived from the original on 8 January 2022 Retrieved 19 May 2020 G Lisowsky Konkordanz zum hebraischen Alten Testament Stuttgart 1958 p 1612 Basic information about the form Jah see L Koehler W Baumgartner J J Stamm Wielki slownik hebrajsko polski i aramejsko polski Starego Testamentu Great Dictionary of the Hebrew Aramaic Polish and Polish Old Testament Warszawa 2008 vol 1 p 327 code No 3514 George Abbot Smith 1922 Manual Greek Lexicon of the New Testament New York Charles Scribner s Sons p 21 E Jenni C Westermann Theological Lexicon of the Old Testament Hendrickson Publishers 1997 page 685 Genesis 2 4 in the Unicode XML Leningrad Codex Tanach us Archived from the original on 14 September 2014 Retrieved 18 November 2011 Genesis 3 14 in the Unicode XML Leningrad Codex Tanach us Archived from the original on 14 September 2014 Retrieved 18 November 2011 Judges 16 28 in the Unicode XML Leningrad Codex Tanach us Archived from the original on 14 September 2014 Retrieved 18 November 2011 Genesis 15 2 in the Unicode XML Leningrad Codex Tanach us Archived from the original on 14 September 2014 Retrieved 18 November 2011 1 Kings 2 26 in the Unicode XML Leningrad Codex Tanach us Archived from the original on 14 September 2014 Retrieved 18 November 2011 Ezekiel 24 24 in the Unicode XML Leningrad Codex Tanach us Archived from the original on 14 September 2014 Retrieved 18 November 2011 Bezalel Porten Archives from Elephantine The life of an ancient Jewish military colony 1968 University of California Press pp 105 106 Stern M Greek and Latin Authors on Jews and Judaism 1974 84 1 172 Schafer P Judeophobia Attitudes toward the Jews in the Ancient World 1997 232 Cowley A Aramaic Papyri of the 5th century 1923 Kraeling E G The Brooklyn Museum Aramaic Papyri New Documents of the 5th century BCE from the Jewish Colony at Elephantine 1953 Sufficient examination of the subject is available at Sean McDonough s YHWH at Patmos 1999 pp 116 to 122 and George van Kooten s The Revelation of the Name YHWH to Moses 2006 pp 114 115 126 136 It is worth mentioning a fundamental though aged source about the subject Adolf Deissmann s Bible studies Contributions chiefly from papyri and inscriptions to the history of the language the literature and the religion of Hellenistic Judaism and primitive Christianity 1909 at chapter Greek transcriptions of the Tetragrammaton Translated by P Muchowski Rekopisy znad Morza Martwego Qumran Wadi Murabba at Masada Krakow 1996 pp 31 Tov 2018 p 206 A complete list A Sanders The Psalms Scroll of Qumran Cave 11 11QPsa serie Discoveries of the Judaean Desert of Jordan IV pp 9 T Muraoka A Greek Hebrew Aramaic Two way Index to the Septuagint Peeters Publishers 2010 p 72 Muraoka T A Greek Hebrew Aramaic Two way Index to the Septuagint Peeters Publishers 2010 p 56 Hatch E Redpath H A 1975 A Concordance to the Septuagint And the Other Greek Versions of the Old Testament Including the Apocryphal Books Vol I pp 630 648 H Bietenhard Lord in the New International Dictionary of New Testament Theology C Brown gen ed Grand Rapids Michigan Zondervan 1986 Vol 2 p 512 ISBN 0310256208 Metzger Bruce M 17 September 1981 Manuscripts of the Greek Bible An Introduction to Palaeography Oxford University Press ISBN 9780195365320 Archived from the original on 26 February 2022 Retrieved 19 May 2020 Hiebert Cox amp Gentry 2001 p 125 Tov 2018 p 304 a b Pietersma 1984 p 90 Rosel Martin June 2007 The Reading and Translation of the Divine Name in the Masoretic Tradition and the Greek Pentateuch Journal for the Study of the Old Testament 31 4 411 doi 10 1177 0309089207080558 ISSN 0309 0892 S2CID 170886081 Archived from the original on 27 December 2020 