fbpx
Wikipedia

Afro-Cubans

February 15, 2024

For other uses, see Afro-Cuban (disambiguation).

Afro-Cubans or Black Cubans are Cubans of sub-Saharan African ancestry. The term Afro-Cuban can also refer to historical or cultural elements in Cuba thought to emanate from this community and the combining of native African and other cultural elements found in Cuban society such as race, religion, music, language, the arts and class culture.[2]

Black Cubans
Total population
1,034,044
(9.3% of the Cuban Population)[1] (2012)
Regions with significant populations
Eastern Cuba
Languages
Spanish, Lucumí, Habla Congo, English, Portuguese, Haitian creole,Cuban Sign Language
Religion
Afro-Cuban religions
Abakuá, Arará religion, Cuban Vodú, Palo, Santería
Popular religions
Predominantly Roman Catholic, minorities of Protestant
Related ethnic groups
Yoruba people, Arará, Cape Verdean Cuban, Ganga-Longoba, Haitian Cuban

Demographics edit

Main article: Demographics of Cuba

According to a 2012 national census which surveyed 11.2 million Cubans, 1 million Cubans described themselves as Afro-Cuban or Black, while 3 million considered themselves to be "mulatto" or "mestizo".[3] Thus a significant proportion of those living on the island affirm some African ancestry. Although, there has been much discussion over the actual demographic composition of the island. A study by the University of Miami estimated that number to be 62%, noting that complex attitudes towards racial identification, and the de facto racial hierarchy that has existed on the island, have influenced lower figures.[4] However, this figure of 62% was reached by using the one drop rule, which assumes any person with sub-Saharan African ancestry, regardless of the amount, is to be considered black.[citation needed] The one drop rule is not an accurate means of assessing a person's racial identity. [5][failed verification]

A study from 2014 estimated the genetic admixture of the population of Cuba to be 72% European, 20% African and 8% Native American.[6]

Although Afro-Cubans can be found throughout Cuba, Eastern Cuba has a higher concentration of Afro-Cubans than other parts of the island and Havana has the largest population of Afro-Cubans of any city in Cuba.[7] Recently, many native African immigrants have been coming to Cuba, especially from Angola.[8] Also, immigrants from Jamaica and Haiti have been settling in Cuba, most of whom settle in the eastern part of the island, due to its proximity to their home countries, further contributing to the already high percentage of blacks on that side of the island.[7]

The percentage of Afro-Cubans on the island increased after the 1959 Cuban revolution led by Fidel Castro due to mass migration from the island of the largely white Cuban professional class.[9] A small percentage of Afro-Cubans left Cuba, mostly for the United States (particularly Florida), where they and their U.S.-born children are known as Afro-Cuban Americans,[10] Cuban Americans, Hispanic Americans and African Americans. Only a few of them resided in nearby Spanish-speaking country of Dominican Republic and the U.S. territory of Puerto Rico.

The Minority Rights Group International says that "An objective assessment of the situation of Afro-Cubans remains problematic due to scant records and a paucity of systematic studies both pre- and post-revolution".[11]

Afro-Cuban descendants in Africa edit

African countries such as Nigeria, the home of the Yoruba cultures and Spanish Guinea experienced an influx of ex-slaves from Cuba brought there as indentured servants during the 17th century and again during the 19th century. In Spanish Guinea, they became part of the Emancipados; in Nigeria, they were called Amaros. Despite being free to return to Cuba when their tenure was over, they remained in these countries marrying into the local indigenous population. The former slaves were brought to Africa by the Royal Orders of September 13, 1845 (by way of voluntary arrangement) and a June 20, 1861, deportation from Cuba, due to the lack of volunteers. Similar circumstances previously occurred during the 17th century where ex-slaves from both Cuba and Brazil were offered the same opportunity.

Angola also has communities of Afro-Cubans, Amparos. They are descendants of Afro-Cuban soldiers brought to the country in 1975 as a result of the Cuban involvement in the Cold War. Fidel Castro deployed thousands of troops to the country during the Angolan Civil War. As a result of this era, there exists a small Spanish-speaking community in Angola of Afro-Cubans numbering about 100,000.

Haitian-Cubans edit

Main article: Haitian Cuban

Haitian Creole language and culture first entered Cuba with the arrival of Haitian immigrants at the start of the 19th century. Haiti was then the French colony of Saint-Domingue and the final years of the 1791–1804 Haitian Revolution brought a wave of French settlers fleeing with their Haitian slaves to Cuba. They came mainly to the east, and especially Guantánamo, where the French later introduced sugar cultivation, constructed sugar refineries and developed coffee plantations. By 1804, some 30,000 Frenchmen were living in Baracoa and Maisí, the furthest eastern municipalities of the province. Later, Haitians continued to come to Cuba to work as braceros (Spanish for "manual laborers") in the fields cutting cane. Their living and working conditions were not much better than slavery. Although they planned to return to Haiti, most stayed on in Cuba. For years, many Haitians and their descendants in Cuba did not identify themselves as such or speak Creole. In the eastern part of the island, many Haitians suffered discrimination. Classes in Creole are offered in Guantanamo, Matanzas and the City of Havana. There is a Creole-language radio program.

Religion edit

 
Santería icons at an open place of worship in Havana. Santería is a syncretism practiced by many Afro-Cubans

Afro-Cubans are predominantly Roman Catholic, with minorities of Protestant. Afro-Cuban religion can be broken down into three main currents: Santería, Palo Monte and include individuals of all origins. Santería is syncretized with Roman Catholicism.

Music edit

Main articles: Music of African heritage in Cuba and Music of Cuba § African heritage

Since the mid-19th century, innovations within Cuban music have been attributed to the Afro-Cuban community. Genres such as son, conga, mambo and chachachá combined European influences with sub-Saharan African elements. Cuban music evolved markedly away from the traditional European model towards improvisational African traditions.[12] Afro-Cuban musicians have taken pre-existing genres such as trova, country and rap and added their own realities of life in a socialist country and as black persons. Genres like Nueva Trova are seen as live representations of the revolution and have been affected by Afro-Cuban musicians like Pablo Milanes who included African spirituals in his early repertory.[13] Music in Cuba is encouraged both as a scholarly exercise and a popular enjoyment. To Cubans, music and study of it are integral parts of the revolution.[14] Audiences are proud of mixed ethnicity that makes up the music from the Afro-Cuban community, despite there being a boundary of distrust and uncertainty between Cubans and Afro-Cuban culture.[14]

African music and Afro-Cuban music mutually exchanged rhythmic patterns, melodies, and cultural elements, creating a dynamic musical interchange. African artists, particularly those from the Democratic Republic of Congo and Angola fused Afro-Cuban musical influences with their traditions, crafting distinct sounds. The result was an array of genres popular in West and Central Africa namely Congolese rumba, soukous, mbalax, semba, kizomba, and highlife. [15]

Afro-Cuban music can be divided into religious and profane. Religious music includes the chants, rhythms and instruments used in rituals of the religious currents mentioned above. Profane music includes rumba, guaguancó, comparsa (carnival music) and lesser styles such as the tumba francesa. Virtually all Cuban music is influenced by African rhythms. Cuban popular music, and much of the art music, combines influences from Spain and Africa in ways unique to Cuba. For example son combines African instruments and playing styles with the meter and rhythm of Spanish poetic forms.[16] While much of the music is performed in cut-time, artists typically use an array of time signatures like 6/8 for drumming beats. On the other hand, clave uses a polymetric 7/8 + 5/8 time signature.[17]

