Exogamy is the social norm of mating or marrying outside one's social group. The group defines the scope and extent of exogamy, and the rules and enforcement mechanisms that ensure its continuity. One form of exogamy is dual exogamy, in which two groups continually intermarry with each other.[1]
In social science, exogamy is viewed as a combination of two related aspects: biological and cultural. Biological exogamy is the marriage of people who are not blood relatives. This is regulated by incest taboos and laws against incest. Cultural exogamy is marrying outside a specific cultural group; the opposite being endogamy, marriage within a social group.
Exogamy often results in two individuals that are not closely genetically related marrying each other; that is, outbreeding as opposed to inbreeding. In moderation, this benefits the offspring as it reduces the risk of the offspring inheriting two copies of a defective gene. Increasing the genetic diversity of the offspring improves the chances of offspring reproducing, up until the fourth-cousin level of relatedness; however, reproduction between individuals on the fourth-cousin level of relatedness decreases evolutionarily fitness.[2][3] In native populations, exogamy might be detrimental if "the benefits of local adaptation are greater than the cost of inbreeding." However, non-native, "invasive" populations that have "not yet established a pattern of local adaptation" may derive some adaptive benefit from admixture.[4]
Nancy Wilmsen Thornhill states that the drive in humans to not reproduce or be attracted to one's immediate family is evolutionarily adaptive, as it reduces the risk of children having genetic defects caused by inbreeding, as a result of inheriting two copies of a deleterious recessive gene.[5]
In one Old Order Amish society, inbreeding increases the risk of "neonatal and postneonatal mortality."[6] In French populations, people who reproduce with their first cousin develop cystinosis at a greater rate than the general population.[7]
Cultural exogamy is the custom of marrying outside a specified group of people to which a person belongs. Thus, persons may be expected to marry outside their totem clan(s) or other groups, in addition to outside closer blood relatives.
Researchers have proposed different theories to account for the origin of exogamy. Edvard Westermarck said an aversion to marriage between blood relatives or near kin emerged with a parental deterrence of incest. From a genetic point of view, aversion to breeding with close relatives results in fewer congenital diseases. If one person has a faulty gene, breeding outside his group increases the chances that his partner will have another functional type gene and their child may not suffer the defect. Outbreeding favours the condition of heterozygosity, that is having two nonidentical copies of a given gene. J. F. McLennan[8] holds that exogamy was due originally to a scarcity of women among small bands. Men were obliged to seek wives from other groups, including marriage by capture, and exogamy developed as a cultural custom.
Émile Durkheim[9] derives exogamy from totemism. He said that a people had religious respect for the blood of a totemic clan, for the clan totem is a god and is present especially in the blood, a sacred substance.
In some forms of Hinduism such as Shaktism, people can only marry outside their gotra which is a traditional group of people who may be distantly related but have been living in the same area or have an ancestral home in the same area.
Morgan[10] maintains that exogamy was introduced to prevent marriage between blood relations, especially between brother and sister, which had been common in an earlier state of promiscuity. Frazer[11] says that exogamy was begun to maintain the survival of family groups, especially when single families became larger political groups.
Claude Lévi-Strauss introduced the "Alliance Theory" of exogamy,[12] that is, that small groups must force their members to marry outside so as to build alliances with other groups. According to this theory, groups that engaged in exogamy would flourish, while those that did not would all die, either literally or because they lacked sufficient ties for cultural and economic exchange, leaving them at a disadvantage. The exchange of men or women served as a uniting force between groups.
Dual exogamy
Dual exogamy is a traditional form of arranging marriages in numerous modern societies and in many societies described in classical literature. It can be matrilineal or patrilineal. It is practiced by some Australian tribes,[13] historically widespread in the Turkic societies,[14][15] Taï societies (Ivory Coast),[16]Eskimo,[17] among Ugrians[18] and others. In tribal societies, the dual exogamy union lasted for many generations, ultimately uniting the groups initially unrelated by blood or language into a single tribe or nation.
Linguistic exogamy
Linguistic exogamy is a form of cultural exogamy in which marriage occurs only between speakers of different languages. The custom is common among indigenous groups in the northwest Amazon, such as the Tucano tribes.[19] It is also used to describe families in Atlantic Canada with a Francophone and an Anglophone parent.[citation needed]
^New Zealand Slavonic Journal, Victoria University of Wellington, 2002, Volumes 35-36, p.81 OCLC 297663912
^Helgason A, Pálsson S, Gudbjartsson DF, Kristjánsson T, Stefánsson K (February 2008). "An association between the kinship and fertility of human couples". Science. 319 (5864): 813–6. Bibcode:2008Sci...319..813H. doi:10.1126/science.1150232. PMID 18258915. S2CID 17831162.
^Labouriau R, Amorim A (December 2008). "Comment on "An association between the kinship and fertility of human couples"". Science. 322 (5908): 1634, author reply 1634. Bibcode:2008Sci...322.1634L. doi:10.1126/science.1161907. PMID 19074330.