Retrieved 25 August 2020 Perkins Larry KYRIOS Articulation and Non articulation in Greek Exodus in Bulletin of the International Organization for Septuagint and Cognate Studies volume 41 2008 p 23 PDF Archived PDF from the original on 2 August 2020 Retrieved 6 August 2020 Larry Perkins KYRIOS Proper Name or Title in Greek Exodus p 6 PDF Archived PDF from the original on 29 November 2020 Retrieved 6 August 2020 Skehan 1957 pp 148 160 a b c d Shaw F The Earliest Non Mystical Jewish Use of Iaw www jhsonline org Archived from the original on 2 December 2018 Retrieved 2 December 2018 ThLZ 2016 Nr 11 Shaw Frank The Earliest Non Mystical Jewish Use of IAO Bob Becking Archived 2 December 2018 at the Wayback Machine Theologische Literaturzeitung 241 2016 pp 1203 1205 Runia D T 28 October 2011 Philo of Alexandria An Annotated Bibliography 1997 2006 BRILL pp 229 230 ISBN 978 9004210806 Archived from the original on 26 February 2022 Retrieved 19 May 2020 David T Runia Philo of Alexandria An Annotated Bibliography 1997 2006 BRILL 2012 pp 229 230 Archived 19 July 2018 at the Wayback Machine Muller Mogens 1996 The First Bible of the Church A Plea for the Septuagint Journal for the Study of the Old Testament A amp C Black 1 206 118 ISBN 978 1 85075571 5 Archived from the original on 26 February 2022 Retrieved 3 March 2016 Rosel Martin June 2007 The Reading and Translation of the Divine Name in the Masoretic Tradition and the Greek Pentateuch Journal for the Study of the Old Testament 31 4 425 doi 10 1177 0309089207080558 ISSN 0309 0892 S2CID 170886081 Archived from the original on 27 December 2020 Retrieved 25 August 2020 Pentiuc Eugen J 2014 The Old Testament in Eastern Orthodox Tradition Septuagint Manuscripts and Printed Editions Oxford University Press USA pp 77 78 ISBN 978 0 19533123 3 Archived from the original on 26 February 2022 Retrieved 3 March 2016 Sean M McDonough 1999 2 The Use of the Name YHWH YHWH at Patmos Rev 1 4 in Its Hellenistic and Early Jewish Setting Wissenschaftliche Untersuchungen zum Neuen Testament Mohr Siebeck p 60 ISBN 978 31 6147055 4 Archived from the original on 26 January 2021 Retrieved 3 March 2016 Wurthwein amp Fischer 2014 p 264 Pietersma amp Wright 2007 p 46 Wilkinson 2015 p 55 Wilkinson 2015 p 70 a b c d Phillips Andrew The Septuagint Orthodox England journal Archived from the original on 26 September 2014 Retrieved 13 September 2014 Z Aly L Koenen Three Rolls of the Early Septuagint Genesis and Deuteronomy Bonn 1980 s 5 6 Meron Piotrkowski Geoffrey Herman Saskia Doenitz eds 2018 Sources and Interpretation in Ancient Judaism Studies for Tal Ilan at Sixty BRILL p 149 ISBN 9789004366985 Archived from the original on 26 February 2022 Retrieved 19 May 2020 a b Tov 2018 p 231 Michael P Theophilos Recently Discovered Greek Papyri and Parchment of the Psalter from the Oxford Oxyrhynchus Manuscripts Implications for Scribal Practice and Textual Transmission Archived 14 March 2019 at the Wayback Machine Australian Catholic University Thomas J Kraus 2007 Ad Fontes Original Manuscripts and Their Significance for Studying Early Christianity Selected Essays Texts and Editions for New Testament Study Vol 3 BRILL p 3 ISBN 9789004161825 Archived from the original on 26 February 2022 Retrieved 19 May 2020 Larry W Hurtado 2006 The Earliest Christian Artifacts Manuscripts and Christian Origins Wm B Eerdmans Publishing p 214 ISBN 9780802828958 Archived from the original on 26 February 2022 Retrieved 19 May 2020 Wessely Carl 1911 Studien zur Palaeographie und Papyruskunde Vol XI Leipzig H Hassel Verlag p 171 Bruce M Metzger Manuscripts of the Greek Bible An Introduction to Palaeography Archived 12 August 2020 at the Wayback