Afro-Cuban arts emerged in the early 1960s with musicians spearheading an amateur movement bringing African-influenced drumming to the forefront of Cuban music. For example, Enrique Bonne's drumming ensembles took inspiration from Cuban folklore, traditional trova, dance music, and American Jazz. Pello de Afrokan created a new dance rhythm called Mozambique that increased in popularity after his predominantly afro-Cuban folklore troupe performed in 1964. Afro-Cuban artists Mario Bauzá and Frank Grillo, known as Machito, were influential figures in shaping the Afro-Cuban community and its music. Bauzá, a trumpeter and composer, pioneered the fusion of Afro-Cuban rhythms with jazz, giving rise to the Afro-Cuban jazz movement which gained considerable popularity in the United States, Europe, and the Caribbean in the mid 20th century.[18]

Before the revolution, authorities considered Afro-Cuban religious music a lesser culture; religious drummers were persecuted and instruments were confiscated.[19] After the revolution, Afro-Cuban music could be practiced more openly, but authorities were suspicious due to its relation to Afro-Cuban religions. The first revolutionary institution created for the performing "national folklore" (Afro-Cuban artistic traditions) was Conjunto Folklórico Nacional.[12] Despite official institutional support from the Castro's regime, Afro-Cuban music was treated mostly with ambivalence throughout the second half of the 20th century. Audiences looked down on traditional and religious Afro-Cuban music as primitive and anti-revolutionary,[12] music educators continued pre-revolutionary indifference toward afro-Cuban folklore, and the religious nature of Afro-Cuban music led to criticisms of the government's whitening and de-Africanization of the music.[clarification needed] Religious concerts declined, musical instruments related to Santería were confiscated and destroyed, afro-Cuban celebrations were banned outright, and strict limits were placed on the quantity of religious music heard on the radio and television.[19] These attitudes softened in the 1970s and 1980s as the afro-Cuban community began to fuse religious elements into their music. In the 1990s, Afro-Cuban music became a mainstay of Cuba's tourism economy. Members of religious groups earned their living by performing and teaching ritual drumming, song, and dance, to tourists visiting the country.

Rap was adopted in 1999 and solidified with the rise of hip-hop group Orishas. Cuban hip-hop focused on criticism of the Cuban state and the global economic order, including racism, colonialism, imperialism, and global capitalism.[20]

Language edit

Other cultural elements considered to be Afro-Cuban can be found in language (including syntax, vocabulary, and style of speech).

The Afro-Cuban religions all maintain some degree of use of African languages. Santería and Abakuá both have large parts of their liturgy in African languages (Lucumí and Ñañigo, respectively) while Palo uses a mixture of Spanish and Kikongo, known as Habla Congo.

Racial consciousness edit

Main article: Racism in Cuba

According to anthropologists dispatched by the European Union, racism is entrenched in Cuba.[21] Afro-Cubans are systematically excluded from positions in tourism-related jobs, where they could earn tips in hard currencies.[21] According to the EU study, Afro-Cubans are relegated to poor housing, and African Cubans are excluded from managerial positions.[21]

Enrique Patterson, an afro-Cuban journalist and former University of Havana professor of Marxist philosophy, describes race as a "social bomb" and says that "If the Cuban government were to permit Afro-Cubans to organize and raise their problems before [authorities] ... totalitarianism would fall".[22] Esteban Morales Domínguez, a professor at the University of Havana, says that "The absence of the debate on the racial problem already threatens ... the revolution's social project".[22] Carlos Moore, who has written extensively on the issue, says that "There is an unstated threat, Afro-cubans in Cuba know that whenever you raise race in Cuba, you go to jail. Therefore the struggle in Cuba is different. There cannot be a civil rights movement. You will have instantly 10,000 black people dead. [...] The government is frightened to the extent to which it does not understand African Cubans today. You have a new generation of Afro-Cubans who are looking at politics in another way."[22] Barack Obama's victory has raised disturbing questions about the institutional racism in Cuba.[21] The Economist noted "The danger starts with his example: after all, a young, Afro-cuban, progressive politician has no chance of reaching the highest office in Cuba, although a majority of the island's people are of mostly African descent"[23]

In the years between the triumph of the revolution and the victory at Playa Girón the Cuban government was one of the world's most proactive regimes in the fight against discrimination. It achieved significant gains in racial equality through a series of egalitarian reforms early in the 1960s. Fidel Castro's first public address on racism after his rise to power was on March 23, 1959, at a labor rally in Havana, less than three months after he defeated Fulgencio Batista. He is quoted as saying: "One of the most just battles that must be fought, a battle that must be emphasized more and more, which I might call the fourth battle--the battle to end racial discrimination at work centers. I repeat: the battle to end racial discrimination at work centers. Of all the forms of racial discrimination the worst is the one that limits the colored Cuban's access to jobs. "[24] Castro pointed to the distinction between social segregation and employment, while placing great emphasis on correcting the latter. In response to the large amount of racism that existed in the job market, Castro issued anti-discrimination laws. In addition, he attempted to close the class gap between wealthy white Cubans and Afro-Cubans with a massive literacy campaign among other egalitarian reforms in the early and mid-1960s.[25] Two years after his 1959 speech at the Havana Labor Rally, Castro declared that the age of racism and discrimination was over. In a speech given at the Confederation of Cuban Workers in observance of May Day, Castro declared that the "just laws of the revolution ended unemployment, put an end to villages without hospitals and schools, enacted laws which ended discrimination, control by monopolies, humiliation, and the suffering of the people."[26] Although inspiring, many would consider the claim to be premature."[27]

Research conducted by Yesilernis Peña, Jim Sidanius and Mark Sawyer in 2003, suggests that social discrimination is still prevalent, despite the low levels of economic discrimination.[28] After considering the issue solved, the Cuban government moved beyond the issue of racism. His message marked a shift in Cuban society's perception of racism that was triggered by the change in government focus."[27] The government's announcement easily allowed the Cuban public to deny discrimination without first correcting the stereotypes that remained in the minds of those who grew up in a Cuba that was racially and economically divided. Many who argue that racism does not exist in Cuba base their claims on the idea of Latin American Exceptionalism. According to the argument of Latin American Exceptionality, a social history of intermarriage and mixing of the races is unique to Latina America. The large mestizo populations that result from high levels of interracial union common to Latin America are often linked to racial democracy. For many Cubans this translates into an argument of "racial harmony", often referred to as racial democracy. In the case of Cuba, ideas of Latin American Exceptionalism have delayed the progress of true racial harmony.[29]

In spite of all the promises and speeches by government leaders, racial discrimination against Afro-Cubans[30][31] continues to be a major Human Rights issue for the Cuban government,[32][33][34] even resulting in riots in Central Havana, a mostly black neighborhood in the capital.[35]

Most of the Latin population of Tampa in the 1950s was working class and lived in restricted areas, ethnic enclaves in the vicinity of Tampa's hundreds of cigar factories. African Cubans were tolerated to an extent in the Latin quarter (where most neighborhoods and cigar factories were integrated). Ybor City and its counterpart, West Tampa, were areas that bordered on other restricted sections-areas for U.S. blacks or whites only. In this Latin quarter, there existed racial discrimination despite its subtleness.[36]

Afrocubanismo edit

Main article: Afrocubanismo

During the 1920s and 1930s Cuba experienced a movement geared towards Afro-Cuban culture called Afrocubanismo.[37] The movement had a large impact on Cuban literature, poetry, painting, music, and sculpture. It was the first artistic campaign in Cuba that focused on one particular theme: African culture. Specifically it highlighted the struggle for independence from Spain, African slavery, and building a purely Cuban national identity. Its goal was to incorporate African folklore and rhythm into traditional modes of art.

