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Yoga

May 08, 2024

For the use of yoga in exercise, see Yoga as exercise. For the use of yoga as therapy, see Yoga as therapy. For the ancient Indian philosophy, see Yoga (philosophy). For other uses, see Yoga (disambiguation).

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Yoga (/ˈjoʊɡə/ ⓘ;[1] Sanskrit: योग, lit. 'yoke' or 'union' pronounced [joːɡɐ]) is a group of physical, mental, and spiritual practices or disciplines which originated in ancient India and aim to control (yoke) and still the mind, recognizing a detached witness-consciousness untouched by the mind (Chitta) and mundane suffering (Duḥkha). There is a wide variety of schools of yoga, practices, and goals[2] in Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism,[3][4][5] and traditional and modern yoga is practiced worldwide.[6]

Statue of Shiva performing yoga in the lotus position

Yoga-like practices were first mentioned in the ancient Hindu text known as Rigveda.[7] Yoga is referred to in a number of the Upanishads.[8][9][10] The first known appearance of the word "yoga" with the same meaning as the modern term is in the Katha Upanishad,[11][12] which was probably composed between the fifth and third centuries BCE.[13][14] Yoga continued to develop as a systematic study and practice during the fifth and sixth centuries BCE in ancient India's ascetic and Śramaṇa movements.[15] The most comprehensive text on yoga, the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali, date to the early centuries of the Common Era;[16][17][note 1] Yoga philosophy became known as one of the six orthodox philosophical schools (Darśanas) of Hinduism in the second half of the first millennium CE.[18][web 1] Hatha yoga texts began to emerge between the ninth and 11th centuries, originating in tantra.[19][20]

Two general theories exist on the origins of yoga. The linear model holds that yoga originated in the Vedic period, as reflected in the Vedic textual corpus, and influenced Buddhism; according to author Edward Fitzpatrick Crangle, this model is mainly supported by Hindu scholars. According to the synthesis model, yoga is a synthesis of non-Vedic and Vedic elements; this model is favoured in Western scholarship.[21][22]

The term "yoga" in the Western world often denotes a modern form of Hatha yoga and a posture-based physical fitness, stress-relief and relaxation technique,[23] consisting largely of asanas;[24] this differs from traditional yoga, which focuses on meditation and release from worldly attachments.[23][25] It was introduced by gurus from India after the success of Swami Vivekananda's adaptation of yoga without asanas in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.[26] Vivekananda introduced the Yoga Sutras to the West, and they became prominent after the 20th-century success of hatha yoga.[27]

Etymology

 
A statue of Patanjali, author of the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali, meditating in the lotus position

The Sanskrit noun योग yoga is derived from the root yuj (युज्) "to attach, join, harness, yoke".[28] Yoga is a cognate of the English word "yoke".[29] According to Mikel Burley, the first use of the root of the word "yoga" is in hymn 5.81.1 of the Rigveda, a dedication to the rising Sun-god, where it has been interpreted as "yoke" or "control".[30][31][note 2]

Pāṇini (4th c. BCE) wrote that the term yoga can be derived from either of two roots: yujir yoga (to yoke) or yuj samādhau ("to concentrate").[33] In the context of the Yoga Sutras, the root yuj samādhau (to concentrate) is considered the correct etymology by traditional commentators.[34]

In accordance with Pāṇini, Vyasa (who wrote the first commentary on the Yoga Sutras)[35] says that yoga means samadhi (concentration).[36] A person who practices yoga, or follows the yoga philosophy with a high level of commitment, is called a yogi; a female yogi may also be known as a yogini.[37]

Definitions in classical texts

The term "yoga" has been defined in different ways in Indian philosophical and religious traditions.

Source Text Approx. Date Definition of Yoga[38]
Vaisesika sutra c. 4th century BCE "Pleasure and suffering arise as a result of the drawing together of the sense organs, the mind and objects. When that does not happen because the mind is in the self, there is no pleasure or suffering for one who is embodied. That is yoga" (5.2.15–16)[39]
Katha Upanishad last centuries BCE "When the five senses, along with the mind, remain still and the intellect is not active, that is known as the highest state. They consider yoga to be firm restraint of the senses. Then one becomes un-distracted for yoga is the arising and the passing away" (6.10–11)[40]
Bhagavad Gita c. 2nd century BCE "Be equal minded in both success and failure. Such equanimity is called Yoga" (2.48)

"Yoga is skill in action" (2.50) "Know that which is called yoga to be separation from contact with suffering" (6.23)[41]

Yoga Sutras of Patanjali c. first centuries CE[16][42][note 1] 1.2. yogas chitta vritti nirodhah – "Yoga is the calming down the fluctuations/patterns of mind"
1.3. Then the Seer is established in his own essential and fundamental nature.
1.4. In other states there is assimilation (of the Seer) with the modifications (of the mind).[43]
Yogācārabhūmi-Śāstra (Sravakabhumi), a Mahayana Buddhist Yogacara work 4th century CE "Yoga is fourfold: faith, aspiration, perseverance and means" (2.152)[44]
Kaundinya's Pancarthabhasya on the Pashupata-sutra 4th century CE "In this system, yoga is the union of the self and the Lord" (I.I.43)
Yogaśataka a Jain work by Haribhadra Suri 6th century CE "With conviction, the lords of Yogins have in our doctrine defined yoga as the concurrence (sambandhah) of the three [correct knowledge (sajjñana), correct doctrine (saddarsana) and correct conduct (saccaritra)] beginning with correct knowledge, since [thereby arises] conjunction with liberation....In common usage this [term] yoga also [denotes the Self's] contact with the causes of these [three], due to the common usage of the cause for the effect." (2, 4).[45][46]
Linga Purana 7th–10th century CE "By the word 'yoga' is meant nirvana, the condition of Shiva." (I.8.5a)[47]
Brahmasutra-bhasya of Adi Shankara c. 8th century CE "It is said in the treatises on yoga: 'Yoga is the means of perceiving reality' (atha tattvadarsanabhyupāyo yogah)" (2.1.3)[48]
Mālinīvijayottara Tantra, one of the primary authorities in non-dual Kashmir Shaivism 6th–10th century CE "Yoga is said to be the oneness of one entity with another." (4.4–8)[49][50]
Mrgendratantravrtti, of the Shaiva Siddhanta scholar Narayanakantha 6th–10th century CE "To have self-mastery is to be a Yogin. The term Yogin means "one who is necessarily "conjoined with" the manifestation of his nature...the Siva-state (sivatvam)" (yp 2a)[51][50]
Śaradatilaka of Lakshmanadesikendra, a Shakta Tantra work 11th century CE "Yogic experts state that yoga is the oneness of the individual Self (jiva) with the atman. Others understand it to be the ascertainment of Siva and the Self as non-different. The scholars of the Agamas say that it is a Knowledge which is of the nature of Siva's Power. Other scholars say it is the knowledge of the primordial Self." (25.1–3b)[52][53]
Yogabija, a Hatha yoga work 14th century CE "The union of apana and prana, one's own rajas and semen, the sun and moon, the individual Self and the supreme Self, and in the same way the union of all dualities, is called yoga. " (89)[54]

Goals

The ultimate goals of yoga are stilling the mind and gaining insight, resting in detached awareness, and liberation (Moksha) from saṃsāra and duḥkha: a process (or discipline) leading to unity (Aikyam) with the divine (Brahman) or with one's self (Ātman).[55] This goal varies by philosophical or theological system. In the classical Astanga yoga system, the ultimate goal of yoga is to achieve samadhi and remain in that state as pure awareness.

According to Knut A. Jacobsen, yoga has five principal meanings:[56]

  1. A disciplined method for attaining a goal
  2. Techniques of controlling the body and mind
  3. A name of a school or system of philosophy (darśana)
  4. With prefixes such as "hatha-, mantra-, and laya-, traditions specialising in particular yoga techniques
  5. The goal of yoga practice[57]

David Gordon White writes that yoga's core principles were more or less in place in the 5th century CE, and variations of the principles developed over time:[58]

  1. A meditative means of discovering dysfunctional perception and cognition, as well as overcoming it to release any suffering, find inner peace, and salvation. Illustration of this principle is found in Hindu texts such as the Bhagavad Gita and Yogasutras, in a number of Buddhist Mahāyāna works, as well as Jain texts.[59]
  2. The raising and expansion of consciousness from oneself to being coextensive with everyone and everything. These are discussed in sources such as in Hinduism Vedic literature and its epic Mahābhārata, the Jain Praśamaratiprakarana, and Buddhist Nikaya texts.[60]
  3. A path to omniscience and enlightened consciousness enabling one to comprehend the impermanent (illusive, delusive) and permanent (true, transcendent) reality. Examples of this are found in Hinduism Nyaya and Vaisesika school texts as well as Buddhism Mādhyamaka texts, but in different ways.[61]
  4. A technique for entering into other bodies, generating multiple bodies, and the attainment of other supernatural accomplishments. These are, states White, described in Tantric literature of Hinduism and Buddhism, as well as the Buddhist Sāmaññaphalasutta.[62] James Mallinson, however, disagrees and suggests that such fringe practices are far removed from the mainstream Yoga's goal as meditation-driven means to liberation in Indian religions.[63]

According to White, the last principle relates to legendary goals of yoga practice; it differs from yoga's practical goals in South Asian thought and practice since the beginning of the Common Era in Hindu, Buddhist, and Jain philosophical schools.[64]

History

There is no consensus on yoga's chronology or origins other than its development in ancient India. There are two broad theories explaining the origins of yoga. The linear model holds that yoga has Vedic origins (as reflected in Vedic texts), and influenced Buddhism. This model is mainly supported by Hindu scholars.[65] According to the synthesis model, yoga is a synthesis of indigenous, non-Vedic practices with Vedic elements. This model is favoured in Western scholarship.[66]

Speculations about yoga began to emerge in the early Upanishads of the first half of the first millennium BCE, with expositions also appearing in Jain and Buddhist texts c. 500 – c. 200 BCE. Between 200 BCE and 500 CE, traditions of Hindu, Buddhist, and Jain philosophy were taking shape; teachings were collected as sutras, and a philosophical system of Patanjaliyogasastra began to emerge.[67] The Middle Ages saw the development of a number of yoga satellite traditions. It and other aspects of Indian philosophy came to the attention of the educated Western public during the mid-19th century.

Origins

Linear model

According to Edward Fitzpatrick Crangle, Hindu researchers have favoured a linear theory which attempts "to interpret the origin and early development of Indian contemplative practices as a sequential growth from an Aryan genesis";[68][note 3] traditional Hinduism regards the Vedas as the source of all spiritual knowledge.[70][note 4] Edwin Bryant wrote that authors who support Indigenous Aryanism also tend to support the linear model.[73]

Synthesis model

Heinrich Zimmer was an exponent of the synthesis model,[70] arguing for non-Vedic eastern states of India.[74] According to Zimmer, yoga is part of a non-Vedic system which includes the Samkhya school of Hindu philosophy, Jainism and Buddhism:[74] "[Jainism] does not derive from Brahman-Aryan sources, but reflects the cosmology and anthropology of a much older pre-Aryan upper class of northeastern India [Bihar] – being rooted in the same subsoil of archaic metaphysical speculation as Yoga, Sankhya, and Buddhism, the other non-Vedic Indian systems."[75][note 5] Richard Gombrich[78] and Geoffrey Samuel[79] believe that the śramaṇa movement originated in non-Vedic Greater Magadha.[78][79]

Thomas McEvilley favors a composite model in which a pre-Aryan yoga prototype existed in the pre-Vedic period and was refined during the Vedic period.[80] According to Gavin D. Flood, the Upanishads differ fundamentally from the Vedic ritual tradition and indicate non-Vedic influences.[81] However, the traditions may be connected:

[T]his dichotomization is too simplistic, for continuities can undoubtedly be found between renunciation and vedic Brahmanism, while elements from non-Brahmanical, Sramana traditions also played an important part in the formation of the renunciate ideal.[82][note 6]

The ascetic traditions of the eastern Ganges plain are thought to drew from a common body of practices and philosophies,[84][85][86] with proto-samkhya concepts of purusha and prakriti as a common denominator.[87][86]

Indus Valley Civilisation

The twentieth-century scholars Karel Werner, Thomas McEvilley, and Mircea Eliade believe that the central figure of the Pashupati seal is in a Mulabandhasana posture,[11] and the roots of yoga are in the Indus Valley civilisation.[88] This is rejected by more recent scholarship; for example, Geoffrey Samuel, Andrea R. Jain, and Wendy Doniger describe the identification as speculative; the meaning of the figure will remain unknown until Harappan script is deciphered, and the roots of yoga cannot be linked to the IVC.[88][89][note 7]

Earliest references (1000–500 BCE)

Further information: Vedic period

The Vedas, the only texts preserved from the early Vedic period and codified between c. 1200 and 900 BCE, contain references to yogic practices primarily related to ascetics outside, or on the fringes of Brahmanism.[92][7] The Rigveda's Nasadiya Sukta suggests an early Brahmanic contemplative tradition.[note 8] Techniques for controlling breath and vital energies are mentioned in the Atharvaveda and in the Brahmanas (the second layer of the Vedas, composed c. 1000–800 BCE).[92][95][96]

According to Flood, "The Samhitas [the mantras of the Vedas] contain some references ... to ascetics, namely the Munis or Keśins and the Vratyas."[97] Werner wrote in 1977 that the Rigveda does not describe yoga, and there is little evidence of practices.[7] The earliest description of "an outsider who does not belong to the Brahminic establishment" is found in the Keśin hymn 10.136, the Rigveda's youngest book, which was codified around 1000 BCE.[7] Werner wrote that there were

... individuals who were active outside the trend of Vedic mythological creativity and the Brahminic religious orthodoxy and therefore little evidence of their existence, practices and achievements has survived. And such evidence as is available in the Vedas themselves is scanty and indirect. Nevertheless the indirect evidence is strong enough not to allow any doubt about the existence of spiritually highly advanced wanderers.[7]

According to Whicher (1998), scholarship frequently fails to see the connection between the contemplative practices of the rishis and later yoga practices: "The proto-Yoga of the Vedic rishis is an early form of sacrificial mysticism and contains many elements characteristic of later Yoga that include: concentration, meditative observation, ascetic forms of practice (tapas), breath control practiced in conjunction with the recitation of sacred hymns during the ritual, the notion of self-sacrifice, impeccably accurate recitation of sacred words (prefiguring mantra-yoga), mystical experience, and the engagement with a reality far greater than our psychological identity or the ego."[98] Jacobsen wrote in 2018, "Bodily postures are closely related to the tradition of (tapas), ascetic practices in the Vedic tradition"; ascetic practices used by Vedic priests "in their preparations for the performance of the sacrifice" may be precursors of yoga.[92] "The ecstatic practice of enigmatic longhaired muni in Rgveda 10.136 and the ascetic performance of the vratya-s in the Atharvaveda outside of or on the fringe of the Brahmanical ritual order, have probably contributed more to the ascetic practices of yoga."[92]

According to Bryant, practices recognizable as classical yoga first appear in the Upanishads (composed during the late Vedic period).[84] Alexander Wynne agrees that formless, elemental meditation might have originated in the Upanishadic tradition.[99] An early reference to meditation is made in the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad (c. 900 BCE), one of the Principal Upanishads.[97] The Chandogya Upanishad (c. 800–700 BCE) describes the five vital energies (prana), and concepts of later yoga traditions (such as blood vessels and an internal sound) are also described in this upanishad.[100] The practice of pranayama (focusing on the breath) is mentioned in hymn 1.5.23 of the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad,[101] and pratyahara (withdrawal of the senses) is mentioned in hymn 8.15 of Chandogya Upanishad.[101][note 9] The Jaiminiya Upanishad Brahmana (probably before the 6th c. BCE) teaches breath control and repetition of a mantra.[103] The 6th-c. BCE Taittiriya Upanishad defines yoga as the mastery of body and senses.[104] According to Flood, "[T]he actual term yoga first appears in the Katha Upanishad,[12] dated to the fifth[105] to first centuries BCE.[106]

Second urbanisation (500–200 BCE)

Main article: Second urbanisation

Systematic yoga concepts begin to emerge in texts dating to c. 500–200 BCE, such as the early Buddhist texts, the middle Upanishads, and the Mahabharata's Bhagavad Gita and Shanti Parva.[107][note 10]

Buddhism and the śramaṇa movement

 
Bas-relief in Borobudur of the Buddha becoming a wandering hermit instead of a warrior

According to Geoffrey Samuel, the "best evidence to date" suggests that yogic practices "developed in the same ascetic circles as the early śramaṇa movements (Buddhists, Jainas and Ajivikas), probably in around the sixth and fifth centuries BCE." This occurred during India's second urbanisation period.[15] According to Mallinson and Singleton, these traditions were the first to use mind-body techniques (known as Dhyāna and tapas) but later described as yoga, to strive for liberation from the round of rebirth.[110]

Werner writes, "The Buddha was the founder of his [Yoga] system, even though, admittedly, he made use of some of the experiences he had previously gained under various Yoga teachers of his time."[111] He notes:[112]

But it is only with Buddhism itself as expounded in the Pali Canon that we can speak about a systematic and comprehensive or even integral school of Yoga practice, which is thus the first and oldest to have been preserved for us in its entirety.[112]

Early Buddhist texts describe yogic and meditative practices, some of which the Buddha borrowed from the śramaṇa tradition.[113][114] The Pāli Canon contains three passages in which the Buddha describes pressing the tongue against the palate to control hunger or the mind, depending on the passage.[115] There is no mention of the tongue inserted into the nasopharynx, as in khecarī mudrā. The Buddha used a posture in which pressure is put on the perineum with the heel, similar to modern postures used to evoke Kundalini.[116] Suttas which discuss yogic practice include the Satipatthana Sutta (the four foundations of mindfulness sutta) and the Anapanasati Sutta (the mindfulness of breathing sutta).