Machine Oxford University Press 17 September 1981 ISBN 978 0 19 536532 0 pp 94 95 commentary on p 94 image of a page from the manuscript on p 95 cited also on p 35 fn 66 Eerdmans 1948 pp 1 29 Maas 1910 Among the Jews Moses referred his laws to the god who is invoked as Iao Gr Iaw Diodorus Siculus Bibliotheca Historica I 94 2 Irenaeus Against Heresies II xxxv 3 in P G VII col 840 Irenaeus Against Heresies I iv 1 in P G VII col 481 Stromata v 6 34 see Karl Wilhelm Dindorf ed 1869 Clementis Alexandrini Opera in Greek Vol III Oxford Clarendon Press p 27 ἀtὰr kaὶ tὸ tetragrammon ὄnoma tὸ mystikon ὃ periekeinto oἷs monois tὸ ἄdyton basimon ἦn legetai dὲ Ἰaoὺ also ἰaoῦe ἰὰ oὐὲ Origen In Joh II 1 in P G XIV col 105 Archived 16 January 2017 at the Wayback Machine where a footnote says that the last part of the name of Jeremiah refers to what the Samaritans expressed as Ἰabai Eusebius as Ἰeyw Theodoretus as Ἀia and the ancient Greeks as Ἰaw Eusebius Praeparatio evangelica I ix in P G XXI col 72 A and also ibid X ix in P G XXI col 808 B Epiphanius Panarion I iii 40 in P G XLI col 685 Jerome Ep xxv ad Marcell in P L XXII col 429 the word Nethinim means in Hebrew gift of Iao that is of the God who is Theodoret Quaest in I Paral cap ix in P G LXXX col 805 C Theodoret Ex quaest xv in P G LXXX col 244 and Haeret Fab V iii in P G LXXXIII col 460 Archived 11 December 2021 at the Wayback Machine nomen Domini apud Hebraeos quatuor litterarum est jod he vau he quod proprie Dei vocabulum sonat et legi potest JAHO et Hebraei ἄῤῥhton id est ineffabile opinatur Breviarium in Psalmos Psalm viii in P L XXVI col 838 A ZATW W de Gruyter 1936 p 266 British Library Archived from the original on 26 February 2022 Retrieved 23 September 2020 McNamara Martin J 1 February 2000 The Psalms in the Early Irish Church Bloomsbury Publishing p 49 ISBN 978 0 567 54034 8 Manuscrits de Citeaux Archived from the original on 27 November 2020 Retrieved 23 September 2020 Sebastian P Brock The Bible in the Syriac Tradition St Ephrem Ecumenical Research Institute 1988 Quote Page 17 The Peshitta Old Testament was translated directly from the original Hebrew text and most Biblical scholars believe that the Peshitta New Testament directly from the original Greek The so called deuterocanonical books or Apocrypha were all translated from Greek with a b c Bloch Joshua 1919 The Authorship of the Peshitta The American Journal of Semitic Languages and Literatures 35 4 215 222 doi 10 1086 369885 ISSN 1062 0516 JSTOR 528619 S2CID 170883669 Adam Kamesar Jerome Greek Scholarship and the Hebrew Bible A Study of the Quaestiones Hebraicae in Genesim Clarendon Press Oxford 1993 ISBN 9780198147275 page 97 In the 7th paragraph of Introduction to the Old Testament of the New English Bible Sir Godfry Driver wrote Archived 26 April 2006 at the Wayback Machine The early translators generally substituted Lord for YHWH The Reformers preferred Jehovah which first appeared as Iehouah in 1530 A D in Tyndale s translation of the Pentateuch Exodus 6 3 from which it passed into other Protestant Bibles Clifford Hubert Durousseau Yah A Name of God in Jewish Bible Quarterly Vol 42 No 1 January March 2014 PDF Archived PDF from the original on 12 September 2014 Retrieved 13 September 2014 Miller Patrick D 2000 The Religion of Ancient Israel London Westminster John Knox Press ISBN 978 0664221454 Archived from the original on 1 May 2016 Retrieved 3 March 2016 Harris Stephen L 1985 Understanding the Bible A Reader s Introduction 2nd ed Palo Alto California Mayfield p 21 Yoma Tosefta Sotah 13 William David Davies Louis Finkelstein Steven T Katz The Cambridge History of Judaism The Late Roman Rabbinic Period 