History of the movement edit

The movement evolved from an interest in the rediscovery of African heritage. It developed in two very different and parallel stages. One stage stemmed from European artists and intellectuals who were interested in African art and musical folk forms.[38] This stage paralleled the Harlem Renaissance in New York, Négritude in the French Caribbean, and coincided with stylistic European Vanguard (like Cubism and its representation of African masks). It was characterized by the participation of white intellectuals such as Cubans Alejo Carpentier, Rómulo Lachatañeré, Fortunato Vizcarrondo, Fernando Ortiz and Lydia Cabrera, Puerto Rican Luis Palés Matos and Spaniards Pablo Picasso and Roger de Lauria. The African-inspired art tended to represent Afro-Cubans with cliché images such as a black man sitting beneath a palm tree with a cigar.

Poems and essays by Afro-Cuban writers began to be published in the 1930s in newspapers, magazines and books, where they discussed their own personal heritage. Afro-Cuban and Afro-Cuban heritage artists such as Nicolás Guillén, Alberto Arredondo and Emilio Ballagas brought light to the once-marginalized African race and culture. It became a symbol of empowerment and individuality for Afro-Cubans within the established Western culture of the Americas.[39]

This empowerment became a catalyst for the second stage to be characterized by Afro-Cuban artists making art that truly reflected what it meant to be Afro-Cuban. Beginning in the 1930s this stage depicted a more serious view of black culture like African religions and the struggles associated with slavery. The main protagonist during this stage of the movement was Nicolás Guillén.[40]

Results of the movement edit

The lasting reputation of the Afrocubanismo movement was the establishment of a New World art form that used aesthetics from both European and African culture.[41] Although the actual movement of Afrocubanismo faded by the early 1940s, Afro-Cuban culture continues to play a vital role in the identity of Cuba. It has been the Cuban Revolution that opened up a space for extended research of African ethnic roots in Cuba.[42] The rhetoric of the Revolution incorporates black history and its contribution as an important stratum of Cuban identity. The Revolution has funded many projects that restore the work of Afro-Cubans in an effort to accommodate an African-driven identity within the new anti-racist Cuban society.[43]

Notable Afro-Cubans edit

Arts and entertainment edit

Music edit

Politics edit

Science edit

Sports edit

See also edit

Footnotes edit

  1. ^ (PDF). www.one.cu. Archived from the original (PDF) on 3 June 2014. Retrieved 11 January 2022.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
  2. ^ The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company. Random House Unabridged Dictionary, Random House, Inc. 2006.
  3. ^ (PDF). www.one.cu. Archived from the original (PDF) on 3 June 2014. Retrieved 11 January 2022.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
  4. ^ . www.miamiherald.com. Archived from the original on 21 August 2013. Retrieved 1 September 2022.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
  5. ^ Writer, Steve Bradt Harvard Staff (9 December 2010). "'One-drop rule' persists". Harvard Gazette. Retrieved 2 September 2023.
  6. ^ Beatriz Marcheco-Teruel, Esteban J. Parra, Evelyn Fuentes-Smith, Antonio Salas, Henriette N. Buttenschøn, Ditte Demontis, María Torres-Español, Lilia C. Marín-Padrón, Enrique J. Gómez-Cabezas, Vanesa Álvarez-Iglesias, Ana Mosquera-Miguel, Antonio Martínez-Fuentes, Ángel Carracedo, Anders D. Børglum, Ole Mors, "Cuba: Exploring the History of Admixture and the Genetic Basis of Pigmentation Using Autosomal and Uniparental Markers", July 24, 2014. PLOS Genetics.
  7. ^ a b OECD Data Sheet
  8. ^ Kevin Edmonds (27 September 2013). "Cuba's Other Internationalism: Angola 25 Years Later".
  9. ^ "Race & Identity in Cuba". afrocubaweb.com.
  10. ^ Lopez, Antonio (2012). Unbecoming Blackness: The Diaspora Cultures of Afro-Cuban America. NYU Press. p. 4. ISBN 978-0-8147-6547-0.
  11. ^ "Cuba – Afro-Cubans". World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples. Minority Rights Group International. 2008. Retrieved 29 December 2013.
  12. ^ a b c Moore, Robin (2006). "Black Music in a Raceless Society: Afrocuban Folklore and Socialism". Cuban Studies. 37: 1–32. doi:10.1353/cub.2007.0009. S2CID 144443322 – via WorldCat Discovery Service.
  13. ^ Benmayor, Rina (1981). "La "Nueva Trova": New Cuban Song". Latin American Music Review. 2 (1): 11–44. doi:10.2307/780148. JSTOR 780148 – via WorldCat Discovery Service.
  14. ^ a b Garland, Phyl (1977). "Cuban Music: An Instrument of the Revolution". The Black Scholar. 8 (8–10): 16–24. doi:10.1080/00064246.1977.11413920 – via WorldCat Discovery Service.
  15. ^ "The African Roots of Cuban Music - the Elephant". 23 April 2021.
  16. ^ Guevara, Gema R. (2005). "Narratives of Racial Authority in Cuban Popular Music". Journal of Popular Music Studies. 17 (3): 255–274. doi:10.1111/j.1524-2226.2005.00045.x – via WorldCat Discovery Service.
  17. ^ King, Anthony (1961:14). Yoruba Sacred Music from Ekiti. Ibadan University Press.
  18. ^ "Frank "Machito" Grillo".
  19. ^ a b Moore, Robin (2006). Music and Revolution: Cultural Change in Socialist Cuba. Berkeley: University of California Press. p. 199. ISBN 9781423789666.
  20. ^ Saunders, Tanya (2012). "Black Thoughts, Black Activism: Cuban Underground Hip-Hop and Afro-Latino Countercultures of Modernity". Latin American Perspectives. 39: 42–60. doi:10.1177/0094582X11428062. S2CID 146195152 – via WorldCat Discovery Service.
  21. ^ a b c d "'Obama Effect' Highlights Racism in Cuba". New America Media. 15 December 2008.[permanent dead link]
  22. ^ a b c . Miami Herald. Archived from the original on 1 July 2009.
  23. ^ "Fifty years of the Castro regime – Time for a (long overdue) change". The Economist. 30 December 2008.
  24. ^ Speech at Havana Labor Rally . Transcript available on The University of Texas at Austin - Web Central
  25. ^ Perez, Louis A. Cuba: Between Reform and Revolution, New York. 2006, p. 326.
  26. ^ Speech given by Fidel Castro on April 8, 1961. Text provided by Havana FIEL Network.
  27. ^ a b Moore, C. 1995. Afro-Cubans and the Communist Revolution. Trenton, New Jersey: Africa World Press. Evidence collected in 2003 over proved.
  28. ^ Pena, Y., Jim Sidanis and Mark Sawyer. 2003. Racial Democracy in the Americas: A Latin and US Comparison. University of California, Los Angeles.
  29. ^ Mark Sawyer. Racial Politics in Post- Revolutionary Cuba.
  30. ^ Mirabal, Nancy (10 November 2017). "The Cuban Revolution and the Myth of Racial Inclusivity". AAIHS. Retrieved 20 October 2020.
  31. ^ Starr, Terrell Jermaine. "Opinion | Fidel Castro and communism's flawed record with black people". Washington Post. ISSN 0190-8286. Retrieved 20 October 2020.
  32. ^ Fernandes, Sujatha (24 May 2016). "Afro-Cuban Activists Fight Racism Between Two Fires". The Nation. ISSN 0027-8378. Retrieved 20 October 2020.
  33. ^ "CUBA – Race and Equality". Retrieved 20 October 2020.
  34. ^ "African-Americans: Blacks in Cuba 'treated with callous disregard' - CNN.com". www.cnn.com. Retrieved 20 October 2020.
  35. ^ Robinson, Eugene (12 November 2000). "Cuba Begins to Answer Its Race Question". Washington Post. ISSN 0190-8286. Retrieved 20 October 2020.
  36. ^ Black Cuban, Black American. Houston, Texas: Arte Publico Press, 130. Print.
  37. ^ Arnedo-Gómez, M. "Introduction." Writing Rumba. Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 2006: 1.
  38. ^ "Afrocubanismo", Encyclopedia of World Literature in the 20th Century. Ed. Lenard S Klein. Continuum: Continuum Publishing Company, 2008: 20.
  39. ^ Moore, R. "The Minorista Vanguard: Modernism and Afrocubanismo." Nationalizing Blackness: Afrocubanismo and artistic Revolution in Havana, 1920-1940. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1997:200.
  40. ^ Henken, T. "Cuban Literature-The Avant-Garde vs the Vanguard: Colonial Literature", in Cuba: A Global Studies Handbook. Santa Barbara: ABC_CLIO, 2008: 363.
  41. ^ "Literature of the Revolutionary Era", Encyclopedia of Cuba: People, history, culture. Ed. Luis Martinez Ternandez. Wesport: Greenwood Press, 2003: 345.
  42. ^ Rodríguez-Mangual, E. "Introduction", Lydia Cabrera and the Construction of an Afro-Cuban Cultural Identity. Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press, 2004: 17.
  43. ^ Rodríguez-Mangual, E. "Introduction", 18.