The chronology of these yoga-related early Buddhist texts, like the ancient Hindu texts, is unclear.[117][118] Early Buddhist sources such as the Majjhima Nikāya mention meditation; the Aṅguttara Nikāya describes jhāyins (meditators) who resemble early Hindu descriptions of muni, the Kesin and meditating ascetics,[119] but the meditation practices are not called "yoga" in these texts.[120] The earliest known discussions of yoga in Buddhist literature, as understood in a modern context, are from the later Buddhist Yogācāra and Theravada schools.[120]

Jain meditation is a yoga system which predated the Buddhist school. Since Jain sources are later than Buddhist ones, however, it is difficult to distinguish between the early Jain school and elements derived from other schools.[121] Most of the other contemporary yoga systems alluded to in the Upanishads and some Buddhist texts have been lost.[122][123][note 11]

Upanishads

The Upanishads, composed in the late Vedic period, contain the first references to practices recognizable as classical yoga.[84] The first known appearance of the word "yoga" in the modern sense is in the Katha Upanishad[11][12] (probably composed between the fifth and third centuries BCE),[13][14] where it is defined as steady control of the senses which – with cessation of mental activity – leads to a supreme state.[97][note 12] The Katha Upanishad integrates the monism of the early Upanishads with concepts of samkhya and yoga. It defines levels of existence by their proximity to one's innermost being. Yoga is viewed as a process of interiorization, or ascent of consciousness.[126][127] The upanishad is the earliest literary work which highlights the fundamentals of yoga. According to White,

The earliest extant systematic account of yoga and a bridge from the earlier Vedic uses of the term is found in the Hindu Katha Upanisad (Ku), a scripture dating from about the third century BCE ... [I]t describes the hierarchy of mind-body constituents—the senses, mind, intellect, etc.—that comprise the foundational categories of Sāmkhya philosophy, whose metaphysical system grounds the yoga of the Yogasutras, Bhagavad Gita, and other texts and schools (Ku3.10–11; 6.7–8).[128]

The hymns in book two of the Shvetashvatara Upanishad (another late-first-millennium BCE text) describe a procedure in which the body is upright, the breath is restrained and the mind is meditatively focused, preferably in a cave or a place that is simple and quiet.[129][130][127]

The Maitrayaniya Upanishad, probably composed later than the Katha and Shvetashvatara Upanishads but before the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali, mentions a sixfold yoga method: breath control, introspective withdrawal of the senses, meditation (dhyana), mental concentration, logic and reasoning, and spiritual union.[11][127][131] In addition to discussions in the Principal Upanishads, the twenty Yoga Upanishads and related texts (such as Yoga Vasistha, composed between the sixth and 14th centuries CE) discuss yoga methods.[9][10]

Macedonian texts

Alexander the Great reached India in the 4th century BCE. In addition to his army, he brought Greek academics who wrote memoirs about its geography, people, and customs. One of Alexander's companions was Onesicritus (quoted in Book 15, Sections 63–65 by Strabo in his Geography), who describes yogis.[132] Onesicritus says that the yogis were aloof and adopted "different postures – standing or sitting or lying naked – and motionless".[133]

Onesicritus also mentions attempts by his colleague, Calanus, to meet them. Initially denied an audience, he was later invited because he was sent by a "king curious of wisdom and philosophy".[133] Onesicritus and Calanus learn that the yogis consider life's best doctrines to "rid the spirit of not only pain, but also pleasure", that "man trains the body for toil in order that his opinions may be strengthened", that "there is no shame in life on frugal fare", and that "the best place to inhabit is one with scantiest equipment or outfit".[132][133] According to Charles Rockwell Lanman, these principles are significant in the history of yoga's spiritual side and may reflect the roots of "undisturbed calmness" and "mindfulness through balance" in the later works of Patanjali and Buddhaghosa.[132]

Mahabharata and Bhagavad Gita

Nirodhayoga (yoga of cessation), an early form of yoga, is described in the Mokshadharma section of the 12th chapter (Shanti Parva) of the third-century BCE Mahabharata.[134] Nirodhayoga emphasizes progressive withdrawal from empirical consciousness, including thoughts and sensations, until purusha (self) is realized. Terms such as vichara (subtle reflection) and viveka (discrimination) similar to Patanjali's terminology are used, but not described.[135] Although the Mahabharata contains no uniform yogic goal, the separation of self from matter and perception of Brahman everywhere are described as goals of yoga. Samkhya and yoga are conflated, and some verses describe them as identical.[136] Mokshadharma also describes an early practice of elemental meditation.[137] The Mahabharata defines the purpose of yoga as uniting the individual ātman with the universal Brahman pervading all things.[136]

 
Krishna narrating the Bhagavad Gita to Arjuna

The Bhagavad Gita (Song of the Lord), part of the Mahabharata, contains extensive teachings about yoga. According to Mallinson and Singleton, the Gita "seeks to appropriate yoga from the renunciate milieu in which it originated, teaching that it is compatible with worldly activity carried out according to one's caste and life stage; it is only the fruits of one's actions that are to be renounced."[134] In addition to a chapter (chapter six) dedicated to traditional yoga practice (including meditation),[138] it introduces three significant types of yoga:[139]

The Gita consists of 18 chapters and 700 shlokas (verses);[143] each chapter is named for a different form of yoga.[143][144][145] Some scholars divide the Gita into three sections; the first six chapters (280 shlokas) deal with karma yoga, the middle six (209 shlokas) with bhakti yoga, and the last six (211 shlokas with jnana yoga. However, elements of all three are found throughout the work.[143]

Philosophical sutras

Yoga is discussed in the foundational sutras of Hindu philosophy. The Vaiśeṣika Sūtra of the Vaisheshika school of Hinduism, composed between the sixth and second centuries BCE, discusses yoga.[note 13] According to Johannes Bronkhorst, the Vaiśeṣika Sūtra describes yoga as "a state where the mind resides only in the Self and therefore not in the senses".[146] This is equivalent to pratyahara (withdrawal of the senses). The sutra asserts that yoga leads to an absence of sukha (happiness) and dukkha (suffering), describing meditative steps in the journey towards spiritual liberation.[146]

The Brahma Sutras, the foundation text of the Vedanta school of Hinduism, also discusses yoga.[147] Estimated as completed in its surviving form between 450 BCE and 200 CE,[148][149] its sutras assert that yoga is a means to attain "subtlety of body".[147] The Nyaya Sutras—the foundation text of the Nyaya school, estimated as composed between the sixth century BCE and the secondcentury CE[150][151]—discusses yoga in sutras 4.2.38–50. It includes a discussion of yogic ethics, dhyana (meditation) and samadhi, noting that debate and philosophy are also forms of yoga.[152][153][154]

Classical era (200 BCE – 500 CE)

The Indic traditions of Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism were taking shape during the period between the Mauryan and the Gupta eras (c. 200 BCE – 500 CE), and systems of yoga began to emerge;[67] a number of texts from these traditions discussed and compiled yoga methods and practices. Key works of the era include the Yoga Sūtras of Patañjali, the Yoga-Yājñavalkya, the Yogācārabhūmi-Śāstra, and the Visuddhimagga.

Yoga Sutras of Patanjali

 
Traditional Hindu depiction of Patanjali as an avatar of the divine serpent Shesha

One of the best-known early expressions of Brahminical yoga thought is the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali (early centuries CE,[16][42][note 1] the original name of which may have been the Pātañjalayogaśāstra-sāṃkhya-pravacana (c. 325–425 CE); some scholars believe that it included the sutras and a commentary.[155] As the name suggests, the metaphysical basis of the text is samkhya; the school is mentioned in Kauṭilya's Arthashastra as one of the three categories of anviksikis (philosophies), with yoga and Cārvāka.[156][157] Yoga and samkhya have some differences; yoga accepted the concept of a personal god, and Samkhya was a rational, non-theistic system of Hindu philosophy.[158][159][160] Patanjali's system is sometimes called "Seshvara Samkhya", distinguishing it from Kapila's Nirivara Samkhya.[161] The parallels between yoga and samkhya were so close that Max Müller says, "The two philosophies were in popular parlance distinguished from each other as Samkhya with and Samkhya without a Lord."[162] Karel Werner wrote that the systematization of yoga which began in the middle and early Yoga Upanishads culminated in the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali.[note 14]

Yoga Sutras of Patanjali[164]
Pada (Chapter) English meaning Sutras
Samadhi Pada On being absorbed in spirit 51
Sadhana Pada On being immersed in spirit 55
Vibhuti Pada On supernatural abilities and gifts 56
Kaivalya Pada On absolute freedom 34

The Yoga Sutras are also influenced by the Sramana traditions of Buddhism and Jainism, and may be a further Brahmanical attempt to adopt yoga from those traditions.[155] Larson noted a number of parallels in ancient samkhya, yoga and Abhidharma Buddhism, particularly from the second century BCE to the first century AD.[165] Patanjali's Yoga Sutras are a synthesis of the three traditions. From Samkhya, they adopt the "reflective discernment" (adhyavasaya) of prakrti and purusa (dualism), their metaphysical rationalism, and their three epistemological methods of obtaining knowledge.[165] Larson says that the Yoga Sutras pursue an altered state of awareness from Abhidharma Buddhism's nirodhasamadhi; unlike Buddhism's "no self or soul", however, yoga (like Samkhya) believes that each individual has a self.[165] The third concept which the Yoga Sutras synthesize is the ascetic tradition of meditation and introspection.[165]

Patanjali's Yoga Sutras are considered the first compilation of yoga philosophy.[note 15] The verses of the Yoga Sutras are terse. Many later Indian scholars studied them and published their commentaries, such as the Vyasa Bhashya (c. 350–450 CE).[166] Patanjali defines the word "yoga" in his second sutra, and his terse definition hinges on the meaning of three Sanskrit terms. I. K. Taimni translates it as "Yoga is the inhibition (nirodhaḥ) of the modifications (vṛtti) of the mind (citta)".[167] Swami Vivekananda translates the sutra as "Yoga is restraining the mind-stuff (Citta) from taking various forms (Vrittis)."[168] Edwin Bryant writes that to Patanjali, "Yoga essentially consists of meditative practices culminating in attaining a state of consciousness free from all modes of active or discursive thought, and of eventually attaining a state where consciousness is unaware of any object external to itself, that is, is only aware of its own nature as consciousness unmixed with any other object."[169][170][171]

Baba Hari Dass writes that if yoga is understood as nirodha (mental control), its goal is "the unqualified state of niruddha (the perfection of that process)".[172] "Yoga (union) implies duality (as in joining of two things or principles); the result of yoga is the nondual state ... as the union of the lower self and higher Self. The nondual state is characterized by the absence of individuality; it can be described as eternal peace, pure love, Self-realization, or liberation."[172]

Patanjali defined an eight-limbed yoga in Yoga Sutras 2.29:

  1. Yama (The five abstentions): Ahimsa (Non-violence, non-harming other living beings),[173] Satya (truthfulness, non-falsehood),[174] Asteya (non-stealing),[175] Brahmacharya (celibacy, fidelity to one's partner),[175] and Aparigraha (non-avarice, non-possessiveness).[174]
  2. Niyama (The five "observances"): Śauca (purity, clearness of mind, speech and body),[176] Santosha (contentment, acceptance of others and of one's circumstances),[177] Tapas (persistent meditation, perseverance, austerity),[178] Svādhyāya (study of self, self-reflection, study of Vedas),[179] and Ishvara-Pranidhana (contemplation of God/Supreme Being/True Self).[177]
  3. Asana: Literally means "seat", and in Patanjali's Sutras refers to the seated position used for meditation.
  4. Pranayama ("Breath exercises"): Prāna, breath, "āyāma", to "stretch, extend, restrain, stop".
  5. Pratyahara ("Abstraction"): Withdrawal of the sense organs from external objects.
  6. Dharana ("Concentration"): Fixing the attention on a single object.
  7. Dhyana ("Meditation"): Intense contemplation of the nature of the object of meditation.
  8. Samadhi ("Liberation"): merging consciousness with the object of meditation.

In Hindu scholasticism since the 12th century, yoga has been one of the six orthodox philosophical schools (darsanas): traditions which accept the Vedas.[note 16][note 17][180]

Yoga and Vedanta

Yoga and Vedanta are the two largest surviving schools of Hindu traditions. Although they share many principles, concepts, and the belief in Self, they differ in degree, style, and methods; yoga accepts three means to obtain knowledge, and Advaita Vedanta accepts.[181] Yoga disputes Advaita Vedanta's monism.[182] It believes that in the state of moksha, each individual discovers the blissful, liberating sense of himself or herself as an independent identity; Advaita Vedanta teaches that in the state of moksha, each individual discovers the blissful, liberating sense of himself or herself as part of oneness with everything, everyone and the Universal Self. They both hold that the free conscience is transcendent, liberated and self-aware. Advaita Vedanta also encourages the use of Patanjali's yoga practices and the Upanishads for those seeking the supreme good and ultimate freedom.[182]

Yoga Yajnavalkya

Main article: Yoga Yajnavalkya

संयोगो योग इत्युक्तो जीवात्मपरमात्मनोः॥
saṁyogo yoga ityukto jīvātma-paramātmanoḥ॥
Yoga is the union of the individual self (jivātma) with the supreme self (paramātma).

—Yoga Yajnavalkya[183]

The Yoga Yajnavalkya is a classical treatise on yoga, attributed to the Vedic sage Yajnavalkya, in the form of a dialogue between Yajnavalkya and the renowned philosopher Gargi Vachaknavi.[184] The origin of the 12-chapter text has been traced to the second century BCE and the fourth century CE.[185] A number of yoga texts, such as the Hatha Yoga Pradipika, the Yoga Kundalini and the Yoga Tattva Upanishads, have borrowed from (or frequently refer to) the Yoga Yajnavalkya.[186] It discusses eight yoga asanas (Swastika, Gomukha, Padma, Vira, Simha, Bhadra, Mukta and Mayura),[187] a number of breathing exercises for body cleansing,[188] and meditation.[189]

Abhidharma and Yogachara

 
Asanga, a fourth-century scholar and co-founder of the Yogachara ("Yoga practice") school of Mahayana Buddhism[190]

The Buddhist tradition of Abhidharma spawned treatises which expanded teachings on Buddhist theory and yoga techniques which influenced Mahayana and Theravada Buddhism. At the height of the Gupta period (fourth to fifth centuries CE), a northern Mahayana movement known as Yogācāra began to be systematized with the writings of Buddhist scholars Asanga and Vasubandhu. Yogācāra Buddhism provided a systematic framework for practices which lead a bodhisattva towards awakening and full Buddhahood.[191] Its teachings are found in the encyclopedic Yogācārabhūmi-Śāstra (Treatise for Yoga Practitioners), which was also translated into Tibetan and Chinese and influenced East Asian and Tibetan Buddhist traditions.[192] Mallinson and Singleton write that the study of Yogācāra Buddhism is essential to understand yoga's early history, and its teachings influenced the Pātañjalayogaśāstra.[193] The South India and Sri Lankan-based Theravada school also developed manuals for yogic and meditative training, primarily the Vimuttimagga and the Visuddhimagga.

Jainism

Main article: Jainism

According to Tattvarthasutra, a second-to-fifth century Jain text, yoga is the sum of all activities of mind, speech and body.[5] Umasvati calls yoga the generator of karma,[194] and essential to the path to liberation.[194] In his Niyamasara, Kundakunda describes yoga bhakti—devotion to the path to liberation—as the highest form of devotion.[195] Haribhadra and Hemacandra note the five major vows of ascetics and 12 minor vows of laity in yoga. According to Robert J. Zydenbos, Jainism is a system of yogic thinking which became a religion.[196] The five yamas (constraints) of the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali are similar to Jainism's five major vows, indicating cross-fertilization between these traditions.[196][note 18] Hinduism's influence on Jain yoga may be seen in Haribhadra's Yogadṛṣṭisamuccaya, which outlines an eightfold yoga influenced by Patanjali's eightfold yoga.[198]

Middle Ages (500–1500 CE)

 
 
Male and female yogis in 17th- and 18th-century India

The Middle Ages saw the development of satellite yoga traditions. Hatha yoga emerged during this period.[199]

Bhakti movement

Main article: Bhakti yoga

In medieval Hinduism, the Bhakti movement advocated the concept of a personal god or Supreme Personality. The movement, begun by the Alvars of South India during the 6th to 9th centuries, became influential throughout India by the 12th to 15th centuries.[200] Shaiva and Vaishnava bhakti traditions integrated aspects of the Yoga Sutras (such as meditative exercises) with devotion.[201] The Bhagavata Purana elucidates a form of yoga known as viraha (separation) bhakti, which emphasizes concentration on Krishna.[202]

Tantra

Tantra is a range of esoteric traditions which had begun to arise in India by the 5th century CE.[203][note 19] Its use suggests that the word tantra in the Rigveda means "technique". George Samuel wrote that tantra is a contested term, but may be considered a school whose practices appeared in nearly-complete form in Buddhist and Hindu texts by about the 10th century CE.[205] Tantric yoga developed complex visualizations, which included meditation on the body as a microcosm of the cosmos. It included mantras, breath control, and body manipulation (including its nadis and chakras. Teachings about chakras and Kundalini became central to later forms of Indian yoga.[206]

Tantric concepts influenced Hindu, Bon, Buddhist, and Jain traditions. Elements of Tantric rituals were adopted by, and influenced, state functions in medieval Buddhist and Hindu kingdoms in East and Southeast Asia.[207] By the turn of the first millennium, hatha yoga emerged from tantra.[19][208]

Vajrayana and Tibetan Buddhism

Vajrayana is also known as Tantric Buddhism and Tantrayāna. Its texts began to be compiled during the seventh century CE, and Tibetan translations were completed the following century. These tantra texts were the main source of Buddhist knowledge imported into Tibet,[209] and were later translated into Chinese and other Asian languages. The Buddhist text Hevajra Tantra and caryāgiti introduced hierarchies of chakras.[210] Yoga is a significant practice in Tantric Buddhism.[211][212][213]

Tantra yoga practices include postures and breathing exercises. The Nyingma school practices yantra yoga, a discipline which includes breath work, meditation and other exercises.[214] Nyingma meditation is divided into stages,[215] such as Kriya Yoga, Upa yoga, Yoga yana, mahā yoga, Anu yoga and atiyoga.[216] The Sarma traditions also include Kriya, Upa (called "Charya"), and yoga, with anuttara yoga replacing mahayoga and atiyoga.[217]

Zen Buddhism

Zen, whose name derives from the Sanskrit dhyāna via the Chinese ch'an,[note 20] is a form of Mahayana Buddhism in which yoga is an integral part.[219]

Medieval hatha yoga

 
Sculpture of Gorakshanath, an 11th-century yogi of the Nath tradition and a proponent of hatha yoga[220]

The first references to hatha yoga are in eighth-century Buddhist works.[221] The earliest definition of hatha yoga is in the 11th-century Buddhist text Vimalaprabha.[222] Hatha yoga blends elements of Patanjali's Yoga Sutras with posture and breathing exercises.[223] It marks the development of asanas into the full-body postures in current popular use[208] and, with its modern variations, is the style presently associated with the word "yoga".[224]

Sikhism

Yogic groups became prominent in Punjab during the 15th and 16th centuries, when Sikhism was beginning. Compositions by Guru Nanak (the founder of Sikhism) describe dialogues he had with Jogis, a Hindu community which practiced yoga. Guru Nanak rejected the austerities, rites and rituals associated with hatha yoga, advocating sahaja yoga or nama yoga instead.[225] According to the Guru Granth Sahib,

O Yogi, Nanak tells nothing but the truth. You must discipline your mind. The devotee must meditate on the Word Divine. It is His grace which brings about the union. He understands, he also sees. Good deeds help one merge into Divination.[226]

Modern revival

Introduction in the West

 
Swami Vivekananda in London in 1896

Yoga and other aspects of Indian philosophy came to the attention of the educated Western public during the mid-19th century, and N. C. Paul published his Treatise on Yoga Philosophy in 1851.[227] Swami Vivekananda, the first Hindu teacher to advocate and disseminate elements of yoga to a Western audience, toured Europe and the United States in the 1890s.[228] His reception built on the interest of intellectuals who included the New England Transcendentalists; among them were Ralph Waldo Emerson (1803–1882), who drew on German Romanticism and philosophers and scholars such as Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel (1770–1831), the brothers August Wilhelm Schlegel (1767–1845) and Friedrich Schlegel (1772–1829), Max Mueller (1823–1900), and Arthur Schopenhauer (1788–1860).[229][230]

Theosophists, including Helena Blavatsky, also influenced the Western public's view of yoga.[231] Esoteric views at the end of the 19th century encouraged the reception of Vedanta and yoga, with their correspondence between the spiritual and the physical.[232] The reception of yoga and Vedanta entwined with the (primarily neoplatonic) currents of religious and philosophical reform and transformation during the 19th and early 20th centuries. Mircea Eliade brought a new element to yoga, emphasizing tantric yoga in his Yoga: Immortality and Freedom.[233] With the introduction of tantra traditions and philosophy, the conception of the "transcendent" attained by yogic practice shifted from the mind to the body.[234]

Yoga as exercise

Main article: Yoga as exercise

The postural yoga of the Western world is a physical activity consisting of asanas (often connected by smooth transitions, sometimes accompanied by breathing exercises and usually ending with a period of relaxation or meditation. It is often known simply as "yoga",[235] despite older Hindu traditions (some dating to the Yoga Sutras) in which asanas played little or no part; asanas were not central to any tradition.[236]

Yoga as exercise is part of a modern yoga renaissance,[237] a 20th-century blend of Western gymnastics and haṭha yoga pioneered by Shri Yogendra and Swami Kuvalayananda.[238] Before 1900, hatha yoga had few standing poses; the Sun Salutation was pioneered by Bhawanrao Shrinivasrao Pant Pratinidhi, the Rajah of Aundh, during the 1920s.[239] Many standing poses used in gymnastics were incorporated into yoga by Krishnamacharya in Mysore between the 1930s and the 1950s.[240] Several of his students founded schools of yoga. Pattabhi Jois created ashtanga vinyasa yoga,[241] which led to Power Yoga;[242] B. K. S. Iyengar created Iyengar Yoga and systematised asanas in his 1966 book, Light on Yoga;[243] Indra Devi taught yoga to Hollywood actors; and Krishnamacharya's son, T. K. V. Desikachar, founded the Krishnamacharya Yoga Mandalam in Chennai.[244][245][246] Other schools founded during the 20th century include Bikram Choudhury's Bikram Yoga and Swami Sivananda of Rishikesh's Sivananda yoga. Modern yoga has spread around the world.[247][248]

 
International Day of Yoga in New Delhi, 2016

The number of asanas used in yoga has increased from 84 in 1830 (as illustrated in Joga Pradipika) to about 200 in Light on Yoga and over 900 performed by Dharma Mittra by 1984. The goal of haṭha yoga (spiritual liberation through energy) was largely replaced by the goals of fitness and relaxation, and many of its more esoteric components were reduced or removed.[249] The term "hatha yoga" also refers to gentle yoga, often for women.[250]

Yoga has developed into a worldwide, multi-billion-dollar business involving classes, teacher certification, clothing, books, videos, equipment, and holidays.[251] The ancient, cross-legged lotus position and Siddhasana are widely-recognised symbols of yoga.[252] The United Nations General Assembly established 21 June as the International Day of Yoga,[253][254][255] and it has been celebrated annually around the world since 2015.[256][257] On 1 December 2016, yoga was listed by UNESCO as an intangible cultural heritage.[258]

The effect of postural yoga on physical and mental health has been a subject of study, with evidence that regular yoga practice is beneficial for low back pain and stress.[259][260] In 2017, a Cochrane review found that yoga interventions designed for chronic low back pain increased function at the six month mark, and modestly decreased pain after 3–4 months. The decrease in pain was found to be similar to other exercise programs designed for low-back pain, but the decrease is not large enough to be deemed clinically significant.[261] Theories of the mechanism underlying these changes include the increase in strength and flexibility, physical and mental relaxation and increased body awareness.