2006 p 779 The text clearly testifies that the pronunciation of the Ineffable Name was one of the climaxes of the Sacred Service it was entrusted exclusively to the High Priest once a year on the Day of Atonement in the Holy of Holies For example see Weiss Saul Soloveitchik Joseph Dov February 2005 Insights of Rabbi Joseph B Soloveitchik Rowman amp Littlefield p 9 ISBN 978 0 7425 4469 7 Archived from the original on 26 January 2021 Retrieved 19 May 2020 and Rozen Minna 1992 Jewish Identity and Society in the 17th century J C B Mohr p 67 ISBN 978 3 16 145770 8 Archived from the original on 26 February 2022 Retrieved 19 May 2020 Rosel Martin June 2007 The Reading and Translation of the Divine Name in the Masoretic Tradition and the Greek Pentateuch Journal for the Study of the Old Testament 31 4 418 doi 10 1177 0309089207080558 ISSN 0309 0892 S2CID 170886081 Archived from the original on 27 December 2020 Retrieved 25 August 2020 It is in this book that we find the strictest prohibition against pronouncing the name of the Lord The Hebrew of 24 16 which may be translated as And he that blasphemes curses 3B the name of the Lord 9H9J he shall surely be put to death in the LXX is subjected to a They the Priests when reciting the Priestly Blessing when the Temple stood recite God s name i e the name yod hei vav hei as it is written This is what is referred to as the explicit name in all sources In the country that is outside the Temple it is read using another one of God s names א ד נ י Adonai for only in the Temple is this name of God recited as it is written Mishneh Torah Maimonides Laws of Prayer and Priestly Blessings 14 10 Kiddushin 71a states I am not referred to as My name is written My name is written yod hei vav hei and it is pronounced Adonai a b Stanley S Seidner HaShem Uses through the Ages Unpublished paper Rabbinical Society Seminar Los Angeles California 1987 For example two common prayer books are titled Tehillat Hashem and Avodat Hashem Or a person may tell a friend Hashem helped me to perform a great mitzvah today See Deut 12 2 4 You must destroy all the sites at which the nations you are to dispossess worshiped their gods tear down their altars and cut down the images of their gods obliterating their name from that site Do not do the same thing to Hashem YHWH your God Based on the Talmud Shavuot 35a b Maimonides Hilkhot Yesodei HaTorah Chapter 6 and the Shulchan Arukh Yoreh Deah 276 9 it is prohibited to erase or obliterate the seven Hebrew names for God found in the Torah in addition to the above there is E l E loha Tzeva ot Sha dai Why do some Jews write G d instead of God ReformJudaism org 19 February 2014 Archived from the original on 9 December 2018 Retrieved 9 December 2018 a b In קל ח פתחי חכמה by Rabbi Moshe Chaim Luzzato Opening 31 English translation in book 138 Openings of Wisdom by Rabbi Avraham Greenbaum 2008 also viewable at http www breslev co il articles spirituality and faith kabbalah and mysticism the name of havayah aspx id 10847 amp language english Archived 6 November 2011 at the Wayback Machine accessed 12 March 2012 The Mystical Qabalah Dion Fortune Chapter XVIII 25 The Talmud Yerushalmi and Graeco Roman culture Volume 3 Page 152 Peter Schafer Catherine Hezser 2002 In fact there is no proof in any other rabbinic writing that Samaritans used to pronounce the Divine Name when they took an oath The only evidence for Sarmaritans uttering the Tetragrammaton at that Cameron Euan 1 April 2019 The Annotated Luther Volume 6 The Interpretation of Scripture Fortress Press pp 62 63 ISBN 978 1 5064 6043 7 The Name of God in the Liturgy United States Conference of Catholic Bishops 2008 pronouncing