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Sierra Leone Creole people

December 02, 2023

The Sierra Leone Creole people (Krio: Krio pipul) are an ethnic group of Sierra Leone. The Sierra Leone Creole people are descendants of freed African-American, Afro-Caribbean, and Liberated African slaves who settled in the Western Area of Sierra Leone between 1787 and about 1885. The colony was established by the British, supported by abolitionists, under the Sierra Leone Company as a place for freedmen. The settlers called their new settlement Freetown.[2] Today, the Sierra Leone Creoles are 1.2 percent of the population of Sierra Leone.[1]

Like their Americo-Liberian neighbours and sister ethnic group in Liberia, the Creoles of Sierra Leone have varying degrees of European ancestry.[3][4][5] In Sierra Leone, some of the settlers intermarried with English colonial residents and other Europeans.[6][7] Through the Jamaican Maroons, some Creoles probably also have indigenous Amerindian Taíno ancestry.[8][9] The mingling of newly freed black and racially-mixed Nova Scotians[10] and Jamaican Maroons from the 'New World' with Liberated Africans – such as the Akan, Ewe, Bakongo, Igbo, and Yoruba – over several generations in the late 18th and early 19th centuries, led to the eventual formation of a Creole ethnicity.[11][12][13][14]

The Americo-Liberians and Sierra Leone Creoles are the only recognised ethnic group of African-American, Liberated African, and Afro-Caribbean descent in West Africa.[15][16][1] Thoroughly westernized in their manners and bourgeois in their methods, the Creoles as a class developed close relationships with the British colonial administration; they became educated in British institutions and advanced to prominent leadership positions in colonial Sierra Leone and British West Africa.[17] Partly due to this history, many Sierra Leone Creoles have first names and/or surnames that are anglicized or British in origin.

The Creoles are overwhelmingly Christian[a] and the vast majority of them reside in Freetown and its surrounding Western Area region of Sierra Leone.[20] From their mix of peoples, the Creoles developed what is now the native Krio language, a creole deriving from English, indigenous West African languages, and other European languages. It is the most widely spoken language in virtually all parts of Sierra Leone. As the Krio language is spoken by 96 percent of the country's population,[1][21] it unites all the different ethnic groups, especially in their trade and interaction with each other.[22][23] Krio is also the primary language of communication among Sierra Leoneans living abroad.[24]

The Sierra Leone Creoles settled across West Africa in the nineteenth century in communities such as Limbe (Cameroon); Conakry (Guinea); Banjul (Gambia); Lagos, Abeokuta, Calabar, Onisha (Nigeria); Accra, Cape Coast (Ghana) and Fernando Pó (Equatorial Guinea).[25] The Krio language of the Creole people influenced other pidgins such as Cameroonian Pidgin English, Nigerian Pidgin English, and Pichinglis.[26][27] As a result of their history, the Gambian Creole people, or Aku people of the Gambia,[28][29] the Saro people of Nigeria,[30][31][32] and the Krio Fernandinos of Equatorial Guinea,[33][34][35] are sub-ethnic groups or partly descended from the Sierra Leone Creole people or their ancestors.

Ethnonymy and overview edit

The English word creole[b] derives from the French créole, which in turn came from Portuguese crioulo, a diminutive of cria, meaning a person raised in one's house. Cria derives from criar, meaning "to raise or bring up", itself derived from the Latin creare, meaning "to make, bring forth, produce, beget";[36] — itself the source of the English word "create". The word creole has several cognates in other languages, such as créole, creolo, criol, criollo, crioulo, kreol, kreyol, krio, kriol, kriolu, and kriyoyo.

In Louisiana, the term Creole has been used since 1792 to represent descendants of African or ethnically mixed parents as well as children of French and Spanish descent with no racial mixing.[37][38][39] Its use to describe languages started from 1879, while as an adjective, from 1748.[36] In some Spanish-speaking countries, the word Criollo is used today to describe something local or very typical of a particular Latin American country.[40]

In the Caribbean, the term broadly refers to all the people, whatever their class or ancestry — African, East Asian, European, Indian — who are part of the culture of the Caribbean.[41] In Trinidad, the term Creole is used to designate all Trinidadians except those of Asian origin. In French Guiana the term refers to anyone, regardless of skin colour, who has adopted a European way of life, and in neighbouring Suriname, the term refers only to the descendants of enslaved Africans.[13][41]

In Africa, the term Creole refers to any ethnic group formed during the European colonial era, with some mix of African and non-African racial or cultural heritage.[42] Creole communities are found on most African islands and along the continent's coastal regions where indigenous Africans first interacted with Europeans. As a result of these contacts, five major Creole types emerged: Portuguese, African American, Dutch, French and British.[42]

The Crioulos of African or mixed Portuguese and African descent eventually gave rise to several ethnic groups in Cape Verde, Guinea-Bissau, São Tomé e Príncipe, Angola and Mozambique.[43] The Mauritian and Seychellois Creoles are Africans with some French cultural ancestry and are Christianized. On La Réunion, the term Creole applies to the descendants of enslaved Africans born on the island,[44] while in South Africa, the blending of East African and Southeast Asian slaves with Dutch settlers, later produced a creolized population.[45] The Fernandino Creole peoples of Equatorial Guinea are a mix of Afro-Cubans with Emancipados and English-speaking Liberated Africans,[46] while the Americo-Liberians and Sierra Leone Creoles resulted from the intermingling of African Recaptives with Afro-Caribbeans and African Americans.[47][48]

Perhaps due to the range of divergent descriptions and lack of a coherent definition, Norwegian anthropologist T. H. Eriksen concludes:

“A Creole society, in my understanding, is based wholly or partly on the mass displacement of people who were, often involuntarily, uprooted from their original home, shedding the main features of their social and political organisations on the way, brought into sustained contact with people from other linguistic and cultural areas and obliged to develop, in creative and improvisational ways, new social and cultural forms in the new land, drawing simultaneously on traditions from their respective places of origin and on impulses resulting from the encounter.”[13]

Thomas Hylland Eriksen, Creolisation as a Recipe for Conviviality (2020)

Today, Creole communities have more in common with each other than they have with any African ethnic groups. On the islands of Africa, creole languages predominate while on the mainland, creole languages are lingua franca or national languages in Guinea-Bissau, Sierra Leone, Liberia, and South Africa. In island communities, Creoles are found in many occupations ranging from agricultural workers to members of society's elite. In the coastal areas of mainland Africa, Creoles acquired economic and political leverage due to their education, culture and close relationships with the colonial administration. They developed a strong sense of ethnic identity and formed their own political organisations. During the independence era of the mid-1900s, some Creoles supported colonial rule but many fought for independence and held positions of power afterwards. In most countries however, Creole political influence gradually gave way to ethnic groups from the interior that were considered 'more African'.[42]

Creole communities in Africa have grown in several ways. Elements of their culture, including language and music, have come to dominate popular culture on the islands. In Creole-established cities on the African mainland, some non-Creoles have assimilated into Creole societies, which are perceived to enjoy privileged status. Those seeking acceptance into a Creole community usually converted to Christianity, the religion shared by nearly all Creoles.[42]

History edit

In 1787, the British helped 400 freed slaves, primarily African Americans freed during the American Revolutionary War who had been evacuated to London, and Afro-Caribbeans and Africans from London, to relocate to Sierra Leone to settle in what they called the "Province of Freedom." Some of these early settlers had been freed earlier and worked as servants in London. Most of the first group died due to disease and warfare with indigenous peoples. About 64 survived to establish the second Granville Town following the failed first attempt at colonization between 1787 and 1789.

In 1792, 1200 Nova Scotian Settlers from Nova Scotia settled and established the Colony of Sierra Leone and the settlement of Freetown; these were African Americans and their descendants. Many of the adults had left Patriot owners and fought for the British in the Revolutionary War. The Crown had offered slaves freedom who left rebel masters, and thousands joined the British lines. The British resettled 3,000 of the African Americans in Nova Scotia, where many found the climate harsh and struggled with discrimination from white Nova Scotians. More than 1,200 volunteered to settle and establish the new colony of Freetown, which was established by British abolitionists under the Sierra Leone Company.

In 1800, the British government also transported 550 Jamaican maroons to Sierra Leone and subsequent waves of African American and Afro-Caribbean immigrants would settle in Sierra Leone throughout the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries.

After Britain and the United States abolished the international African slave trade beginning in 1808, they patrolled off the continent to intercept illegal shipping. The British resettled Liberated Africans from slave ships at Freetown. The Liberated Africans included people from the Yoruba, Igbo, Efik, Fante, and other ethnicities of West Africa.[14]

Some members of indigenous Sierra Leone ethnicities, were also among the Liberated Africans resettled at Freetown; they also assimilated into Creole culture. Others came to the settlement voluntarily, seeing opportunities in Creole culture in the society.[15]

Black Poor and Province of Freedom 1787–1789 edit

Main article: Committee for the Relief of the Black Poor

The first settlers to find a colony in Sierra Leone were the so-called "Black Poor": African Americans and Afro-Caribbean. 411 settlers arrived in May 1787. Some were Black Loyalists who were either evacuated or travelled to England to petition for a land of their own; Black Loyalists had joined British forces during the American Revolutionary War, many on promises of freedom from enslavement.[49]

On the voyage between Plymouth and Sierra Leone, 96 passengers died.[50] However, enough survived to establish and build a colony. Seventy white women accompanied the men to Sierra Leone. Anna Falconbridge portrayed these white women as prostitutes from Deptford Prison, but they were most likely wives and girlfriends of the black settlers.[51] Their colony was known as the "Province of Freedom" and their settlement was called "Granville Town"' after the English abolitionist Granville Sharp. The British negotiated for the land for the settlement with the local Temne chief, King Tom.

However, before the ships sailed away from Sierra Leone, 50 white women had died, and about 250 remained of the original 440 who left Plymouth. Another 86 settlers died in the first four months. Although initially there was no hostility between the two groups, after King Tom's death the next Temne chief retaliated for a slave trader's burning of his village.[52] He threatened to destroy Granville Town. The Temne ransacked Granville Town and took some Black Poor into slavery, while others became slave traders. In early 1791 Alexander Falconbridge returned, to find only 64 of the original residents (39 black men, 19 black women, and six white women). The 64 people had been cared for by a Greek and a colonist named Thomas Kallingree at Fourah Bay, an abandoned African village.[52] There the settlers reestablished Granville Town. After that time, they were called the "Old Settlers". By this time the Province of Freedom had been destroyed; Granville Sharp did not lead the next settlement movement.

Nova Scotians and the Freetown Colony 1792–1799 edit

Main article: Nova Scotian Settlers (Sierra Leone)
 
Freetown in 1803

The proponents and directors of the Sierra Leone colony believed that a new colony did not need black settlers from London. The directors decided to offer resettlement to African Americans from Nova Scotia, despite the failure of the last colony. These settlers were Black Loyalists, American slaves who had escaped to British lines and fought with them during the American Revolution, to earn freedom. The British government had transported more than 3,000 freedmen to Nova Scotia for resettlement, together with white Loyalists. Some of the African Americans were from South Carolina and the Sea Islands, of the Gullah culture; others were from states along the eastern seaboard up to New England.

Some 1200 of these blacks emigrated to Sierra Leone from Halifax Harbour on 15 January 1792, arriving between 28 February and 9 March 1792. On 11 March 1792, the Nova Scotian Settlers disembarked from the 14 passenger ships that had carried them from Nova Scotia to Sierra Leone and marched toward the large cotton tree near George Street. As the Settlers gathered under the tree, their preachers held a thanksgiving service and the white minister, Rev. Patrick Gilbert preached a sermon. After the religious services, the settlement was officially established and was designated Freetown. The Settler men cleared the forest and shrub and built a new settlement on the overgrown site that had formerly contained the Granville Town settlement.

They had a profound influence on Creole culture; many of the Western attributes of Creole society were conveyed by the "Settlers", who continued what was familiar to them from their past lives. In Sierra Leone they were called the Nova Scotians or "Settlers" (the 1787 Settlers were called the Old Settlers). They founded the capital of Sierra Leone in 1792. The descendants of African Americans remained an identifiable ethnic group until the 1870s, when the Creole identity was beginning to form.

Maroons and other transatlantic immigrants 1800–1819 edit

Main article: Jamaican Maroons in Sierra Leone
 
Captain Paul Cuffee transported 38 African Americans to Freetown in 1815

The next arrivals were the Jamaican Maroons; these maroons came specifically from Cudjoe's Town (Trelawny Town), one of the five Maroon cities in Jamaica. The Maroons mainly descended from highly military skilled Ashanti slaves who had escaped plantations and, to a lesser extent, from Jamaican indigenous people. The Maroons numbered around 551, and they helped quell some of the riots against the British from the settlers. The Maroons later fought against the Temne during the Temne Attack of 1801.[53]

The dispute with the Temne was over "rent" which the Temne felt they were owed by the colony. In a twist that became the hallmark of politics in the subregion, the Temne had indeed signed a treaty granting full sovereignty to the Colony but then turned around to say that this was not their understanding. This misunderstanding became violent, when in 1801, the Temne attacked Freetown. The assault failed, resulting instead in the expulsion of the Temne from the area.

The next migrations of transatlantic immigrants between 1800 and 1819 were smaller in comparison to the early Nova Scotian Settlers and Jamaican Maroon immigrants. Afro-Caribbean and Liberated African soldiers from the 2nd and 4th West India Regiments were settled in Freetown and in suburbs around it in 1819. Barbadian rebels who participated in the Bussa Rebellion were transported to colonial Freetown in 1816 and included families such as the Priddy family.

Thirty-eight African Americans (nine families) immigrated to Freetown under the auspices of African-American ship owner Paul Cuffe, of Boston. These Black Americans included Perry Lockes and Prince Saunders from Boston; Abraham Thompson and Peter Williams Jr. from New York City;[54] and Edward Jones from Charleston, South Carolina. Americo-Liberian merchants and traders also settled in colonial Freetown throughout the course of the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries.

Following the Jamaican Maroons and Barbadian rebels, Afro-Caribbean immigrants settled in Freetown, Sierra Leone and in settlements across the Freetown peninsula throughout the course of the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries as missionaries, artisans and colonial officials such as the Porter family from Jamaica.

Prominent Creole families of more recent Afro-Caribbean ancestry include the Farquhar family and their descendants such as the Stuart family and Conton family who settled in Sierra Leone from Barbados, the Bahamas, and Bermuda between the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries.

Recaptives or Liberated Africans 1807–1830s edit

Main article: Sierra Leone Liberated Africans
 
An 1835 illustration of liberated slaves arriving in Sierra Leone.

The last major group of immigrants to the colony was the Liberated Africans or "Recaptives".[55] Held on slave ships for sale in the western hemisphere, they were liberated by the Royal Navy, which, with the West Africa Squadron, enforced the abolition of the international slave trade after 1808.

 
Capture of slave ship El Almirante by the British Royal Navy in the 1800s. HMS Black Joke freed 466 slaves.[56]

The Liberated Africans were multi-ethnic and were largely Akan, Aja, Ewe, Angolan, Wolof, Hausa, Yoruba, Igbo, Bambara, Nupe, and Fulani people who had been enslaved by illegal slave traders. The Liberated Africans also included Sherbro, Mende and Temne people who had been enslaved in territories neighbouring the Colony of Sierra Leone.