Traditions

Yoga is practised with a variety of methods by all Indian religions. In Hinduism, practices include jnana yoga, bhakti yoga, karma yoga, kundalini yoga, and hatha yoga.

Jain yoga

Main article: Jain meditation

Yoga has been a central practice in Jainism. Jain spirituality is based on a strict code of nonviolence, or ahimsa (which includes vegetarianism), almsgiving (dāna), faith in the three jewels, austerities (tapas) such as fasting, and yoga.[262][263] Jain yoga aims at the liberation and purification of the self from the forces of karma, which binds the self to the cycle of reincarnation. Like yoga and Sankhya, Jainism believes in a number of individual selves bound by their individual karma.[264] Only through the reduction of karmic influences and the exhaustion of collected karma can one become purified and released.[265] Early Jain yoga seems to have been divided into several types, including meditation, abandonment of the body (kāyotsarga), contemplation, and reflection (bhāvanā).[266]

Buddhist yoga

 
Gautama Buddha in seated meditation, Gal Vihara, Sri Lanka
Main articles: Buddhist meditation and Dhyāna in Buddhism

Buddhist yoga encompasses a variety of methods which aim to develop the 37 aids to awakening. Its ultimate goal is bodhi (awakening) or nirvana (cessation), traditionally seen as the permanent end of suffering (dukkha) and rebirth.[note 21] Buddhist texts use a number of terms for spiritual praxis in addition to yoga, such as bhāvanā ("development")[note 22] and jhāna/dhyāna.[note 23]

In early Buddhism, yoga practices included:

These meditations were seen as supported by the other elements of the Noble Eightfold Path, such as ethics, right exertion, sense restraint and right view.[267] Two mental qualities are said to be indispensable for yoga practice in Buddhism: samatha (calm, stability) and vipassanā (insight, clear seeing).[268] Samatha is a stable, relaxed mind, associated with samadhi (mental unification, focus) and dhyana (a state of meditative absorption). Vipassanā is insight or penetrative understanding into the true nature of phenomena, also defined as "seeing things as they truly are" (yathābhūtaṃ darśanam). A unique feature of classical Buddhism is its understanding of all phenomena (dhammas) as being empty of a self.[269][270]

Later developments in Buddhist traditions led to innovations in yoga practice. The conservative Theravada school developed new ideas on meditation and yoga in its later works, the most influential of which is the Visuddhimagga. Mahayana meditation teachings may be seen in the Yogācārabhūmi-Śāstra, compiled c. 4th century. Mahayana also developed and adopted yoga methods such as the use of mantras and dharani, pure land practices aiming at rebirth in a pure land or buddhafield, and visualization. Chinese Buddhism developed the Chan practice of Koan introspection and Hua Tou. Tantric Buddhism developed and adopted tantric methods which are the basis of the Tibetan Buddhist yoga systems, including deity yoga, guru yoga, the six yogas of Naropa, Kalacakra, Mahamudra and Dzogchen.[271]

Classical yoga

Main article: Yoga (philosophy)

What is often referred to as classical yoga, ashtanga yoga, or rāja yoga is primarily the yoga outlined in the dualistic Yoga Sutras of Patanjali.[272] The origins of classical yoga are unclear, although early discussions of the term appear in the Upanishads.[165] Rāja yoga (yoga of kings) originally denoted the ultimate goal of yoga; samadhi,[273] but was popularised by Vivekananda as a common name for ashtanga yoga,[note 24] the eight limbs attain samadhi as described in the Yoga Sutras.[274][272] Yoga philosophy came to be regarded as a distinct orthodox school (darsanas) of Hinduism in the second half of the first millennium CE.[18][web 1]

Classical yoga incorporates epistemology, metaphysics, ethical practices, systematic exercises and self-development for body, mind and spirit.[169] Its epistemology (pramana) and metaphysics are similar to the Sāṅkhya school. The Classical yoga's metaphysics, like Sāṅkhya's, primarily posits two distinct realities: prakriti (nature, the eternal and active unconscious source of the material world composed of three guṇas) and puruṣa (consciousness), the plural consciousnesses which are the intelligent principles of the world.[275] Moksha (liberation) results from the isolation (kaivalya) of puruṣa from prakirti, and is achieved through meditation, stilling one's thought waves (citta vritti) and resting in pure awareness of puruṣa.[275] Unlike Sāṅkhya, which takes a non-theistic approach,[158][276] the yoga school of Hinduism accepts a "personal, yet essentially inactive, deity" or "personal god" (Ishvara).[277][278]

In Advaita Vedanta

 
Raja Ravi Varma's Adi Shankara with Disciples (1904)

Vedanta is a varied tradition, with a number of sub-schools and philosophical views. It focuses on the study of the Upanishads and the Brahma Sutras (one of its early texts), about gaining spiritual knowledge of Brahman: the unchanging, absolute reality.[279]

One of the earliest and most influential sub-traditions of Vedanta is Advaita Vedanta, which posits non-dualistic monism. It emphasizes jñāna yoga (yoga of knowledge), which aims at realizing the identity of one's atman (individual consciousness) with Brahman (the Absolute consciousness).[280][281] The most influential thinker of this school is Adi Shankara (8th century), who wrote commentaries and other works on jñāna yoga. In Advaita Vedanta, jñāna is attained from scripture, one's guru, and through a process of listening to (and meditating on) teachings.[282] Qualities such as discrimination, renunciation, tranquility, temperance, dispassion, endurance, faith, attention, and a longing for knowledge and freedom are also desirable.[283] Yoga in Advaita is a "meditative exercise of withdrawal from the particular and identification with the universal, leading to contemplation of oneself as the most universal, namely, Consciousness".[284]

Yoga Vasistha is an influential Advaita text[285] which uses short stories and anecdotes to illustrate its ideas. Teaching seven stages of yoga practice, it was a major reference for medieval Advaita Vedanta yoga scholars and one of the most popular texts on Hindu yoga before the 12th century.[286] Another text which teaches yoga from an Advaita point of view is the Yoga Yajnavalkya.[287]

Tantric yoga

Main article: Tantra

According to Samuel, Tantra is a contested concept.[205] Tantra yoga may be described as practices in 9th to 10th century Buddhist and Hindu (Saiva, Shakti) texts which included yogic practices with elaborate deity visualizations using geometric arrays and drawings (mandalas), male and (particularly) female deities, life-stage-related rituals, the use of chakras and mantras, and sexual techniques aimed at aiding one's health, longevity and liberation.[205][288]

Hatha yoga

 
Viparītakaraṇī, a posture used as an asana and a mudra[289]
Main article: Hatha yoga

Hatha yoga focuses on physical and mental strength-building exercises and postures described primarily in three Hindu texts:[290][291][292]

  1. Hatha Yoga Pradipika by Svātmārāma (15th century)
  2. Shiva Samhita, author unknown (1500[293] or late 17th century)
  3. Gheranda Samhita by Gheranda (late 17th century)

Some scholars include Gorakshanath's 11th-century Goraksha Samhita on the list,[290] since Gorakshanath is considered responsible for popularizing present-day hatha yoga.[294][295][296] Vajrayana Buddhism, founded by the Indian Mahasiddhas,[297] has a series of asanas and pranayamas (such as tummo)[211] which resemble hatha yoga.

Laya and kundalini yoga

Laya and kundalini yoga, closely associated with hatha yoga, are often presented as independent approaches.[298] According to Georg Feuerstein, laya yoga (yoga of dissolution or merging) "makes meditative absorption (laya) its focus. The laya-yogin seeks to transcend all memory traces and sensory experiences by dissolving the microcosm, the mind, in the transcendental Self-Consciousness."[299] Laya yoga has a number of techniques which include listening to the "inner sound" (nada), mudras such as Khechari and Shambhavi mudra, and awakening kundalini (body energy).[300]

Kundalini yoga aims to awaken bodily and cosmic energy with breath and body techniques, uniting them with universal consciousness.[301] A common teaching method awakens kundalini in the lowest chakra and guides it through the central channel to unite with the absolute consciousness in the highest chakra, at the top of the head.[302]

Reception by other religions

Christianity

Further information: Category:Christian yoga

Some Christians integrate physical aspects of yoga, stripped from the spiritual roots of Hinduism, and other aspects of Eastern spirituality with prayer, meditation and Jesus-centric affirmations.[303][304] The practice also includes renaming poses in English (rather than using the original Sanskrit terms), and abandoning involved Hindu mantras as well as the philosophy of Yoga; Yoga is associated and reframed into Christianity.[304] This has drawn charges of cultural appropriation from various Hindu groups;[304][305] scholars remain skeptical.[306] Previously, the Roman Catholic Church, and some other Christian organizations have expressed concerns and disapproval with respect to some eastern and New Age practices that include yoga and meditation.[307][308][309]

In 1989 and 2003, the Vatican issued two documents: Aspects of Christian meditation and "A Christian reflection on the New Age," that were mostly critical of eastern and New Age practices. The 2003 document was published as a 90-page handbook detailing the Vatican's position.[310] The Vatican warned that concentration on the physical aspects of meditation "can degenerate into a cult of the body" and that equating bodily states with mysticism "could also lead to psychic disturbance and, at times, to moral deviations." Such has been compared to the early days of Christianity, when the church opposed the gnostics' belief that salvation came not through faith but through mystical inner knowledge.[303] The letter also says, "one can see if and how [prayer] might be enriched by meditation methods developed in other religions and cultures"[311] but maintains the idea that "there must be some fit between the nature of [other approaches to] prayer and Christian beliefs about ultimate reality."[303] Some[which?] fundamentalist Christian organizations consider yoga to be incompatible with their religious background, considering it a part of the New Age movement inconsistent with Christianity.[312]

Islam

Early-11th-century Persian scholar Al-Biruni visited India, lived with Hindus for 16 years, and (with their help) translated several Sanskrit works into Arabic and Persian; one of these was Patanjali's Yoga Sutras.[313][314] Although Al-Biruni's translation preserved many core themes of Patañjali's yoga philosophy, some sutras and commentaries were restated for consistency with monotheistic Islamic theology.[313][315] Al-Biruni's version of the Yoga Sutras reached Persia and the Arabian Peninsula by about 1050. During the 16th century, the hatha yoga text Amritakunda was translated into Arabic and Persian.[316] Yoga was, however, not accepted by mainstream Sunni and Shia Islam. Minority Islamic sects such as the mystic Sufi movement, particularly in South Asia, adopted Indian yoga postures and breath control.[317][318] Muhammad Ghawth, a 16th-century Shattari Sufi and translator of yoga text, was criticized for his interest in yoga and persecuted for his Sufi beliefs.[319]

Malaysia's top Islamic body imposed a legally-enforceable 2008 fatwa prohibiting Muslims from practicing yoga, saying that it had elements of Hinduism and its practice was haram as blasphemy.[320][321] Malaysian Muslims who had been practicing yoga for years called the decision "insulting."[322] Sisters in Islam, a Malaysian women's-rights group, expressed disappointment and said that yoga was a form of exercise.[323] Malaysia's prime minister clarified that yoga as exercise is permissible, but the chanting of religious mantras is not.[324]

The Indonesian Ulema Council (MUI) imposed a 2009 fatwa banning yoga because it contains Hindu elements.[325] These fatwas have been criticized by Darul Uloom Deoband, a Deobandi Islamic seminary in India.[326] Similar fatwas banning yoga for its link to Hinduism were imposed by Grand Mufti Ali Gomaa in Egypt in 2004, and by Islamic clerics in Singapore earlier.[327][328]

According to Iran's yoga association, the country had about 200 yoga centres in May 2014. One-quarter were in the capital, Tehran, where groups could be seen practising in parks; conservatives were opposed.[329] In May 2009, Turkish Directorate of Religious Affairs head Ali Bardakoğlu discounted personal-development techniques such as reiki and yoga as commercial ventures which could lead to extremism. According to Bardakoğlu, reiki and yoga could be a form of proselytizing at the expense of Islam.[330] Nouf Marwaai brought yoga to Saudi Arabia in 2017, contributing to making it legal and recognized despite being allegedly threatened by her community who asserts yoga as "un-Islamic".[331]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ a b c Bryant (2009, p. xxxiv): "Most scholars date the text shortly after the turn of the Common Era (circa first to second century)."
  2. ^ Original Sanskrit: युञ्जते मन उत युञ्जते धियो विप्रा विप्रस्य बृहतो विपश्चितः। वि होत्रा दधे वयुनाविदेक इन्मही देवस्य सवितुः परिष्टुतिः॥१॥[32]
    Translation 1: Seers of the vast illumined seer yogically [युञ्जते, yunjante] control their minds and their intelligence... (…)[30]
    Translation 2: The illumined yoke their mind and they yoke their thoughts to the illuminating godhead, to the vast, to the luminous in consciousness;
    the one knower of all manifestation of knowledge, he alone orders the things of the sacrifice. Great is the praise of Savitri, the creating godhead.[31]
  3. ^ See also Gavin Flood (1996), Hinduism, p.87–90, on "The orthogenetic theory" and "Non-Vedic origins of renunciation".[69]
  4. ^ Post-classical traditions consider Hiranyagarbha the originator of yoga.[71][72]
  5. ^ Zimmer's point of view is supported by other scholars, such as Niniam Smart in Doctrine and argument in Indian Philosophy, 1964, pp. 27–32, 76[76] and S. K. Belvakar and Inchegeri Sampradaya in History of Indian philosophy, 1974 (1927), pp. 81, 303–409.[77]
  6. ^ Gavin Flood: "These renouncer traditions offered a new vision of the human condition which became incorporated, to some degree, into the worldview of the Brahman householder. The ideology of asceticism and renunciation seems, at first, discontinuous with the brahmanical ideology of the affirmation of social obligations and the performance of public and domestic rituals. Indeed, there has been some debate as to whether asceticism and its ideas of retributive action, reincarnation and spiritual liberation, might not have originated outside the orthodox vedic sphere, or even outside Aryan culture: that a divergent historical origin might account for the apparent contradiction within 'Hinduism' between the world affirmation of the householder and the world negation of the renouncer. However, this dichotomization is too simplistic, for continuities can undoubtedly be found between renunciation and vedic Brahmanism, while elements from non-Brahmanical, Sramana traditions also played an important part in the formation of the renunciate ideal. Indeed there are continuities between vedic Brahmanism and Buddhism, and it has been argued that the Buddha sought to return to the ideals of a vedic society which he saw as being eroded in his own day."[83]
  7. ^ Some scholars are now considering the image to be an instance of Lord of the Beasts found in Eurasian neolithic mythology or the widespread motif of the Master of Animals found in ancient Near Eastern and Mediterranean art.[90][91]
  8. ^
    • Wynne states that "The Nasadiyasukta, one of the earliest and most important cosmogonic tracts in the early Brahminic literature, contains evidence suggesting it was closely related to a tradition of early Brahminic contemplation. A close reading of this text suggests that it was closely related to a tradition of early Brahminic contemplation. The poem may have been composed by contemplatives, but even if not, an argument can be made that it marks the beginning of the contemplative/meditative trend in Indian thought."[93]
    • Miller suggests that the composition of Nasadiya Sukta and Purusha Sukta arises from "the subtlest meditative stage, called absorption in mind and heart" which "involves enheightened experiences" through which seer "explores the mysterious psychic and cosmic forces...".[94]
    • Jacobsen writes that dhyana (meditation) is derived from the Vedic term dhih which refers to "visionary insight", "thought provoking vision".[94]
  9. ^ Original Sanskrit: स्वाध्यायमधीयानो धर्मिकान्विदधदात्मनि सर्वैन्द्रियाणि संप्रतिष्ठाप्याहिँसन्सर्व भूतान्यन्यत्र तीर्थेभ्यः स खल्वेवं वर्तयन्यावदायुषं ब्रह्मलोकमभिसंपद्यते न च पुनरावर्तते न च पुनरावर्तते॥ १॥ – Chandogya Upanishad, VIII.15[102]
    Translation 1 by Max Muller, The Upanishads, The Sacred Books of the East – Part 1, Oxford University Press: (He who engages in) self study, concentrates all his senses on the Self, never giving pain to any creature, except at the tîrthas, he who behaves thus all his life, reaches the world of Brahman, and does not return, yea, he does not return.
    Translation 2 by G.N. Jha: Chandogya Upanishad VIII.15, page 488: (He who engages in self study),—and having withdrawn all his sense-organs into the Self,—never causing pain to any living beings, except in places specially ordained,—one who behaves thus throughout life reaches the Region of Brahman and does not return,—yea, does not return.—
  10. ^ Ancient Indian literature was transmitted and preserved through an oral tradition.[108] For example, the earliest written Pali Canon text is dated to the later part of the 1st century BCE, many centuries after the Buddha's death.[109]
  11. ^ On the dates of the Pali canon, Gregory Schopen writes, "We know, and have known for some time, that the Pali canon as we have it — and it is generally conceded to be our oldest source — cannot be taken back further than the last quarter of the first century BCE, the date of the Alu-vihara redaction, the earliest redaction we can have some knowledge of, and that — for a critical history — it can serve, at the very most, only as a source for the Buddhism of this period. But we also know that even this is problematic ... In fact, it is not until the time of the commentaries of Buddhaghosa, Dhammapala, and others — that is to say, the fifth to sixth centuries CE — that we can know anything definite about the actual contents of [the Pali] canon."[124]
  12. ^ For the date of this Upanishad see also Helmuth von Glasenapp, from the 1950 Proceedings of the "Akademie der Wissenschaften und Literatur"[125]
  13. ^ The currently existing version of Vaiśeṣika Sūtra manuscript was likely finalized sometime between the 2nd century BCE and the start of the common era. Wezler has proposed that the Yoga related text may have been inserted into this Sutra later, among other things; however, Bronkhorst finds much to disagree on with Wezler.[146]
  14. ^ Werner writes, "The word Yoga appears here for the first time in its fully technical meaning, namely as a systematic training, and it already received a more or less clear formulation in some other middle Upanishads....Further process of the systematization of Yoga as a path to the ultimate mystic goal is obvious in subsequent Yoga Upanishads and the culmination of this endeavour is represented by Patanjali's codification of this path into a system of the eightfold Yoga."[163]
  15. ^ For Patanjali as the founder of the philosophical system called yoga see: Chatterjee & Datta 1984, p. 42.
  16. ^ For an overview of the six orthodox schools, with detail on the grouping of schools, see: Radhakrishnan & Moore 1967, "Contents" and pp. 453–487.
  17. ^ For a brief overview of the yoga school of philosophy see: Chatterjee & Datta 1984, p. 43.
  18. ^ Worthington writes, "Yoga fully acknowledges its debt to Jainism, and Jainism reciprocates by making the practice of yoga part and parcel of life."[197]
  19. ^ The earliest documented use of the word "Tantra" is in the Rigveda (X.71.9).[204]
  20. ^ "The Meditation school, called 'Ch'an' in Chinese from the Sanskrit 'dhyāna,' is best known in the West by the Japanese pronunciation 'Zen'".[218]
  21. ^ For instance, Kamalashila (2003), p. 4, states that Buddhist meditation "includes any method of meditation that has Enlightenment as its ultimate aim." Likewise, Bodhi (1999) writes: "To arrive at the experiential realization of the truths it is necessary to take up the practice of meditation.... At the climax of such contemplation the mental eye … shifts its focus to the unconditioned state, Nibbana ..." A similar although in some ways slightly broader definition is provided by Fischer-Schreiber et al. (1991), p. 142: "Meditation – general term for a multitude of religious practices, often quite different in method, but all having the same goal: to bring the consciousness of the practitioner to a state in which he can come to an experience of 'awakening,' 'liberation,' 'enlightenment.'" Kamalashila (2003) further allows that some Buddhist meditations are "of a more preparatory nature" (p. 4).
  22. ^ The Pāli and Sanskrit word bhāvanā literally means "development" as in "mental development." For the association of this term with "meditation," see Epstein (1995), p. 105; and, Fischer-Schreiber et al. (1991), p. 20. As an example from a well-known discourse of the Pali Canon, in "The Greater Exhortation to Rahula" (Maha-Rahulovada Sutta, MN 62), Ven. Sariputta tells Ven. Rahula (in Pali, based on VRI, n.d.): ānāpānassatiṃ, rāhula, bhāvanaṃ bhāvehi. Thanissaro (2006) translates this as: "Rahula, develop the meditation [bhāvana] of mindfulness of in-&-out breathing." (Square-bracketed Pali word included based on Thanissaro, 2006, end note.)
  23. ^ See, for example, Rhys Davids & Stede (1921–25), entry for "jhāna1"; Thanissaro (1997); as well as, Kapleau (1989), p. 385, for the derivation of the word "zen" from Sanskrit "dhyāna." PTS Secretary Dr. Rupert Gethin, in describing the activities of wandering ascetics contemporaneous with the Buddha, wrote:
    "... [T]here is the cultivation of meditative and contemplative techniques aimed at producing what might, for the lack of a suitable technical term in English, be referred to as 'altered states of consciousness'. In the technical vocabulary of Indian religious texts such states come to be termed 'meditations' ([Skt.:] dhyāna / [Pali:] jhāna) or 'concentrations' (samādhi); the attainment of such states of consciousness was generally regarded as bringing the practitioner to deeper knowledge and experience of the nature of the world." (Gethin, 1998, p. 10.)
  24. ^ Not to be confused with Ashtanga Vinyasa Yoga, a style of modern yoga using fluid transitions (vinyasas) between asanas.