the God of Israel s proper name known as the holy or divine tetragrammaton written with four consonants YHWH in the Hebrew alphabet In order to vocalize it it is necessary to introduce vowels that alter the written and spoken forms of the name i e Yahweh or Jehovah Loewen Jacob A 2020 The Bible in Cross Cultural Perspective Revised ed William Carey Publishing p 182 ISBN 978 1 64508 304 7 Shorter forms of Yahweh The name Yahweh also appears in a shortened form transliterated Jah pronounced Yah in the Revised Version and the American Standard Version either in the text or footnote my song is Jah Ex 15 2 by Jah his name Ps 68 4 I shall not see Jah in Jah s land Is 38 11 It is common also in such often untranslated compounds as hallelujah praise Jah Ps 135 3 146 10 148 14 and in proper names like Elijah my God is Jah Adonijah my Lord is Jah Isaiah Jah has saved BibliaHebraica org The Septuagint Archived from the original on 4 May 2010 HTC An Orthodox Critique of Bible Translations Archived from the original on 7 October 2014 Retrieved 15 September 2014 orthodoxresearchinstitute org Archived from the original on 16 May 2013 Retrieved 15 September 2014 Fairbarn Donald 2002 Eastern Orthodoxy through Western Eyes Westminster John Knox Press p 34 ISBN 978 0 66422497 4 Archived from the original on 25 February 2021 Retrieved 19 May 2020 Pentiuc Eugen J April 2014 The Old Testament in Eastern Orthodox Tradition Oxford University Press USA p 77 ISBN 978 0 19 533123 3 McGuckin John Anthony 15 December 2010 The Encyclopedia of Eastern Orthodox Christianity John Wiley amp Sons ISBN 978 1 4443 9254 8 Dixitque iterum Deus ad Moysen Haec dices filiis Israel Iahveh Qui est Deus patrum vestrorum Deus Abraham Deus Isaac et Deus Iacob misit me ad vos hoc nomen mihi est in aeternum et hoc memoriale meum in generationem et generationem Exodus 3 15 Dominus quasi vir pugnator Iahveh nomen eius Exodus 15 3 Aedificavitque Moyses altare et vocavit nomen eius Iahveh Nissi Dominus vexillum meum Exodus 17 15 Exodus 3 15 Dixitque iterum Deus ad Moysen Haec dices filiis Israel Dominus Deus patrum vestrorum Deus Abraham Deus Isaac et Deus Iacob misit me ad vos hoc nomen mihi est in aeternum et hoc memoriale meum in generationem et generationem Exodus 15 3 Dominus quasi vir pugnator Dominus nomen eius Exodus 17 15 Aedificavitque Moyses altare et vocavit nomen eius Dominus Nissi Dominus vexillum meum Letter of the Congregation for Divine Worship and the Discipline of the Sacraments PDF PDF Archived PDF from the original on 8 August 2016 Retrieved 17 May 2016 United States Conference of Catholic Bishops Committee on Divine Worship PDF PDF Archived from the original PDF on 25 November 2014 Retrieved 15 May 2014 Pfatteicher Philip H 1990 Commentary on the Lutheran Book of Worship Lutheran Liturgy in Its Ecumenical Context Augsburg Fortress p 384 ISBN 978 0 8006 0392 2 Keller Bettina 2009 Barocke Sakristeien in Suddeutschland Chicago and London Imhof p 155 ISBN 9783865683304 Cosgrove Denis 1999 Global Illumination and Enlightenment in the Geographies of Vincenzo Coronelli and Athansius Kircher Geography and Enlightenment Chicago Illinois and London England University of Chicago Press pp 53 54 ISBN 0226487210 Rodov Ilia 2017 Capturing the Ineffable the Tetragrammaton in Synagogue Art of Romanian Moldavia The Paths of Daniel Studies in Judaism and Jewish Culture in Honor of Rabbi Professor Daniel Sperber Ramat Gan Bar Ilan University Press p 202 ISBN 9789652264015 Zeitschrift fur Kirchengeschichte vol 67 1955 p 149 Sources edit Barton John 17 May 2022 Tetragrammaton In Louth Andrew ed The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church 4 ed Oxford