The Liberated Africans, also called Recaptives, contributed greatly to the Creole culture. While the Settlers, Maroons, and transatlantic immigrants gave the Creoles their Christianity, some of their customs, and their Western influence, the Liberated Africans modified their customs to adopt those of the Nova Scotians and Europeans, yet kept some of their ethnic traditions.[15]: 5 

Initially the British colonial administration intervened to ensure the Recaptives became firmly rooted in Freetown society; they served in the army with the West India Regiment, and they were assigned as apprentices in the houses of Settlers and Maroons. Sometimes if a child's parents died, the young Recaptive would be adopted by a Settler or Maroon family. The two groups mixed and mingled in society.[57]

As the Recaptives began to trade and spread Christianity throughout West Africa, they began to dominate Freetown society. The Recaptives intermarried with the Settlers and Maroons, and the two groups became a fusion of African and Western societies.[15]: 3–4, 223–255 

Settlements edit

The ancestors of the Creoles founded the Colony of Sierra Leone and established the settlement of Freetown in 1792. They based the plan on what they were familiar with – the grid of a North American colonial town.[58] The families originally from Nova Scotia – the Balls, Burdens, Chambers, Davis, Dixons, Georges (descendants of David George), Keelings, Leighs, Moores, Peters (descendants of Thomas Peters or Stephen Peters), Prestons, Snowballs, Staffords, Turners, Willoughsby, Williams, and the Goodings – took up residence in Settler Town. The town was in close proximity to Cline Town (then Granville Town). Eighty percent of Nova Scotians lived on five streets: Rawdon, Wilberforce, Howe, East, and Charlotte street.

The next group of settlers were Jamaican Maroons from Cudjoe's Town, who arrived in Freetown, via Nova Scotia, in 1800. Notable families such as the Jarretts, Smiths, Hortons, Coles, Porters, Jones, and the Morgans, settled in Maroon Town, Sierra Leone. Seventy percent of Maroons lived on five streets: Gloucester, George, Trelawney, Walpole, and Westmoreland street. The Jamaican Maroon settlement was west of Settler Town between Walpole street and King Tom.

The Liberated African ancestors – principally of Akan, Ewe, Bakongo, Igbo, and Yoruba origin – settled across the Western Area peninsula of Sierra Leone. By the 1850s, they had already established Aberdeen, Bathurst, Charlotte, Dublin, Gloucester, Goderich, Grafton, Hastings, Kent, Kissy, Leicester, Murray Town, Regent, Ricketts, Sussex, Waterloo, Wellington, Wilberforce and York.

Between the late 18th and early 20th centuries, immigrants from the Bahamas, Barbados, Bermuda, Liberia and the Gold Coast likewise settled in Freetown and eventually coalesced into the Sierra Leone Creole identity.[59] In the 21st century, the majority of Creoles in Sierra Leone continue to reside in Freetown and along the surrounding Western Area peninsula[20] where their language and culture have a disproportionate influence relative to their population.[21][60]

The Creole people acted as colonial administrators, traders and missionaries in other parts of West Africa during the 19th century, and as a result, there are also Creole communities in The Gambia, Nigeria, Cameroon, and Equatorial Guinea.[25][61] Due to normal migration patterns, the Sierra Leone Civil War, and some discrimination at home, many Sierra Leone Creoles live abroad in the United States and the United Kingdom. In the United States, Creoles are mostly settled in Washington DC, Maryland, Virginia, Texas, New York, Georgia, California and North Carolina.[23]

Religion edit

 
St. George's Cathedral, Freetown
 
St. John's Maroon Church in Freetown
 
Sacred Heart Cathedral, Freetown

The Creoles are Christians, whether nominal or in practice, at more than 98 percent. A large proportion of the settlers from Nova Scotia and the Caribbean were Christians. Many liberated Africans also converted to Christianity.[62]

The Creoles were instrumental in the establishment of Pan-African Christianity.[63] Between 1840 and 1900, at least six out of every ten black African clergy in the Anglican Church across West Africa was a Creole.[64] By the 1820s, Sierra Leone already had more Christians than the entirety of tropical Africa.[65] Educational institutions such as Fourah Bay College were initially established with the objective of training Christian clergy and educators, who were later dispatched across West Africa to spread Christianity.[66][24]

Creole denominations are mainly Protestant with the Anglican and Methodist churches having the largest Creole congregants. However, smaller denominations such as the Baptist church and Countess of Huntingdon denominations in places such as Freetown, and Waterloo, Sierra Leone, also have Creole attendees, although these are smaller in number compared to Creole Anglicans and Methodists.

Creole church attendees congregate at traditional "Creole" churches in Freetown such as St. George's Cathedral, Trinity Church, St John's Maroon Church, Ebenezer Methodist Church, Rawdon Street Methodist Church, and Zion Methodist Church, Wilberforce Street.

Prominent Creole Anglicans include Edward Fasholé-Luke and Creoles such as Arthur Thomas Porter, Canon Harry Sawyerr and Robert Wellesley-Cole. Well-known Creole Methodists include Sylvia Blyden, a newspaper proprietor and Creoles such as Macormack Easmon, Edna Elliott-Horton, and George T.O. Robinson, the founder of the Krio Descendants Union.

Although Creoles are primarily Protestant, there are a small number of Creole Catholics who attend Catholic churches such as St. Anthony's Church in Brookfields and the Sacred Heart Cathedral in Freetown. Prominent Creole Catholics include Dr Monty Jones, Bertha Conton and Florence Dillsworth and, in previous generations, James C.E. Parkes.

Language edit

Main article: Krio language

The official language of Sierra Leone is English. In addition to English, the Sierra Leone Creoles also speak a distinctive creole language[2]: xxi  named after their ethnic group called Creole or Krio. Krio was strongly influenced by British English, Gullah, African American Vernacular English, Jamaican Creole, Akan, Igbo and Yoruba.[67]

Krio is widely spoken throughout Freetown and the surrounding towns, such that Krio speakers are no longer presumed to be of the Creole ethnic group.[24]

The Creole people acted as traders and missionaries in other parts of West Africa during the 19th century.[61] As a result of Sierra Leone Creole migratory patterns, in the Gambia, the Gambian Creole or Aku community speak a dialect called the Aku language that is very similar to Krio in Sierra Leone. Fernando Po Creole English is also largely a result of Sierra Leone Creole migrants. A small number of liberated Africans returned to the land of their origins, such as the Saros of Nigeria who not only took their Western names with them but also imported Krio words like sabi into Nigerian Pidgin English.[28][31][32][35]

In 1993, there were 473,000 speakers in Sierra Leone (493,470 in all countries); Krio was the third-most spoken language behind Mende (1,480,000) and Themne (1,230,000). Today, Krio is the most widely spoken language in Sierra Leone utilized by 96 percent of the country's population.[1][21] It unites all the different ethnic groups, especially in their trade and interaction with each other.[22] Krio is the primary language of communication among Sierra Leoneans living abroad,[24] and has also heavily influenced Sierra Leonean English.[68]

Native Krio speakers of the Creole ethnicity lived principally in Freetown communities, on the Peninsula, on the Banana Islands and York Island, and in Bonthe.

Culture edit

 
A Creole family, circa 1918.

Creole culture is a fusion of African, North American and British cultures reflected in both Victorian and Edwardian modes of Christianity, morality, norms and values. The Creoles were economically dominant in trade and held prominent leadership positions in colonial Sierra Leone and British West Africa. They were influential in intellectual, technocratic, artisanal, commercial and public life in general, actively participating in multiple fields of scholarly and civic importance.[17][69][70][71][72][73][74]

From their earliest presence in Sierra Leone and British West Africa, the Creoles, or their ancestors, have significantly contributed science,[75][76] literature,[77] art,[78] agricultural skills,[79][80] cuisine,[81] clothing styles,[82] music,[83] language,[67] pan-african christianity[63] and cultural innovation.[84][85] Notable examples include Nova Scotian settlers such as Thomas Peters,[86] David George[87] and Moses Wilkinson[88] who were founding figures of the nation of Sierra Leone. In biomedicine, the discovery of the breakdown of insulin in the human body, by Davidson Nicol, was a breakthrough for the treatment of diabetes.[75] John Farrell Easmon coined the term Blackwater fever and wrote the first clinical diagnosis of the disease linking it to malaria.[76] In agriscience, James Pinson Davies is credited with pioneering cocoa farming in West Africa,[79][89] while William Vivour was the single most successful 19th-century planter in Africa.[80][90][91] Other notable Creoles, or their ancestors, made significant contributions to Sierra Leone and British West Africa, and were pioneers in several categories of human endeavour.[92][70]

Marriage and family edit

Creoles observe dating and marriage customs that reflect their westernized and broader West African cultural retentions. Creole wedding ceremonies involve the gej or put stop – an elaborate Shakespearean performance in which the hand of the bride is asked for, following the appearance of several 'roses'. Among the gifts presented by the future groom's representatives are a calabash, some kola nuts, various domestic items a wife would use (such as needles and some thread), but also a Bible, a ring, and some money.[93]

Creole traditional wedding attire is a morning suit or lounge suit for the bridegroom and the women wear the traditional white wedding dress. Creoles marry in church weddings and in the Victorian and Edwardian era, relatives sought out and introduced prospective suitors from desirable families to their kin seeking a spouse. When a suitor has been chosen by the prospective groom or bride, traditionally the groom's parents set a "put stop" day. After this day, the girl is expected to no longer entertain other suitors. On the evening before the wedding, the groom's friends treat him to "bachelor's eve," a rowdy last fling before marriage.[94]

Ashobis, (parties) at which every guest is expected to wear the same type of materials, are held on the day of the wedding or some days after, for newlyweds.[94]

Creoles live in nuclear families (father, mother, and their children), but the extended family is important to them as well.[95] More affluent family members are expected to help those who are less fortunate. They assist poorer relatives with school fees and job opportunities. In most Creole families, women and elder siblings care for the children who in turn, are expected to complete the household chores.[69]

Twins in Creole society edit

Twins are important for the Creole who tend to give special names to each one. The naming convention used by the Creoles comes from their Yoruba Liberated African ancestry.[96] The first of the twins to be born is traditionally named Taiyewo or Tayewo, which means 'the first to taste the world', or the 'slave to the second twin', this is often shortened to Taiwo, Taiye or Taye.[97] Kehinde is the name of the last born twin and it means, 'the child that came behind gets the rights of the elder'.[98]

Music edit

Main articles: Gumbe and Gumbe (drum)

Sierra Leonean gumbe music originates from the Jamaican Maroon ancestors of the Creole people. It is primarily a vocal and percussive musical genre that has been associated with nationalist thought since colonial times.[99]

The gumbe drum is an important cultural symbol played to induce a trance-like state which connects the Creoles with their ancestors.[100] Generally, the music is produced using the gumbe drum, the maracash and the saw. The maracash is a glass bottle and metallic object played together to produce a desirable rhythm. The jagged edge of the saw is rubbed against another sharp object to produce a rasping sound.[101]

In modern times, gumbe music has become a key feature in Sierra Leone's musical landscape. It is often mixed with other more contemporary musical genres to create an authentic local sound.[102]

Attire edit

Present-day Creoles, similar to other Sierra Leoneans, wear both African and Western-style dress. Ethnic groups in Sierra Leone had been accustomed to seeing European dress prior to the arrival of the Creoles, as a consequence of extensive trade with Europeans dating to the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries.

However, the ethnic groups who inhabited Sierra Leone did not customarily wear Western-style dress, until they were popularized by the Creole.[103][4][104] Like their Americo-Liberian neighbors, Creole fashion between the Victorian and Edwardian era consisted of a top hat and frock coat for men and a petticoat for women,[105][94] although some Creole women sometimes wore the Jamaican Maroon Kabaslot and Kotoku,[106] the latter a Twi or Ga word for money bag.

 
Portrait of a Creole family in Sierra Leone, early 1900s.

Although Creoles continue to wear elaborate dress style for special occasions such as weddings and parades, they adapted their styles of dress to incorporate newer Western-style fashion and intricate African-style dresses between the early to late 20th century.

Today, teenage fashion—jeans, T-shirts, and sneakers—are very much in style among young Creole people. However, older Sierra Leone Creoles still dress conservatively in Western-style suits and dresses and some Creole women still wear the Jamaican Maroon Kabaslot, Kotoku, and carpet slippers and its derivative, the "print" that is a fusion of older African American, Afro-Caribbean and British dress styles.[94]

Cuisine edit

Breakfast meal of some Creoles consist of porridge or English breakfast typically consisting of fried, poached or scrambled eggs, fried tomatoes or mushrooms, fried bread or buttered toast, and sausages.[107] Noonday meal includes Western style or Caribbean-derived cuisines and also African food.

Creole meals often coincide with specific days of the week. On Saturdays, fufu a dough-like paste made of cassava pounded into flour and a type of palaver sauce or plassas (leafy vegetable sauce) is often eaten. This is a spicy dish consisting of spinach with tripe, fish, beef, and chicken. It is often made with palm oil except for wayt soup (white soup). Additionally, other types of typical Creole plassas may be eaten with fufu, such as shakpa, okra, egusi, bologi, greens, krain krain, bitterleaf and sawa sawa among others.[23]

Sunday dinner is a West African one-pot meal, jollof rice or couscous and stew or peanut soup, including some plantains and salad. Awujoh[c] meals on Fridays or other festive occasions are usually accompanied by sweet potato cooked in palm oil, black-eyed beans, oleleh, agidi, plantain, rice bread, ebeh and akara with ginger beer. On other days, a variety of local dishes may be consumed.[23]

Rites of passage edit

Creoles use combined British Christian cultural practices and certain elements of African rituals in connection with rites of passage such as births and deaths. Creoles have christening and baptismal ceremonies but also have a naming ceremony commonly referred to as pull-na-doh or komojadé on the seventh day following the birth, which is held to celebrate a new-born.[93]

For life cycle ceremonies related to death among the Creoles, one such ceremony is the babichu or barbecue of Jamaican Maroon origin and the subsequently more prevalent Liberated African awujoh feast,[108][109] intended to celebrate the anniversaries of ancestors who have died. Awujoh feasts are held in remembrance of deceased family members generally the first anniversary of their passing but may also be held on the occasion of the five, ten, fifteen years anniversaries, etc.

Among some Creole families, when someone dies, pictures in the house are turned toward the wall and all mirrors or reflecting surfaces covered. At the wake held before the burial, people clap and sing "shouts"(negro spirituals) loudly to make sure the corpse is not merely in a trance. The next day the body is washed, placed in shrouds (burial cloths), and laid on a bed for a final viewing. Then it is placed in a coffin and taken to the church for the service, and lastly to the cemetery for burial.

The period of mourning lasts one year. On the third, seventh, and fortieth day after death, awujoh feasts are held. The feast on the fortieth day marks the spirit's last day on earth. The family and guests eat a big meal. Portions of the meal and kola nuts are placed into a hole for the dead. The "pull mooning" day – the end of mourning – occurs at the end of one year (the first anniversary of a death). The mourners wear white, visit the cemetery and then return home for refreshments.[94][108][109]

Creole folktales edit

Creoles have inherited a wide range of proverbs and folktales, including Anansi stories, from their multi-ethnic ancestors including the Jamaican Maroons and the Akan and Ewe Liberated Africans. They entertain and provide instruction in Creole values and traditions. Among the best loved are Creole stories about Anansi the spider.[110] The following is a typical spider tale:

“Once the spider was fat. He loved eating, but detested work and had not planted or fished all season. One day the villagers were preparing a feast. From his forest web, he could smell the mouth-watering cooking. He knew that if he visited friends, they would feed him as was the custom. So he called his two sons and told both of them to tie a rope around his waist and set off in opposite directions for the two closest villages, each holding one end of the rope. They were to pull on the rope when the food was ready. But both villages began eating at the same time, and when the sons began pulling the rope, it grew tighter and tighter, squeezing the greedy spider. When the feasting was over and the sons came to look for him, they found a big head, a big body, and a very thin waist!”[110][111][112]

Anansi stories are part of an ancient mythology that is rooted in Liberated African folklore and concerns the interaction between divine and semi-divine beings, royalty, humans, animals, plants and seemingly inanimate objects.[113]

Creole culture and broader Sierra Leonean cultures edit

Oku people

The Oku have origins among the Liberated African community of settlers in Sierra Leone and have historically intermarried with some Creole people. However, several scholars such as Ramatoulie Onikepo Othman and Olumbe Bassir classify the Oku as distinct from the Creoles because of their ancestry and strong Muslim culture.