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May 08, 2024
yoga, yoga, exercise, exercise, yoga, therapy, therapy, ancient, indian, philosophy, philosophy, other, uses, disambiguation, this, article, contains, indic, text, without, proper, rendering, support, question, marks, boxes, misplaced, vowels, missing, conjunc. For the use of yoga in exercise see Yoga as exercise For the use of yoga as therapy see Yoga as therapy For the ancient Indian philosophy see Yoga philosophy For other uses see Yoga disambiguation This article contains Indic text Without proper rendering support you may see question marks or boxes misplaced vowels or missing conjuncts instead of Indic text Yoga ˈ j oʊ ɡ e 1 Sanskrit य ग lit yoke or union pronounced joːɡɐ is a group of physical mental and spiritual practices or disciplines which originated in ancient India and aim to control yoke and still the mind recognizing a detached witness consciousness untouched by the mind Chitta and mundane suffering Duḥkha There is a wide variety of schools of yoga practices and goals 2 in Hinduism Buddhism and Jainism 3 4 5 and traditional and modern yoga is practiced worldwide 6 Statue of Shiva performing yoga in the lotus position Yoga like practices were first mentioned in the ancient Hindu text known as Rigveda 7 Yoga is referred to in a number of the Upanishads 8 9 10 The first known appearance of the word yoga with the same meaning as the modern term is in the Katha Upanishad 11 12 which was probably composed between the fifth and third centuries BCE 13 14 Yoga continued to develop as a systematic study and practice during the fifth and sixth centuries BCE in ancient India s ascetic and Sramaṇa movements 15 The most comprehensive text on yoga the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali date to the early centuries of the Common Era 16 17 note 1 Yoga philosophy became known as one of the six orthodox philosophical schools Darsanas of Hinduism in the second half of the first millennium CE 18 web 1 Hatha yoga texts began to emerge between the ninth and 11th centuries originating in tantra 19 20 Two general theories exist on the origins of yoga The linear model holds that yoga originated in the Vedic period as reflected in the Vedic textual corpus and influenced Buddhism according to author Edward Fitzpatrick Crangle this model is mainly supported by Hindu scholars According to the synthesis model yoga is a synthesis of non Vedic and Vedic elements this model is favoured in Western scholarship 21 22 The term yoga in the Western world often denotes a modern form of Hatha yoga and a posture based physical fitness stress relief and relaxation technique 23 consisting largely of asanas 24 this differs from traditional yoga which focuses on meditation and release from worldly attachments 23 25 It was introduced by gurus from India after the success of Swami Vivekananda s adaptation of yoga without asanas in the late 19th and early 20th centuries 26 Vivekananda introduced the Yoga Sutras to the West and they became prominent after the 20th century success of hatha yoga 27 Contents 1 Etymology 2 Definitions in classical texts 3 Goals 4 History 4 1 Origins 4 1 1 Linear model 4 1 2 Synthesis model 4 1 3 Indus Valley Civilisation 4 2 Earliest references 1000 500 BCE 4 3 Second urbanisation 500 200 BCE 4 3 1 Buddhism and the sramaṇa movement 4 3 2 Upanishads 4 3 3 Macedonian texts 4 3 4 Mahabharata and Bhagavad Gita 4 3 5 Philosophical sutras 4 4 Classical era 200 BCE 500 CE 4 4 1 Yoga Sutras of Patanjali 4 4 2 Yoga and Vedanta 4 4 3 Yoga Yajnavalkya 4 4 4 Abhidharma and Yogachara 4 4 5 Jainism 4 5 Middle Ages 500 1500 CE 4 5 1 Bhakti movement 4 5 2 Tantra 4 5 2 1 Vajrayana and Tibetan Buddhism 4 5 3 Zen Buddhism 4 5 4 Medieval hatha yoga 4 5 5 Sikhism 4 6 Modern revival 4 6 1 Introduction in the West 4 6 2 Yoga as exercise 5 Traditions 5 1 Jain yoga 5 2 Buddhist yoga 5 3 Classical yoga 5 4 In Advaita Vedanta 5 5 Tantric yoga 5 6 Hatha yoga 5 7 Laya and kundalini yoga 6 Reception by other religions 6 1 Christianity 6 2 Islam 7 See also 8 Notes 9 References 10 Sources 11 External linksEtymology nbsp A statue of Patanjali author of the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali meditating in the lotus position The Sanskrit noun य ग yoga is derived from the root yuj य ज to attach join harness yoke 28 Yoga is a cognate of the English word yoke 29 According to Mikel Burley the first use of the root of the word yoga is in hymn 5 81 1 of the Rigveda a dedication to the rising Sun god where it has been interpreted as yoke or control 30 31 note 2 Paṇini 4th c BCE wrote that the term yoga can be derived from either of two roots yujir yoga to yoke or yuj samadhau to concentrate 33 In the context of the Yoga Sutras the root yuj samadhau to concentrate is considered the correct etymology by traditional commentators 34 In accordance with Paṇini Vyasa who wrote the first commentary on the Yoga Sutras 35 says that yoga means samadhi concentration 36 A person who practices yoga or follows the yoga philosophy with a high level of commitment is called a yogi a female yogi may also be known as a yogini 37 Definitions in classical textsThe term yoga has been defined in different ways in Indian philosophical and religious traditions Source Text Approx Date Definition of Yoga 38 Vaisesika sutra c 4th century BCE Pleasure and suffering arise as a result of the drawing together of the sense organs the mind and objects When that does not happen because the mind is in the self there is no pleasure or suffering for one who is embodied That is yoga 5 2 15 16 39 Katha Upanishad last centuries BCE When the five senses along with the mind remain still and the intellect is not active that is known as the highest state They consider yoga to be firm restraint of the senses Then one becomes un distracted for yoga is the arising and the passing away 6 10 11 40 Bhagavad Gita c 2nd century BCE Be equal minded in both success and failure Such equanimity is called Yoga 2 48 Yoga is skill in action 2 50 Know that which is called yoga to be separation from contact with suffering 6 23 41 Yoga Sutras of Patanjali c first centuries CE 16 42 note 1 1 2 yogas chitta vritti nirodhah Yoga is the calming down the fluctuations patterns of mind 1 3 Then the Seer is established in his own essential and fundamental nature 1 4 In other states there is assimilation of the Seer with the modifications of the mind 43 Yogacarabhumi Sastra Sravakabhumi a Mahayana Buddhist Yogacara work 4th century CE Yoga is fourfold faith aspiration perseverance and means 2 152 44 Kaundinya s Pancarthabhasya on the Pashupata sutra 4th century CE In this system yoga is the union of the self and the Lord I I 43 Yogasataka a Jain work by Haribhadra Suri 6th century CE With conviction the lords of Yogins have in our doctrine defined yoga as the concurrence sambandhah of the three correct knowledge sajjnana correct doctrine saddarsana and correct conduct saccaritra beginning with correct knowledge since thereby arises conjunction with liberation In common usage this term yoga also denotes the Self s contact with the causes of these three due to the common usage of the cause for the effect 2 4 45 46 Linga Purana 7th 10th century CE By the word yoga is meant nirvana the condition of Shiva I 8 5a 47 Brahmasutra bhasya of Adi Shankara c 8th century CE It is said in the treatises on yoga Yoga is the means of perceiving reality atha tattvadarsanabhyupayo yogah 2 1 3 48 Malinivijayottara Tantra one of the primary authorities in non dual Kashmir Shaivism 6th 10th century CE Yoga is said to be the oneness of one entity with another 4 4 8 49 50 Mrgendratantravrtti of the Shaiva Siddhanta scholar Narayanakantha 6th 10th century CE To have self mastery is to be a Yogin The term Yogin means one who is necessarily conjoined with the manifestation of his nature the Siva state sivatvam yp 2a 51 50 Saradatilaka of Lakshmanadesikendra a Shakta Tantra work 11th century CE Yogic experts state that yoga is the oneness of the individual Self jiva with the atman Others understand it to be the ascertainment of Siva and the Self as non different The scholars of the Agamas say that it is a Knowledge which is of the nature of Siva s Power Other scholars say it is the knowledge of the primordial Self 25 1 3b 52 53 Yogabija a Hatha yoga work 14th century CE The union of apana and prana one s own rajas and semen the sun and moon the individual Self and the supreme Self and in the same way the union of all dualities is called yoga 89 54 GoalsThe ultimate goals of yoga are stilling the mind and gaining insight resting in detached awareness and liberation Moksha from saṃsara and duḥkha a process or discipline leading to unity Aikyam with the divine Brahman or with one s self Atman 55 This goal varies by philosophical or theological system In the classical Astanga yoga system the ultimate goal of yoga is to achieve samadhi and remain in that state as pure awareness According to Knut A Jacobsen yoga has five principal meanings 56 A disciplined method for attaining a goal Techniques of controlling the body and mind A name of a school or system of philosophy darsana With prefixes such as hatha mantra and laya traditions specialising in particular yoga techniques The goal of yoga practice 57 David Gordon White writes that yoga s core principles were more or less in place in the 5th century CE and variations of the principles developed over time 58 A meditative means of discovering dysfunctional perception and cognition as well as overcoming it to release any suffering find inner peace and salvation Illustration of this principle is found in Hindu texts such as the Bhagavad Gita and Yogasutras in a number of Buddhist Mahayana works as well as Jain texts 59 The raising and expansion of consciousness from oneself to being coextensive with everyone and everything These are discussed in sources such as in Hinduism Vedic literature and its epic Mahabharata the Jain Prasamaratiprakarana and Buddhist Nikaya texts 60 A path to omniscience and enlightened consciousness enabling one to comprehend the impermanent illusive delusive and permanent true transcendent reality Examples of this are found in Hinduism Nyaya and Vaisesika school texts as well as Buddhism Madhyamaka texts but in different ways 61 A technique for entering into other bodies generating multiple bodies and the attainment of other supernatural accomplishments These are states White described in Tantric literature of Hinduism and Buddhism as well as the Buddhist Samannaphalasutta 62 James Mallinson however disagrees and suggests that such fringe practices are far removed from the mainstream Yoga s goal as meditation driven means to liberation in Indian religions 63 According to White the last principle relates to legendary goals of yoga practice it differs from yoga s practical goals in South Asian thought and practice since the beginning of the Common Era in Hindu Buddhist and Jain philosophical schools 64 HistoryThere is no consensus on yoga s chronology or origins other than its development in ancient India There are two broad theories explaining the origins of yoga The linear model holds that yoga has Vedic origins as reflected in Vedic texts and influenced Buddhism This model is mainly supported by Hindu scholars 65 According to the synthesis model yoga is a synthesis of indigenous non Vedic practices with Vedic elements This model is favoured in Western scholarship 66 Speculations about yoga began to emerge in the early Upanishads of the first half of the first millennium BCE with expositions also appearing in Jain and Buddhist texts c 500 c 200 BCE Between 200 BCE and 500 CE traditions of Hindu Buddhist and Jain philosophy were taking shape teachings were collected as sutras and a philosophical system of Patanjaliyogasastra began to emerge 67 The Middle Ages saw the development of a number of yoga satellite traditions It and other aspects of Indian philosophy came to the attention of the educated Western public during the mid 19th century Origins Linear model According to Edward Fitzpatrick Crangle Hindu researchers have favoured a linear theory which attempts to interpret the origin and early development of Indian contemplative practices as a sequential growth from an Aryan genesis 68 note 3 traditional Hinduism regards the Vedas as the source of all spiritual knowledge 70 note 4 Edwin Bryant wrote that authors who support Indigenous Aryanism also tend to support the linear model 73 Synthesis model Heinrich Zimmer was an exponent of the synthesis model 70 arguing for non Vedic eastern states of India 74 According to Zimmer yoga is part of a non Vedic system which includes the Samkhya school of Hindu philosophy Jainism and Buddhism 74 Jainism does not derive from Brahman Aryan sources but reflects the cosmology and anthropology of a much older pre Aryan upper class of northeastern India Bihar being rooted in the same subsoil of archaic metaphysical speculation as Yoga Sankhya and Buddhism the other non Vedic Indian systems 75 note 5 Richard Gombrich 78 and Geoffrey Samuel 79 believe that the sramaṇa movement originated in non Vedic Greater Magadha 78 79 Thomas McEvilley favors a composite model in which a pre Aryan yoga prototype existed in the pre Vedic period and was refined during the Vedic period 80 According to Gavin D Flood the Upanishads differ fundamentally from the Vedic ritual tradition and indicate non Vedic influences 81 However the traditions may be connected T his dichotomization is too simplistic for continuities can undoubtedly be found between renunciation and vedic Brahmanism while elements from non Brahmanical Sramana traditions also played an important part in the formation of the renunciate ideal 82 note 6 The ascetic traditions of the eastern Ganges plain are thought to drew from a common body of practices and philosophies 84 85 86 with proto samkhya concepts of purusha and prakriti as a common denominator 87 86 Indus Valley Civilisation The twentieth century scholars Karel Werner Thomas McEvilley and Mircea Eliade believe that the central figure of the Pashupati seal is in a Mulabandhasana posture 11 and the roots of yoga are in the Indus Valley civilisation 88 This is rejected by more recent scholarship for example Geoffrey Samuel Andrea R Jain and Wendy Doniger describe the identification as speculative the meaning of the figure will remain unknown until Harappan script is deciphered and the roots of yoga cannot be linked to the IVC 88 89 note 7 Earliest references 1000 500 BCE Further information Vedic period The Vedas the only texts preserved from the early Vedic period and codified between c 1200 and 900 BCE contain references to yogic practices primarily related to ascetics outside or on the fringes of Brahmanism 92 7 The Rigveda s Nasadiya Sukta suggests an early Brahmanic contemplative tradition note 8 Techniques for controlling breath and vital energies are mentioned in the Atharvaveda and in the Brahmanas the second layer of the Vedas composed c 1000 800 BCE 92 95 96 According to Flood The Samhitas the mantras of the Vedas contain some references to ascetics namely the Munis or Kesins and the Vratyas 97 Werner wrote in 1977 that the Rigveda does not describe yoga and there is little evidence of practices 7 The earliest description of an outsider who does not belong to the Brahminic establishment is found in the Kesin hymn 10 136 the Rigveda s youngest book which was codified around 1000 BCE 7 Werner wrote that there were individuals who were active outside the trend of Vedic mythological creativity and the Brahminic religious orthodoxy and therefore little evidence of their existence practices and achievements has survived And such evidence as is available in the Vedas themselves is scanty and indirect Nevertheless the indirect evidence is strong enough not to allow any doubt about the existence of spiritually highly advanced wanderers 7 According to Whicher 1998 scholarship frequently fails to see the connection between the contemplative practices of the rishis and later yoga practices The proto Yoga of the Vedic rishis is an early form of sacrificial mysticism and contains many elements characteristic of later Yoga that include concentration meditative observation ascetic forms of practice tapas breath control practiced in conjunction with the recitation of sacred hymns during the ritual the notion of self sacrifice impeccably accurate recitation of sacred words prefiguring mantra yoga mystical experience and the engagement with a reality far greater than our psychological identity or the ego 98 Jacobsen wrote in 2018 Bodily postures are closely related to the tradition of tapas ascetic practices in the Vedic tradition ascetic practices used by Vedic priests in their preparations for the performance of the sacrifice may be precursors of yoga 92 The ecstatic practice of enigmatic longhaired muni in Rgveda 10 136 and the ascetic performance of the vratya s in the Atharvaveda outside of or on the fringe of the Brahmanical ritual order have probably contributed more to the ascetic practices of yoga 92 According to Bryant practices recognizable as classical yoga first appear in the Upanishads composed during the late Vedic period 84 Alexander Wynne agrees that formless elemental meditation might have originated in the Upanishadic tradition 99 An early reference to meditation is made in the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad c 900 BCE one of the Principal Upanishads 97 The Chandogya Upanishad c 800 700 BCE describes the five vital energies prana and concepts of later yoga traditions such as blood vessels and an internal sound are also described in this upanishad 100 The practice of pranayama focusing on the breath is mentioned in hymn 1 5 23 of the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad 101 and pratyahara withdrawal of the senses is mentioned in hymn 8 15 of Chandogya Upanishad 101 note 9 The Jaiminiya Upanishad Brahmana probably before the 6th c BCE teaches breath control and repetition of a mantra 103 The 6th c BCE Taittiriya Upanishad defines yoga as the mastery of body and senses 104 According to Flood T he actual term yoga first appears in the Katha Upanishad 12 dated to the fifth 105 to first centuries BCE 106 Second urbanisation 500 200 BCE Main article Second urbanisation Systematic yoga concepts begin to emerge in texts dating to c 500 200 BCE such as the early Buddhist texts the middle Upanishads and the Mahabharata s Bhagavad Gita and Shanti Parva 107 note 10 Buddhism and the sramaṇa movement nbsp Bas relief in Borobudur of the Buddha becoming a wandering hermit instead of a warrior According to Geoffrey Samuel the best evidence to date suggests that yogic practices developed in the same ascetic circles as the early sramaṇa movements Buddhists Jainas and Ajivikas probably in around the sixth and fifth centuries BCE This occurred during India s second urbanisation period 15 According to Mallinson and Singleton these traditions were the first to use mind body techniques known as Dhyana and tapas but later described as yoga to strive for liberation from the round of rebirth 110 Werner writes The Buddha was the founder of his Yoga system even though admittedly he made use of some of the experiences he had previously gained under various Yoga teachers of his time 111 He notes 112 But it is only with Buddhism itself as expounded in the Pali Canon that we can speak about a systematic and comprehensive or even integral school of Yoga practice which is thus the first and oldest to have been preserved for us in its entirety 112 Early Buddhist texts describe yogic and meditative practices some of which the Buddha borrowed from the sramaṇa tradition 113 114 The Pali Canon contains three passages in which the Buddha describes pressing the tongue against the palate to control hunger or the mind depending on the passage 115 There is no mention of the tongue inserted into the nasopharynx as in khecari mudra The Buddha used a posture in which pressure is put on the perineum with the heel similar to modern postures used to evoke Kundalini 116 Suttas which discuss yogic practice include the Satipatthana