Further reading edit

  • Arnedo-Gómez, Miguel. "Introduction", Writing Rumba: The Afrocubanista Movement in Poetry. Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press. 2006: 1-170.
  • Duno-Gottberg, Luis, Solventando las diferencias: la ideología del mestizaje en Cuba. Madrid, Iberoamericana – Frankfurt am Main, Vervuert, 2003.
  • Finch, Aisha and Fannie Rushing (eds.), Breaing the Chains Forging the Nation: The Afro-Cuban Fight for Freedom and Equality. Baton Rouge, LA: Louisiana State University Press, 2019.
  • García, Cristina. "Introduction", Cubanismo! New York: Vintage Books, 2002: 1-364.
  • "Literature of the Recolutionary Era", Encyclopedia of Cuba: People, history, culture. Ed. Luis Martinez Ternandez 1st Vol. Wesport: Greenwood Press, 2003: 345-346.
  • Henken, Ted. "Cuban Literature-The Avant-Garde vs the Vanguard: Colonial Literature," Cuba: A Global Studies Handbook Global Studies :Latin America & The Caribbean. Santa Barbara: ABC_CLIO, 2008: 363-385.
  • Moore, Robin D. "The Minorista vanguard: Moderism and Afrocubanismo" Nationalizing Blackness: Afrocubansimo and artistic Revolution in Havana, 1920-1940.Pittsburg: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1997: 195-200.
  • Ródriguez-Mangual, Edna M. "Introduction" Lydia Cabrera and the Construction of an Afro Cuban Cultural Identity. Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press, 2004: 1-167.
  • "Afrocubanismo", Encyclopedia of World Literature in the 20th Century. Ed. Lenard S. Klein. 2nd ed. 4thvol. Continuum: Continuum Publishing Company, 1989: 20-21.