In contrast to the Oku people, the Creoles are Christian and are a mixture of various ethnic groups including African Americans, Afro-Caribbeans, and Liberated Africans of Igbo, Akan and Yoruba descent in addition to other African ethnic groups and European ancestry.[14][7][114] Furthermore, unlike the Oku people, the Creoles do not practice cliterodotomy, engage in the Bundu society, and are monogamous.[19]

More recently, some scholars consider the Oku to be a sub-ethnic group of the Creoles, based on their close association with British colonists and their adoption of Western education and other aspects of culture.[18] Those classifying the Oku as part of the Sierra Leone Creole people note their adoption of similar English or European surnames (although this was a minority of Oku) and cultural aspects such as egungun, gelede, hunters' masquerade,[115] esusu,[116] awujoh and komojadé.[93] However, as scholars have outlined, the few cultural similarities between the Creole and Oku people are because there are some Yoruba cultural retentions from the christianized Yoruba liberated Africans found among the Creoles and because the cultural orientation, heritage, identity and origin of the Oku people are Yoruba in essence.[19][117][118]

Sherbro people

According to anthropologist Anaïs Ménard, the only Sierra Leonean ethnic group whose culture is similar (in terms of its embrace of Western culture) are westernized members of the Sherbro people.[119] Many Sherbro assimilate as Creoles, as they share the Christian faith and often have similar westernized surnames.

Some of the Sherbro interacted with Portuguese and English traders and intermarried with them in the mid-15th to 18th centuries (producing Afro-European clans such as the Sherbro Tuckers and Sherbro Caulkers). As a result, some of the Sherbro have a more westernized culture than that of other indigenous Sierra Leone ethnic groups.

As Creoles settled in places such as Bonthe for trading and missionary purposes, the Creoles intermarried with westernized Sherbros from as far back as the 18th century.[119]

Architecture edit

 
Creole style architecture, circa 1885.
 
Old Fourah Bay College Building, circa 1930s.

The Creole homeland[20] is a mountainous, narrow peninsula on the coast of west Africa. At its northern tip lies Freetown, the capital.[120][121][2] The peninsula's mountain range is covered by tropical rainforests split by deep valleys and adorned with impressive waterfalls. White sand beaches line the Atlantic coast. The whole of Sierra Leone covers some 72,500 square kilometres.

Traditional Creole architecture in the colonial period included a variety of architectural styles ranging and consisting of English-style mansions, smaller to medium stone or brick houses, and traditional one or two-story wooden houses built on stone foundations reminiscent of those found in the Old South, the West Indies or Louisiana.

The distinctive style of Creole wooden or "board" housing was brought by the Settlers from Nova Scotia, and as early as the 1790s, the Nova Scotians had built houses with stone foundations and wooden superstructures, and American-style shingle roofs. However, subsequent African-American and Afro-Caribbean settlers continued to influence Creole architectural styles.

Despite their dilapidated appearance, some of the remaining traditional Creole board houses have a distinctive air, with dormers, box windows, shutters, glass panes, and balconies. The elite live in attractive neighbourhoods such as Hill Station, above Freetown. A large dam in the mountains[122] provides a reliable supply of water and electricity to this area.

Admixture edit

Creole ethnicities were formed during the European colonial era, from the mass displacement of peoples[d] brought into sustained contact with others from different linguistic and cultural backgrounds, who converged onto a colonial territory to which they had not previously belonged.[12][13] Often involuntarily uprooted from their original home, the settlers were obliged to develop and creatively merge the desirable elements from their diverse backgrounds, to produce new varieties of social, linguistic and cultural norms that superseded the prior forms.[124][13][12] This process, known as creolization,[125][126] is characterized by rapid social flux regularized into Creole ethnogenesis.

Like their Americo-Liberian neighbours, the Creoles of Sierra Leone have varying degrees of European ancestry because some of the settlers were descended from white Americans and other Europeans.[4][6][5] Historian David Brion Davis notes the racial mixing that occurred during slavery was frequently attributed by the planter class to the "lower-class White males" but Davis concludes that "there is abundant evidence that many slaveowners, sons of slaveowners, and overseers took black mistresses or in effect raped the wives and daughters of slave families."[127] A famous example was Thomas Jefferson's mistress, Sally Hemings.[128]

After the American Revolutionary War, the Book of Negroes listed approximately 3000 "black and mixed-race" loyalists who sailed from New York City to Nova Scotia in 1783.[10] The great majority of families of black people recorded in the US census in the immediate aftermath of the war have been found to have descended from unions between white women (indentured servants or free) and black men (indentured servants, slave or free) in colonial Virginia and other Upper South colonies.[129] Sixty-five percent of those evacuated were from the American South.[130]

Through the Maroons, some Creoles probably also have indigenous Amerindian Taino ancestry. Spanish Jamaica consisted of Spaniards, "natives", enslaved Africans, "black freedmen", mixed-race mulattoes, and those born on the island known as "creole Africans".[8] Genetic studies on the Jamaican Maroons suggest that their ancestry extends beyond Africa, to include Amerindian, European and East Asian progenitors.[8][9]

On the voyage between Plymouth, England and Sierra Leone, seventy European girlfriends and wives accompanied the Black Poor settlers.[131] There was considerable intermarriage between the Europeans who settled in the colony of Sierra Leone and the various ethnic groups that coalesced into the Creole identity.[7] The settlers generally married endogamously, although individuals from mixed and European groups recorded a much higher proportion of women and men involved in exogamous marriages. Mixed-race individuals intermarried with Europeans and black colonial residents at the same rate as they married their own.[7]

Alongside the Americo-Liberians, the Creoles of Sierra Leone are the only recognised ethnic group of African-American,[16] Liberated African, and Afro-Caribbean descent in West Africa.

Sierra Leone Creole Diaspora edit

Historic diaspora edit

Historically, Creoles spread Christianity and their lingua franca throughout West Africa, and because of this, Sierra Leone Creole communities existed in Nigeria, Ghana, Cameroon, Senegal, Equatorial Guinea and Liberia. Many Creoles traded throughout West Africa, and some settled in new countries.

Liberated Africans and their colony-born children in the early to mid-19th centuries, and subsequently Creoles between the late 19th and early 20th centuries, who settled in Nigeria, were known as Saros, and there is a thriving community there. Sierra Leone Creoles who settled in the Gambia became part of the Aku or Gambian Creole people; they make up an elite community in Gambia. Many recaptives returned to their original homes after being freed in Freetown, as most kept their anglicised names, they took partially new identities back to their homelands.[28][31][32][35]

Present-day diaspora edit

As a result of normal immigration patterns, the Sierra Leone Civil War, and some discrimination at home,[132][133] many Sierra Leone Creoles live abroad in the United States and the United Kingdom. What has been called the "Creole Diaspora" is the migration of Sierra Leone Creoles abroad. Many Creoles attend formal and informal gatherings. A Creole or Krio Heritage Society is based in New York City, with branches in places including Texas.

Related communities edit

Notable people of Sierra Leone Creole descent edit

Main article: List of Sierra Leone Creole people
Name Born Died Notability Ref. Image
William Vivour 1830 1890 Single most successful 19th-century farmer in Africa [134][135]
 
Davidson Nicol 1925 1994 Discovered the breakdown of insulin in the human body, a breakthrough for the treatment of diabetes [75][136][137]
 
James Pinson Davies 1828 1906 Pioneer of cocoa farming in West Africa [138]
 
John Farrell Easmon (seated, with brother Albert) 1856 1900 Coined the term "Blackwater Fever" and was the first to link the disease directly to malaria [139]
 
Christian Frederick Cole 1852 1885 First black graduate of Oxford and first African barrister to practice in the English courts [140]
Sir Samuel Lewis 1843 1903 First mayor of Freetown and first West African to receive a knighthood [141]
 
Stella Jane Thomas 1906 1974 First black African woman called to the Bar in Great Britain and first West African female to qualify as a lawyer [142][143]
Samuel Coleridge-Taylor 1875 1912 Composer and conductor known for his three cantatas on the epic 1855 poem The Song of Hiawatha [144]
 
Sir Ernest Dunstan Morgan 1896 1979 Pharmaceutical entrepreneur and philanthropist [145][146]
Idris Elba 1972 — Actor and winner of the BET and Golden Globe Awards [147]
 
Frances Claudia Wright 1919 2010 First Sierra Leonean woman to be called to the Bar in Great Britain and to practice law in Sierra Leone [148]
Dame Linda Dobbs 1951 — First non-white High Court judge in Great Britain

[149][150]
Constance Cummings-John 1918 2000 Educator, politician and first mayoress of Freetown [151]
Emanuel Adeniyi Thomas 1914 1945 First black African to qualify as a pilot and first Royal Air Force officer of West African origin [152]
Sir Kitoye Ajasa (born: Edmund Macauley) 1866 1937 Legislator during the colonial period and first Nigerian to receive a knighthood [153][154]
 
Sir Ernest Beoku-Betts 1895 1957 Jurist and one-time mayor of Freetown [155]
 
Charles Odamtten Easmon 1913 1994 Performed the first successful open-heart surgery in West Africa [156]
Sir Henry Lightfoot Boston 1898 1969 First African Governor-General of Sierra Leone [157]
Christopher Okoro Cole 1921 1990 Chief Justice, later interim Governor-General and President of Sierra Leone [158]
Samuel Benjamin Thomas 1833 1901 Philanthropist, entrepreneur and one of the richest men in 19th-century Africa [61]
Adelaide Casely-Hayford 1868 1960 Activist and pioneer of women's education in Sierra Leone [159]
 
Lati Hyde-Forster 1911 2001 First female graduate of the oldest western-style university in Africa [160][161]
 
Gladys Casely-Hayford 1904 1950 Playwright and first author to write in the Krio language [162]
 
Clifford Nelson Fyle 1933 2006 Author of the Krio-English Dictionary and the Sierra Leone National Anthem [163]
Sir Émile Fashole-Luke 1895 1980 Chief Justice and Speaker of the House of Parliament of Sierra Leone [164][165]
William Broughton Davies 1831 1906 First West African to qualify as a medical doctor [166]
Ulric Emmanuel Jones 1940 2020 First Sierra Leonean neurosurgeon [167]
 
Andrew Juxon-Smith 1931 1996 Commander of the armed forces and Head of State of Sierra Leone [168]
James Africanus Horton 1835 1883 Surgeon, scientist and political thinker who worked towards African independence a century before it occurred [169][170]
 
Agnes Yewande Savage 1906 1964 First West African woman to qualify as a medical doctor [171]
 
Murietta Olu-Williams 1923 — First woman in Africa to achieve the rank of Permanent Secretary in the Civil Service [172]
Charles Burgess King 1875 1961 Former President of Liberia [173]
 
Samuel Ajayi Crowther 1809 1891 Clergyman and first Anglican Bishop of West Africa [174]
 
Adesanya Kwamina Hyde 1915 1993 Royal Air Force aviator awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross for acts of valour and courage [175][176]
Sir Samuel Bankole-Jones 1911 1981 Chief Justice and first Sierra Leonean president of the Court of Appeal [177]
Valentine Strasser 1967 — Army officer and Head of State of Sierra Leone [178]
John Clavell Smythe 1915 1996 Royal Air Force aviation officer shot down over Nazi Germany, later attorney-general of Sierra Leone [179]
 
George Gurney Nicol 1856 1888 Clergyman and first African graduate of Cambridge University [180][181]
Sir Salako Benka-Coker 1900 1965 First Sierra Leonean Chief Justice of the Supreme Court [182]
Ryan Giggs 1973 — Welsh football coach and former player, regarded as one of the greatest players of his generation [183][184]
 
Napheesa Collier 1996 — Professional basketball player and gold medallist at the 2020 Summer Olympic Games
 
Leonard Benker Johnson 1902 1974 British Empire Boxing champion, considered to be one of the best middleweights of his era. [185][186]

See also edit

Explanatory notes edit

  1. ^ The Creoles are Christians, whether nominal or in practice, at over 98 percent. Recently, some scholars consider the Oku ethnic group to be Creoles,[18] although others reject this premise given the differentiation in admixture, religion, and cultural practices between the Oku and Creoles, such as the practice of female genital mutilation, bundu society membership and polygamy among the Oku people[19]
  2. ^ Webster's online etymological dictionary states the meaning of creole as a "person born in a country but of a people not indigenous to it," but also notes that the meaning varies according to local use.
  3. ^ Awujoh originates from the Yoruba Liberated African ancestry of the Creoles. Awujoh ceremonies are held for the protection of newborns and newlyweds by ancestral spirits and as a means to acquire guidance and wisdom regarding aspects of death.[95]
  4. ^ The word peoples is specifically used as the plural of people in its sense as a collective singular noun referring to a nation, or tribe, or other community, as in Indigenous Peoples or the many peoples of the world. This usage emphasizes that you're talking about several different specific groups that share a commonality. This can be important for clarity—the many people of the world means something different from the many peoples of the world. In practical terms, using peoples in this way can help to prevent erasure and homogenization of groups that are often lumped together in ways that obscure their specific, complex identities. In this way, the term Indigenous Peoples emphasizes the vast diversity among the world's Indigenous groups while also implying that there are, in fact, separate and distinct groups.[123]

References edit

Citations edit

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  3. ^ R.W. July, Nineteenth Century Negritude: Edward W. Blyden in the Journal of African History, v, 1964, p. 77, n. 9. "This attitude to ‘mulattoes’ was of course racialist in view; cf. Burton, op. cit. p, 271 – ‘the worst class of all is the mulatto’. The correspondence recently published in Holden, op. cit. shows that Blyden had developed his views about ‘mulattoes’ during his conflicts with the Americo-Liberians in Monrovia, but his public writings were less outspoken about Liberia than they were about Freetown."
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  5. ^ a b Colonial Office Brief: CO554/2884, Note on the Attorney General's 'Note of the Supreme Court Judgement', 10 August 1960, op.cit.
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General bibliography edit

  • Porter, Arthur (1966). Creoledom: A study of the development of Freetown society. Oxford University Press. ASIN B0007IT722.
  • Spitzer, Leo (1974). The Creoles of Sierra Leone: Responses to colonialism, 1870–1945. University of Wisconsin Press; 1st edition. ISBN 978-0-299-06590-4.
  • Wyse, Akintola (1989). The Krio of Sierra Leone: An Interpretive History. C. Hurst & Co. Publishers. ISBN 978-1-85065-031-7.
  • Campbell, Mavis; Ross, George (1993). George Ross and the Maroons : from Nova Scotia to Sierra Leone. Africa World Press. ISBN 978-0-86543-384-7.
  • Lewis-Coker, Eyamide (2018). Creoles of Sierra Leone: Proverbs, Parables, Wise Sayings. AuthorHouse. ISBN 978-1-5462-5273-3.
  • Dixon-Fyle, Mac; Cole, Gibril (2005). New Perspectives on the Sierra Leone Krio. Peter Lang Inc., International Academic Publishers. ISBN 978-0-8204-7937-8.
  • Schama, Simon (2005). Rough Crossings: Britain, the Slaves and the American Revolution. BBC Books. ISBN 0-06-053916-X.
  • Conteh, Doris (2021). The Creoles of Sierra Leone. Independently Published. ISBN 979-8504488066.
  • Walker, James (1992). The Black Loyalists: The Search for a Promised Land in Nova Scotia and Sierra Leone, 1783–1870. University of Toronto Press. ISBN 978-0-8020-7402-7.
  • Braidwood, Stephen (1994). Black Poor and White Philanthropists: London's Blacks and the Foundation of the Sierra Leone Settlement, 1786–1791. Liverpool University Press. ISBN 978-0-85323-377-0.
  • Baron, Robert; Cara, Ana (2013). Creolization as Cultural Creativity. University Press of Mississippi. ISBN 978-1-61703-949-2.
  • Teniola, Eric (2013). . Daily Independent. Archived from the original on 2 April 2015. Retrieved 17 March 2015.
  • Whiteman, Kye (1 October 2013). Lagos: A Cultural History. Interlink Publishing Group, Incorporated. ISBN 978-1-62371-040-8. Retrieved 16 March 2015.
  • Wyse, Akintola (1990). H.C. Bankole-Bright and politics in colonial Sierra Leone, 1919–1958. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-53333-1.
  • Paracka, Daniel (2003). The Athens of West Africa: A History of International Education at Fourah Bay College, Freetown, Sierra Leone. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-94795-4.