Sutta the four foundations of mindfulness sutta and the Anapanasati Sutta the mindfulness of breathing sutta The chronology of these yoga related early Buddhist texts like the ancient Hindu texts is unclear 117 118 Early Buddhist sources such as the Majjhima Nikaya mention meditation the Aṅguttara Nikaya describes jhayins meditators who resemble early Hindu descriptions of muni the Kesin and meditating ascetics 119 but the meditation practices are not called yoga in these texts 120 The earliest known discussions of yoga in Buddhist literature as understood in a modern context are from the later Buddhist Yogacara and Theravada schools 120 Jain meditation is a yoga system which predated the Buddhist school Since Jain sources are later than Buddhist ones however it is difficult to distinguish between the early Jain school and elements derived from other schools 121 Most of the other contemporary yoga systems alluded to in the Upanishads and some Buddhist texts have been lost 122 123 note 11 Upanishads The Upanishads composed in the late Vedic period contain the first references to practices recognizable as classical yoga 84 The first known appearance of the word yoga in the modern sense is in the Katha Upanishad 11 12 probably composed between the fifth and third centuries BCE 13 14 where it is defined as steady control of the senses which with cessation of mental activity leads to a supreme state 97 note 12 The Katha Upanishad integrates the monism of the early Upanishads with concepts of samkhya and yoga It defines levels of existence by their proximity to one s innermost being Yoga is viewed as a process of interiorization or ascent of consciousness 126 127 The upanishad is the earliest literary work which highlights the fundamentals of yoga According to White The earliest extant systematic account of yoga and a bridge from the earlier Vedic uses of the term is found in the Hindu Katha Upanisad Ku a scripture dating from about the third century BCE I t describes the hierarchy of mind body constituents the senses mind intellect etc that comprise the foundational categories of Samkhya philosophy whose metaphysical system grounds the yoga of the Yogasutras Bhagavad Gita and other texts and schools Ku3 10 11 6 7 8 128 The hymns in book two of the Shvetashvatara Upanishad another late first millennium BCE text describe a procedure in which the body is upright the breath is restrained and the mind is meditatively focused preferably in a cave or a place that is simple and quiet 129 130 127 The Maitrayaniya Upanishad probably composed later than the Katha and Shvetashvatara Upanishads but before the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali mentions a sixfold yoga method breath control introspective withdrawal of the senses meditation dhyana mental concentration logic and reasoning and spiritual union 11 127 131 In addition to discussions in the Principal Upanishads the twenty Yoga Upanishads and related texts such as Yoga Vasistha composed between the sixth and 14th centuries CE discuss yoga methods 9 10 Macedonian texts Alexander the Great reached India in the 4th century BCE In addition to his army he brought Greek academics who wrote memoirs about its geography people and customs One of Alexander s companions was Onesicritus quoted in Book 15 Sections 63 65 by Strabo in his Geography who describes yogis 132 Onesicritus says that the yogis were aloof and adopted different postures standing or sitting or lying naked and motionless 133 Onesicritus also mentions attempts by his colleague Calanus to meet them Initially denied an audience he was later invited because he was sent by a king curious of wisdom and philosophy 133 Onesicritus and Calanus learn that the yogis consider life s best doctrines to rid the spirit of not only pain but also pleasure that man trains the body for toil in order that his opinions may be strengthened that there is no shame in life on frugal fare and that the best place to inhabit is one with scantiest equipment or outfit 132 133 According to Charles Rockwell Lanman these principles are significant in the history of yoga s spiritual side and may reflect the roots of undisturbed calmness and mindfulness through balance in the later works of Patanjali and Buddhaghosa 132 Mahabharata and Bhagavad Gita Nirodhayoga yoga of cessation an early form of yoga is described in the Mokshadharma section of the 12th chapter Shanti Parva of the third century BCE Mahabharata 134 Nirodhayoga emphasizes progressive withdrawal from empirical consciousness including thoughts and sensations until purusha self is realized Terms such as vichara subtle reflection and viveka discrimination similar to Patanjali s terminology are used but not described 135 Although the Mahabharata contains no uniform yogic goal the separation of self from matter and perception of Brahman everywhere are described as goals of yoga Samkhya and yoga are conflated and some verses describe them as identical 136 Mokshadharma also describes an early practice of elemental meditation 137 The Mahabharata defines the purpose of yoga as uniting the individual atman with the universal Brahman pervading all things 136 nbsp Krishna narrating the Bhagavad Gita to Arjuna The Bhagavad Gita Song of the Lord part of the Mahabharata contains extensive teachings about yoga According to Mallinson and Singleton the Gita seeks to appropriate yoga from the renunciate milieu in which it originated teaching that it is compatible with worldly activity carried out according to one s caste and life stage it is only the fruits of one s actions that are to be renounced 134 In addition to a chapter chapter six dedicated to traditional yoga practice including meditation 138 it introduces three significant types of yoga 139 Karma yoga yoga of action 140 Bhakti yoga yoga of devotion 140 Jnana yoga yoga of knowledge 141 142 The Gita consists of 18 chapters and 700 shlokas verses 143 each chapter is named for a different form of yoga 143 144 145 Some scholars divide the Gita into three sections the first six chapters 280 shlokas deal with karma yoga the middle six 209 shlokas with bhakti yoga and the last six 211 shlokas with jnana yoga However elements of all three are found throughout the work 143 Philosophical sutras Yoga is discussed in the foundational sutras of Hindu philosophy The Vaiseṣika Sutra of the Vaisheshika school of Hinduism composed between the sixth and second centuries BCE discusses yoga note 13 According to Johannes Bronkhorst the Vaiseṣika Sutra describes yoga as a state where the mind resides only in the Self and therefore not in the senses 146 This is equivalent to pratyahara withdrawal of the senses The sutra asserts that yoga leads to an absence of sukha happiness and dukkha suffering describing meditative steps in the journey towards spiritual liberation 146 The Brahma Sutras the foundation text of the Vedanta school of Hinduism also discusses yoga 147 Estimated as completed in its surviving form between 450 BCE and 200 CE 148 149 its sutras assert that yoga is a means to attain subtlety of body 147 The Nyaya Sutras the foundation text of the Nyaya school estimated as composed between the sixth century BCE and the secondcentury CE 150 151 discusses yoga in sutras 4 2 38 50 It includes a discussion of yogic ethics dhyana meditation and samadhi noting that debate and philosophy are also forms of yoga 152 153 154 Classical era 200 BCE 500 CE The Indic traditions of Hinduism Buddhism and Jainism were taking shape during the period between the Mauryan and the Gupta eras c 200 BCE 500 CE and systems of yoga began to emerge 67 a number of texts from these traditions discussed and compiled yoga methods and practices Key works of the era include the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali the Yoga Yajnavalkya the Yogacarabhumi Sastra and the Visuddhimagga Yoga Sutras of Patanjali nbsp Traditional Hindu depiction of Patanjali as an avatar of the divine serpent Shesha One of the best known early expressions of Brahminical yoga thought is the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali early centuries CE 16 42 note 1 the original name of which may have been the Patanjalayogasastra saṃkhya pravacana c 325 425 CE some scholars believe that it included the sutras and a commentary 155 As the name suggests the metaphysical basis of the text is samkhya the school is mentioned in Kauṭilya s Arthashastra as one of the three categories of anviksikis philosophies with yoga and Carvaka 156 157 Yoga and samkhya have some differences yoga accepted the concept of a personal god and Samkhya was a rational non theistic system of Hindu philosophy 158 159 160 Patanjali s system is sometimes called Seshvara Samkhya distinguishing it from Kapila s Nirivara Samkhya 161 The parallels between yoga and samkhya were so close that Max Muller says The two philosophies were in popular parlance distinguished from each other as Samkhya with and Samkhya without a Lord 162 Karel Werner wrote that the systematization of yoga which began in the middle and early Yoga Upanishads culminated in the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali note 14 Yoga Sutras of Patanjali 164 Pada Chapter English meaning Sutras Samadhi Pada On being absorbed in spirit 51 Sadhana Pada On being immersed in spirit 55 Vibhuti Pada On supernatural abilities and gifts 56 Kaivalya Pada On absolute freedom 34 The Yoga Sutras are also influenced by the Sramana traditions of Buddhism and Jainism and may be a further Brahmanical attempt to adopt yoga from those traditions 155 Larson noted a number of parallels in ancient samkhya yoga and Abhidharma Buddhism particularly from the second century BCE to the first century AD 165 Patanjali s Yoga Sutras are a synthesis of the three traditions From Samkhya they adopt the reflective discernment adhyavasaya of prakrti and purusa dualism their metaphysical rationalism and their three epistemological methods of obtaining knowledge 165 Larson says that the Yoga Sutras pursue an altered state of awareness from Abhidharma Buddhism s nirodhasamadhi unlike Buddhism s no self or soul however yoga like Samkhya believes that each individual has a self 165 The third concept which the Yoga Sutras synthesize is the ascetic tradition of meditation and introspection 165 Patanjali s Yoga Sutras are considered the first compilation of yoga philosophy note 15 The verses of the Yoga Sutras are terse Many later Indian scholars studied them and published their commentaries such as the Vyasa Bhashya c 350 450 CE 166 Patanjali defines the word yoga in his second sutra and his terse definition hinges on the meaning of three Sanskrit terms I K Taimni translates it as Yoga is the inhibition nirodhaḥ of the modifications vṛtti of the mind citta 167 Swami Vivekananda translates the sutra as Yoga is restraining the mind stuff Citta from taking various forms Vrittis 168 Edwin Bryant writes that to Patanjali Yoga essentially consists of meditative practices culminating in attaining a state of consciousness free from all modes of active or discursive thought and of eventually attaining a state where consciousness is unaware of any object external to itself that is is only aware of its own nature as consciousness unmixed with any other object 169 170 171 Baba Hari Dass writes that if yoga is understood as nirodha mental control its goal is the unqualified state of niruddha the perfection of that process 172 Yoga union implies duality as in joining of two things or principles the result of yoga is the nondual state as the union of the lower self and higher Self The nondual state is characterized by the absence of individuality it can be described as eternal peace pure love Self realization or liberation 172 Patanjali defined an eight limbed yoga in Yoga Sutras 2 29 Yama The five abstentions Ahimsa Non violence non harming other living beings 173 Satya truthfulness non falsehood 174 Asteya non stealing 175 Brahmacharya celibacy fidelity to one s partner 175 and Aparigraha non avarice non possessiveness 174 Niyama The five observances Sauca purity clearness of mind speech and body 176 Santosha contentment acceptance of others and of one s circumstances 177 Tapas persistent meditation perseverance austerity 178 Svadhyaya study of self self reflection study of Vedas 179 and Ishvara Pranidhana contemplation of God Supreme Being True Self 177 Asana Literally means seat and in Patanjali s Sutras refers to the seated position used for meditation Pranayama Breath exercises Prana breath ayama to stretch extend restrain stop Pratyahara Abstraction Withdrawal of the sense organs from external objects Dharana Concentration Fixing the attention on a single object Dhyana Meditation Intense contemplation of the nature of the object of meditation Samadhi Liberation merging consciousness with the object of meditation In Hindu scholasticism since the 12th century yoga has been one of the six orthodox philosophical schools darsanas traditions which accept the Vedas note 16 note 17 180 Yoga and Vedanta Yoga and Vedanta are the two largest surviving schools of Hindu traditions Although they share many principles concepts and the belief in Self they differ in degree style and methods yoga accepts three means to obtain knowledge and Advaita Vedanta accepts 181 Yoga disputes Advaita Vedanta s monism 182 It believes that in the state of moksha each individual discovers the blissful liberating sense of himself or herself as an independent identity Advaita Vedanta teaches that in the state of moksha each individual discovers the blissful liberating sense of himself or herself as part of oneness with everything everyone and the Universal Self They both hold that the free conscience is transcendent liberated and self aware Advaita Vedanta also encourages the use of Patanjali s yoga practices and the Upanishads for those seeking the supreme good and ultimate freedom 182 Yoga Yajnavalkya Main article Yoga Yajnavalkya स य ग य ग इत य क त ज व त मपरम त मन saṁyogo yoga ityukto jivatma paramatmanoḥ Yoga is the union of the individual self jivatma with the supreme self paramatma Yoga Yajnavalkya 183 The Yoga Yajnavalkya is a classical treatise on yoga attributed to the Vedic sage Yajnavalkya in the form of a dialogue between Yajnavalkya and the renowned philosopher Gargi Vachaknavi 184 The origin of the 12 chapter text has been traced to the second century BCE and the fourth century CE 185 A number of yoga texts such as the Hatha Yoga Pradipika the Yoga Kundalini and the Yoga Tattva Upanishads have borrowed from or frequently refer to the Yoga Yajnavalkya 186 It discusses eight yoga asanas Swastika Gomukha Padma Vira Simha Bhadra Mukta and Mayura 187 a number of breathing exercises for body cleansing 188 and meditation 189 Abhidharma and Yogachara nbsp Asanga a fourth century scholar and co founder of the Yogachara Yoga practice school of Mahayana Buddhism 190 The Buddhist tradition of Abhidharma spawned treatises which expanded teachings on Buddhist theory and yoga techniques which influenced Mahayana and Theravada Buddhism At the height of the Gupta period fourth to fifth centuries CE a northern Mahayana movement known as Yogacara began to be systematized with the writings of Buddhist scholars Asanga and Vasubandhu Yogacara Buddhism provided a systematic framework for practices which lead a bodhisattva towards awakening and full Buddhahood 191 Its teachings are found in the encyclopedic Yogacarabhumi Sastra Treatise for Yoga Practitioners which was also translated into Tibetan and Chinese and influenced East Asian and Tibetan Buddhist traditions 192 Mallinson and Singleton write that the study of Yogacara Buddhism is essential to understand yoga s early history and its teachings influenced the Patanjalayogasastra 193 The South India and Sri Lankan based Theravada school also developed manuals for yogic and meditative training primarily the Vimuttimagga and the Visuddhimagga Jainism Main article Jainism According to Tattvarthasutra a second to fifth century Jain text yoga is the sum of all activities of mind speech and body 5 Umasvati calls yoga the generator of karma 194 and essential to the path to liberation 194 In his Niyamasara Kundakunda describes yoga bhakti devotion to the path to liberation as the highest form of devotion 195 Haribhadra and Hemacandra note the five major vows of ascetics and 12 minor vows of laity in yoga According to Robert J Zydenbos Jainism is a system of yogic thinking which became a religion 196 The five yamas constraints of the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali are similar to Jainism s five major vows indicating cross fertilization between these traditions 196 note 18 Hinduism s influence on Jain yoga may be seen in Haribhadra s Yogadṛṣṭisamuccaya which outlines an eightfold yoga influenced by Patanjali s eightfold yoga 198 Middle Ages 500 1500 CE nbsp nbsp Male and female yogis in 17th and 18th century India The Middle Ages saw the development of satellite yoga traditions Hatha yoga emerged during this period 199 Bhakti movement Main article Bhakti yoga In medieval Hinduism the Bhakti movement advocated the concept of a personal god or Supreme Personality The movement begun by the Alvars of South India during the 6th to 9th centuries became influential throughout India by the 12th to 15th centuries 200 Shaiva and Vaishnava bhakti traditions integrated aspects of the Yoga Sutras such as meditative exercises with devotion 201 The Bhagavata Purana elucidates a form of yoga known as viraha separation bhakti which emphasizes concentration on Krishna 202 Tantra Tantra is a range of esoteric traditions which had begun to arise in India by the 5th century CE 203 note 19 Its use suggests that the word tantra in the Rigveda means technique George Samuel wrote that tantra is a contested term but may be considered a school whose practices appeared in nearly complete form in Buddhist and Hindu texts by about the 10th century CE 205 Tantric yoga developed complex visualizations which included meditation on the body as a microcosm of the cosmos It included mantras breath control and body manipulation including its nadis and chakras Teachings about chakras and Kundalini became central to later forms of Indian yoga 206 Tantric concepts influenced Hindu Bon Buddhist and Jain traditions Elements of Tantric rituals were adopted by and influenced state functions in medieval Buddhist and Hindu kingdoms in East and Southeast Asia 207 By the turn of the first millennium hatha yoga emerged from tantra 19 208 Vajrayana and Tibetan Buddhism Vajrayana is also known as Tantric Buddhism and Tantrayana Its texts began to be compiled during the seventh century CE and Tibetan translations were completed the following century These tantra texts were the main source of Buddhist knowledge imported into Tibet 209 and were later translated into Chinese and other Asian languages The Buddhist text Hevajra Tantra and caryagiti introduced hierarchies of chakras 210 Yoga is a significant practice in Tantric Buddhism 211 212 213 Tantra yoga practices include postures and breathing exercises The Nyingma school practices yantra yoga a discipline which includes breath work meditation and other exercises 214 Nyingma meditation is divided into stages 215 such as Kriya Yoga Upa yoga Yoga yana maha yoga Anu yoga and atiyoga 216 The Sarma traditions also include Kriya Upa called Charya and yoga with anuttara yoga replacing mahayoga and atiyoga 217 Zen Buddhism Zen whose name derives from the Sanskrit dhyana via the Chinese ch an note 20 is a form of Mahayana Buddhism in which yoga is an integral part 219 Medieval hatha yoga nbsp Sculpture of Gorakshanath an 11th century yogi of the Nath tradition and a proponent of hatha yoga 220 The first references to hatha yoga are in eighth century Buddhist works 221 The earliest definition of hatha yoga is in the 11th century Buddhist text Vimalaprabha 222 Hatha yoga blends elements of Patanjali s Yoga Sutras with posture and breathing exercises 223 It marks the development of asanas into the full body postures in current popular use 208 and with its modern variations is the style presently associated with the word yoga 224 Sikhism