February 15, 2024
afro, cubans, other, uses, afro, cuban, disambiguation, black, cubans, cubans, saharan, african, ancestry, term, afro, cuban, also, refer, historical, cultural, elements, cuba, thought, emanate, from, this, community, combining, native, african, other, cultura. For other uses see Afro Cuban disambiguation Afro Cubans or Black Cubans are Cubans of sub Saharan African ancestry The term Afro Cuban can also refer to historical or cultural elements in Cuba thought to emanate from this community and the combining of native African and other cultural elements found in Cuban society such as race religion music language the arts and class culture 2 Black CubansTotal population1 034 044 9 3 of the Cuban Population 1 2012 Regions with significant populationsEastern CubaLanguagesSpanish Lucumi Habla Congo English Portuguese Haitian creole Cuban Sign LanguageReligionAfro Cuban religionsAbakua Arara religion Cuban Vodu Palo SanteriaPopular religionsPredominantly Roman Catholic minorities of ProtestantRelated ethnic groupsYoruba people Arara Cape Verdean Cuban Ganga Longoba Haitian Cuban Contents 1 Demographics 1 1 Afro Cuban descendants in Africa 1 2 Haitian Cubans 2 Religion 3 Music 4 Language 5 Racial consciousness 6 Afrocubanismo 6 1 History of the movement 6 2 Results of the movement 7 Notable Afro Cubans 7 1 Arts and entertainment 7 2 Music 7 3 Politics 7 4 Science 7 5 Sports 8 See also 9 Footnotes 10 Further readingDemographics editMain article Demographics of Cuba According to a 2012 national census which surveyed 11 2 million Cubans 1 million Cubans described themselves as Afro Cuban or Black while 3 million considered themselves to be mulatto or mestizo 3 Thus a significant proportion of those living on the island affirm some African ancestry Although there has been much discussion over the actual demographic composition of the island A study by the University of Miami estimated that number to be 62 noting that complex attitudes towards racial identification and the de facto racial hierarchy that has existed on the island have influenced lower figures 4 However this figure of 62 was reached by using the one drop rule which assumes any person with sub Saharan African ancestry regardless of the amount is to be considered black citation needed The one drop rule is not an accurate means of assessing a person s racial identity 5 failed verification A study from 2014 estimated the genetic admixture of the population of Cuba to be 72 European 20 African and 8 Native American 6 Although Afro Cubans can be found throughout Cuba Eastern Cuba has a higher concentration of Afro Cubans than other parts of the island and Havana has the largest population of Afro Cubans of any city in Cuba 7 Recently many native African immigrants have been coming to Cuba especially from Angola 8 Also immigrants from Jamaica and Haiti have been settling in Cuba most of whom settle in the eastern part of the island due to its proximity to their home countries further contributing to the already high percentage of blacks on that side of the island 7 The percentage of Afro Cubans on the island increased after the 1959 Cuban revolution led by Fidel Castro due to mass migration from the island of the largely white Cuban professional class 9 A small percentage of Afro Cubans left Cuba mostly for the United States particularly Florida where they and their U S born children are known as Afro Cuban Americans 10 Cuban Americans Hispanic Americans and African Americans Only a few of them resided in nearby Spanish speaking country of Dominican Republic and the U S territory of Puerto Rico The Minority Rights Group International says that An objective assessment of the situation of Afro Cubans remains problematic due to scant records and a paucity of systematic studies both pre and post revolution 11 Afro Cuban descendants in Africa edit African countries such as Nigeria the home of the Yoruba cultures and Spanish Guinea experienced an influx of ex slaves from Cuba brought there as indentured servants during the 17th century and again during the 19th century In Spanish Guinea they became part of the Emancipados in Nigeria they were called Amaros Despite being free to return to Cuba when their tenure was over they remained in these countries marrying into the local indigenous population The former slaves were brought to Africa by the Royal Orders of September 13 1845 by way of voluntary arrangement and a June 20 1861 deportation from Cuba due to the lack of volunteers Similar circumstances previously occurred during the 17th century where ex slaves from both Cuba and Brazil were offered the same opportunity Angola also has communities of Afro Cubans Amparos They are descendants of Afro Cuban soldiers brought to the country in 1975 as a result of the Cuban involvement in the Cold War Fidel Castro deployed thousands of troops to the country during the Angolan Civil War As a result of this era there exists a small Spanish speaking community in Angola of Afro Cubans numbering about 100 000 Haitian Cubans edit Main article Haitian Cuban Haitian Creole language and culture first entered Cuba with the arrival of Haitian immigrants at the start of the 19th century Haiti was then the French colony of Saint Domingue and the final years of the 1791 1804 Haitian Revolution brought a wave of French settlers fleeing with their Haitian slaves to Cuba They came mainly to the east and especially Guantanamo where the French later introduced sugar cultivation constructed sugar refineries and developed coffee plantations By 1804 some 30 000 Frenchmen were living in Baracoa and Maisi the furthest eastern municipalities of the province Later Haitians continued to come to Cuba to work as braceros Spanish for manual laborers in the fields cutting cane Their living and working conditions were not much better than slavery Although they planned to return to Haiti most stayed on in Cuba For years many Haitians and their descendants in Cuba did not identify themselves as such or speak Creole In the eastern part of the island many Haitians suffered discrimination Classes in Creole are offered in Guantanamo Matanzas and the City of Havana There is a Creole language radio program Religion edit nbsp Santeria icons at an open place of worship in Havana Santeria is a syncretism practiced by many Afro CubansAfro Cubans are predominantly Roman Catholic with minorities of Protestant Afro Cuban religion can be broken down into three main currents Santeria Palo Monte and include individuals of all origins Santeria is syncretized with Roman Catholicism Music editMain articles Music of African heritage in Cuba and Music of Cuba African heritage Since the mid 19th century innovations within Cuban music have been attributed to the Afro Cuban community Genres such as son conga mambo and chachacha combined European influences with sub Saharan African elements Cuban music evolved markedly away from the traditional European model towards improvisational African traditions 12 Afro Cuban musicians have taken pre existing genres such as trova country and rap and added their own realities of life in a socialist country and as black persons Genres like Nueva Trova are seen as live representations of the revolution and have been affected by Afro Cuban musicians like Pablo Milanes who included African spirituals in his early repertory 13 Music in Cuba is encouraged both as a scholarly exercise and a popular enjoyment To Cubans music and study of it are integral parts of the revolution 14 Audiences are proud of mixed ethnicity that makes up the music from the Afro Cuban community despite there being a boundary of distrust and uncertainty between Cubans and Afro Cuban culture 14 African music and Afro Cuban music mutually exchanged rhythmic patterns melodies and cultural elements creating a dynamic musical interchange African artists particularly those from the Democratic Republic of Congo and Angola fused Afro Cuban musical influences with their traditions crafting distinct sounds The result was an array of genres popular in West and Central Africa namely Congolese rumba soukous mbalax semba kizomba and highlife 15 Afro Cuban music can be divided into religious and profane Religious music includes the chants rhythms and instruments used in rituals of the religious currents mentioned above Profane music includes rumba guaguanco comparsa carnival music and lesser styles such as the tumba francesa Virtually all Cuban music is influenced by African rhythms Cuban popular music and much of the art music combines influences from Spain and Africa in ways unique to Cuba For example son combines African instruments and playing styles with the meter and rhythm of Spanish poetic forms 16 While much of the music is performed in cut time artists typically use an array of time signatures like 6 8 for drumming beats On