External links edit

  • Creole culture and traditional outfits
  • Dr. Oloh and his Milo Jazz Band
  • Johnny Smythe, RAF pilot shot down over Nazi Germany
  • Sights and sounds of Krio
  • Meet the Krios of Freetown, Sierra Leone (part 1)
  • Meet the Krios of Freetown, Sierra Leone (part 2)

December 02, 2023
sierra, leone, creole, people, krio, krio, pipul, ethnic, group, sierra, leone, descendants, freed, african, american, afro, caribbean, liberated, african, slaves, settled, western, area, sierra, leone, between, 1787, about, 1885, colony, established, british,. The Sierra Leone Creole people Krio Krio pipul are an ethnic group of Sierra Leone The Sierra Leone Creole people are descendants of freed African American Afro Caribbean and Liberated African slaves who settled in the Western Area of Sierra Leone between 1787 and about 1885 The colony was established by the British supported by abolitionists under the Sierra Leone Company as a place for freedmen The settlers called their new settlement Freetown 2 Today the Sierra Leone Creoles are 1 2 percent of the population of Sierra Leone 1 Creole people of Sierra Leone Krio Samuel Coleridge TaylorTotal population104 311 2022 1 Regions with significant populationsSierra Leone Gambia United States United KingdomLanguagesEnglish KrioReligionAnglican Methodist Catholic BaptistRelated ethnic groupsAfrican Americans Afro Caribbeans Americo Liberians Atlantic Creoles Black Britons Black Nova Scotians Gambian Creoles Gold Coast Euro Africans Jamaican Maroons Krio Fernandinos Saro people Tabom people Like their Americo Liberian neighbours and sister ethnic group in Liberia the Creoles of Sierra Leone have varying degrees of European ancestry 3 4 5 In Sierra Leone some of the settlers intermarried with English colonial residents and other Europeans 6 7 Through the Jamaican Maroons some Creoles probably also have indigenous Amerindian Taino ancestry 8 9 The mingling of newly freed black and racially mixed Nova Scotians 10 and Jamaican Maroons from the New World with Liberated Africans such as the Akan Ewe Bakongo Igbo and Yoruba over several generations in the late 18th and early 19th centuries led to the eventual formation of a Creole ethnicity 11 12 13 14 The Americo Liberians and Sierra Leone Creoles are the only recognised ethnic group of African American Liberated African and Afro Caribbean descent in West Africa 15 16 1 Thoroughly westernized in their manners and bourgeois in their methods the Creoles as a class developed close relationships with the British colonial administration they became educated in British institutions and advanced to prominent leadership positions in colonial Sierra Leone and British West Africa 17 Partly due to this history many Sierra Leone Creoles have first names and or surnames that are anglicized or British in origin The Creoles are overwhelmingly Christian a and the vast majority of them reside in Freetown and its surrounding Western Area region of Sierra Leone 20 From their mix of peoples the Creoles developed what is now the native Krio language a creole deriving from English indigenous West African languages and other European languages It is the most widely spoken language in virtually all parts of Sierra Leone As the Krio language is spoken by 96 percent of the country s population 1 21 it unites all the different ethnic groups especially in their trade and interaction with each other 22 23 Krio is also the primary language of communication among Sierra Leoneans living abroad 24 The Sierra Leone Creoles settled across West Africa in the nineteenth century in communities such as Limbe Cameroon Conakry Guinea Banjul Gambia Lagos Abeokuta Calabar Onisha Nigeria Accra Cape Coast Ghana and Fernando Po Equatorial Guinea 25 The Krio language of the Creole people influenced other pidgins such as Cameroonian Pidgin English Nigerian Pidgin English and Pichinglis 26 27 As a result of their history the Gambian Creole people or Aku people of the Gambia 28 29 the Saro people of Nigeria 30 31 32 and the Krio Fernandinos of Equatorial Guinea 33 34 35 are sub ethnic groups or partly descended from the Sierra Leone Creole people or their ancestors Contents 1 Ethnonymy and overview 2 History 2 1 Black Poor and Province of Freedom 1787 1789 2 2 Nova Scotians and the Freetown Colony 1792 1799 2 3 Maroons and other transatlantic immigrants 1800 1819 2 4 Recaptives or Liberated Africans 1807 1830s 3 Settlements 4 Religion 5 Language 6 Culture 6 1 Marriage and family 6 2 Twins in Creole society 6 3 Music 6 4 Attire 6 5 Cuisine 6 6 Rites of passage 6 7 Creole folktales 6 8 Creole culture and broader Sierra Leonean cultures 7 Architecture 8 Admixture 9 Sierra Leone Creole Diaspora 9 1 Historic diaspora 9 2 Present day diaspora 10 Related communities 11 Notable people of Sierra Leone Creole descent 12 See also 13 Explanatory notes 14 References 14 1 Citations 14 2 General bibliography 15 External linksEthnonymy and overview editThe English word creole b derives from the French creole which in turn came from Portuguese crioulo a diminutive of cria meaning a person raised in one s house Cria derives from criar meaning to raise or bring up itself derived from the Latin creare meaning to make bring forth produce beget 36 itself the source of the English word create The word creole has several cognates in other languages such as creole creolo criol criollo crioulo kreol kreyol krio kriol kriolu and kriyoyo In Louisiana the term Creole has been used since 1792 to represent descendants of African or ethnically mixed parents as well as children of French and Spanish descent with no racial mixing 37 38 39 Its use to describe languages started from 1879 while as an adjective from 1748 36 In some Spanish speaking countries the word Criollo is used today to describe something local or very typical of a particular Latin American country 40 In the Caribbean the term broadly refers to all the people whatever their class or ancestry African East Asian European Indian who are part of the culture of the Caribbean 41 In Trinidad the term Creole is used to designate all Trinidadians except those of Asian origin In French Guiana the term refers to anyone regardless of skin colour who has adopted a European way of life and in neighbouring Suriname the term refers only to the descendants of enslaved Africans 13 41 In Africa the term Creole refers to any ethnic group formed during the European colonial era with some mix of African and non African racial or cultural heritage 42 Creole communities are found on most African islands and along the continent s coastal regions where indigenous Africans first interacted with Europeans As a result of these contacts five major Creole types emerged Portuguese African American Dutch French and British 42 The Crioulos of African or mixed Portuguese and African descent eventually gave rise to several ethnic groups in Cape Verde Guinea Bissau Sao Tome e Principe Angola and Mozambique 43 The Mauritian and Seychellois Creoles are Africans with some French cultural ancestry and are Christianized On La Reunion the term Creole applies to the descendants of enslaved Africans born on the island 44 while in South Africa the blending of East African and Southeast Asian slaves with Dutch settlers later produced a creolized population 45 The Fernandino Creole peoples of Equatorial Guinea are a mix of Afro Cubans with Emancipados and English speaking Liberated Africans 46 while the Americo Liberians and Sierra Leone Creoles resulted from the intermingling of African Recaptives with Afro Caribbeans and African Americans 47 48 Perhaps due to the range of divergent descriptions and lack of a coherent definition Norwegian anthropologist T H Eriksen concludes A Creole society in my understanding is based wholly or partly on the mass displacement of people who were often involuntarily uprooted from their original home shedding the main features of their social and political organisations on the way brought into sustained contact with people from other linguistic and cultural areas and obliged to develop in creative and improvisational ways new social and cultural forms in the new land drawing simultaneously on traditions from their respective places of origin and on impulses resulting from the encounter 13 Thomas Hylland Eriksen Creolisation as a Recipe for Conviviality 2020 Today Creole communities have more in common with each other than they have with any African ethnic groups On the islands of Africa creole languages predominate while on the mainland creole languages are lingua franca or national languages in Guinea Bissau Sierra Leone Liberia and South Africa In island communities Creoles are found in many occupations ranging from agricultural workers to members of society s elite In the coastal areas of mainland Africa Creoles acquired economic and political leverage due to their education culture and close relationships with the colonial administration They developed a strong sense of ethnic identity and formed their own political organisations During the independence era of the mid 1900s some Creoles supported colonial rule but many fought for independence and held positions of power afterwards In most countries however Creole political influence gradually gave way to ethnic groups from the interior that were considered more African 42 Creole communities in Africa have grown in several ways Elements of their culture including language and music have come to dominate popular culture on the islands In Creole established cities on the African mainland some non Creoles have assimilated into Creole societies which are perceived to enjoy privileged status Those seeking acceptance into a Creole community usually converted to Christianity the religion shared by nearly all Creoles 42 History editIn 1787 the British helped 400 freed slaves primarily African Americans freed during the American Revolutionary War who had been evacuated to London and Afro Caribbeans and Africans from London to relocate to Sierra Leone to settle in what they called the Province of Freedom Some of these early settlers had been freed earlier and worked as servants in London Most of the first group died due to disease and warfare with indigenous peoples About 64 survived to establish the second Granville Town following the failed first attempt at colonization between 1787 and 1789 In 1792 1200 Nova Scotian Settlers from Nova Scotia settled and established the Colony of Sierra Leone and the settlement of Freetown these were African Americans and their descendants Many of the adults had left Patriot owners and fought for the British in the Revolutionary War The Crown had offered slaves freedom who left rebel masters and thousands joined the British lines The British resettled 3 000 of the African Americans in Nova Scotia where many found the climate harsh and struggled with discrimination from white Nova Scotians More than 1 200 volunteered to settle and establish the new colony of Freetown which was established by British abolitionists under the Sierra Leone Company In 1800 the British government also transported 550 Jamaican maroons to Sierra Leone and subsequent waves of African American and Afro Caribbean immigrants would settle in Sierra Leone throughout the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries After Britain and the United States abolished the international African slave trade beginning in 1808 they patrolled off the continent to intercept illegal shipping The British resettled Liberated Africans from slave ships at Freetown The Liberated Africans included people from the Yoruba Igbo Efik Fante and other ethnicities of West Africa 14 Some members of indigenous Sierra Leone ethnicities were also among the Liberated Africans resettled at Freetown they also assimilated into Creole culture Others came to the settlement voluntarily seeing opportunities in Creole culture in the society 15 Black Poor and Province of Freedom 1787 1789 edit Main article Committee for the Relief of the Black Poor The first settlers to find a colony in Sierra Leone were the so called Black Poor African Americans and Afro Caribbean 411 settlers arrived in May 1787 Some were Black Loyalists who were either evacuated or travelled to England to petition for a land of their own Black Loyalists had joined British forces during the American Revolutionary War many on promises of freedom from enslavement 49 On the voyage between Plymouth and Sierra Leone 96 passengers died 50 However enough survived to establish and build a colony Seventy white women accompanied the men to Sierra Leone Anna Falconbridge portrayed these white women as prostitutes from Deptford Prison but they were most likely wives and girlfriends of the black settlers 51 Their colony was known as the Province of Freedom and their settlement was called Granville Town after the English abolitionist Granville Sharp The British negotiated for the land for the settlement with the local Temne chief King Tom However before the ships sailed away from Sierra Leone 50 white women had died and about 250 remained of the original 440 who left Plymouth Another 86 settlers died in the first four months Although initially there was no hostility between the two groups after King Tom s death the next Temne chief retaliated for a slave trader s burning of his village 52 He threatened to destroy Granville Town The Temne ransacked Granville Town and took some Black Poor into slavery while others became slave traders In early 1791 Alexander Falconbridge returned to find only 64 of the original residents 39 black men 19 black women and six white women The 64 people had been cared for by a Greek and a colonist named Thomas Kallingree at Fourah Bay an abandoned African village 52 There the settlers reestablished Granville Town After that time they were called the Old Settlers By this time the Province of Freedom had been destroyed Granville Sharp did not lead the next settlement movement Nova Scotians and the Freetown Colony 1792 1799 edit Main article Nova Scotian Settlers Sierra Leone nbsp Freetown in 1803The proponents and directors of the Sierra Leone colony believed that a new colony did not need black settlers from London The directors decided to offer resettlement to African Americans from Nova Scotia despite the failure of the last colony These settlers were Black Loyalists American slaves who had escaped to British lines and fought with them during the American Revolution to earn freedom The British government had transported more than 3 000 freedmen to Nova Scotia for resettlement together with white Loyalists Some of the African Americans were from South Carolina and the Sea Islands of the Gullah culture others were from states along the eastern seaboard up to New England Some 1200 of these blacks emigrated to Sierra Leone from Halifax Harbour on 15 January 1792 arriving between 28 February and 9 March 1792 On 11 March 1792 the Nova Scotian Settlers disembarked from the 14 passenger ships that had carried them from Nova Scotia to Sierra Leone and marched toward the large cotton tree near George Street As the Settlers gathered under the tree their preachers held a thanksgiving service and the white minister Rev Patrick Gilbert preached a sermon After the religious services the settlement was officially established and was designated Freetown The Settler men cleared the forest and shrub and built a new settlement on the overgrown site that had formerly contained the Granville Town settlement They had a profound influence on Creole culture many of the Western attributes of Creole society were conveyed by the Settlers who continued what was familiar to them from their past lives In Sierra Leone they were called the Nova Scotians or Settlers the 1787 Settlers were called the Old Settlers They founded the capital of Sierra Leone in 1792 The descendants of African Americans remained an identifiable ethnic group until the 1870s when the Creole identity was beginning to form Maroons and other transatlantic immigrants 1800 1819 edit Main article Jamaican Maroons in Sierra Leone nbsp Captain Paul Cuffee transported 38 African Americans to Freetown in 1815The next arrivals were the Jamaican Maroons these maroons came specifically from Cudjoe s Town Trelawny Town one of the five Maroon cities in Jamaica The Maroons mainly descended from highly military skilled Ashanti slaves who had escaped plantations and to a lesser extent from