Yogic groups became prominent in Punjab during the 15th and 16th centuries when Sikhism was beginning Compositions by Guru Nanak the founder of Sikhism describe dialogues he had with Jogis a Hindu community which practiced yoga Guru Nanak rejected the austerities rites and rituals associated with hatha yoga advocating sahaja yoga or nama yoga instead 225 According to the Guru Granth Sahib O Yogi Nanak tells nothing but the truth You must discipline your mind The devotee must meditate on the Word Divine It is His grace which brings about the union He understands he also sees Good deeds help one merge into Divination 226 Modern revival Introduction in the West nbsp Swami Vivekananda in London in 1896 Yoga and other aspects of Indian philosophy came to the attention of the educated Western public during the mid 19th century and N C Paul published his Treatise on Yoga Philosophy in 1851 227 Swami Vivekananda the first Hindu teacher to advocate and disseminate elements of yoga to a Western audience toured Europe and the United States in the 1890s 228 His reception built on the interest of intellectuals who included the New England Transcendentalists among them were Ralph Waldo Emerson 1803 1882 who drew on German Romanticism and philosophers and scholars such as Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel 1770 1831 the brothers August Wilhelm Schlegel 1767 1845 and Friedrich Schlegel 1772 1829 Max Mueller 1823 1900 and Arthur Schopenhauer 1788 1860 229 230 Theosophists including Helena Blavatsky also influenced the Western public s view of yoga 231 Esoteric views at the end of the 19th century encouraged the reception of Vedanta and yoga with their correspondence between the spiritual and the physical 232 The reception of yoga and Vedanta entwined with the primarily neoplatonic currents of religious and philosophical reform and transformation during the 19th and early 20th centuries Mircea Eliade brought a new element to yoga emphasizing tantric yoga in his Yoga Immortality and Freedom 233 With the introduction of tantra traditions and philosophy the conception of the transcendent attained by yogic practice shifted from the mind to the body 234 Yoga as exercise Main article Yoga as exercise The postural yoga of the Western world is a physical activity consisting of asanas often connected by smooth transitions sometimes accompanied by breathing exercises and usually ending with a period of relaxation or meditation It is often known simply as yoga 235 despite older Hindu traditions some dating to the Yoga Sutras in which asanas played little or no part asanas were not central to any tradition 236 Yoga as exercise is part of a modern yoga renaissance 237 a 20th century blend of Western gymnastics and haṭha yoga pioneered by Shri Yogendra and Swami Kuvalayananda 238 Before 1900 hatha yoga had few standing poses the Sun Salutation was pioneered by Bhawanrao Shrinivasrao Pant Pratinidhi the Rajah of Aundh during the 1920s 239 Many standing poses used in gymnastics were incorporated into yoga by Krishnamacharya in Mysore between the 1930s and the 1950s 240 Several of his students founded schools of yoga Pattabhi Jois created ashtanga vinyasa yoga 241 which led to Power Yoga 242 B K S Iyengar created Iyengar Yoga and systematised asanas in his 1966 book Light on Yoga 243 Indra Devi taught yoga to Hollywood actors and Krishnamacharya s son T K V Desikachar founded the Krishnamacharya Yoga Mandalam in Chennai 244 245 246 Other schools founded during the 20th century include Bikram Choudhury s Bikram Yoga and Swami Sivananda of Rishikesh s Sivananda yoga Modern yoga has spread around the world 247 248 nbsp International Day of Yoga in New Delhi 2016 The number of asanas used in yoga has increased from 84 in 1830 as illustrated in Joga Pradipika to about 200 in Light on Yoga and over 900 performed by Dharma Mittra by 1984 The goal of haṭha yoga spiritual liberation through energy was largely replaced by the goals of fitness and relaxation and many of its more esoteric components were reduced or removed 249 The term hatha yoga also refers to gentle yoga often for women 250 Yoga has developed into a worldwide multi billion dollar business involving classes teacher certification clothing books videos equipment and holidays 251 The ancient cross legged lotus position and Siddhasana are widely recognised symbols of yoga 252 The United Nations General Assembly established 21 June as the International Day of Yoga 253 254 255 and it has been celebrated annually around the world since 2015 256 257 On 1 December 2016 yoga was listed by UNESCO as an intangible cultural heritage 258 The effect of postural yoga on physical and mental health has been a subject of study with evidence that regular yoga practice is beneficial for low back pain and stress 259 260 In 2017 a Cochrane review found that yoga interventions designed for chronic low back pain increased function at the six month mark and modestly decreased pain after 3 4 months The decrease in pain was found to be similar to other exercise programs designed for low back pain but the decrease is not large enough to be deemed clinically significant 261 Theories of the mechanism underlying these changes include the increase in strength and flexibility physical and mental relaxation and increased body awareness TraditionsYoga is practised with a variety of methods by all Indian religions In Hinduism practices include jnana yoga bhakti yoga karma yoga kundalini yoga and hatha yoga Jain yoga Main article Jain meditation Yoga has been a central practice in Jainism Jain spirituality is based on a strict code of nonviolence or ahimsa which includes vegetarianism almsgiving dana faith in the three jewels austerities tapas such as fasting and yoga 262 263 Jain yoga aims at the liberation and purification of the self from the forces of karma which binds the self to the cycle of reincarnation Like yoga and Sankhya Jainism believes in a number of individual selves bound by their individual karma 264 Only through the reduction of karmic influences and the exhaustion of collected karma can one become purified and released 265 Early Jain yoga seems to have been divided into several types including meditation abandonment of the body kayotsarga contemplation and reflection bhavana 266 Buddhist yoga nbsp Gautama Buddha in seated meditation Gal Vihara Sri Lanka Main articles Buddhist meditation and Dhyana in Buddhism Buddhist yoga encompasses a variety of methods which aim to develop the 37 aids to awakening Its ultimate goal is bodhi awakening or nirvana cessation traditionally seen as the permanent end of suffering dukkha and rebirth note 21 Buddhist texts use a number of terms for spiritual praxis in addition to yoga such as bhavana development note 22 and jhana dhyana note 23 In early Buddhism yoga practices included the four dhyanas four meditations or mental absorptions the four satipatthanas foundations or establishments of mindfulness anapanasati mindfulness of breath the four immaterial dwellings supranormal states of mind the brahmaviharas divine abodes Anussati contemplations recollections These meditations were seen as supported by the other elements of the Noble Eightfold Path such as ethics right exertion sense restraint and right view 267 Two mental qualities are said to be indispensable for yoga practice in Buddhism samatha calm stability and vipassana insight clear seeing 268 Samatha is a stable relaxed mind associated with samadhi mental unification focus and dhyana a state of meditative absorption Vipassana is insight or penetrative understanding into the true nature of phenomena also defined as seeing things as they truly are yathabhutaṃ darsanam A unique feature of classical Buddhism is its understanding of all phenomena dhammas as being empty of a self 269 270 Later developments in Buddhist traditions led to innovations in yoga practice The conservative Theravada school developed new ideas on meditation and yoga in its later works the most influential of which is the Visuddhimagga Mahayana meditation teachings may be seen in the Yogacarabhumi Sastra compiled c 4th century Mahayana also developed and adopted yoga methods such as the use of mantras and dharani pure land practices aiming at rebirth in a pure land or buddhafield and visualization Chinese Buddhism developed the Chan practice of Koan introspection and Hua Tou Tantric Buddhism developed and adopted tantric methods which are the basis of the Tibetan Buddhist yoga systems including deity yoga guru yoga the six yogas of Naropa Kalacakra Mahamudra and Dzogchen 271 Classical yoga Main article Yoga philosophy What is often referred to as classical yoga ashtanga yoga or raja yoga is primarily the yoga outlined in the dualistic Yoga Sutras of Patanjali 272 The origins of classical yoga are unclear although early discussions of the term appear in the Upanishads 165 Raja yoga yoga of kings originally denoted the ultimate goal of yoga samadhi 273 but was popularised by Vivekananda as a common name for ashtanga yoga note 24 the eight limbs attain samadhi as described in the Yoga Sutras 274 272 Yoga philosophy came to be regarded as a distinct orthodox school darsanas of Hinduism in the second half of the first millennium CE 18 web 1 Classical yoga incorporates epistemology metaphysics ethical practices systematic exercises and self development for body mind and spirit 169 Its epistemology pramana and metaphysics are similar to the Saṅkhya school The Classical yoga s metaphysics like Saṅkhya s primarily posits two distinct realities prakriti nature the eternal and active unconscious source of the material world composed of three guṇas and puruṣa consciousness the plural consciousnesses which are the intelligent principles of the world 275 Moksha liberation results from the isolation kaivalya of puruṣa from prakirti and is achieved through meditation stilling one s thought waves citta vritti and resting in pure awareness of puruṣa 275 Unlike Saṅkhya which takes a non theistic approach 158 276 the yoga school of Hinduism accepts a personal yet essentially inactive deity or personal god Ishvara 277 278 In Advaita Vedanta nbsp Raja Ravi Varma s Adi Shankara with Disciples 1904 Vedanta is a varied tradition with a number of sub schools and philosophical views It focuses on the study of the Upanishads and the Brahma Sutras one of its early texts about gaining spiritual knowledge of Brahman the unchanging absolute reality 279 One of the earliest and most influential sub traditions of Vedanta is Advaita Vedanta which posits non dualistic monism It emphasizes jnana yoga yoga of knowledge which aims at realizing the identity of one s atman individual consciousness with Brahman the Absolute consciousness 280 281 The most influential thinker of this school is Adi Shankara 8th century who wrote commentaries and other works on jnana yoga In Advaita Vedanta jnana is attained from scripture one s guru and through a process of listening to and meditating on teachings 282 Qualities such as discrimination renunciation tranquility temperance dispassion endurance faith attention and a longing for knowledge and freedom are also desirable 283 Yoga in Advaita is a meditative exercise of withdrawal from the particular and identification with the universal leading to contemplation of oneself as the most universal namely Consciousness 284 Yoga Vasistha is an influential Advaita text 285 which uses short stories and anecdotes to illustrate its ideas Teaching seven stages of yoga practice it was a major reference for medieval Advaita Vedanta yoga scholars and one of the most popular texts on Hindu yoga before the 12th century 286 Another text which teaches yoga from an Advaita point of view is the Yoga Yajnavalkya 287 Tantric yoga Main article Tantra According to Samuel Tantra is a contested concept 205 Tantra yoga may be described as practices in 9th to 10th century Buddhist and Hindu Saiva Shakti texts which included yogic practices with elaborate deity visualizations using geometric arrays and drawings mandalas male and particularly female deities life stage related rituals the use of chakras and mantras and sexual techniques aimed at aiding one s health longevity and liberation 205 288 Hatha yoga nbsp Viparitakaraṇi a posture used as an asana and a mudra 289 Main article Hatha yoga Hatha yoga focuses on physical and mental strength building exercises and postures described primarily in three Hindu texts 290 291 292 Hatha Yoga Pradipika by Svatmarama 15th century Shiva Samhita author unknown 1500 293 or late 17th century Gheranda Samhita by Gheranda late 17th century Some scholars include Gorakshanath s 11th century Goraksha Samhita on the list 290 since Gorakshanath is considered responsible for popularizing present day hatha yoga 294 295 296 Vajrayana Buddhism founded by the Indian Mahasiddhas 297 has a series of asanas and pranayamas such as tummo 211 which resemble hatha yoga Laya and kundalini yoga Laya and kundalini yoga closely associated with hatha yoga are often presented as independent approaches 298 According to Georg Feuerstein laya yoga yoga of dissolution or merging makes meditative absorption laya its focus The laya yogin seeks to transcend all memory traces and sensory experiences by dissolving the microcosm the mind in the transcendental Self Consciousness 299 Laya yoga has a number of techniques which include listening to the inner sound nada mudras such as Khechari and Shambhavi mudra and awakening kundalini body energy 300 Kundalini yoga aims to awaken bodily and cosmic energy with breath and body techniques uniting them with universal consciousness 301 A common teaching method awakens kundalini in the lowest chakra and guides it through the central channel to unite with the absolute consciousness in the highest chakra at the top of the head 302 Reception by other religionsChristianity Further information Category Christian yoga Some Christians integrate physical aspects of yoga stripped from the spiritual roots of Hinduism and other aspects of Eastern spirituality with prayer meditation and Jesus centric affirmations 303 304 The practice also includes renaming poses in English rather than using the original Sanskrit terms and abandoning involved Hindu mantras as well as the philosophy of Yoga Yoga is associated and reframed into Christianity 304 This has drawn charges of cultural appropriation from various Hindu groups 304 305 scholars remain skeptical 306 Previously the Roman Catholic Church and some other Christian organizations have expressed concerns and disapproval with respect to some eastern and New Age practices that include yoga and meditation 307 308 309 In 1989 and 2003 the Vatican issued two documents Aspects of Christian meditation and A Christian reflection on the New Age that were mostly critical of eastern and New Age practices The 2003 document was published as a 90 page handbook detailing the Vatican s position 310 The Vatican warned that concentration on the physical aspects of meditation can degenerate into a cult of the body and that equating bodily states with mysticism could also lead to psychic disturbance and at times to moral deviations Such has been compared to the early days of Christianity when the church opposed the gnostics belief that salvation came not through faith but through mystical inner knowledge 303 The letter also says one can see if and how prayer might be enriched by meditation methods developed in other religions and cultures 311 but maintains the idea that there must be some fit between the nature of other approaches to prayer and Christian beliefs about ultimate reality 303 Some which fundamentalist Christian organizations consider yoga to be incompatible with their religious background considering it a part of the New Age movement inconsistent with Christianity 312 Islam Early 11th century Persian scholar Al Biruni visited India lived with Hindus for 16 years and with their help translated several Sanskrit works into Arabic and Persian one of these was Patanjali s Yoga Sutras 313 314 Although Al Biruni s translation preserved many core themes of Patanjali s yoga philosophy some sutras and commentaries were restated for consistency with monotheistic Islamic theology 313 315 Al Biruni s version of the Yoga Sutras reached Persia and the Arabian Peninsula by about 1050 During the 16th century the hatha yoga text Amritakunda was translated into Arabic and Persian 316 Yoga was however not accepted by mainstream Sunni and Shia Islam Minority Islamic sects such as the mystic Sufi movement particularly in South Asia adopted Indian yoga postures and breath control 317 318 Muhammad Ghawth a 16th century Shattari Sufi and translator of yoga text was criticized for his interest in yoga and persecuted for his Sufi beliefs 319 Malaysia s top Islamic body imposed a legally enforceable 2008 fatwa prohibiting Muslims from practicing yoga saying that it had elements of Hinduism and its practice was haram as blasphemy 320 321 Malaysian Muslims who had been practicing yoga for years called the decision insulting 322 Sisters in Islam a Malaysian women s rights group expressed disappointment and said that yoga was a form of exercise 323 Malaysia s prime minister clarified that yoga as exercise is permissible but the chanting of religious mantras is not 324 The Indonesian Ulema Council MUI imposed a 2009 fatwa banning yoga because it contains Hindu elements 325 These fatwas have been criticized by Darul Uloom Deoband a Deobandi Islamic seminary in India 326 Similar fatwas banning yoga for its link to Hinduism were imposed by Grand Mufti Ali Gomaa in Egypt in 2004 and by Islamic clerics in Singapore earlier 327 328 According to Iran s yoga association the country had about 200 yoga centres in May 2014 One quarter were in the capital Tehran where groups could be seen practising in parks conservatives were opposed 329 In May 2009 Turkish Directorate of Religious Affairs head Ali Bardakoglu discounted personal development techniques such as reiki and yoga as commercial ventures which could lead to extremism According to Bardakoglu reiki and yoga could be a form of proselytizing at the expense of Islam 330 Nouf Marwaai brought yoga to Saudi Arabia in 2017 contributing to making it legal and recognized despite being allegedly threatened by her community who asserts yoga as un Islamic 331 See also nbsp Hinduism portal nbsp India portal List of asanas Modern yoga gurus List of yoga schools Sun Salutation Yoga tourism Yogis Mallakhamba a form of yoga performed on a pole Traditional games of IndiaNotes a b c Bryant 2009 p xxxiv Most scholars date the text shortly after the turn of the Common Era circa first to second century Original Sanskrit य ञ जत मन उत य ञ जत ध य व प र व प रस य ब हत व पश च त व ह त र दध वय न व द क इन मह द वस य सव त पर ष ट त १ 32 Translation 1 Seers of the vast illumined seer yogically य ञ जत yunjante control their minds and their intelligence 30 Translation 2 The illumined yoke their mind and they yoke their thoughts to the illuminating godhead to the vast to the luminous in consciousness the one knower of all manifestation of knowledge he alone orders the things of the sacrifice Great is the praise of Savitri the creating godhead 31 See also Gavin Flood 1996 Hinduism p 87 90 on The orthogenetic theory and Non Vedic origins of renunciation 69 Post classical traditions consider Hiranyagarbha the originator of yoga 71 72 Zimmer s point of view is supported by other scholars such as Niniam Smart in Doctrine and argument in Indian Philosophy 1964 pp 27 32 76 76 and S K Belvakar and Inchegeri Sampradaya in History of Indian philosophy 1974 1927 pp 81 303 409 77 Gavin Flood These renouncer traditions offered a new vision of the human condition which became incorporated to some degree into the worldview of the Brahman householder The ideology of asceticism and renunciation seems at first discontinuous with the brahmanical ideology of the affirmation of social obligations and the performance of public and domestic rituals Indeed there has been some debate as to whether asceticism and its ideas of retributive action reincarnation and spiritual liberation might not have originated