University Press ISBN 9780199642465 Becchio Bruno Schade Schade 2006 Encyclopedia of World Religions Foreign Media Group ISBN 978 1 60136 000 7 Archived from the original on 25 January 2021 Retrieved 29 July 2020 Cross Frank Moore 1997 Canaanite Myth and Hebrew Epic reprint ed Harvard University Press pp 61 63 ISBN 0674091760 Archived from the original on 19 August 2020 Retrieved 19 May 2020 De Troyer Kristin 2005 The Names of God Their Pronunciation and Their Translation A Digital Tour of Some of the Main Witnesses Lectio Difficilior European Electronic Journal for Feminist Exegesis Theol Fakultat der Universitat Bern 2 ISSN 1661 3317 OCLC 174649029 Archived from the original on 11 July 2020 Retrieved 9 December 2009 Eerdmans Bernardus D 1948 The Name Jahu The Name Jahu Brill Archived from the original on 11 May 2021 Retrieved 11 May 2021 Hiebert Robert J V Cox Claude E Gentry Peter J 2001 The Old Greek Psalter Studies in Honour of Albert Pietersma Bloomsbury ISBN 978 0 567 37628 2 Archived from the original on 9 October 2021 Retrieved 6 August 2020 Maas Anthony John 1910 Jehovah In Herbermann Charles ed Catholic Encyclopedia Vol 8 New York Robert Appleton Company Pietersma Albert 1984 Kyrios or Tetragram A Renewed Quest for the Original LXX in Albert Pietersma Claude Cox eds De Septuaginta Studies in Honour of John William Wevers on his sixty fifth birthday PDF Mississauga Benben archived PDF from the original on 7 May 2021 retrieved 6 August 2020 Pietersma Albert Wright Benjamin G 2007 A New English Translation of the Septuagint Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 972394 2 Archived from the original on 9 October 2021 Retrieved 6 August 2020 Reeland Adrian 1707 Decas exercitationum philologicarum de vera pronuntiatione nominis Jehova quarum quinque priores lectionem Jehova impugnant posteriores tuentur Cum praefatione Adriani Relandi Johannis Coster Archived from the original on 26 January 2021 Retrieved 10 November 2020 Schneider Thomas 2007 The First Documented Occurrence sic of the God Yahweh Book of the Dead Princeton Roll 5 Journal of Ancient Near Eastern Religions 7 2 113 120 doi 10 1163 156921207783876422 Skehan Patrick W 1957 The Qumran Manuscripts and Textual Criticism Vetus Testamentum supp 4 148 160 reprinted in Frank Moore Cross Semaryahu Ṭalmōn 1975 Qumran and the History of the Biblical Text Harvard University Press p 221 ISBN 978 0 674 74362 5 Archived from the original on 11 August 2020 Retrieved 6 August 2020 Stone Robert E II 2000 I Am Who I Am In Freedman David Noel Myers Allen C eds Eerdmans Dictionary of the Bible Eerdmans ISBN 9789053565032 Tov Emanuel 2018 Scribal Practices and Approaches Reflected in the Texts Found in the Judean Desert BRILL ISBN 978 90 474 1434 6 Archived from the original on 16 August 2021 Retrieved 6 August 2020 Wilkinson Robert J 2015 Tetragrammaton Western Christians and the Hebrew Name of God From the Beginnings to the Seventeenth Century BRILL ISBN 978 90 04 28817 1 Archived from the original on 9 October 2021 Retrieved 6 August 2020 Wurthwein Ernst Fischer Alexander Achilles 2014 The Text of the Old Testament An Introduction to the Biblia Hebraica Wm B Eerdmans ISBN 978 0 8028 6680 6 Archived from the original on 9 October 2021 Retrieved 6 August 2020 External links edit nbsp Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica article Tetragrammaton nbsp Media related to Tetragrammaton at Wikimedia Commons nbsp Quotations related to Tetragrammaton at Wikiquote Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Tetragrammaton amp oldid 1188771728, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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