Jamaican indigenous people The Maroons numbered around 551 and they helped quell some of the riots against the British from the settlers The Maroons later fought against the Temne during the Temne Attack of 1801 53 The dispute with the Temne was over rent which the Temne felt they were owed by the colony In a twist that became the hallmark of politics in the subregion the Temne had indeed signed a treaty granting full sovereignty to the Colony but then turned around to say that this was not their understanding This misunderstanding became violent when in 1801 the Temne attacked Freetown The assault failed resulting instead in the expulsion of the Temne from the area The next migrations of transatlantic immigrants between 1800 and 1819 were smaller in comparison to the early Nova Scotian Settlers and Jamaican Maroon immigrants Afro Caribbean and Liberated African soldiers from the 2nd and 4th West India Regiments were settled in Freetown and in suburbs around it in 1819 Barbadian rebels who participated in the Bussa Rebellion were transported to colonial Freetown in 1816 and included families such as the Priddy family Thirty eight African Americans nine families immigrated to Freetown under the auspices of African American ship owner Paul Cuffe of Boston These Black Americans included Perry Lockes and Prince Saunders from Boston Abraham Thompson and Peter Williams Jr from New York City 54 and Edward Jones from Charleston South Carolina Americo Liberian merchants and traders also settled in colonial Freetown throughout the course of the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries Following the Jamaican Maroons and Barbadian rebels Afro Caribbean immigrants settled in Freetown Sierra Leone and in settlements across the Freetown peninsula throughout the course of the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries as missionaries artisans and colonial officials such as the Porter family from Jamaica Prominent Creole families of more recent Afro Caribbean ancestry include the Farquhar family and their descendants such as the Stuart family and Conton family who settled in Sierra Leone from Barbados the Bahamas and Bermuda between the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries Recaptives or Liberated Africans 1807 1830s edit Main article Sierra Leone Liberated Africans nbsp An 1835 illustration of liberated slaves arriving in Sierra Leone The last major group of immigrants to the colony was the Liberated Africans or Recaptives 55 Held on slave ships for sale in the western hemisphere they were liberated by the Royal Navy which with the West Africa Squadron enforced the abolition of the international slave trade after 1808 nbsp Capture of slave ship El Almirante by the British Royal Navy in the 1800s HMS Black Joke freed 466 slaves 56 The Liberated Africans were multi ethnic and were largely Akan Aja Ewe Angolan Wolof Hausa Yoruba Igbo Bambara Nupe and Fulani people who had been enslaved by illegal slave traders The Liberated Africans also included Sherbro Mende and Temne people who had been enslaved in territories neighbouring the Colony of Sierra Leone The Liberated Africans also called Recaptives contributed greatly to the Creole culture While the Settlers Maroons and transatlantic immigrants gave the Creoles their Christianity some of their customs and their Western influence the Liberated Africans modified their customs to adopt those of the Nova Scotians and Europeans yet kept some of their ethnic traditions 15 5 Initially the British colonial administration intervened to ensure the Recaptives became firmly rooted in Freetown society they served in the army with the West India Regiment and they were assigned as apprentices in the houses of Settlers and Maroons Sometimes if a child s parents died the young Recaptive would be adopted by a Settler or Maroon family The two groups mixed and mingled in society 57 As the Recaptives began to trade and spread Christianity throughout West Africa they began to dominate Freetown society The Recaptives intermarried with the Settlers and Maroons and the two groups became a fusion of African and Western societies 15 3 4 223 255 Settlements editThe ancestors of the Creoles founded the Colony of Sierra Leone and established the settlement of Freetown in 1792 They based the plan on what they were familiar with the grid of a North American colonial town 58 The families originally from Nova Scotia the Balls Burdens Chambers Davis Dixons Georges descendants of David George Keelings Leighs Moores Peters descendants of Thomas Peters or Stephen Peters Prestons Snowballs Staffords Turners Willoughsby Williams and the Goodings took up residence in Settler Town The town was in close proximity to Cline Town then Granville Town Eighty percent of Nova Scotians lived on five streets Rawdon Wilberforce Howe East and Charlotte street The next group of settlers were Jamaican Maroons from Cudjoe s Town who arrived in Freetown via Nova Scotia in 1800 Notable families such as the Jarretts Smiths Hortons Coles Porters Jones and the Morgans settled in Maroon Town Sierra Leone Seventy percent of Maroons lived on five streets Gloucester George Trelawney Walpole and Westmoreland street The Jamaican Maroon settlement was west of Settler Town between Walpole street and King Tom The Liberated African ancestors principally of Akan Ewe Bakongo Igbo and Yoruba origin settled across the Western Area peninsula of Sierra Leone By the 1850s they had already established Aberdeen Bathurst Charlotte Dublin Gloucester Goderich Grafton Hastings Kent Kissy Leicester Murray Town Regent Ricketts Sussex Waterloo Wellington Wilberforce and York Between the late 18th and early 20th centuries immigrants from the Bahamas Barbados Bermuda Liberia and the Gold Coast likewise settled in Freetown and eventually coalesced into the Sierra Leone Creole identity 59 In the 21st century the majority of Creoles in Sierra Leone continue to reside in Freetown and along the surrounding Western Area peninsula 20 where their language and culture have a disproportionate influence relative to their population 21 60 The Creole people acted as colonial administrators traders and missionaries in other parts of West Africa during the 19th century and as a result there are also Creole communities in The Gambia Nigeria Cameroon and Equatorial Guinea 25 61 Due to normal migration patterns the Sierra Leone Civil War and some discrimination at home many Sierra Leone Creoles live abroad in the United States and the United Kingdom In the United States Creoles are mostly settled in Washington DC Maryland Virginia Texas New York Georgia California and North Carolina 23 Religion edit nbsp St George s Cathedral Freetown nbsp St John s Maroon Church in Freetown nbsp Sacred Heart Cathedral FreetownThe Creoles are Christians whether nominal or in practice at more than 98 percent A large proportion of the settlers from Nova Scotia and the Caribbean were Christians Many liberated Africans also converted to Christianity 62 The Creoles were instrumental in the establishment of Pan African Christianity 63 Between 1840 and 1900 at least six out of every ten black African clergy in the Anglican Church across West Africa was a Creole 64 By the 1820s Sierra Leone already had more Christians than the entirety of tropical Africa 65 Educational institutions such as Fourah Bay College were initially established with the objective of training Christian clergy and educators who were later dispatched across West Africa to spread Christianity 66 24 Creole denominations are mainly Protestant with the Anglican and Methodist churches having the largest Creole congregants However smaller denominations such as the Baptist church and Countess of Huntingdon denominations in places such as Freetown and Waterloo Sierra Leone also have Creole attendees although these are smaller in number compared to Creole Anglicans and Methodists Creole church attendees congregate at traditional Creole churches in Freetown such as St George s Cathedral Trinity Church St John s Maroon Church Ebenezer Methodist Church Rawdon Street Methodist Church and Zion Methodist Church Wilberforce Street Prominent Creole Anglicans include Edward Fashole Luke and Creoles such as Arthur Thomas Porter Canon Harry Sawyerr and Robert Wellesley Cole Well known Creole Methodists include Sylvia Blyden a newspaper proprietor and Creoles such as Macormack Easmon Edna Elliott Horton and George T O Robinson the founder of the Krio Descendants Union Although Creoles are primarily Protestant there are a small number of Creole Catholics who attend Catholic churches such as St Anthony s Church in Brookfields and the Sacred Heart Cathedral in Freetown Prominent Creole Catholics include Dr Monty Jones Bertha Conton and Florence Dillsworth and in previous generations James C E Parkes Language editMain article Krio language The official language of Sierra Leone is English In addition to English the Sierra Leone Creoles also speak a distinctive creole language 2 xxi named after their ethnic group called Creole or Krio Krio was strongly influenced by British English Gullah African American Vernacular English Jamaican Creole Akan Igbo and Yoruba 67 Krio is widely spoken throughout Freetown and the surrounding towns such that Krio speakers are no longer presumed to be of the Creole ethnic group 24 The Creole people acted as traders and missionaries in other parts of West Africa during the 19th century 61 As a result of Sierra Leone Creole migratory patterns in the Gambia the Gambian Creole or Aku community speak a dialect called the Aku language that is very similar to Krio in Sierra Leone Fernando Po Creole English is also largely a result of Sierra Leone Creole migrants A small number of liberated Africans returned to the land of their origins such as the Saros of Nigeria who not only took their Western names with them but also imported Krio words like sabi into Nigerian Pidgin English 28 31 32 35 In 1993 there were 473 000 speakers in Sierra Leone 493 470 in all countries Krio was the third most spoken language behind Mende 1 480 000 and Themne 1 230 000 Today Krio is the most widely spoken language in Sierra Leone utilized by 96 percent of the country s population 1 21 It unites all the different ethnic groups especially in their trade and interaction with each other 22 Krio is the primary language of communication among Sierra Leoneans living abroad 24 and has also heavily influenced Sierra Leonean English 68 Native Krio speakers of the Creole ethnicity lived principally in Freetown communities on the Peninsula on the Banana Islands and York Island and in Bonthe Culture edit nbsp A Creole family circa 1918 Creole culture is a fusion of African North American and British cultures reflected in both Victorian and Edwardian modes of Christianity morality norms and values The Creoles were economically dominant in trade and held prominent leadership positions in colonial Sierra Leone and British West Africa They were influential in intellectual technocratic artisanal commercial and public life in general actively participating in multiple fields of scholarly and civic importance 17 69 70 71 72 73 74 From their earliest presence in Sierra Leone and British West Africa the Creoles or their ancestors have significantly contributed science 75 76 literature 77 art 78 agricultural skills 79 80 cuisine 81 clothing styles 82 music 83 language 67 pan african christianity 63 and cultural innovation 84 85 Notable examples include Nova Scotian settlers such as Thomas Peters 86 David George 87 and Moses Wilkinson 88 who were founding figures of the nation of Sierra Leone In biomedicine the discovery of the breakdown of insulin in the human body by Davidson Nicol was a breakthrough for the treatment of diabetes 75 John Farrell Easmon coined the term Blackwater fever and wrote the first clinical diagnosis of the disease linking it to malaria 76 In agriscience James Pinson Davies is credited with pioneering cocoa farming in West Africa 79 89 while William Vivour was the single most successful 19th century planter in Africa 80 90 91 Other notable Creoles or their ancestors made significant contributions to Sierra Leone and British West Africa and were pioneers in several categories of human endeavour 92 70 Marriage and family edit Creoles observe dating and marriage customs that reflect their westernized and broader West African cultural retentions Creole wedding ceremonies involve the gej or put stop an elaborate Shakespearean performance in which the hand of the bride is asked for following the appearance of several roses Among the gifts presented by the future groom s representatives are a calabash some kola nuts various domestic items a wife would use such as needles and some thread but also a Bible a ring and some money 93 Creole traditional wedding attire is a morning suit or lounge suit for the bridegroom and the women wear the traditional white wedding dress Creoles marry in church weddings and in the Victorian and Edwardian era relatives sought out and introduced prospective suitors from desirable families to their kin seeking a spouse When a suitor has been chosen by the prospective groom or bride traditionally the groom s parents set a put stop day After this day the girl is expected to no longer entertain other suitors On the evening before the wedding the groom s friends treat him to bachelor s eve a rowdy last fling before marriage 94 Ashobis parties at which every guest is expected to wear the same type of materials are held on the day of the wedding or some days after for newlyweds 94 Creoles live in nuclear families father mother and their children but the extended family is important to them as well 95 More affluent family members are expected to help those who are less fortunate They assist poorer relatives with school fees and job opportunities In most Creole families women and elder siblings care for the children who in turn are expected to complete the household chores 69 Twins in Creole society edit Twins are important for the Creole who tend to give special names to each one The naming convention used by the Creoles comes from their Yoruba Liberated African ancestry 96 The first of the twins to be born is traditionally named Taiyewo or Tayewo which means the first to taste the world or the slave to the second twin this is often shortened to Taiwo Taiye or Taye 97 Kehinde is the name of the last born twin and it means the child that came behind gets the rights of the elder 98 Music edit Main articles Gumbe and Gumbe drum Sierra Leonean gumbe music originates from the Jamaican Maroon ancestors of the Creole people It is primarily a vocal and percussive musical genre that has been associated with nationalist thought since colonial times 99 The gumbe drum is an important cultural symbol played to induce a trance like state which connects the Creoles with their ancestors 100 Generally the music is produced using the gumbe drum the maracash and the saw The maracash is a glass bottle and metallic object played together to produce a desirable rhythm The jagged edge of the saw is rubbed against another sharp object to produce a rasping sound 101 In modern times gumbe music has become a key feature in Sierra Leone s musical landscape It is often mixed with other more contemporary musical genres to create an authentic local sound 102 Attire edit Present day Creoles similar to other Sierra Leoneans wear both African and Western style dress Ethnic groups in Sierra Leone had been accustomed to seeing European dress prior to the arrival of the Creoles as a consequence of extensive trade with Europeans dating to the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries However the ethnic groups who inhabited Sierra Leone did not customarily wear Western style dress until they were popularized by the Creole 103 4 104 Like their Americo Liberian neighbors Creole fashion between the Victorian and Edwardian era consisted of a top hat and frock coat for men and a petticoat for women 105 94 although some Creole women sometimes wore the Jamaican Maroon Kabaslot and Kotoku 106 the latter a Twi or Ga word for money bag nbsp Portrait of a Creole family in Sierra Leone early 1900s Although Creoles continue to wear elaborate dress style for special occasions such as weddings and parades they adapted their styles of dress to incorporate newer Western style fashion and intricate African style dresses between