outside the orthodox vedic sphere or even outside Aryan culture that a divergent historical origin might account for the apparent contradiction within Hinduism between the world affirmation of the householder and the world negation of the renouncer However this dichotomization is too simplistic for continuities can undoubtedly be found between renunciation and vedic Brahmanism while elements from non Brahmanical Sramana traditions also played an important part in the formation of the renunciate ideal Indeed there are continuities between vedic Brahmanism and Buddhism and it has been argued that the Buddha sought to return to the ideals of a vedic society which he saw as being eroded in his own day 83 Some scholars are now considering the image to be an instance of Lord of the Beasts found in Eurasian neolithic mythology or the widespread motif of the Master of Animals found in ancient Near Eastern and Mediterranean art 90 91 Wynne states that The Nasadiyasukta one of the earliest and most important cosmogonic tracts in the early Brahminic literature contains evidence suggesting it was closely related to a tradition of early Brahminic contemplation A close reading of this text suggests that it was closely related to a tradition of early Brahminic contemplation The poem may have been composed by contemplatives but even if not an argument can be made that it marks the beginning of the contemplative meditative trend in Indian thought 93 Miller suggests that the composition of Nasadiya Sukta and Purusha Sukta arises from the subtlest meditative stage called absorption in mind and heart which involves enheightened experiences through which seer explores the mysterious psychic and cosmic forces 94 Jacobsen writes that dhyana meditation is derived from the Vedic term dhih which refers to visionary insight thought provoking vision 94 Original Sanskrit स व ध य यमध य न धर म क न व दधद त मन सर व न द र य ण स प रत ष ठ प य ह सन सर व भ त न यन यत र त र थ भ य स खल व व वर तयन य वद य ष ब रह मल कमभ स पद यत न च प नर वर तत न च प नर वर तत १ Chandogya Upanishad VIII 15 102 Translation 1 by Max Muller The Upanishads The Sacred Books of the East Part 1 Oxford University Press He who engages in self study concentrates all his senses on the Self never giving pain to any creature except at the tirthas he who behaves thus all his life reaches the world of Brahman and does not return yea he does not return Translation 2 by G N Jha Chandogya Upanishad VIII 15 page 488 He who engages in self study and having withdrawn all his sense organs into the Self never causing pain to any living beings except in places specially ordained one who behaves thus throughout life reaches the Region of Brahman and does not return yea does not return Ancient Indian literature was transmitted and preserved through an oral tradition 108 For example the earliest written Pali Canon text is dated to the later part of the 1st century BCE many centuries after the Buddha s death 109 On the dates of the Pali canon Gregory Schopen writes We know and have known for some time that the Pali canon as we have it and it is generally conceded to be our oldest source cannot be taken back further than the last quarter of the first century BCE the date of the Alu vihara redaction the earliest redaction we can have some knowledge of and that for a critical history it can serve at the very most only as a source for the Buddhism of this period But we also know that even this is problematic In fact it is not until the time of the commentaries of Buddhaghosa Dhammapala and others that is to say the fifth to sixth centuries CE that we can know anything definite about the actual contents of the Pali canon 124 For the date of this Upanishad see also Helmuth von Glasenapp from the 1950 Proceedings of the Akademie der Wissenschaften und Literatur 125 The currently existing version of Vaiseṣika Sutra manuscript was likely finalized sometime between the 2nd century BCE and the start of the common era Wezler has proposed that the Yoga related text may have been inserted into this Sutra later among other things however Bronkhorst finds much to disagree on with Wezler 146 Werner writes The word Yoga appears here for the first time in its fully technical meaning namely as a systematic training and it already received a more or less clear formulation in some other middle Upanishads Further process of the systematization of Yoga as a path to the ultimate mystic goal is obvious in subsequent Yoga Upanishads and the culmination of this endeavour is represented by Patanjali s codification of this path into a system of the eightfold Yoga 163 For Patanjali as the founder of the philosophical system called yoga see Chatterjee amp Datta 1984 p 42 For an overview of the six orthodox schools with detail on the grouping of schools see Radhakrishnan amp Moore 1967 Contents and pp 453 487 For a brief overview of the yoga school of philosophy see Chatterjee amp Datta 1984 p 43 Worthington writes Yoga fully acknowledges its debt to Jainism and Jainism reciprocates by making the practice of yoga part and parcel of life 197 The earliest documented use of the word Tantra is in the Rigveda X 71 9 204 The Meditation school called Ch an in Chinese from the Sanskrit dhyana is best known in the West by the Japanese pronunciation Zen 218 For instance Kamalashila 2003 p 4 states that Buddhist meditation includes any method of meditation that has Enlightenment as its ultimate aim Likewise Bodhi 1999 writes To arrive at the experiential realization of the truths it is necessary to take up the practice of meditation At the climax of such contemplation the mental eye shifts its focus to the unconditioned state Nibbana A similar although in some ways slightly broader definition is provided by Fischer Schreiber et al 1991 p 142 Meditation general term for a multitude of religious practices often quite different in method but all having the same goal to bring the consciousness of the practitioner to a state in which he can come to an experience of awakening liberation enlightenment Kamalashila 2003 further allows that some Buddhist meditations are of a more preparatory nature p 4 The Pali and Sanskrit word bhavana literally means development as in mental development For the association of this term with meditation see Epstein 1995 p 105 and Fischer Schreiber et al 1991 p 20 As an example from a well known discourse of the Pali Canon in The Greater Exhortation to Rahula Maha Rahulovada Sutta MN 62 Ven Sariputta tells Ven Rahula in Pali based on VRI n d anapanassatiṃ rahula bhavanaṃ bhavehi Thanissaro 2006 translates this as Rahula develop the meditation bhavana of mindfulness of in amp out breathing Square bracketed Pali word included based on Thanissaro 2006 end note See for example Rhys Davids amp Stede 1921 25 entry for jhana1 Thanissaro 1997 as well as Kapleau 1989 p 385 for the derivation of the word zen from Sanskrit dhyana PTS Secretary Dr Rupert Gethin in describing the activities of wandering ascetics contemporaneous with the Buddha wrote T here is the cultivation of meditative and contemplative techniques aimed at producing what might for the lack of a suitable technical term in English be referred to as altered states of consciousness In the technical vocabulary of Indian religious texts such states come to be termed meditations Skt dhyana Pali jhana or concentrations samadhi the attainment of such states of consciousness was generally regarded as bringing the practitioner to deeper knowledge and experience of the nature of the world Gethin 1998 p 10 Not to be confused with Ashtanga Vinyasa Yoga a style of modern yoga using fluid transitions vinyasas between asanas References yoga n OED Online Oxford University Press September 2015 Retrieved 9 September 2015 White 2011 p 2 Denise Lardner Carmody John Carmody 1996 Serene Compassion Oxford University Press US p 68 Stuart Ray Sarbacker Samadhi The Numinous and Cessative in Indo Tibetan Yoga SUNY Press 2005 pp 1 2 a b Tattvarthasutra 6 1 see Manu Doshi 2007 Translation of Tattvarthasutra Ahmedabad Shrut Ratnakar p 102 Yoga How did it conquer the world and what s changed BBC News 22 June 2017 Retrieved 14 June 2021 a b c d e Karel Werner 1977 Yoga and the Ṛg Veda An Interpretation of the Kesin Hymn RV 10 136 Religious Studies Vol 13 No 3 page 289 302 Deussen 1997 p 556 a b T R S Ayyangar 1938 The Yoga Upanishads The Adyar Library Madras a b Ruff 2011 pp 97 112 a b c d Singleton 2010 pp 25 34 a b c Flood 1996 p 95 a b Stephen Phillips 2009 Yoga Karma and Rebirth A Brief History and Philosophy Columbia University Press pp 28 30 ISBN 978 0 231 14485 8 a b Patrick Olivelle 1998 The Early Upanishads Annotated Text and Translation Oxford University Press pp 12 13 ISBN 978 0 19 512435 4 a b Samuel 2008 p 8 a b c Bryant 2009 p xxxiv Desmarais 2008 p 16 17 a b Whicher 1998 p 320 a b Mallinson 2012 p 20 The techniques of hatha yoga are not taught in Sanskrit texts until the 11th century or thereabouts Burley 2000 p 15 While many scholars prefer to locate hatha yoga s formative years somewhere between the ninth and tenth centuries CE coinciding with the estimated flourishing of the great siddhas Matsyendra and Goraksa other researchers and practitioners of yoga look much farther back in time Crangle 1994 pp 1 6 Crangle 1994 pp 103 138 a b Burley 2000 pp 1 2 Yoga Landed in the U S Way Earlier Than You d Think And Fitness Was Not the Point HISTORY 20 June 2019 Retrieved 14 June 2021 Marek Jantos 2012 in Oxford Textbook of Spirituality in Healthcare Editors Mark Cobb et al Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 957139 0 pp 362 363 White 2011 p xvi xvii 2 White 2014 pp xvi xvii Satyananda 2008 p 1 White 2011 p 3 a b Burley 2000 p 25 a b Sri Aurobindo 1916 Reprinted 1995 A Hymn to Savitri V 81 in The Secret of Veda ISBN 978 0 914955 19 1 page 529 Sanskrit Source Rigveda Book 5 Chapter 81 Archived 11 May 2017 at the Wayback Machine Wikisource Dasgupta Surendranath 1975 A History of Indian Philosophy Vol 1 Delhi India Motilal Banarsidass p 226 ISBN 81 208 0412 0 Bryant 2009 p 5 Bryant 2009 p xxxix Aranya Swami Hariharananda 2000 Yoga Philosophy of Patanjali with Bhasvati Calcutta India University of Calcutta p 1 ISBN 81 87594 00 4 American Heritage Dictionary Yogi One who practices yoga Websters Yogi A follower of the yoga philosophy an ascetic Mallinson amp Singleton 2017 pp 17 23 Vaisesika sutra 5 2 15 16 Katha Upanishad 6 10 11 Bhagavad Gita 2 48 2 50 6 23 a b Desmarais 2008 p 16 17 Yoga Sutras of Patanjali 1 2 4 Yogacarabhumi Sastra Sravakabhumi 2 152 Yogasataka 2 4 Vasudeva p 241 Linga Purana I 8 5a Brahmasutra bhasya 2 1 3 Malinivijayottara Tantra 4 4 8 a b Vasudeva pp 235 236 Mrgendratantravrtti yp 2a Saradatilaka 25 1 3b Vasudeva p 243 Yogabija 89 Grimes 1996 p 359 Jacobsen 2018 p 4 Jacobsen 2011 p 4 White 2011 p 6 White 2011 pp 6 8 White 2011 pp 8 9 White 2011 pp 9 10 White 2011 pp 10 12 Mallinson James 2013 The Yogis Latest Trick Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society 24 1 Cambridge University Press 165 180 doi 10 1017 s1356186313000734 S2CID 161393103 White 2011 p 11 Crangle 1994 p 1 6 Crangle 1994 p 103 138 a b Larson 2008 p 36 Crangle 1994 p 4 Flood 1996 p 87 90 a b Crangle 1994 p 5 Feuerstein 2001 Kindle Locations 7299 7300 Aranya Swami Hariharananda 2000 Introduction Yoga Philosophy of Patanjali with Bhasvati Calcutta India University of Calcutta p xxiv ISBN 81 87594 00 4 Bryant2009 p xix xx a b Zimmer 1951 p 217 314 Zimmer 1951 p 217 Crangle 1994 p 7 Crangle 1994 pp 5 7 a b Gombrich 2007 a b Samuel 2008 McEvilley Thomas 1981 An Archaeology of Yoga Res Anthropology and Aesthetics 1 spring 51 doi 10 1086 RESv1n1ms20166655 ISSN 0277 1322 S2CID 192221643 Flood 1996 p 78 Flood 1996 p 77 Flood 1996 pp 76 77 a b c Bryant 2009 p xxi Samuel 2009 sfn error no target CITEREFSamuel2009 help a b Flood 1996 p 233 Larson 2014 sfn error no target CITEREFLarson2014 help a b Samuel 2008 pp 1 14 Doniger Wendy 2011 God s Body or The Lingam Made Flesh Conflicts over the Representation of the Sexual Body of the Hindu God Shiva Social Research 78 2 485 508 ISSN 0037 783X JSTOR 23347187 Witzel 2008 pp 68 70 90 sfn error no target CITEREFWitzel2008 help Kenoyer Jonathan Mark 2010 Master of Animals and Animal Masters in the Iconography of the Indus Tradition In Counts Derek B Arnold Bettina eds The Master of Animals in Old World Iconography Archaeolingua Alapitvany p 50 a b c d Jacobsen 2018 p 6 Wynne 2007 p 50 a b Whicher 1998 p 11 Lamb 2011 p 427 Whicher 1998 p 13 a b c Flood 1996 pp 94 95 Whicher 1998 p 12 Wynne 2007 pp 44 45 58 Jacobsen 2011 p 6 a b Mircea Eliade 2009 Yoga Immortality and Freedom Princeton University Press ISBN 978 0 691 14203 6 pages 117 118 wikisource Archived 22 August 2016 at the Wayback Machine Chandogya Upanishad अष टम ऽध य य पञ चदश खण ड Mallinson amp Singleton 2017 p xii Whicher 1998 p 17 Richard King 1995 Early Advaita Vedanta and Buddhism the Mahayana context of the Gauḍapadiya karika SUNY Press ISBN 978 0 7914 2513 8 page 52 Olivelle 1996 p xxxvii Larson 2008 pp 34 35 53 Wynne Alexander 2004 The Oral Transmission of the Early Buddhist Literature Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies 27 1 97 128 Donald Lopez 2004 Buddhist Scriptures Penguin Books pp xi xv ISBN 978 0 14 190937 0 Mallinson amp Singleton 2017 pp 13 15 Werner 1998 p 131 a b Werner 1998 pp 119 20 Richard Gombrich Theravada Buddhism A Social History from Ancient Benares to Modern Colombo Routledge and Kegan Paul 1988 p 44 Barbara Stoler Miller Yoga Discipline of Freedom the Yoga Sutra Attributed to Patanjali a Translation of the Text with Commentary Introduction and Glossary of Keywords University of California Press 1996 p 8 Mallinson James 2007 The Khecarividya of Adinatha London Routledge pp 17 19 Mallinson 2012 pp 20 21 The Buddha himself is said to have tried both pressing his tongue to the back of his mouth in a manner similar to that of the hathayogic khecarimudra and ukkutikappadhana a squatting posture which may be related to hathayogic techniques such as mahamudra mahabandha mahavedha mulabandha and vajrasana in which pressure is put on the perineum with the heel in order to force upwards the breath or Kundalini Samuel 2008 pp 31 32 Singleton 2010 Chapter 1 Bronkhorst Johannes 1993 The Two Traditions of Meditation in Ancient India Motilal Banarsidass ISBN 978 8120816435 pages 1 24 a b White 2011 pp 5 6 Werner 1998 pp 119 120 Douglass Laura 2011 Thinking Through The Body The Conceptualization Of Yoga As Therapy For Individuals With Eating Disorders Academic Search Premier 83 Retrieved 19 February 2013 Datta Amaresh 1988 Encyclopaedia of Indian Literature devraj to jyoti Sahitya Akademi p 1809 ISBN 978 81 260 1194 0 Wynne 2007 pp 3 4 Vedanta and Buddhism A Comparative Study Archived from the original on 4 February 2013 Retrieved 29 August 2012 Whicher 1998 pp 18 19 a b c Jacobsen 2011 p 8 White 2011 p 4 See Original Sanskrit Shvetashvatara Upanishad Archived 4 March 2011 at the Wayback Machine Book 2 Hymns 8 14 English Translation Paul Deussen German 1897 English Translated by Bedekar amp Palsule Reprint 2010 Sixty Upanishads of the Veda Vol 1 Motilal Banarsidass ISBN 978 8120814677 pages 309 310 Singleton 2010 p 26 Feuerstein Georg January February 1988 Introducing Yoga s Great Literary Heritage Yoga Journal 78 70 75 a b c Charles R Lanman The Hindu Yoga System Harvard Theological Review Volume XI Number 4 Harvard University Press pages 355 359 a b c Strabo Geography Archived 1 November 2022 at the Wayback Machine Book XV Chapter 1 see Sections 63 65 Loeb Classical Library edition Harvard University Press Translator H L Jones a b Mallinson amp Singleton 2017 pp xii xxii Whicher 1998 pp 25 26 a b Jacobsen 2011 p 9 Wynne 2007 p 33 Jacobsen 2011 p 10 Flood 1996 p 96 a b Jacobsen 2011 pp 10 11 E Easwaran Essence of the Bhagavad Gita Nilgiri Press ISBN 978 1 58638 068 7 pages 117 118 Jack Hawley 2011 The Bhagavad Gita ISBN 978 1 60868 014 6 pages 50 130 Arvind Sharma 2000 Classical Hindu Thought An Introduction Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 564441 8 pages 114 122 a b c Bibek Debroy 2005 The Bhagavad Gita Penguin Books ISBN 978 0 14 400068 5 Introduction pages x xi Jacobsen 2011 p 46 Georg Feuerstein 2011 The Bhagavad Gita A New Translation Shambhala ISBN 978 1 59030 893 6 a b c Johannes Bronkhorst 1993 The Two Traditions of Meditation in Ancient India Motilal Banarsidass p 64 ISBN 978 81 208 1114 0 a b Stephen Phillips 2009 Yoga Karma and Rebirth A Brief History and Philosophy Columbia University Press pp 281 footnote 36 ISBN 978 0 231 14485 8 Andrew J Nicholson 2013 Unifying Hinduism Philosophy and Identity in Indian Intellectual History Columbia University Press p 26 ISBN 978 0 231 14987 7 From a historical perspective the Brahmasutras are best understood as a group of sutras composed by multiple authors over the course of hundreds of years most likely composed in its current form between 400 and 450 BCE NV Isaeva 1992 Shankara and Indian Philosophy State University of New York Press ISBN 978 0 7914 1281 7 page 36 on the whole scholars are rather unanimous considering the most probable date for Brahmasutra sometime between the 2nd century BCE and the 2nd century CE Jeaneane Fowler 2002 Perspectives of Reality An Introduction to the Philosophy of Hinduism Sussex Academic Press ISBN 978 1898723943 page 129 B K Matilal 1986 Perception An Essay on Classical Indian Theories of Knowledge Oxford University Press p xiv Stephen Phillips 2009 Yoga Karma and Rebirth A Brief History and Philosophy Columbia University Press pp 281 footnote 40 297 ISBN 978 0 231 14485 8 SC Vidyabhushana 1913 Translator The Nyaya Sutras The Sacred Book of the Hindus Volume VIII Bhuvaneshvar Asrama Press pages 137 139 Karl Potter 2004 The Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies Indian metaphysics and epistemology Volume 2 Motilal Banarsidass ISBN 978 8120803091 page 237 a b Mallinson amp Singleton 2017 pp xvi xvii Original Sanskrit स ङ ख य य ग ल क यत च इत य न व क ष क English Translation Arthasastra Book 1 Chapter 2 Kautiliya R Shamasastry Translator page 9 Olivelle Patrick 2013 King Governance and Law in Ancient India Kautilya s Arthasastra Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 989182 5 see Introduction a b Lloyd Pflueger Person Purity and Power in Yogasutra in Theory and Practice of Yoga Editor Knut Jacobsen Motilal Banarsidass ISBN 978 8120832329 pages 38 39 Burley 2012 pp 31 46 Radhakrishnan amp Moore 1967 p 453 Radhakrishnan 1971 p 344 Muller 1899 p 104 Werner 1998 p 24 Stiles 2001 p x a b c d e Larson 2008 pp 43 45 Larson 2008 pp 21 22 Taimni 1961 p 6 Vivekananda p 115 a b Edwin Bryant 2011 Rutgers University The Yoga Sutras of Patanjali Archived 18 May 2019 at the Wayback Machine IEP Bryant 2009 p 10 Bryant 2009 p 457 a b Dass 1999 p 5 James Lochtefeld Yama 2 The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism Vol 2 N Z Rosen Publishing ISBN 978 0 8239 3179 8 page 777 a b Arti Dhand 2002 The dharma of ethics the ethics of dharma Quizzing the ideals of Hinduism Journal of Religious Ethics 30 3 pages 347 372 a b MN Gulati 2008 Comparative Religions And Philosophies Anthropomorphism And Divinity ISBN 978 8126909025 page 168 Sharma and Sharma Indian Political Thought Atlantic Publishers ISBN 978 8171566785 page 19 a b N Tummers 2009 Teaching Yoga for Life ISBN 978 0 7360 7016 4 pages 16 17 Kaelber W O 1976 Tapas Birth and Spiritual Rebirth in the Veda History of Religions 15 4 343 386 SA Bhagwat 2008 Yoga and Sustainability Journal of Yoga Fall Winter 2008 7 1 1 14 Mallinson amp Singleton 2017 pp 16 17 Grimes 1996 p 238 a b Phillips Stephen H 1995 Classical Indian Metaphysics Refutations of Realism and the Emergence of New Logic Open Court Publishing pp 12 13 ISBN 9780812692983 Larson 2008 p 478 Rosen Richard March 2006 Guided Meditation Yoga Journal p 121 ISSN 0191 0965 Divanji Prahlad ed 1954 Yoga Yajnavalkya A Treatise on Yoga as Taught by Yogi Yajnavalkya B B R A Society s Monograph Vol 3 Bombay India Bombay Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society p 105 Mohan A G 2010 Krishnamacharya His Life and Teachings Shambhala Publications p 127 ISBN 978 1 59030 800 4 Larson 2008 p 