^Verhoeven KJ, Macel M, Wolfe LM, Biere A (January 2011). "Population admixture, biological invasions and the balance between local adaptation and inbreeding depression". Proceedings. Biological Sciences. 278 (1702): 2–8. doi:10.1098/rspb.2010.1272. PMC2992731. PMID 20685700.
^Thornhill N (1993). The Natural History of Inbreeding and Outbreeding: Theoretical and Empirical Perspectives. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.
^Dorsten LE, Hotchkiss L, King TM (May 1999). "The effect of inbreeding on early childhood mortality: twelve generations of an Amish settlement". Demography. 36 (2): 263–71. doi:10.2307/2648113. JSTOR 2648113. PMID 10332616. S2CID 26311145.
^Tchen P, Bois E, Feingold J, Feingold N, Kaplan J (September 1977). "Inbreeding in recessive diseases". Human Genetics. 38 (2): 163–7. doi:10.1007/BF00527398. PMID 302820. S2CID 8849012.
^McLennan JF (1888). "The Origin of Exogamy". The English Historical Review. 3 (9): 94–104. doi:10.1093/ehr/iii.ix.94.
^Fraser JG (1910). Totemism and Exogamy Vol. IV. New York: Cosimo Inc. pp. 100–102. ISBN9781605209814.
^Morgan LH (1871). "Systems of Consanguinity and Affinity of the Human Family". Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge. Smithsonian Institution. 41 (2).
^Frazer JG (1910). Totemism and Exogamy Vol. IV. New York: Cosimo Inc. p. 95. ISBN9781605209791.
^"Alliance Theory". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 15 March 2012.
^Bose JK (1980). Glimpses of Tribal Life in North-east India. Calcutta. p. 52.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
^Turkish Studies Association Bulletin, 1982, Volume 6, p.79
^Potapov LP (1969). "Ethnic Composition and Origin of Altaians". Science. Leningrad: 44.
^Effects of the growth of human activities on the Taï forest of the south-west of the Ivory coast(PDF). UNESCO. December 2017.[permanent dead link]
^Fainberg L (1967). "On the Question of the Eskimo kinship system". Arctic Anthropology. 4 (1): 244.
^Golovnev AV. "From One to Seven: Numerical Symbolism in Khanty Culture". Arctic Anthropology. 31 (1): 62–71.
^Jackson JE (1983). The Fish People - Linguistic Exogamy and Tukanoan Identity in Northwest Amazonia. Cambridge University Press.
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Exogamy is the social norm of mating or marrying outside one s social group The group defines the scope and extent of exogamy and the rules and enforcement mechanisms that ensure its continuity One form of exogamy is dual exogamy in which two groups continually intermarry with each other 1 In social science exogamy is viewed as a combination of two related aspects biological and cultural Biological exogamy is the marriage of people who are not blood relatives This is regulated by incest taboos and laws against incest Cultural exogamy is marrying outside a specific cultural group the opposite being endogamy marriage within a social group Contents 1 Biology of exogamy 2 Cultural exogamy 2 1 Dual exogamy 3 Linguistic exogamy 4 See also 5 References 6 External linksBiology of exogamy EditExogamy often results in two individuals that are not closely genetically related marrying each other that is outbreeding as opposed to inbreeding In moderation this benefits the offspring as it reduces the risk of the offspring inheriting two copies of a defective gene Increasing the genetic diversity of the offspring improves the chances of offspring reproducing up until the fourth cousin level of relatedness however reproduction between individuals on the fourth cousin level of relatedness decreases evolutionarily fitness 2 3 In native populations exogamy might be detrimental if the benefits of local adaptation are greater than the cost of inbreeding However non native invasive populations that have not yet established a pattern of local adaptation may derive some adaptive benefit from admixture 4 Nancy Wilmsen Thornhill states that the drive in humans to not reproduce or be attracted to one s immediate family is evolutionarily adaptive as it reduces the risk of children having genetic defects caused by inbreeding as a result of inheriting two copies of a deleterious recessive gene 5 In one Old Order Amish society inbreeding increases the risk of neonatal and postneonatal mortality 6 In French populations people who reproduce with their first cousin develop cystinosis at a greater rate than the general population 7 Cultural exogamy EditThis section needs additional citations for verification Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources in this section Unsourced material may be challenged and removed March 2009 Learn how and when to remove this template message Cultural exogamy is the custom of marrying outside a specified group of people to which a person belongs Thus persons may be expected to marry outside their totem clan s or other groups in addition to outside closer blood relatives Researchers have proposed different theories to account for the origin of exogamy Edvard Westermarck said an aversion to marriage between blood relatives or near kin emerged with a parental deterrence of incest From a genetic point of view aversion to breeding with close relatives results in fewer congenital diseases If one person has a faulty gene breeding outside his group increases the chances that his partner will have another functional type gene and their child may not suffer the defect Outbreeding favours the condition of heterozygosity that is having two nonidentical copies of a given gene J F