the early to late 20th century Today teenage fashion jeans T shirts and sneakers are very much in style among young Creole people However older Sierra Leone Creoles still dress conservatively in Western style suits and dresses and some Creole women still wear the Jamaican Maroon Kabaslot Kotoku and carpet slippers and its derivative the print that is a fusion of older African American Afro Caribbean and British dress styles 94 Cuisine edit Breakfast meal of some Creoles consist of porridge or English breakfast typically consisting of fried poached or scrambled eggs fried tomatoes or mushrooms fried bread or buttered toast and sausages 107 Noonday meal includes Western style or Caribbean derived cuisines and also African food Creole meals often coincide with specific days of the week On Saturdays fufu a dough like paste made of cassava pounded into flour and a type of palaver sauce or plassas leafy vegetable sauce is often eaten This is a spicy dish consisting of spinach with tripe fish beef and chicken It is often made with palm oil except for wayt soup white soup Additionally other types of typical Creole plassas may be eaten with fufu such as shakpa okra egusi bologi greens krain krain bitterleaf and sawa sawa among others 23 Sunday dinner is a West African one pot meal jollof rice or couscous and stew or peanut soup including some plantains and salad Awujoh c meals on Fridays or other festive occasions are usually accompanied by sweet potato cooked in palm oil black eyed beans oleleh agidi plantain rice bread ebeh and akara with ginger beer On other days a variety of local dishes may be consumed 23 Rites of passage edit Creoles use combined British Christian cultural practices and certain elements of African rituals in connection with rites of passage such as births and deaths Creoles have christening and baptismal ceremonies but also have a naming ceremony commonly referred to as pull na doh or komojade on the seventh day following the birth which is held to celebrate a new born 93 For life cycle ceremonies related to death among the Creoles one such ceremony is the babichu or barbecue of Jamaican Maroon origin and the subsequently more prevalent Liberated African awujoh feast 108 109 intended to celebrate the anniversaries of ancestors who have died Awujoh feasts are held in remembrance of deceased family members generally the first anniversary of their passing but may also be held on the occasion of the five ten fifteen years anniversaries etc Among some Creole families when someone dies pictures in the house are turned toward the wall and all mirrors or reflecting surfaces covered At the wake held before the burial people clap and sing shouts negro spirituals loudly to make sure the corpse is not merely in a trance The next day the body is washed placed in shrouds burial cloths and laid on a bed for a final viewing Then it is placed in a coffin and taken to the church for the service and lastly to the cemetery for burial The period of mourning lasts one year On the third seventh and fortieth day after death awujoh feasts are held The feast on the fortieth day marks the spirit s last day on earth The family and guests eat a big meal Portions of the meal and kola nuts are placed into a hole for the dead The pull mooning day the end of mourning occurs at the end of one year the first anniversary of a death The mourners wear white visit the cemetery and then return home for refreshments 94 108 109 Creole folktales edit Creoles have inherited a wide range of proverbs and folktales including Anansi stories from their multi ethnic ancestors including the Jamaican Maroons and the Akan and Ewe Liberated Africans They entertain and provide instruction in Creole values and traditions Among the best loved are Creole stories about Anansi the spider 110 The following is a typical spider tale Once the spider was fat He loved eating but detested work and had not planted or fished all season One day the villagers were preparing a feast From his forest web he could smell the mouth watering cooking He knew that if he visited friends they would feed him as was the custom So he called his two sons and told both of them to tie a rope around his waist and set off in opposite directions for the two closest villages each holding one end of the rope They were to pull on the rope when the food was ready But both villages began eating at the same time and when the sons began pulling the rope it grew tighter and tighter squeezing the greedy spider When the feasting was over and the sons came to look for him they found a big head a big body and a very thin waist 110 111 112 Anansi stories are part of an ancient mythology that is rooted in Liberated African folklore and concerns the interaction between divine and semi divine beings royalty humans animals plants and seemingly inanimate objects 113 Creole culture and broader Sierra Leonean cultures edit Oku peopleThe Oku have origins among the Liberated African community of settlers in Sierra Leone and have historically intermarried with some Creole people However several scholars such as Ramatoulie Onikepo Othman and Olumbe Bassir classify the Oku as distinct from the Creoles because of their ancestry and strong Muslim culture In contrast to the Oku people the Creoles are Christian and are a mixture of various ethnic groups including African Americans Afro Caribbeans and Liberated Africans of Igbo Akan and Yoruba descent in addition to other African ethnic groups and European ancestry 14 7 114 Furthermore unlike the Oku people the Creoles do not practice cliterodotomy engage in the Bundu society and are monogamous 19 More recently some scholars consider the Oku to be a sub ethnic group of the Creoles based on their close association with British colonists and their adoption of Western education and other aspects of culture 18 Those classifying the Oku as part of the Sierra Leone Creole people note their adoption of similar English or European surnames although this was a minority of Oku and cultural aspects such as egungun gelede hunters masquerade 115 esusu 116 awujoh and komojade 93 However as scholars have outlined the few cultural similarities between the Creole and Oku people are because there are some Yoruba cultural retentions from the christianized Yoruba liberated Africans found among the Creoles and because the cultural orientation heritage identity and origin of the Oku people are Yoruba in essence 19 117 118 Sherbro peopleAccording to anthropologist Anais Menard the only Sierra Leonean ethnic group whose culture is similar in terms of its embrace of Western culture are westernized members of the Sherbro people 119 Many Sherbro assimilate as Creoles as they share the Christian faith and often have similar westernized surnames Some of the Sherbro interacted with Portuguese and English traders and intermarried with them in the mid 15th to 18th centuries producing Afro European clans such as the Sherbro Tuckers and Sherbro Caulkers As a result some of the Sherbro have a more westernized culture than that of other indigenous Sierra Leone ethnic groups As Creoles settled in places such as Bonthe for trading and missionary purposes the Creoles intermarried with westernized Sherbros from as far back as the 18th century 119 Architecture edit nbsp Creole style architecture circa 1885 nbsp Old Fourah Bay College Building circa 1930s The Creole homeland 20 is a mountainous narrow peninsula on the coast of west Africa At its northern tip lies Freetown the capital 120 121 2 The peninsula s mountain range is covered by tropical rainforests split by deep valleys and adorned with impressive waterfalls White sand beaches line the Atlantic coast The whole of Sierra Leone covers some 72 500 square kilometres Traditional Creole architecture in the colonial period included a variety of architectural styles ranging and consisting of English style mansions smaller to medium stone or brick houses and traditional one or two story wooden houses built on stone foundations reminiscent of those found in the Old South the West Indies or Louisiana The distinctive style of Creole wooden or board housing was brought by the Settlers from Nova Scotia and as early as the 1790s the Nova Scotians had built houses with stone foundations and wooden superstructures and American style shingle roofs However subsequent African American and Afro Caribbean settlers continued to influence Creole architectural styles Despite their dilapidated appearance some of the remaining traditional Creole board houses have a distinctive air with dormers box windows shutters glass panes and balconies The elite live in attractive neighbourhoods such as Hill Station above Freetown A large dam in the mountains 122 provides a reliable supply of water and electricity to this area Admixture editCreole ethnicities were formed during the European colonial era from the mass displacement of peoples d brought into sustained contact with others from different linguistic and cultural backgrounds who converged onto a colonial territory to which they had not previously belonged 12 13 Often involuntarily uprooted from their original home the settlers were obliged to develop and creatively merge the desirable elements from their diverse backgrounds to produce new varieties of social linguistic and cultural norms that superseded the prior forms 124 13 12 This process known as creolization 125 126 is characterized by rapid social flux regularized into Creole ethnogenesis Like their Americo Liberian neighbours the Creoles of Sierra Leone have varying degrees of European ancestry because some of the settlers were descended from white Americans and other Europeans 4 6 5 Historian David Brion Davis notes the racial mixing that occurred during slavery was frequently attributed by the planter class to the lower class White males but Davis concludes that there is abundant evidence that many slaveowners sons of slaveowners and overseers took black mistresses or in effect raped the wives and daughters of slave families 127 A famous example was Thomas Jefferson s mistress Sally Hemings 128 After the American Revolutionary War the Book of Negroes listed approximately 3000 black and mixed race loyalists who sailed from New York City to Nova Scotia in 1783 10 The great majority of families of black people recorded in the US census in the immediate aftermath of the war have been found to have descended from unions between white women indentured servants or free and black men indentured servants slave or free in colonial Virginia and other Upper South colonies 129 Sixty five percent of those evacuated were from the American South 130 Through the Maroons some Creoles probably also have indigenous Amerindian Taino ancestry Spanish Jamaica consisted of Spaniards natives enslaved Africans black freedmen mixed race mulattoes and those born on the island known as creole Africans 8 Genetic studies on the Jamaican Maroons suggest that their ancestry extends beyond Africa to include Amerindian European and East Asian progenitors 8 9 On the voyage between Plymouth England and Sierra Leone seventy European girlfriends and wives accompanied the Black Poor settlers 131 There was considerable intermarriage between the Europeans who settled in the colony of Sierra Leone and the various ethnic groups that coalesced into the Creole identity 7 The settlers generally married endogamously although individuals from mixed and European groups recorded a much higher proportion of women and men involved in exogamous marriages Mixed race individuals intermarried with Europeans and black colonial residents at the same rate as they married their own 7 Alongside the Americo Liberians the Creoles of Sierra Leone are the only recognised ethnic group of African American 16 Liberated African and Afro Caribbean descent in West Africa Sierra Leone Creole Diaspora editHistoric diaspora edit Historically Creoles spread Christianity and their lingua franca throughout West Africa and because of this Sierra Leone Creole communities existed in Nigeria Ghana Cameroon Senegal Equatorial Guinea and Liberia Many Creoles traded throughout West Africa and some settled in new countries Liberated Africans and their colony born children in the early to mid 19th centuries and subsequently Creoles between the late 19th and early 20th centuries who settled in Nigeria were known as Saros and there is a thriving community there Sierra Leone Creoles who settled in the Gambia became part of the Aku or Gambian Creole people they make up an elite community in Gambia Many recaptives returned to their original homes after being freed in Freetown as most kept their anglicised names they took partially new identities back to their homelands 28 31 32 35 Present day diaspora edit As a result of normal immigration patterns the Sierra Leone Civil War and some discrimination at home 132 133 many Sierra Leone Creoles live abroad in the United States and the United Kingdom What has been called the Creole Diaspora is the migration of Sierra Leone Creoles abroad Many Creoles attend formal and informal gatherings A Creole or Krio Heritage Society is based in New York City with branches in places including Texas Related communities editBlack Nova Scotians ancestors of the Sierra Leone Creoles who fought for their freedom on the side of the British during the American Revolutionary War Initially resettled in Nova Scotia they arrived in West Africa where they founded the settlement of Freetown Sierra Leone in 1792 Jamaican Maroons ancestors of the Sierra Leone Creoles who freed themselves from slavery on the Colony of Jamaica Initially resettled in Nova Scotia after the Second Maroon War they eventually arrived in Freetown in 1800 Americo Liberians sister ethnic group of the Creoles of Sierra Leone comprising African Americans Afro Caribbeans and Liberated Africans who founded the settlement of Liberia in 1822 Gambian Creoles descendants of the Creoles of Sierra Leone who migrated to The Gambia in the late 19th and early 20th century Saro people Nigerian Creoles sub ethnic group of the Sierra Leone Creoles who resettled in several Nigerian cities in the late 19th and early 20th century Krio Fernandinos descendants of the Creoles of Sierra Leone who migrated to Bioko island Equatorial Guinea in the late 19th century Gold Coast Euro Africans extensively intermarried with Sierra Leone Creole migrants in colonial Ghana Notable people of Sierra Leone Creole descent editMain article List of Sierra Leone Creole people Name Born Died Notability Ref ImageWilliam Vivour 1830 1890 Single most successful 19th century farmer in Africa 134 135 nbsp Davidson Nicol 1925 1994 Discovered the breakdown of insulin in the human body a breakthrough for the treatment of diabetes 75 136 137 nbsp James Pinson Davies 1828 1906 Pioneer of cocoa farming in West Africa 138 nbsp John Farrell Easmon seated with brother Albert 1856 1900 Coined the term Blackwater Fever and was the first to link the disease directly to malaria 139 nbsp Christian Frederick Cole 1852 1885 First black graduate of Oxford and first African barrister to practice in the English courts 140 Sir Samuel Lewis 1843 1903 First mayor of Freetown and first West African to receive a knighthood 141 nbsp Stella Jane Thomas 1906 1974 First black African woman called to the Bar in Great Britain and first West African female to qualify as a lawyer 142 143 Samuel Coleridge Taylor 1875 1912 Composer and conductor known for his three cantatas on the epic 1855 poem The Song of Hiawatha 144 nbsp Sir Ernest Dunstan Morgan 1896 1979 Pharmaceutical entrepreneur and philanthropist 145 146 Idris Elba 1972 Actor and winner of the BET and Golden Globe Awards 147 nbsp Frances Claudia Wright 1919 2010 First Sierra Leonean woman to be called to the Bar in Great Britain and to practice law in Sierra Leone 148 Dame Linda Dobbs 1951 First non white High Court judge in Great Britain 149 150 Constance Cummings John 1918 2000 Educator politician and first mayoress of Freetown 151 Emanuel Adeniyi Thomas 1914 1945 First black African to qualify as a pilot and first Royal Air Force officer of West African origin 152 Sir Kitoye Ajasa born Edmund Macauley 1866 1937 Legislator during the colonial period and first Nigerian to receive a knighthood 153 154 nbsp Sir Ernest Beoku Betts 1895 1957 Jurist and one time mayor of Freetown 155 nbsp Charles Odamtten Easmon 1913 1994 Performed the first successful open heart