479 Larson 2008 pp 481 484 Larson 2008 pp 485 486 John M Koller 2002 Asian Philosophies Prentice Hall pp 144 145 ISBN 978 0 13 092385 1 Dan Lusthaus Buddhist Phenomenology A Philosophical Investigation of Yogacara Buddhism and the Ch eng Wei shih Lun Published 2002 Routledge ISBN 0 7007 1186 4 pg 533 Ulrich Timme Kragh editor The Foundation for Yoga Practitioners The Buddhist Yogacarabhumi Treatise and Its Adaptation in India East Asia and Tibet Volume 1 Harvard University Department of South Asian studies 2013 pp 16 25 Mallinson amp Singleton 2017 pp xvii xviii a b Tattvarthasutra 6 2 Kundakunda pp 134 140 a b Zydenbos 2006 p 66 Worthington 1982 p 35 Whicher 1998 p 313 Larson 2008 pp 136 139 Cutler Norman 1987 Songs of Experience Indiana University Press p 1 ISBN 978 0 253 35334 4 Larson 2008 pp 137 Jacobsen 2011 p 22 Einoo Shingo ed 2009 Genesis and Development of Tantrism University of Tokyo p 45 Banerjee S C 1988 a b c Samuel 2008 p 9 Mallinson amp Singleton 2017 pp xviii xx Samuel 2008 pp 324 333 a b Burley 2000 p 16 John Powers 2004 in Encyclopedia of Buddhism Editors Damien Keown et al Routledge ISBN 978 0 415 31414 5 pages 775 785 White David Gordon Yoga in Practice Princeton University Press 2012 page 14 a b Lama Yeshe 1998 The Bliss of Inner Fire Wisdom Publications pp 135 141 Chogyam Trungpa 2001 The Lion s Roar An Introduction to Tantra Shambhala ISBN 1 57062 895 5 Edmonton Patric 2007 Pali and Its Significance p 332 Yantra Yoga The Tibetan Yoga of Movement by Chogyal Namkhai Norbu Snow Lion 2008 ISBN 1 55939 308 4 The Lion s Roar An Introduction to Tantra by Chogyam Trungpa Shambhala 2001 ISBN 1 57062 895 5 Secret of the Vajra World The Tantric Buddhism of Tibet by Ray Reginald A Shambhala 2002 pp 37 38 ISBN 1 57062 917 X Secret of the Vajra World The Tantric Buddhism of Tibet by Ray Reginald A Shambhala 2002 p 57 ISBN 1 57062 917 X The Buddhist Tradition in India China and Japan Edited by William Theodore de Bary pp 207 208 ISBN 0 394 71696 5 Dumoulin Heisig amp Knitter 2005 p 13 This phenomenon merits special attention since yogic roots are to be found in the Zen Buddhist school of meditation Akshaya Kumar Banerjea 1983 Philosophy of Gorakhnath with Goraksha Vacana Sangraha Motilal Banarsidass pp xxi ISBN 978 81 208 0534 7 Mallinson 2012 p 2 The earliest references to hathayoga are scattered mentions in Buddhist canonical works and their exegesis dating from the eighth century onwards in which it is the soteriological method of last resort Mallinson 2012 p 2 In its earliest definition in Pundarika s eleventh century Vimalaprabha commentary on the Kalacakratantra hathayoga is said to bring about the unchanging moment aksaraksana through the practice of nada by forcefully making the breath enter the central channel and through restraining the bindu of the bodhicitta in the vajra of the lotus of wisdom While the means employed are not specified the ends in particular restraining bindu semen and making the breath enter the central channel are similar to those mentioned in the earliest descriptions of the practices of hathayoga to which I now turn Larson 2008 p 140 Feuerstein 1996 Mansukhani Gobind Singh 2009 Introduction To Sikhism Hemkunt Press p 66 ISBN 978 81 7010 181 9 Dhillon Harish 2010 Guru Nanak Indus Source Books p 178 ISBN 978 81 88569 02 1 Besaw Kelsie 7 January 2014 The Little Red Book of Yoga Wisdom Simon and Schuster p 10 ISBN 9781628738704 Shaw Eric 35 Moments Yoga Journal 2010 Goldberg 2010 pp 21ff Von Glasenapp Hellmuth Die Philosophie der Inder Stuttgart 1974 A Kroener Verlag pp 166f Fear of Yoga Utne com Retrieved 28 August 2013 De Michelis 2004 pp 19ff Eliade 1958 Flood Gavin D Body and Cosmology in Kashmir Saivism San Francisco 1993 Mellen Research University Press pp 229ff De Michelis Elizabeth 2007 A Preliminary Survey of Modern Yoga Studies PDF Asian Medicine Tradition and Modernity 3 1 1 19 doi 10 1163 157342107X207182 Jain Andrea July 2016 The Early History of Modern Yoga Modern Yoga Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Religion Oxford Research Encyclopedias doi 10 1093 acrefore 9780199340378 013 163 ISBN 978 0 19 934037 8 Retrieved 23 February 2019 Mishra Debashree 3 July 2016 Once Upon A Time From 1918 this Yoga institute has been teaching generations creating history Indian Express Mumbai Singleton 2010 pp 32 50 Doctor Vikram 15 June 2018 Bhawanrao Shrinivasrao Pant Pratinidhi The man who promoted Surya Namaskar The Economic Times India Singleton 2010 pp 199 203 Singleton 2010 pp 175 210 Kest Bryan 4 September 2017 The History of Power Yoga Power Yoga Retrieved 1 January 2019 Sjoman 1999 pp 39 47 Cushman Ann January February 2000 The New Yoga Yoga Journal p 68 Retrieved 5 February 2011 Mehta 1990 p 9 Desikachar T K V 2005 Health healing and beyond Yoga and the living tradition of Krishnamacharya Aperture USA p cover jacket text ISBN 978 0 89381 731 2 What s Your Style Explore the Types of Yoga Yoga Journal 13 November 2012 Beirne Geraldine 10 January 2014 Yoga a beginner s guide to the different styles The Guardian Retrieved 1 February 2019 Singleton 2010 pp 29 170 Singleton 2010 p 152 Delaney Brigid 17 September 2017 The yoga industry is booming but does it make you a better person The Guardian Singleton 2010 p 32 United Nations Information Centre for India and Bhutan www unic org in Archived from the original on 9 July 2016 Rajghatta Chidanand 28 September 2014 Narendra Modi calls for International Yoga Day The Times of India UN declares June 21 as International Day of Yoga India News Times of India The Times of India 11 December 2014 Network Newsroom24x7 21 June 2015 Massive turnout on International Day of Yoga in India a href Template Cite web html title Template Cite web cite web a CS1 maint numeric names authors list link PM Modi Leads Yoga Session India Sets Guinness Records 10 Developments NDTV Retrieved 21 June 2015 Yoga joins Unesco world heritage list The Guardian 1 December 2016 Ross Alyson Thomas Sue 2010 The Health Benefits of Yoga and Exercise A Review of Comparison Studies The Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine 16 1 3 12 doi 10 1089 acm 2009 0044 PMID 20105062 S2CID 14130906 Hayes M Chase S March 2010 Prescribing Yoga Primary Care 37 1 31 47 doi 10 1016 j pop 2009 09 009 PMID 20188996 Wieland L Susan Skoetz Nicole Pilkington Karen Vempati Ramaprabhu D Adamo Christopher R Berman Brian M 12 January 2017 Yoga treatment for chronic non specific low back pain Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 1 1 CD010671 doi 10 1002 14651858 cd010671 pub2 ISSN 1465 1858 PMC 5294833 PMID 28076926 Mahapragya Acharya 2004 Foreword Jain Yog Aadarsh Saahitya Sangh Feuerstein 2002 pp 187 198 Tulsi Acharya 2004 Blessings Sambodhi Aadarsh Saahitya Sangh OCLC 39811791 Archived from the original on 5 March 2016 Feuerstein 2002 pp 192 193 Pragya Samani Pratibha 2017 Prekṣa meditation history and methods PhD Thesis SOAS University of London p 42 Analayo 2017 Early Buddhist Meditation Studies Barre Center for Buddhist Studies pp 69 70 80 Thanissaro Bhikkhu One Tool Among Many The Place of Vipassana in Buddhist Practice 1997 Buswell Robert ed 2004 Encyclopedia of Buddhism MacMillan p 889 Paul Williams 2008 Mahayana Buddhism The Doctrinal Foundations Routledge pp 68 69 ISBN 978 1 134 25056 1 Feuerstein 2002 pp 230 241 a b White 2014 p xvi Mallinson 2011 p 770 Hari Dass 1978 a b Ruzsa Ferenc Sankhya Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy Archived 18 March 2019 at the Wayback Machine Burley 2012 pp 43 46 K T Behanan 2002 Yoga Its Scientific Basis Dover ISBN 978 0 486 41792 9 pages 56 58 Burley 2012 pp 39 41 George Thibaut Vedanta Sutras Part 1 The Sacred Books of the East at Google Books Volume 34 Editor Max Muller Oxford University Press pages lxxii lxxiii Deutsch Eliot 1988 Advaita Vedanta A Philosophical Reconstruction University of Hawaii Press pp 104 105 ISBN 0 88706 662 3 Comans Michael 2000 The Method of Early Advaita Vedanta A Study of Gauḍapada Saṅkara Suresvara and Padmapada Delhi Motilal Banarsidass p 183 P P Bilimoria 2012 Sabdapramaṇa Word and Knowledge Springer pp 299 301 ISBN 978 94 009 2911 1 Eliot Deutsch 1980 Advaita Vedanta A Philosophical Reconstruction University of Hawaii Press ISBN 978 0824802714 pages 105 108 Michael Comans 1993 The question of the importance of Samadhi in modern and classical Advaita Vedanta Philosophy East amp West Vol 43 Issue 1 pp 19 38 Feuerstein 2002 p 401 White 2014 pp xvi xvii 51 Rosen Richard March April 2001 T K V Desikachar s English translation of a 700 year old text introduces Westerners to one of the earliest hatha yoga manuals Review of Yogayajnavalkya Samhita by T K V Desikachar Yoga Journal pp 147 149 via Google Books Mukunda Stiles Tantra Yoga Secrets Weiser ISBN 978 1 57863 503 0 pages 3 7 James Mallinson 2011 Knut A Jacobsen et al eds Haṭha Yoga in the Brill Encyclopedia of Hinduism Vol 3 Brill Academic pp 770 781 ISBN 978 90 04 27128 9 a b See Kriyananada page 112 See Burley page 73 See Introduction by Rosen pp 1 2 See translation by Mallinson On page 140 David Gordon White says about Gorakshanath hatha yoga in which field he was India s major systematizer and innovator Bajpai writes on page 524 Nobody can dispute about the top ranking position of Sage Gorakshanath in the philosophy of Yoga Eliade writes of Gorakshanath on page 303 he accomplished a new synthesis among certain Shaivist traditions Pashupata tantrism and the doctrines unfortunately so imperfectly known of the siddhas that is of the perfect yogis Davidson Ronald Indian Esoteric Buddhism Columbia University Press 2002 pg 169 235 Whicher 1998 pp 6 7 Feuerstein Georg Yoga The Technology of Ecstasy J P Tarcher 1989 p 61 Danielou Alain 1991 Yoga Mastering the Secrets of Matter and the Universe Inner Traditions Bear amp Co p 107 ISBN 9780892813018 OCLC 831272340 Larson p 142 Vishnudevananda Swami 1999 Meditation and Mantras Motilal Banarsidass p 89 ISBN 978 0143422235 a b c Steinfels Peter 7 January 1990 Trying to Reconcile the Ways of the Vatican and the East The New York Times Archived from the original on 8 August 2009 a b c Solomon Serena 5 September 2017 Inside the Growing Wold of Christian Yoga Vice Retrieved 3 September 2021 Carleton James 2020 Mental and spiritual wellness in isolation ABC Retrieved 3 September 2021 Jain Andrea R 2015 Selling Yoga from Counterculture to Pop culture Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 939024 3 Victor L Simpson 1989 Vatican warns against practicing Eastern meditation The Washington Post Vatican sounds New Age alert BBC 4 February 2003 Retrieved 27 August 2013 Teasdale Wayne 2004 Catholicism in dialogue conversations across traditions Rowman amp Littlefield p 74 ISBN 0 7425 3178 3 Handbook of vocational psychology by W Bruce Walsh Mark Savickas 2005 ISBN 0 8058 4517 8 page 358 1989 Letter from Vatican to Bishops on Some Aspects of Christian Meditation Ewtn com Archived from the original on 2 May 2010 Retrieved 28 November 2012 Dr Ankerberg John amp Dr Weldon John Encyclopedia of New Age Beliefs Harvest House Publishers 1996 a b S Pines and T Gelblum Translators from Arabic to English 1966 Al Biruni Translator from Sanskrit to Arabic 1035 AD and Patanjali Al Biruni s Arabic Version of Patanjali s Yogasutra Archived 12 March 2017 at the Wayback Machine Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies Vol 29 No 2 1966 pages 302 325 White 2014 p page needed Philipp Maas 2013 A Concise Historiography of Classical Yoga Philosophy in Periodization and Historiography of Indian Philosophy Editor Eli Franco Sammlung de Nobili Institut fur Sudasien Tibet und Buddhismuskunde der Universitat Wien ISBN 978 3 900271 43 5 pages 53 90 OCLC 858797956 Satish Chandra 2007 Historiography Religion and State in Medieval India ISBN 978 8124100356 pages 135 136 Ernst C W 2005 Situating Sufism and Yoga PDF Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society 15 15 43 doi 10 1017 S1356186304004675 S2CID 53485495 Situating Sufism and Yoga PDF Retrieved 5 September 2010 Carl W Ernst Persecution and Circumspection in Shattari Sufism Archived 24 August 2014 at the Wayback Machine in Islamic Mysticism Contested Thirteen Centuries of Debate and Conflict Editors Fred De Jong and Berndt Radtke Brill 1999 Sidang Media Fatwa Yoga Islam gov my Archived from the original on 6 January 2009 Retrieved 5 September 2010 The Fatwas of Religious Council in Islamic affairs on Yoga After carefully studied various reports and factual data the Council unanimously agreed that this ancient India religious teachings which involves physical and mental exercises are Hinduism in nature known as wahdat al wujud philosophy oneness of existence the realization of identity between the Self in man Atman and the Divine BRAHMAN Brahman is all and Atman is Brahman It is prohibited haram for Muslims to practice it Paul Babie and Neville Rochow 2012 Freedom of Religion Under Bills of Rights Archived 22 December 2015 at the Wayback Machine University of Adelaide Press ISBN 978 0 9871718 0 1 page 98 Top Islamic body Yoga is not for Muslims Archived 2 December 2019 at the Wayback Machine NBC News Mixed reactions to yoga ban Thestar com my 23 November 2008 Archived from the original on 22 June 2011 Retrieved 5 September 2010 Badawi Yoga for Muslims OK without chant Saudi Gazette Archived from the original on 31 July 2013 Indonesian clerics issue yoga ban BBC News 25 January 2009 Retrieved 6 April 2010 Why give yoga religious connotation Deoband rediff News 29 January 2009 Retrieved 5 September 2010 Jain Andrea R 2014 Selling Yoga From Counterculture to Pop Culture Oxford University Press p 195 ISBN 978 0 19 939024 3 Find alternative to yoga urges Jakim PDF New Straits Times Malaysia Archived from the original PDF on 8 February 2015 The perils of yoga Conservative clerics are wary of a popular pastime The Economist 17 May 2014 It s OK to stretch just don t believe Hurriyet com tr 21 May 2009 Retrieved 5 September 2010 PTI 15 November 2017 Meet Nouf Marwaai the woman behind yoga becoming no more a deviant behaviour in Saudi Arabia The Economic Times SourcesPrinted sources Bryant Edwin 2009 The Yoga Sutras of Patanjali A New Edition Translation and Commentary New York North Point Press ISBN 978 0 86547 736 0 Burley Mikel 2000 Hatha Yoga Its Context Theory and Practice Delhi Motilal Banarsidass ISBN 978 8 1208 1706 7 Burley Mikel 2012 Classical Samkhya and Yoga An Indian Metaphysics of Experience Routledge ISBN 978 0 415 64887 5 Chatterjee Satischandra Datta Dhirendramohan 1984 An Introduction to Indian Philosophy Calcutta University of Calcutta Crangle Edward Fitzpatrick 1994 The Origin and Development of Early Indian Contemplative Practices Otto Harrassowitz Verlag Dass Baba Hari 1999 The Yoga Sutras of Patanjali A Study Guide for Book I Samadhi Pada Santa Cruz CA Sri Rama Publishing ISBN 0 918100 20 8 De Michelis Elizabeth 2004 A History of Modern Yoga London Continuum ISBN 978 0 8264 8772 8 Desmarais Michele 2008 Changing Minds Mind Consciousness and Identity in Patanjali s Yoga Sutra Motilal Banarsidass ISBN 978 8 1208 3336 4 Deussen Paul 1997 Sixty Upanishads of the Veda Volume 1 Motilal Banarsidass Publishers ISBN 978 8 1208 1467 7 Dumoulin Heinrich Heisig James W Knitter Paul F 2005 Zen Buddhism a History India and China World Wisdom ISBN 978 0 941532 89 1 Eliade Mircea 1958 Yoga Immortality and Freedom Princeton Princeton University Press ISBN 978 0 691 14203 6 Feuerstein Georg 1996 The Shambhala Guide to Yoga 1st ed Boston amp London Shambhala Publications ISBN 978 1 5706 2142 0 Feuerstein Georg 2001 The Yoga Tradition Its History Literature Philosophy and Practice Hohm Press ISBN 978 1 890772 18 5 Feuerstein Georg 2002 The Yoga Tradition Delhi Motilal Banarsidass Flood Gavin D 1996 An Introduction to Hinduism Cambridge University Press Goldberg Philip 2010 American Veda From Emerson and the Beatles to Yoga and Meditation How Indian Spirituality Changed the West New York Harmony Books ISBN 978 0 385 52134 5 Gombrich Richard 2007 Religious Experience in Early Buddhism OCHS Library Hari Dass Baba 1978 Ashtanga Yoga Primer Santa Cruz Sri Ram Publishing pp bk cover ISBN 978 0 918100 04 7 Jacobsen Knut A ed 2011 Yoga Powers Leiden Brill ISBN 978 9 0042 1214 5 Jacobsen Knut A ed 2018 Theory and Practice of Yoga Essays in Honour of Gerald James Larson Brill Kundakunda Niyamasara Lamb Ramdas 2011 Yogic Powers and the Ramananda Sampraday in Jacobsen Knut A ed Yoga Powers Leiden Brill ISBN 978 9004212145 Larson Gerald James 2008 The Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies Yoga India s philosophy of meditation Motilal Banarsidass ISBN 978 81 208 3349 4 Mallinson James 2011 Haṭha Yoga In Jacobsen Knut A Basu Helene eds Brill s Encyclopedia of Hinduism Volume Three Brill Mallinson James 28 June 2012 Saktism and Hathayoga PDF Archived from the original PDF on 16 June 2013 Retrieved 19 September 2013 Mallinson James Singleton Mark 2017 Roots of Yoga Penguin Books ISBN 978 0 241 25304 5 OCLC 928480104 Mehta Silva Mehta Mira Mehta Shyam 1990 Yoga The Iyengar Way Dorling Kindersley ISBN 978 0 86318 420 8 a href Template Cite book html title Template Cite book cite book a CS1 maint multiple names authors list link Muller Max 1899 Six Systems of Indian Philosophy Samkhya and Yoga Naya and Vaiseshika Calcutta Susil Gupta India Ltd ISBN 0 7661 4296 5 Reprint edition Originally published under the title of The Six Systems of Indian Philosophy Olivelle Patrick 1996 The Early Upanishads Annotated Text amp Translation Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0195124354 Radhakrishnan S 1971 Indian Philosophy Vol II London George Allen amp Unwin Radhakrishnan S Moore C A 1967 A Sourcebook in Indian Philosophy Princeton ISBN 978 0 691 01958 1 Ruff Jeffrey Clark 2011 Yoga in the Yoga Upanisads Disciplines of the Mystical OM Sound In White David Gordon ed Yoga in Practice Princeton University Press pp 97 116 ISBN 978 0691140865 Samuel Geoffrey 2008 The Origins of Yoga and Tantra Cambridge University Press ISBN 978 0 521 69534 3 Satyananda Swami 2008 1996 Asana Pranayama Mudra Bandha PDF Munger Yoga Publications Trust ISBN 978 81 86336 14 4 Singleton Mark 2010 Yoga Body the origins of modern posture practice Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 539534 1 OCLC 318191988 Sjoman Norman E 1999 The Yoga Tradition of the Mysore Palace 2nd ed New Delhi Abhinav Publications pp 11 35 ISBN 81 7017 389 2 Stiles Mukunda 2001 Yoga Sutras of Patanjali With Great Respect and Love Weiser Books ISBN 978 1 5786 3201 5 Taimni I K 1961 The Science of Yoga Adyar India The Theosophical Publishing House ISBN 81 7059 212 7 Vasudeva Somadeva The Yoga of the Malinivijayottara Tantra Critical edition translation amp notes Vivekananda Swami Swami Vivekananda at the Parliament of Religions Indic Publication ISBN 978 1 301 19120 8 Werner Karel 1998 1977 Yoga And Indian Philosophy Motilal Banarsidass Publ ISBN 81 208 1609 9 Whicher Ian 1998 The Integrity of the Yoga Darsana A Reconsideration of Classical Yoga SUNY Press ISBN 978 0 7914 3815 2 White David Gordon 2011 Yoga Brief History of an Idea PDF Yoga in Practice Princeton University Press pp 1 23 White David Gordon 2014 The Yoga Sutra of Patanjali A Biography Princeton University Press ISBN 978 1 4008 5005 1 Worthington Vivian 1982 A History of Yoga Routledge ISBN 0 7100 9258 X Wynne Alexander 2007 The Origin of Buddhist Meditation Routledge ISBN 978 1 134 09741 8 Zimmer Heinrich 1951 Philosophies of India New York New York Princeton University Press ISBN 0 691 01758 1 Bollingen Series XXVI Edited by Joseph Cambell Zydenbos Robert 2006 Jainism Today and Its Future Munich Manya Verlag p 66 Grimes John A 1996 A Concise Dictionary of Indian Philosophy Sanskrit Terms Defined in English State University of New York Press ISBN 978 0 7914 3067 5 Websources a b Edwin Bryant 2011 Rutgers University The Yoga Sutras of Patanjali Archived 18 May 2019 at the Wayback Machine IEPExternal links nbsp Quotations related to Yoga at Wikiquote Yoga media on Commons Yoga Wikibooks Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Yoga amp oldid 1217676636, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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