the other hand clave uses a polymetric 7 8 5 8 time signature 17 Afro Cuban arts emerged in the early 1960s with musicians spearheading an amateur movement bringing African influenced drumming to the forefront of Cuban music For example Enrique Bonne s drumming ensembles took inspiration from Cuban folklore traditional trova dance music and American Jazz Pello de Afrokan created a new dance rhythm called Mozambique that increased in popularity after his predominantly afro Cuban folklore troupe performed in 1964 Afro Cuban artists Mario Bauza and Frank Grillo known as Machito were influential figures in shaping the Afro Cuban community and its music Bauza a trumpeter and composer pioneered the fusion of Afro Cuban rhythms with jazz giving rise to the Afro Cuban jazz movement which gained considerable popularity in the United States Europe and the Caribbean in the mid 20th century 18 Before the revolution authorities considered Afro Cuban religious music a lesser culture religious drummers were persecuted and instruments were confiscated 19 After the revolution Afro Cuban music could be practiced more openly but authorities were suspicious due to its relation to Afro Cuban religions The first revolutionary institution created for the performing national folklore Afro Cuban artistic traditions was Conjunto Folklorico Nacional 12 Despite official institutional support from the Castro s regime Afro Cuban music was treated mostly with ambivalence throughout the second half of the 20th century Audiences looked down on traditional and religious Afro Cuban music as primitive and anti revolutionary 12 music educators continued pre revolutionary indifference toward afro Cuban folklore and the religious nature of Afro Cuban music led to criticisms of the government s whitening and de Africanization of the music clarification needed Religious concerts declined musical instruments related to Santeria were confiscated and destroyed afro Cuban celebrations were banned outright and strict limits were placed on the quantity of religious music heard on the radio and television 19 These attitudes softened in the 1970s and 1980s as the afro Cuban community began to fuse religious elements into their music In the 1990s Afro Cuban music became a mainstay of Cuba s tourism economy Members of religious groups earned their living by performing and teaching ritual drumming song and dance to tourists visiting the country Rap was adopted in 1999 and solidified with the rise of hip hop group Orishas Cuban hip hop focused on criticism of the Cuban state and the global economic order including racism colonialism imperialism and global capitalism 20 Language editOther cultural elements considered to be Afro Cuban can be found in language including syntax vocabulary and style of speech The Afro Cuban religions all maintain some degree of use of African languages Santeria and Abakua both have large parts of their liturgy in African languages Lucumi and Nanigo respectively while Palo uses a mixture of Spanish and Kikongo known as Habla Congo Racial consciousness editMain article Racism in Cuba According to anthropologists dispatched by the European Union racism is entrenched in Cuba 21 Afro Cubans are systematically excluded from positions in tourism related jobs where they could earn tips in hard currencies 21 According to the EU study Afro Cubans are relegated to poor housing and African Cubans are excluded from managerial positions 21 Enrique Patterson an afro Cuban journalist and former University of Havana professor of Marxist philosophy describes race as a social bomb and says that If the Cuban government were to permit Afro Cubans to organize and raise their problems before authorities totalitarianism would fall 22 Esteban Morales Dominguez a professor at the University of Havana says that The absence of the debate on the racial problem already threatens the revolution s social project 22 Carlos Moore who has written extensively on the issue says that There is an unstated threat Afro cubans in Cuba know that whenever you raise race in Cuba you go to jail Therefore the struggle in Cuba is different There cannot be a civil rights movement You will have instantly 10 000 black people dead The government is frightened to the extent to which it does not understand African Cubans today You have a new generation of Afro Cubans who are looking at politics in another way 22 Barack Obama s victory has raised disturbing questions about the institutional racism in Cuba 21 The Economist noted The danger starts with his example after all a young Afro cuban progressive politician has no chance of reaching the highest office in Cuba although a majority of the island s people are of mostly African descent 23 In the years between the triumph of the revolution and the victory at Playa Giron the Cuban government was one of the world s most proactive regimes in the fight against discrimination It achieved significant gains in racial equality through a series of egalitarian reforms early in the 1960s Fidel Castro s first public address on racism after his rise to power was on March 23 1959 at a labor rally in Havana less than three months after he defeated Fulgencio Batista He is quoted as saying One of the most just battles that must be fought a battle that must be emphasized more and more which I might call the fourth battle the battle to end racial discrimination at work centers I repeat the battle to end racial discrimination at work centers Of all the forms of racial discrimination the worst is the one that limits the colored Cuban s access to jobs 24 Castro pointed to the distinction between social segregation and employment while placing great emphasis on correcting the latter In response to the large amount of racism that existed in the job market Castro issued anti discrimination laws In addition he attempted to close the class gap between wealthy white Cubans and Afro Cubans with a massive literacy campaign among other egalitarian reforms in the early and mid 1960s 25 Two years after his 1959 speech at the Havana Labor Rally Castro declared that the age of racism and discrimination was over In a speech given at the Confederation of Cuban Workers in observance of May Day Castro declared that the just laws of the revolution ended unemployment put an end to villages without hospitals and schools enacted laws which ended discrimination control by monopolies humiliation and the suffering of the people 26 Although inspiring many would consider the claim to be premature 27 Research conducted by Yesilernis Pena Jim Sidanius and Mark Sawyer in 2003 suggests that social discrimination is still prevalent despite the low levels of economic discrimination 28 After considering the issue solved the Cuban government moved beyond the issue of racism His message marked a shift in Cuban society s perception of racism that was triggered by the change in government focus 27 The government s announcement easily allowed the Cuban public to deny discrimination without first correcting the stereotypes that remained in the minds of those who grew up in a Cuba that was racially and economically divided Many who argue that racism does not exist in Cuba base their claims on the idea of Latin American Exceptionalism According to the argument of Latin American Exceptionality a social history of intermarriage and mixing of the races is unique to Latina America The large mestizo populations that result from high levels of interracial union common to Latin America are often linked to racial democracy For many Cubans this translates into an argument of racial harmony often referred to as racial democracy In the case of Cuba ideas of Latin American Exceptionalism have delayed the progress of true racial harmony 29 In spite of all the promises and speeches by government leaders racial discrimination against Afro Cubans 30 31 continues to be a major Human Rights issue for the Cuban government 32 33 34 even resulting in riots in Central Havana a mostly black neighborhood in the capital 35 Most of the Latin population of Tampa in the 1950s was working class and lived in restricted areas ethnic enclaves in the vicinity of Tampa s hundreds of cigar factories African Cubans were tolerated to an extent in the Latin quarter where most neighborhoods and cigar factories were integrated Ybor City and its counterpart West Tampa were areas that bordered on other restricted sections areas for U S blacks or whites only In this Latin quarter there existed racial discrimination despite its subtleness 36 Afrocubanismo editMain article Afrocubanismo During the 1920s and 1930s Cuba experienced a movement geared towards Afro Cuban culture called Afrocubanismo 37 The movement had a large impact on Cuban literature poetry painting music and sculpture It was the first artistic campaign in Cuba that focused on one