surgery in West Africa 156 Sir Henry Lightfoot Boston 1898 1969 First African Governor General of Sierra Leone 157 Christopher Okoro Cole 1921 1990 Chief Justice later interim Governor General and President of Sierra Leone 158 Samuel Benjamin Thomas 1833 1901 Philanthropist entrepreneur and one of the richest men in 19th century Africa 61 Adelaide Casely Hayford 1868 1960 Activist and pioneer of women s education in Sierra Leone 159 nbsp Lati Hyde Forster 1911 2001 First female graduate of the oldest western style university in Africa 160 161 nbsp Gladys Casely Hayford 1904 1950 Playwright and first author to write in the Krio language 162 nbsp Clifford Nelson Fyle 1933 2006 Author of the Krio English Dictionary and the Sierra Leone National Anthem 163 Sir Emile Fashole Luke 1895 1980 Chief Justice and Speaker of the House of Parliament of Sierra Leone 164 165 William Broughton Davies 1831 1906 First West African to qualify as a medical doctor 166 Ulric Emmanuel Jones 1940 2020 First Sierra Leonean neurosurgeon 167 nbsp Andrew Juxon Smith 1931 1996 Commander of the armed forces and Head of State of Sierra Leone 168 James Africanus Horton 1835 1883 Surgeon scientist and political thinker who worked towards African independence a century before it occurred 169 170 nbsp Agnes Yewande Savage 1906 1964 First West African woman to qualify as a medical doctor 171 nbsp Murietta Olu Williams 1923 First woman in Africa to achieve the rank of Permanent Secretary in the Civil Service 172 Charles Burgess King 1875 1961 Former President of Liberia 173 nbsp Samuel Ajayi Crowther 1809 1891 Clergyman and first Anglican Bishop of West Africa 174 nbsp Adesanya Kwamina Hyde 1915 1993 Royal Air Force aviator awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross for acts of valour and courage 175 176 Sir Samuel Bankole Jones 1911 1981 Chief Justice and first Sierra Leonean president of the Court of Appeal 177 Valentine Strasser 1967 Army officer and Head of State of Sierra Leone 178 John Clavell Smythe 1915 1996 Royal Air Force aviation officer shot down over Nazi Germany later attorney general of Sierra Leone 179 nbsp George Gurney Nicol 1856 1888 Clergyman and first African graduate of Cambridge University 180 181 Sir Salako Benka Coker 1900 1965 First Sierra Leonean Chief Justice of the Supreme Court 182 Ryan Giggs 1973 Welsh football coach and former player regarded as one of the greatest players of his generation 183 184 nbsp Napheesa Collier 1996 Professional basketball player and gold medallist at the 2020 Summer Olympic Games nbsp Leonard Benker Johnson 1902 1974 British Empire Boxing champion considered to be one of the best middleweights of his era 185 186 See also edit nbsp Africa portalAfrican American diaspora African Americans in Africa African Americans in the Revolutionary War Atlantic Creole Atlantic World Back to Africa movement Birchtown Nova Scotia Black Loyalists Book of Negroes Creolization Church Missionary Society The Cotton Tree Door of Return Dunmore s Proclamation Gullah Gumbe Jamaican Maroon Creole History of Sierra Leone Outline of Sierra Leone Philipsburg Proclamation Rough Crossings Sierra Leonean nationality law Timeline of FreetownExplanatory notes edit The Creoles are Christians whether nominal or in practice at over 98 percent Recently some scholars consider the Oku ethnic group to be Creoles 18 although others reject this premise given the differentiation in admixture religion and cultural practices between the Oku and Creoles such as the practice of female genital mutilation bundu society membership and polygamy among the Oku people 19 Webster s online etymological dictionary states the meaning of creole as a person born in a country but of a people not indigenous to it but also notes that the meaning varies according to local use Awujoh originates from the Yoruba Liberated African ancestry of the Creoles Awujoh ceremonies are held for the protection of newborns and newlyweds by ancestral spirits and as a means to acquire guidance and wisdom regarding aspects of death 95 The word peoples is specifically used as the plural of people in its sense as a collective singular noun referring to a nation or tribe or other community as in Indigenous Peoples or the many peoples of the world This usage emphasizes that you re talking about several different specific groups that share a commonality This can be important for clarity the many people of the world means something different from the many peoples of the world In practical terms using peoples in this way can help to prevent erasure and homogenization of groups that are often lumped together in ways that obscure their specific complex identities In this way the term Indigenous Peoples emphasizes the vast diversity among the world s Indigenous groups while also implying that there are in fact separate and distinct groups 123 References editCitations edit a b c d e CIA World Factbook 2022 www cia gov 14 February 2023 a b c Walker James W 1992 Chapter Five Foundation of Sierra Leone The Black Loyalists The Search for a Promised Land in Nova Scotia and Sierra Leone 1783 1870 Toronto University of Toronto Press pp 94 114 ISBN 978 0 8020 7402 7 Originally published by Longman amp Dalhousie University Press 1976 R W July Nineteenth Century Negritude Edward W Blyden in the Journal of African History v 1964 p 77 n 9 This attitude to mulattoes was of course racialist in view cf Burton op cit p 271 the worst class of all is the mulatto The correspondence recently published in Holden op cit shows that Blyden had developed his views about mulattoes during his conflicts with the Americo Liberians in Monrovia but his public writings were less outspoken about Liberia than they were about Freetown a b c Torrent Melanie 2009 Crowning the work of Wilberforce The Settlers Descendants Union and the challenges of Sierra Leone s independence Cahiers Charles V 46 241 292 doi 10 3406 cchav 2009 1541 a b Colonial Office Brief CO554 2884 Note on the Attorney General s Note of the Supreme Court Judgement 10 August 1960 op cit a b Galli S 2022 Socioeconomic Status and Group Belonging Evidence from Early Nineteenth Century Colonial West Africa Social Science History 46 2 349 372 doi 10 1017 ssh 2021 47 a b c d Stefania Galli 2019 Marriage patterns in a black Utopia Evidence from early nineteenth century colonial Sierra Leone The History of the Family 24 4 744 768 DOI 10 1080 1081602X 2019 1637361 a b c Harcourt Fuller amp Jada Benn Torres 2018 Investigating the Taino ancestry of the Jamaican Maroons a new genetic DNA historical and multidisciplinary analysis and case study of the Accompong Town Maroons Canadian Journal of Latin American and Caribbean Studies Revue canadienne des etudes latino americaines et caraibes 43 1 47 78 DOI 10 1080 08263663 2018 1426227 a b Madrilejo N Lombard H Torres JB 2015 Origins of marronage Mitochondrial lineages of Jamaica s Accompong Town Maroons Am J Hum Biol 27 3 432 437 doi 10 1002 ajhb 22656 PMID 25392952 S2CID 30255510 a b Looking Back Moving Forward Documenting the Heritage of African Nova Scotians www archives novascotia ca 20 April 2020 Arthur Porter Creoledom Oxford Oxford University Press 1963 pp 53 58 a b c Baron Robert A and Cara Ana C 2011 Creolization as Cultural Creativity Jackson MS University Press of Mississippi pp 12 23 ISBN 9781617031069 a href Template Cite book html title Template Cite book cite book a CS1 maint multiple names authors list link a b c d e Eriksen T H 2020 Creolisation as a Recipe for Conviviality In Hemer O Povrzanovic Frykman M Ristilammi PM eds Conviviality at the Crossroads Palgrave Macmillan Cham https doi org 10 1007 978 3 030 28979 9 3 a b c Sierra Leone Brief Introduction English in West Africa Institute of English and American Studies Humboldt University Archived from the original on 29 September 2003 Retrieved 1 December 2012 citing Wolf Hans Georg 2001 English in Cameroon Sociology of Language Berlin Mouton de Gruyter 85 a b c d Dixon Fyle Mac Cole Gibril Raschid 2006 Introduction New Perspectives on the Sierra Leone Krio New York Peter Lang pp 2 3 ISBN 978 0 8204 7937 8 A substantial part of this ex slave population was Yoruba but members of ethnic groups from other regions of the Atlantic Igbo Efik Fante etc were also very much in evidence in this coterie of Liberated Africans Individuals from ethnic communities indigenous to Sierra Leone were significantly represented among the Liberated Africans Many a Temne Limba Mende and Loko resident of Freetown influenced by local European officials and missionaries would come in time to shed their indigenous names and cultural values to take on a Creole identity which gave them a better chance of success in the rarefied Victorian ambience sic of a progressively westernized Freetown society a b Poplack Shana Tagliamonte Sali 2001 African English in the diaspora Blackwell p 41 ISBN 0 631 21266 3 a b Bangura Joseph 6 May 2009 Understanding Sierra Leone in Colonial West Africa A Synoptic Socio Political History History Compass 7 3 583 603 doi 10 1111 j 1478 0542 2009 00596 x a b Cole Gibril R 15 September 2013 The Krio of West Africa Islam Culture Creolization and Colonialism in ISBN 978 0 8214 4478 8 Retrieved 16 March 2015 a b c Bassir O 1954 Marriage Rites among the Aku Yoruba of Freetown Africa 24 3 251 256 doi 10 2307 1156429 a b c Taylor Bankole Kamara February 2014 Sierra Leone The Land Its People and History New Africa Press p 68 ISBN 9789987160389 a b c Translators without borders Language data for Sierra Leone www translatorswithoutborders org a b Oyetade B Akintunde Fashole Luke Victor 15 February 2008 Sierra Leone Krio and the Quest for National Integration Language and National Identity in Africa Oxford Oxford University Press pp 122 140 ISBN 978 0 19 928675 1 a b c d Sierra Leone languages Joshua Project a b c d Thompson V A D 2013 The Transformation of Freetown Christianity 1960 2000 Doctoral Dissertation University of London a b Little K L The Significance of the West African Creole for Africanist and Afro American Studies African Affairs Volume 49 Issue 197 October 1950 pp 308 319 https doi org 10 1093 oxfordjournals afraf a093841 Yakpo Kofi 2019 A Grammar of Pichi Studies in Diversity Linguistics 23 Berlin Language Science Press doi 10 5281 zenodo 2546450 ISBN 978 3 96110 133 7 Njeuma B J Structural similarities between Sierra Leone Krio and two West African Anglophone Pidgins A case for common origin University of South Carolina ProQuest Dissertations Publishing 1995 9541244 a b c Frederiks M 2002 The Krio in the Gambia and the Concept of Inculturation Exchange 31 3 219 229 doi https doi org 10 1163 157254302X00399 Shaka Ashcroft 2015 Roots and Routes Krio Identity in Postcolonial London Black Theology 13 2 102 125 DOI 10 1179 1476994815Z 00000000051 Agiri Babatunde The Introduction of Nitida Kola into Nigerian Agriculture 1880 1920 African Economic History No 3 Spring 1977 p 1 a b c Dixon Fyle Mac The Saro in the Political Life of Early Port Harcourt 1913 49 The Journal of African History Vol 30 No 1 p 126 a b c Derrick Jonathan The Native Clerk in Colonial West Africa African Affairs Vol 82 No 326 p 65 Martin del Molino Amador 1993 La ciudad de Clarence Malabo Ediciones Centro Cultural Hispano Guineano Garcia Cantus M Dolores 2006 Fernando Poo Una aventura colonial espanol vol 1 Las islas en litigio Entre la esclavitud y el abolicionismo 1777 1846 Barcelona Ceiba Ediciones a b c Lynn Martin 1984 Commerce christianity and the origins of the creoles of Fernando Po Journal of African History 25 3 257 278 a b creole Origin and meaning of creole by Online Etymology Dictionary www etymonline com Retrieved 29 April 2019 Dominguez Virginia R White by Definition Social Classification in Creole Louisiana New Brunswick Rutgers University Press 1986 Dormon James H Louisiana s Creoles of Color Ethnicity Marginality and Identity Social Science Quarterly 73 No 3 1992 615 623 Eaton Clement A History of the Old South The Emergence of a Reluctant Nation third edition New York Macmillan 1975 Criollo criolla Diccionario de la lengua espanola a b Creole www britannica com a b c d Creoles of Africa www geography name Berlin Ira 1 April 1996 From Creole to African William and Mary Quarterly 53 2 266 doi 10 2307 2947401 JSTOR 2947401 Retrieved 6 June 2022 Robert Chaudenson 2001 Creolization of Language and Culture CRC press p 11 ISBN 978 0 203 44029 2 Markey Thomas L 1982 Afrikaans Creole or Non Creole Zeitschrift fur Dialektologie und Linguistik 49 2 169 207 ISSN 0044 1449 JSTOR 40501733 Glimpses of Africa West and Southwest coast By Charles Spencer Smith A M E Sunday School Union 1895 p 164 Murray Robert P Whiteness in Africa Americo Liberians and the Transformative Geographies of Race 2013 Theses and Dissertations History 23 https uknowledge uky edu history etds 23 Walker James W 1992 Chapter Five Foundation of Sierra Leone The Black Loyalists The Search for a Promised Land in Nova Scotia and Sierra Leone 1783 1870 Toronto University of Toronto Press pp 94 114 ISBN 978 0 8020 7402 7 Originally published by Longman amp Dalhousie University Press 1976 Cassandra Pybus Epic Journeys of Freedom Runaway Slaves of the American Revolution and Their Global Quest for Liberty Beacon Press Boston 2006 The Black Loyalist Directory African Americans in Exile After the American Revolution by Graham Russell Hodges Susan Hawkes Cook Alan Edward Brown JSTOR Sivapragasam Michael Why Did Black Londoners not join the Sierra Leone Resettlement Scheme 1783 1815 Unpublished Masters dissertation London Open University 2013 p 36 Sivapragasam Michael Why Did Black Londoners not join the Sierra Leone Resettlement Scheme 1783 1815 Unpublished master s dissertation London Open University 2013 pp 40 43 a b Sivapragasam Michael Why Did Black Londoners not join the Sierra Leone Resettlement Scheme 1783 1815 Unpublished Masters dissertation London Open University 2013 p 37 Watkins Thayer Economic History of Sierra Leone San Jose State University Department of Economics Retrieved 1 December 2012 Horton James Oliver Horton Lois E 1998 In Hope of Liberty Culture Community and Protest Among Northern Free Blacks 1700 1860 Oxford University Press p 186 ISBN 0 19 512465 0 Retrieved 1 December 2012 Smitherman Geneva 1977 Talkin and Testifyin The Language of Black America Waynebook Vol 51 Wayne State University Press p 161 ISBN 0 8143 1805 3 Retrieved 1 December 2012 In neighboring Sierra Leone the analogous group of liberated Africans delivered there by the British Navy are generally seen as having played a crucial role in the evolution of Krio Navy News June 2007 Retrieved 9 February 2008 Knorr Jacqueline 1995 Kreolisierung versus Pidiginisierung als Kategorien kultureller Differenzierung Varianten neoafrikanischer Identitat und Interethnik in Freetown Sierra Leone Creolization versus Pidiginisierung as Categories of Cultural Differentiation Neoafrican variants of identity and interethnicity in Freetown Sierra Leone in German Munster Lit Verlag ISBN 978 3 8258 2318 4 Retrieved 1 December 2012 The town grid was laid out by the Sierra Leone company s British surveyor Richard Pepys Schama pp 352 253 Jan 15 1817 The Vote on Colonization of Free Blacks in West Africa Zinn Education Project Retrieved 23 May 2022 Sierra Leone The World Factbook CIA Retrieved 15 September 2011 a b c Wyse Akintola 1989 The Krio of Sierra Leone An Interpretive History C Hurst amp Co Publishers ISBN 978 1 85065 031 7 Northrup D 2006 Becoming African Identity Formation among Liberated Slaves in Nineteenth Century Sierra Leone Slavery amp Abolition 27 1 21 https doi org 10 1080 01440390500499794 a b Hanciles J J 2014 Africa Is Our Fatherland The Black Atlantic Globalization amp Modern African Christianity Theology Today 7 207 220 https doi org 10 1177 0040573614530140 Paracka Jr D J 2003 p 11 The Athens of West Africa A History of International Education at Fourah Bay College Freetown Sierra Leone Routledge Hanciles J J 2001 Anatomy of an Experiment The Sierra Leone Native Pastorate Missiology An International Review 29 63 82 https doi org 10 1177 009182960102900106 Paracka Jr D J 2003 p 3 The Athens of West Africa A History of International Education at Fourah Bay College Freetown Sierra Leone Routledge a b Lewis M Paul ed 2009 Krio a language of Sierra Leone Ethnologue Languages of the World 16 ed Dallas Texas SIL International Retrieved 1 December 2012 Saidu Bangura 2015 A Roadmap to Sierra Leone