McLennan 8 holds that exogamy was due originally to a scarcity of women among small bands Men were obliged to seek wives from other groups including marriage by capture and exogamy developed as a cultural custom Emile Durkheim 9 derives exogamy from totemism He said that a people had religious respect for the blood of a totemic clan for the clan totem is a god and is present especially in the blood a sacred substance In some forms of Hinduism such as Shaktism people can only marry outside their gotra which is a traditional group of people who may be distantly related but have been living in the same area or have an ancestral home in the same area Morgan 10 maintains that exogamy was introduced to prevent marriage between blood relations especially between brother and sister which had been common in an earlier state of promiscuity Frazer 11 says that exogamy was begun to maintain the survival of family groups especially when single families became larger political groups Claude Levi Strauss introduced the Alliance Theory of exogamy 12 that is that small groups must force their members to marry outside so as to build alliances with other groups According to this theory groups that engaged in exogamy would flourish while those that did not would all die either literally or because they lacked sufficient ties for cultural and economic exchange leaving them at a disadvantage The exchange of men or women served as a uniting force between groups Dual exogamy Edit Dual exogamy is a traditional form of arranging marriages in numerous modern societies and in many societies described in classical literature It can be matrilineal or patrilineal It is practiced by some Australian tribes 13 historically widespread in the Turkic societies 14 15 Tai societies Ivory Coast 16 Eskimo 17 among Ugrians 18 and others In tribal societies the dual exogamy union lasted for many generations ultimately uniting the groups initially unrelated by blood or language into a single tribe or nation Linguistic exogamy EditLinguistic exogamy is a form of cultural exogamy in which marriage occurs only between speakers of different languages The custom is common among indigenous groups in the northwest Amazon such as the Tucano tribes 19 It is also used to describe families in Atlantic Canada with a Francophone and an Anglophone parent citation needed See also EditChinese surname surname exogamy in China Emmanuel Todd author of several demographic history textbooks on the impact of exogamy on political religious ideology Endogamy Gotra exogamous unit in India Heterophily Hypergamy Interfaith marriage Interracial marriage Kinship MiscegenationReferences Edit New Zealand Slavonic Journal Victoria University of Wellington 2002 Volumes 35 36 p 81 OCLC 297663912 Helgason A Palsson S Gudbjartsson DF Kristjansson T Stefansson K February 2008 An association between the kinship and fertility of human couples Science 319 5864 813 6 Bibcode 2008Sci 319 813H doi 10 1126 science 1150232 PMID 18258915 S2CID 17831162 Labouriau R Amorim A December 2008 Comment on An association between the kinship and fertility of human couples Science 322 5908 1634 author reply 1634 Bibcode 2008Sci 322 1634L doi 10 1126 science 1161907 PMID 19074330 Verhoeven KJ Macel M Wolfe LM Biere A January 2011 Population admixture biological invasions and the balance between local adaptation and inbreeding depression Proceedings Biological Sciences 278 1702 2 8 doi 10 1098 rspb 2010 1272 PMC 2992731 PMID 20685700 Thornhill N 1993 The Natural History of Inbreeding and Outbreeding Theoretical and Empirical Perspectives Chicago The University of Chicago Press Dorsten LE Hotchkiss L King TM May 1999 The effect of inbreeding on early childhood mortality twelve generations of an Amish settlement Demography 36 2 263 71 doi 10 2307 2648113 JSTOR 2648113 PMID 10332616 S2CID 26311145 Tchen P Bois E Feingold J Feingold N Kaplan J September 1977 Inbreeding in recessive diseases Human Genetics 38 2 163 7 doi 10 1007 BF00527398 PMID 302820 S2CID 8849012 McLennan JF 1888 The Origin of Exogamy The English Historical Review 3 9 94 104 doi 10 1093 ehr iii ix 94 Fraser JG 1910 Totemism and Exogamy Vol IV New York Cosimo Inc pp 100 102 ISBN 9781605209814 Morgan LH 1871 Systems of Consanguinity and Affinity of the Human Family Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge Smithsonian Institution 41 2 Frazer JG 1910 Totemism and Exogamy Vol IV New York Cosimo Inc p 95 ISBN 9781605209791 Alliance Theory Encyclopaedia Britannica Retrieved 15 March 2012 Bose JK 1980 Glimpses of Tribal Life in North east India Calcutta p 52 a href Template Cite book html title Template Cite book cite book a CS1 maint location missing publisher link Turkish Studies Association Bulletin 1982 Volume 6 p 79 Potapov LP 1969 Ethnic Composition and Origin of Altaians Science Leningrad 44 Effects of the growth of human activities on the Tai forest of the south west of the Ivory coast PDF UNESCO December 2017 permanent dead link Fainberg L 1967 On the Question of the Eskimo kinship system Arctic Anthropology 4 1 244 Golovnev AV From One to Seven Numerical Symbolism in Khanty Culture Arctic Anthropology 31 1 62 71 Jackson JE 1983 The Fish People Linguistic Exogamy and Tukanoan Identity in Northwest Amazonia Cambridge University Press External links Edit Exogamy Encyclopaedia Britannica 11th ed 1911 Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Exogamy amp oldid 1162955562, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,