particular theme African culture Specifically it highlighted the struggle for independence from Spain African slavery and building a purely Cuban national identity Its goal was to incorporate African folklore and rhythm into traditional modes of art History of the movement edit The movement evolved from an interest in the rediscovery of African heritage It developed in two very different and parallel stages One stage stemmed from European artists and intellectuals who were interested in African art and musical folk forms 38 This stage paralleled the Harlem Renaissance in New York Negritude in the French Caribbean and coincided with stylistic European Vanguard like Cubism and its representation of African masks It was characterized by the participation of white intellectuals such as Cubans Alejo Carpentier Romulo Lachatanere Fortunato Vizcarrondo Fernando Ortiz and Lydia Cabrera Puerto Rican Luis Pales Matos and Spaniards Pablo Picasso and Roger de Lauria The African inspired art tended to represent Afro Cubans with cliche images such as a black man sitting beneath a palm tree with a cigar Poems and essays by Afro Cuban writers began to be published in the 1930s in newspapers magazines and books where they discussed their own personal heritage Afro Cuban and Afro Cuban heritage artists such as Nicolas Guillen Alberto Arredondo and Emilio Ballagas brought light to the once marginalized African race and culture It became a symbol of empowerment and individuality for Afro Cubans within the established Western culture of the Americas 39 This empowerment became a catalyst for the second stage to be characterized by Afro Cuban artists making art that truly reflected what it meant to be Afro Cuban Beginning in the 1930s this stage depicted a more serious view of black culture like African religions and the struggles associated with slavery The main protagonist during this stage of the movement was Nicolas Guillen 40 Results of the movement edit The lasting reputation of the Afrocubanismo movement was the establishment of a New World art form that used aesthetics from both European and African culture 41 Although the actual movement of Afrocubanismo faded by the early 1940s Afro Cuban culture continues to play a vital role in the identity of Cuba It has been the Cuban Revolution that opened up a space for extended research of African ethnic roots in Cuba 42 The rhetoric of the Revolution incorporates black history and its contribution as an important stratum of Cuban identity The Revolution has funded many projects that restore the work of Afro Cubans in an effort to accommodate an African driven identity within the new anti racist Cuban society 43 Notable Afro Cubans editArts and entertainment edit Carlos Acosta dancer Laz Alonso actor Renny Arozarena actor Gaston Baquero poet Celia Cruz singer Sammy Davis Jr singer dancer actor Tony W Haywood Technologist Angel Escobar poet Lola Falana actress singer and dancer Rome Flynn actor Sara Gomez filmmaker Nicolas Guillen poet Nestor Hernandez photographer Georgina Herrera poet Wifredo Lam artist Coco Lopez artist Faizon Love actor Mellow Man Ace rapper Nancy Morejon poet Luis Moro actor and filmmaker Gina Torres actress Alexis Valdes artist and comedian Karamo BrownMusic edit Afro Cuban All Stars Francisco Aguabella percussionist Federico A Tata Guines Soto Alejo percussionist and bandleader Carlos Alfonso bassist and leader of Sintesis X Alfonso singer Alfredo Chocolate Armenteros trumpeter and bandleader cousin of Benny More Guillermo Barreto percussionist with Israel Cachao Lopez Abelardo Barroso singer and bandleader Mario Bauza musician and songwriter brother in law of Machito Ignacio Berroa percussionist Descemer Bueno singer composer and record producer Christina Milian singer songwriter actress Candido Camero percussionist Humberto Cane tres player and singer with Sonora Matancera son of Valentin Cane Changuito percussionist and former member of Los Van Van Felix Chappottin trumpeter and bandleader when Arsenio Rodriguez left Cuba never to return he handed over to him leadership of his group Julito Collazo percussionist and singer Celia Cruz singer Anga Diaz percussionist and former member of Irakere Barbarito Diez singer Addys D Mercedes singer Richard Egues flute player a member of Orquesta Aragon Ibrahim Ferrer singer Buena Vista Social Club Juan de Marcos Gonzalez musical director of the Buena Vista Social Club Ruben Gonzalez pianist Conjunto de Arsenio Rodriguez and Buena Vista Social Club Graciela singer stepsister of Machito Francisco Raul Machito Gutierrez Grillo singer musician and bandleader Marcelino Rapindey Guerra singer and composer Orlando Cascarita Guerra singer Amaury Gutierrez singer oscar Hernandez songwriter known for his lyrics Ella y yo and La rosa roja cousin of Alberto Arredondo s mother Generoso Tojo Jimenez trombonist Enrique Jorrin violinist composer and inventor of the cha cha cha rhythm Pedro Knight trumpeter with Sonora Matancera second husband manager after 1967 and eventual widower of Celia Cruz Xiomara Laugart singer Calixto Leicea trumpeter songwriter and arranger with Sonora Matancera Pio Leyva singer songwriter Buena Vista Social Club Olivia Longott singer Israel Cachao Lopez bassist composer and bandleader creator of the mambo and the first to record Cuban jam sessions descargas Orestes Macho Lopez pianist and songwriter brother of Cachao Orlando Cachaito Lopez bassist Buena Vista Social Club nephew of Cachao and Macho Antonio Machin singer and bandleader Rita Marley singer humanitarian and widow of Bob Marley Cheo Marquetti singer and bandleader Luis Marquetti composer cousin of Cheo Marquetti Ray Martinez American dance music icon Mellow Man Ace rapper Celeste Mendoza singer Pablo Milanes singer Rita Montaner singer pianist and actress Benny More singer and bandleader cousin of Alfredo Chocolate Armenteros Fats Navarro jazz musician Bola de Nieve singer and pianist Armando Peraza percussionist Ignacio Pineiro musician bandleader and composer Omara Portuondo singer Buena Vista Social Club Luciano Chano Pozo Afro Cuban jazz percussionist composer and bandleader Damaso Perez Prado the king of mambo composer and the creator of the bachata rhythm a variant of the guaracha Francisco Compay Segundo Repilado singer Duo Los Compadres Grupo de Compay Segundo and Buena Vista Social Club composer and bandleader Orlando Puntilla Rios percussionist singer and bandleader Arsenio Rodriguez musician bandleader and songwriter Yotuel Romero singer Lazaro Ros singer Gonzalo Rubalcaba jazz pianist Ramon Mongo Santamaria musician songwriter and bandleader Ramon Monguito el Unico Sardinas Quian singer Jon Secada singer Sen Dog rapper and member of Cypress Hill SpaceGhostPurrp record producer and rapper founder of Raider Klan Gustavo Tamayo guiro player with the groundbreaking band of Israel Cachao Lopez Bebo Valdes pianist Carlos Patato Valdes conga player and composer Chucho Valdes pianist and leader of Irakere son of Bebo Valdes Javier Vazquez songwriter arranger and pianist with Sonora Matancera son of Pablo Bubu Vazquez Gobin and brother of Elpidio Vazquez he succeeded Lino Frias on piano as a member of Sonora Matancera Maria Teresa Vera guitarist singer and composer Lupe Victoria La Lupe Yoli Raymond singer Yusa female bassistPolitics edit Salvador Valdes Mesa First Vice President of Cuba former trade union leader Political Bureau of the Communist Party of Cuba Juan Almeida Bosque politician and composer Victor Dreke Cuban revolutionary and second in command to Ernesto Che Guevara in the Congo Juan Gualberto Gomez 1890s revolutionary leader close collaborator of Jose Marti served as a member of the committee of consultations that drafted and amended the Constitution of 1901 and as a Representative and Senator Mariana Grajales part of the Cuban Independence War Antonio Maceo s mother Esteban Lazo Hernandez politician Antonio Maceo 1890s revolutionary leader Jorge Luis Garcia Perez human rights activist Rafael Serra writer and political journalist Harry Pombo Villegas Cuban Communist guerilla Enrique Tarrio far right activist and leader of the far right Proud Boys movementScience edit Arnaldo Tamayo Mendez cosmonaut first Latin American and first person of African descent in outer spaceSports edit Gilbert Arenas NBA Javier Arenas American football NFL Randy Arozarena MLB Yoel Romero Olympic wrestler and mixed martial artist Hector Lombard Olympic Judoka and mixed martial artist Alexis Vila Olympic wrestler Bert Campaneris MLB cousin of Jose Cardenal Jose Cardenal MLB Joel Casamayor boxer WBC Lightweight Champion Aroldis Chapman MLB Jose Contreras MLB Martin Dihigo Negro leagues Baseball Hall of Fame Yuniel Dorticos Boxer two time cruiserweight world champion having held the WBA title from 2017 to 2018 and the IBF title from 2019 to September 2020 Juan Carlos