English A Sociohistorical and Ecological Perspective Universidad de Las Palmas de Gran Canaria PhD thesis p 124 222 232 242 a b Thayer James Steel A Dissenting View of Creole Culture in Sierra Leone Une Approche Non Conventionnelle de La Culture Des Creoles de Sierra Leone Cahiers d Etudes Africaines vol 31 no 121 122 1991 pp 215 30 JSTOR Retrieved 10 June 2022 a b The Krios of Sierra Leone Pioneers throughout Africa www africanvoiceonline co uk 26 October 2017 Lynn Martin Technology Trade and A Race of Native Capitalists The Krio Diaspora of West Africa and the Steamship 1852 95 The Journal of African History 33 no 3 1992 421 40 http www jstor org stable 183140 Hair P E H Africanism The Freetown Contribution The Journal of Modern African Studies 5 no 4 1967 521 39 http www jstor org stable 158756 Browne Davies Nigel The Brothers Easmon The Emergence of a Nova Scotian Medical Dynasty in Sierra Leone and the Gold Coast Transactions of the Historical Society of Ghana no 16 2014 45 110 https www jstor org stable 26512498 Glimpses of Africa West and Southwest coast By Charles Spencer Smith A M E Sunday School Union 1895 p 164 a b c Dr Davidson Nicol Christs College Cambridge www christs cam ac uk Retrieved 8 April 2019 a b W F Bynum Helen Bynum eds December 2006 Easmon John Farrell b Freetown Sierra Leone 30 June 1856 d Cape Coast Gold Coast 9 June 1900 Medicine Bacteriology PDF Dictionary of Medical Biography Five Volumes Greenwood Publishing Group Archived PDF from the original on 5 June 2010 Retrieved 13 August 2018 Neville Shrimpton Thomas Decker and The Death of Boss Coker 1987 Lisk Carew Brothers Cambridge University Library Archived from the original on 4 March 2016 Retrieved 25 June 2018 a b Elebute 2013 The Life of James Pinson Labulo Davies pp 111 119 a b Sundiata I K 1996 From Slaving to Neo Slavery The University of Wisconsin Press pp 89 92 ISBN 0 299 14510 7 Sierra Leone languages Joshua Project Little K L Social Change and Social Class in the Sierra Leone Protectorate American Journal of Sociology vol 54 no 1 1948 pp 10 21 JSTOR Retrieved 26 June 2022 Sierra Leone Gumbe music www musicinafrica net 19 January 2017 Stewart Charles 2016 Creolization history ethnography theory Walnut Creek CA Left Coast Press Walnut Creek CA Left Coast Press pp 1 25 ISBN 9781598742787 Baron Robert Cara Ana 2013 Creolization as Cultural Creativity University Press of Mississippi ISBN 978 1 61703 949 2 Redmond Shannon 13 April 2016 Saint John historian illuminates story of Thomas Peters prominent black loyalist New Brunswick CBC News Retrieved 22 November 2016 Wayne Adams Black white Baptists bridge centuries old racial divide permanent dead link The Daily News Halifax Canada 22 Aug 2007 reprinted on Amistad America accessed 4 May 2010 The Radical Methodist Congregation of Daddy Moses blackloyalist info Olukoju Akyeampong Bates Nunn amp Robinson 2014 Africa s Development in Historical Perspective Cambridge University Press pp 218 219 ISBN 978 1 139 99269 5 a href Template Cite book html title Template Cite book cite book a CS1 maint multiple names authors list link Martin Kilson Robert I Rotberg 1976 The African diaspora interpretive essays Harvard University Press University of Michigan ISBN 978 0 674 00779 6 I K Sundiata 1990 Equatorial Guinea colonialism state terror and the search for stability Nations of contemporary Africa Westview Profiles Series University of Michigan Westview Press p 24 ISBN 978 0 8133 0429 8 Krios and their history www natinpasadvantage com a b c Dixon Fyle Mac 1999 A Saro community in the Niger Delta ISBN 9781580460385 a b c d e Wyse Akintola pp 11 12 The Krio of Sierra Leone An Interpretive History Hurst and International African Institute 1989 ISBN 978 1 85065 031 7 a b Creoles of Sierra Leone www encyclopedia com Knox George Morley David December 1960 Twinning in Yoruba Women BJOG An International Journal of Obstetrics amp Gynaecology 67 6 981 984 doi 10 1111 j 1471 0528 1960 tb09255 x PMID 13757217 S2CID 28909380 Archived from the original on 5 January 2013 The J Richard Simon Collection of Yoruba Twin Figures Art amp Life in Africa The University of Iowa Museum of Art africa uima uiowa edu Retrieved 24 January 2021 Land of Ibeji NOOR Retrieved 24 January 2021 Aranzadi 2010 23 Bilby Kenneth The Legacies of Slavery and Emancipation Jamaica in the Atlantic World New Haven Connecticut Yale University 2007 pp 108 Sierra Leone Heritage www sierraleoneheritage org Sierra Leone Gumbe music www musicinafrica net 19 January 2017 Little K L Social Change and Social Class in the Sierra Leone Protectorate American Journal of Sociology vol 54 no 1 1948 pp 10 21 JSTOR Retrieved 26 June 2022 Sierra Leone Weekly News 9 September 1922 8 Quoted in Kandeh 87 88 unwashed aborigines who dressed or rather undressed in a style that would have been considered scanty even in the days when Adam delved and Eve spun Africa and the West Intellectual Responses to European Culture Edited by Curtin Philip D Madison Wisconsin 1972 University of Wisconsin Press Hafkin Nancy J Bay Edna G eds 1976 Women in Africa Studies in Social and Economic Change Stanford CA Stanford University Press ISBN 978 0 8047 6624 1 How to make the perfect full English breakfast 25 June 2015 a b Peterson 1968 a b Fashole Luke 1968 a b Carpenter Allan Eckert Susan L 1974 Sierra Leone Chicago Childrens Press p 27 ISBN 978 0 516 04583 2 Gall Timothy L 2009 Worldmark Encyclopedia of Cultures and Daily Life Africa 2 ed Farmington Hills Michigan Gale Cengage Learning p 155 ISBN 978 1 4144 4883 1 Beah Ishmael 2007 A Long Way Gone Memoirs of a Boy Soldier London Fourth Estate pp 74 75 ISBN 978 0 374 10523 5 Anansi stories www anansistories com Looking Back Moving Forward Documenting the Heritage of African Nova Scotians www archives novascotia ca 20 April 2020 King Nathaniel 2014 Chapter 3 Freetown s Yoruba Modelled Secret Societies as Transnational and Transethnic Mechanisms for Social Integration Berghahn Books OAPEN Library Edition Bascom W R 1952 The Esusu A Credit Institution of the Yoruba The Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland 82 1 63 69 https doi org 10 2307 2844040 Sonko Godwin Patience 1 January 2004 Trade in the Senegambia Region From the 12th to the Early 20th Century Sunrise Publishers p 68 ISBN 9789983990041 Othman Ramatoulie Onikepo 1999 A Cherished Heritage Tracing the Roots of Oku Marabou early 19th to Mid 20th Century Edward Francis Small Printing Press p 31 a b Menard Anais 2015 Beyond Autochthony Discourses Sherbro Identity and the Re Construction of Social and National Cohesion in Sierra Leone PhD Thesis Philosophische Fakultat I Martin Luther Universitat Halle Wittenberg Halle Saale Thayer James Steel 1991 A Dissenting View of Creole Culture in Sierra Leone pp 215 230 https www persee fr doc cea 0008 0055 1991 num 31 121 2116 Browne Davies Nigel 2014 A Precis of Sources relating to genealogical research on the Sierra Leone Krio people Journal of Sierra Leone Studies Vol 3 Edition 1 2014 Regent Regent Western Area Sierra Leone Africa SL Travelingluck com Retrieved 16 March 2015 Persons vs People vs Peoples Which Word Is The Right Choice www thesaurus com 11 October 2021 Cohen Robin 2007 Creolization and Cultural Globalization The Soft Sounds of Fugitive Power Globalizations 4 3 369 384 doi 10 1080 14747730701532492 S2CID 54814946 Creolization www sciencedirect com Stewart Charles 2016 Creolization history ethnography theory Walnut Creek CA Left Coast Press Walnut Creek CA Left Coast Press pp 1 25 ISBN 978 1 59874 278 7 Davis David Brion Inhuman Bondage The Rise and Fall of Slavery in the New World 2006 ISBN 978 0 19 514073 6 p 201 Memoirs of Madison Hemings PBS Frontline Free African Americans of Virginia North Carolina South Carolina Maryland and Delaware www freeafricanamericans com Lanning 161 162 Sivapragasam Michael Why Did Black Londoners not join the Sierra Leone Resettlement Scheme 1783 1815 Unpublished master s dissertation London Open University 2013 pp 40 43 Sankoh Mohamed 30 September 2020 Is the SLPP Government Planning the Final Onslaught on Kriodom the Last Bastion in Freetown www theorganiser net Thomas Abdul Rashid 11 May 2019 The brouhaha over two sim bridge in Freetown www thesierraleonetelegraph com Martin Kilson Robert I Rotberg 1976 The African diaspora interpretive essays Harvard University Press University of Michigan ISBN 978 0 674 00779 6 I K Sundiata 1990 Equatorial Guinea colonialism state terror and the search for stability Nations of contemporary Africa Westview Profiles Series University of Michigan Westview Press p 24 ISBN 978 0 8133 0429 8 Dr Davidson Nicol Obituary The Times 19 October 1994 Nicol Davidson Sylvester Hector Willoughby Oxford Dictionary of National Biography online ed Oxford University Press doi 10 1093 ref odnb 55166 Subscription or UK public library membership required Elebute Adeyemo 2013 The Life of James Pinson Labulo Davies A Colossus of Victorian Lagos Kachifo Limited Prestige p 1 ISBN 9789785205763 W F Bynum Helen Bynum eds December 2006 Easmon John Farrell b Freetown Sierra Leone 30 June 1856 d Cape Coast Gold Coast 9 June 1900 Medicine Bacteriology PDF Dictionary of Medical Biography Five Volumes Greenwood Publishing Group Archived PDF from the original on 5 June 2010 Retrieved 13 August 2018 Brockliss L W B 2016 The University of Oxford A History Oxford University Press p 410 ISBN 978 0 19 924356 3 Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Emeka Keazor Notable Nigerians Stella Thomas NSIBIDI Institute 4 November 2014 West African Lady Barrister Called to the Bar Nigerian Daily Telegraph 11 May 1933 1 De Lerma Dominique Rene African Heritage Symphonic Series Vol I Database of Recorded American Music Sierra Leone list No 45265 The London Gazette Supplement 31 December 1970 pp 43 44 Sir Ernest Dunstan Morgan A true Sierra Leonean pioneer and philanthropist www sierraconnection com biographies htm 22 July 2023 Idris Elba meets his Waterloo in Ghana The Telegraph 3 October 2015 ISSN 0307 1235 Archived from the original on 10 January 2022 Retrieved 23 November 2018 Frances Wright The Daily Telegraph 27 April 2010 Retrieved 25 July 2010 High Court Gets First Black Judge BBC News 2 September 2004 Clare Dyer Woman QC to be high court s first black judge The Guardian 1 September 2004 Hakim Adi Marika Sherwood Pan African History Political Figures from Africa and the Diaspora since 1787 2003 ISBN 0203417801 pp 29 31 Thomas Emanuel Peter John Adeniyi 1914 1945 air force officer www oxforddnb com Whiteman 2013 p 202 Teniola 2013 Sierra Leone Heroes Beoku Betts www sierra leone org Kwame Nkrumah s Revolutionary Health Platform GhanaWeb 30 November 2001 Archived from the original on 3 March 2016 Retrieved 18 July 2010 Fisher H 1969 Elections and Coups in Sierra Leone 1967 The Journal of Modern African Studies 7 4 611 636 doi 10 1017 S0022278X00018863 Mallyveen Roy Johnson Who s who in Sierra Leone Lyns Publicity 1980 Sierra Leone 56p p 6 Rogers Brittany Rose Hayford Adelaide Smith Casely 1868 1960 BlackPast org africanvoice 26 October 2017 The Krios of Sierra Leone Pioneers throughout Africa African Voice Newspaper African Voice Newspaper Retrieved 28 June 2018 Conton Miatta 27 September 2001 Tribute to the First Female Fourah Bay College Graduate Latilewa Christiana Hyde Concord Times Freetown Retrieved 28 June 2018 Chipasula Stella Chipasula Frank Mkalawile eds 1995 The Heinemann Book of African Women s Poetry Heinemann ISBN 978 0 435 90680 1 Fyle Magbaily 2006 Historical Dictionary of Sierra Leone Metuchen New Jersey Scarecrow Press p 57 Uwechue Raph Limited Africa Books 14 March 1991 Makers of Modern Africa Africa Journal Limited ISBN 9780903274180 via Google Books Dr Abdulai Conteh Comments on Controversial Speaker Issue 22 November 2013 Patton Adell Physicians colonial racism and diaspora in West Africa University Press of Florida 1996 Ulrich Jones Tribute www allafrica com Uwechue Raph 1991 Africa Who s who ISBN 9780903274173 Nwauwa Apollos 1999 Far Ahead of his Time James Africanus Horton s Initiatives for a West African University and his Frustration Cahiers d Etudes Africaines 39 153 107 121 doi 10 3406 cea 1999 1966 JSTOR 4392915 African Political Philosophy 1860 1995 PDF www research rug nl Mitchell Henry November 2016 Dr Agnes Yewande Savage West Africa s First Woman Doctor 1906 1964 Centre of African Studies Archived from the original on 14 April 2019 Register of Admissions to the Honourable Society of the Middle Temple Vol 5 p 48 Archived 16 January 2021 at the Wayback Machine Accessed 1 July 2020 King resignation www liberiapastandpresent com Samuel Ajayi Crowther 1890 Slavery Images slaveryimages org Retrieved 2 June 2021 Killingray David 2012 Africans in Britain Routledge The London Gazette Fourth Supplement PDF thegazette co uk Her Majesty s Stationery Office 1968 Retrieved 23 January 2017 Crowder Michael Symposium of West African Archaeologists The Journal of Modern African Studies vol 4 no 2 1966 pp 238 39 JSTOR http www jstor org stable 158948 Accessed 19 Apr 2023 Akam Simon 13 February 2012 Akam 09 profiles former African dictator Valentine Strasser Columbia Journalism School Archived from the original on 10 December 2013 From Sierra Leone to Stalag Luft I Remembering Johnny Smythe Akintola J G Wyse 1989 The Krio of Sierra Leone An Interpretive History C Hurst amp Co Publishers p 34 ISBN 978 1 85065 031 7 Hakim Adi Marika Sherwood Pan African History Political Figures from Africa and the Diaspora since 1787 2003 ISBN 0203417801 pp 29 31 Fyle Magbaily C Historical Dictionary of Sierra Leone Vol 99 Scarecrow Press 2006 Hughes Rob 3 March 2009 Ferguson and Giggs side by side at ManU The New York Times Retrieved 4 June 2012 Darwin Stephen 18 December 2007 Is Ryan Giggs the Greatest Player of His Generation Football Fancast Retrieved 1 December 2020 Len Johnson vs Alf Stewart The Register 17 April 1926 p 10 Retrieved 15 January 2021 Aldred Tanya 28 January 2014 Len Johnson Boxing s radical hero with scrapbook shrine The Telegraph Retrieved 15 January 2021 General bibliography edit Porter Arthur 1966 Creoledom A study of the development of Freetown society Oxford University Press ASIN B0007IT722 Spitzer Leo 1974 The Creoles of Sierra Leone Responses to colonialism 1870 1945 University of Wisconsin Press 1st edition ISBN 978 0 299 06590 4 Wyse Akintola 1989 The Krio of Sierra Leone An Interpretive History C Hurst amp Co Publishers ISBN 978 1 85065 031 7 Campbell Mavis Ross George 1993 George Ross and the Maroons from Nova Scotia to Sierra Leone Africa World Press ISBN 978 0 86543 384 7 Lewis Coker Eyamide 2018 Creoles of Sierra Leone Proverbs Parables Wise Sayings AuthorHouse ISBN 978 1 5462 5273 3 Dixon Fyle Mac Cole Gibril 2005 New Perspectives on the Sierra Leone Krio Peter Lang Inc International Academic Publishers ISBN 978 0 8204 7937 8 Schama Simon 2005 Rough Crossings Britain the Slaves and the American Revolution BBC Books ISBN 0 06 053916 X Conteh Doris 2021 The Creoles of Sierra Leone Independently Published ISBN 979 8504488066 Walker James 1992 The Black Loyalists The Search for a Promised Land in Nova Scotia and Sierra Leone 1783 1870 University of Toronto Press ISBN 978 0 8020 7402 7 Braidwood Stephen 1994 Black Poor and White Philanthropists London s Blacks and the Foundation of the Sierra Leone Settlement 1786 1791 Liverpool University Press ISBN 978 0 85323 377 0 Baron Robert Cara Ana 2013 Creolization as Cultural Creativity University Press of Mississippi ISBN 978 1 61703 949 2 Teniola Eric 2013 The Creoles in Nigeria 2 Daily Independent Archived from the original on 2 April 2015 Retrieved 17 March 2015 Whiteman Kye 1 October 2013 Lagos A Cultural History Interlink Publishing Group Incorporated ISBN 978 1 62371 040 8 Retrieved 16 March 2015 Wyse Akintola 1990 H C Bankole Bright and politics in colonial Sierra Leone 1919 1958 Cambridge University Press ISBN 978 0 521 53333 1 Paracka Daniel 2003 The Athens of West Africa A History of International Education at Fourah Bay College Freetown Sierra Leone Routledge ISBN 978 0 415 94795 4 External links editCreole culture and traditional outfits Dr Oloh and his Milo Jazz Band Johnny Smythe RAF pilot shot down over Nazi Germany Sights and sounds of Krio Meet the Krios of Freetown Sierra Leone part 1 Meet the Krios of Freetown Sierra Leone part 2 Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Sierra Leone Creole 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