Gomez boxer former WBC Cruiserweight Champion Livan Hernandez MLB half brother of El Duque Orlando El Duque Hernandez MLB Yoan Pablo Hernandez professional boxer he held the unified IBF and Ring magazine cruiserweight titles between 2011 and 2015 as well as the WBA interim cruiserweight title in 2011 Kid Chocolate boxer former World Featherweight and Junior Lightweight Champion Orestes Kindelan most prolific home run hitter in the history of amateur Cuban baseball Minnie Minoso MLB Jose Napoles boxer former World Welterweight Champion also known as Mantequilla Napoles Sergio Oliva only bodybuilder to have ever beaten Arnold Schwarzenegger in a Mr Olympia competition Tony Oliva MLB three time batting champion Luis Ortiz professional heavyweight boxer and former WBA Heavyweight Champion Brayan Pena MLB Tony Perez MLB Hall of Fame Anthony Echemendia amateur wrestler Juan Pizarro MLB Yasiel Puig MLB Ana Fidelia Quirot athlete Alexei Ramirez MLB Sugar Ramos boxer former WBA Featherweight Champion Alexis Rubalcaba amateur boxer Felix Savon amateur boxer Javier Sotomayor world record holder in high jump Teofilo Stevenson amateur boxer Luis Tiant MLB Regla Torres volleyball player Cristobal Torriente Negro leagues Baseball Hall of Fame Odisnel Cooper Yordany Alvarez Alexis Copello Aricheell Hernandez Pedro Pichardo Havana Solaun Julio Cesar La Cruz Maikel Reyes Marcel HernandezSee also edit nbsp Cuba portal nbsp Africa portalAfro Latin Americans Latin America Black Latino Americans the United States Cabildo Cuba Emancipados Haitian Cuban MPLA Angolan Civil War Afro Cuban jazz Racism in CubaFootnotes edit Archived copy PDF www one cu Archived from the original PDF on 3 June 2014 Retrieved 11 January 2022 a href Template Cite web html title Template Cite web cite web a CS1 maint archived copy as title link The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language Fourth Edition Houghton Mifflin Company Random House Unabridged Dictionary Random House Inc 2006 Archived copy PDF www one cu Archived from the original PDF on 3 June 2014 Retrieved 11 January 2022 a href Template Cite web html title Template Cite web cite web a CS1 maint archived copy as title link Archived copy www miamiherald com Archived from the original on 21 August 2013 Retrieved 1 September 2022 a href Template Cite web html title Template Cite web cite web a CS1 maint archived copy as title link Writer Steve Bradt Harvard Staff 9 December 2010 One drop rule persists Harvard Gazette Retrieved 2 September 2023 Beatriz Marcheco Teruel Esteban J Parra Evelyn Fuentes Smith Antonio Salas Henriette N Buttenschon Ditte Demontis Maria Torres Espanol Lilia C Marin Padron Enrique J Gomez Cabezas Vanesa Alvarez Iglesias Ana Mosquera Miguel Antonio Martinez Fuentes Angel Carracedo Anders D Borglum Ole Mors Cuba Exploring the History of Admixture and the Genetic Basis of Pigmentation Using Autosomal and Uniparental Markers July 24 2014 PLOS Genetics a b OECD Data Sheet Kevin Edmonds 27 September 2013 Cuba s Other Internationalism Angola 25 Years Later Race amp Identity in Cuba afrocubaweb com Lopez Antonio 2012 Unbecoming Blackness The Diaspora Cultures of Afro Cuban America NYU Press p 4 ISBN 978 0 8147 6547 0 Cuba Afro Cubans World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples Minority Rights Group International 2008 Retrieved 29 December 2013 a b c Moore Robin 2006 Black Music in a Raceless Society Afrocuban Folklore and Socialism Cuban Studies 37 1 32 doi 10 1353 cub 2007 0009 S2CID 144443322 via WorldCat Discovery Service Benmayor Rina 1981 La Nueva Trova New Cuban Song Latin American Music Review 2 1 11 44 doi 10 2307 780148 JSTOR 780148 via WorldCat Discovery Service a b Garland Phyl 1977 Cuban Music An Instrument of the Revolution The Black Scholar 8 8 10 16 24 doi 10 1080 00064246 1977 11413920 via WorldCat Discovery Service The African Roots of Cuban Music the Elephant 23 April 2021 Guevara Gema R 2005 Narratives of Racial Authority in Cuban Popular Music Journal of Popular Music Studies 17 3 255 274 doi 10 1111 j 1524 2226 2005 00045 x via WorldCat Discovery Service King Anthony 1961 14 Yoruba Sacred Music from Ekiti Ibadan University Press Frank Machito Grillo a b Moore Robin 2006 Music and Revolution Cultural Change in Socialist Cuba Berkeley University of California Press p 199 ISBN 9781423789666 Saunders Tanya 2012 Black Thoughts Black Activism Cuban Underground Hip Hop and Afro Latino Countercultures of Modernity Latin American Perspectives 39 42 60 doi 10 1177 0094582X11428062 S2CID 146195152 via WorldCat Discovery Service a b c d Obama Effect Highlights Racism in Cuba New America Media 15 December 2008 permanent dead link a b c A barrier for Cuba s black people New attitudes on once taboo race questions emerge with a fledgling black movement Miami Herald Archived from the original on 1 July 2009 Fifty years of the Castro regime Time for a long overdue change The Economist 30 December 2008 Speech at Havana Labor Rally Transcript available on The University of Texas at Austin Web Central Perez Louis A Cuba Between Reform and Revolution New York 2006 p 326 Speech given by Fidel Castro on April 8 1961 Text provided by Havana FIEL Network a b Moore C 1995 Afro Cubans and the Communist Revolution Trenton New Jersey Africa World Press Evidence collected in 2003 over proved Pena Y Jim Sidanis and Mark Sawyer 2003 Racial Democracy in the Americas A Latin and US Comparison University of California Los Angeles Mark Sawyer Racial Politics in Post Revolutionary Cuba Mirabal Nancy 10 November 2017 The Cuban Revolution and the Myth of Racial Inclusivity AAIHS Retrieved 20 October 2020 Starr Terrell Jermaine Opinion Fidel Castro and communism s flawed record with black people Washington Post ISSN 0190 8286 Retrieved 20 October 2020 Fernandes Sujatha 24 May 2016 Afro Cuban Activists Fight Racism Between Two Fires The Nation ISSN 0027 8378 Retrieved 20 October 2020 CUBA Race and Equality Retrieved 20 October 2020 African Americans Blacks in Cuba treated with callous disregard CNN com www cnn com Retrieved 20 October 2020 Robinson Eugene 12 November 2000 Cuba Begins to Answer Its Race Question Washington Post ISSN 0190 8286 Retrieved 20 October 2020 Black Cuban Black American Houston Texas Arte Publico Press 130 Print Arnedo Gomez M Introduction Writing Rumba Charlottesville University of Virginia Press 2006 1 Afrocubanismo Encyclopedia of World Literature in the 20th Century Ed Lenard S Klein Continuum Continuum Publishing Company 2008 20 Moore R The Minorista Vanguard Modernism and Afrocubanismo Nationalizing Blackness Afrocubanismo and artistic Revolution in Havana 1920 1940 Pittsburgh University of Pittsburgh Press 1997 200 Henken T Cuban Literature The Avant Garde vs the Vanguard Colonial Literature in Cuba A Global Studies Handbook Santa Barbara ABC CLIO 2008 363 Literature of the Revolutionary Era Encyclopedia of Cuba People history culture Ed Luis Martinez Ternandez Wesport Greenwood Press 2003 345 Rodriguez Mangual E Introduction Lydia Cabrera and the Construction of an Afro Cuban Cultural Identity Chapel Hill The University of North Carolina Press 2004 17 Rodriguez Mangual E Introduction 18 Further reading editArnedo Gomez Miguel Introduction Writing Rumba The Afrocubanista Movement in Poetry Charlottesville University of Virginia Press 2006 1 170 Duno Gottberg Luis Solventando las diferencias la ideologia del mestizaje en Cuba Madrid Iberoamericana Frankfurt am Main Vervuert 2003 Finch Aisha and Fannie Rushing eds Breaing the Chains Forging the Nation The Afro Cuban Fight for Freedom and Equality Baton Rouge LA Louisiana State University Press 2019 Garcia Cristina Introduction Cubanismo New York Vintage Books 2002 1 364 Literature of the Recolutionary Era Encyclopedia of Cuba People history culture Ed Luis Martinez Ternandez 1st Vol Wesport Greenwood Press 2003 345 346 Henken Ted Cuban Literature The Avant Garde vs the Vanguard Colonial Literature Cuba A Global Studies Handbook Global Studies Latin America amp The Caribbean Santa Barbara ABC CLIO 2008 363 385 Moore Robin D The Minorista vanguard Moderism and Afrocubanismo Nationalizing Blackness Afrocubansimo and artistic Revolution in Havana 1920 1940 Pittsburg University of Pittsburgh Press 1997 195 200 Rodriguez Mangual Edna M Introduction Lydia Cabrera and the Construction of an Afro Cuban Cultural Identity Chapel Hill The University of North Carolina Press 2004 1 167 Afrocubanismo Encyclopedia of World Literature in the 20th Century Ed Lenard S Klein 2nd ed 4thvol Continuum Continuum Publishing Company 1989 20 21 Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Afro Cubans amp oldid 1206108716, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

article

, read, download, free, free download, mp3, video, mp4, 3gp, jpg, jpeg, gif, png, picture, music, song, movie, book, game, games.