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Pandya dynasty

February 16, 2024

The Pandyan dynasty, (Tamil: [paːɳɖijɐr]) also referred to as the Pandyas of Madurai, was an ancient Tamil dynasty of South India, and among the four great kingdoms of Tamilakam, the other three being the Pallavas, the Cholas and the Cheras.[7] Existing since at least the 4th to 3rd centuries BCE, the dynasty passed through two periods of imperial dominance, the 6th to 10th centuries CE, and under the 'Later Pandyas' (13th to 14th centuries CE). Under Jatavarman Sundara Pandyan I and Maravarman Kulasekara Pandyan I, the Pandyas ruled extensive territories including regions of present-day South India and northern Sri Lanka through vassal states subject to Madurai.[8][9]

Pandyan dynasty
Pāṇṭiya Pēraracu
The Pandya dynasty at its greatest extent in 1290 CE under Maravarman Kulasekara Pandyan I.
Capital
Official languagesTamil
Sanskrit[3][4]
Religion
Demonym(s)Pandiyar
GovernmentMonarchy
• 560–590 CE
Kadungon
• 1613–1618 CE
Varagunarama
Historical eraMedieval era
Today part ofIndia
Sri Lanka

The rulers of the three Tamil dynasties were referred to as the "three crowned rulers (the mu-ventar) of the Tamil country".[7][10] The origin and the timeline of the Pandya dynasty are difficult to establish.[9] The early Pandya chieftains ruled their country (Pandya Nadu) from the ancient period, which included the inland city of Madurai and the southern port of Korkai.[11][12] The Pandyas are celebrated in the earliest available Tamil poetry (Sangam literature").[9] Graeco-Roman accounts (as early as 4th century BCE[9]), the edicts of Maurya emperor Ashoka, coins with legends in Tamil-Brahmi script, and Tamil-Brahmi inscriptions suggest the continuity of the Pandya dynasty from the 3rd century BCE to the early centuries CE.[13][14][11] The early historic Pandyas faded into obscurity upon the rise of the Kalabhra dynasty in south India.[15]

From the 6th century to the 9th century CE, the Chalukyas of Badami or Rashtrakutas of the Deccan, the Pallavas of Kanchi, and Pandyas of Madurai dominated the politics of south India. The Pandyas often ruled or invaded the fertile estuary of Kaveri (the Chola country), the ancient Chera country (Kongu and central Kerala) and Venadu (southern Kerala), the Pallava country and Sri Lanka.[16] The Pandyas fell into decline with the rise of the Cholas of Thanjavur in the 9th century and were in constant conflict with the latter. The Pandyas allied themselves with the Sinhalese and the Cheras against the Chola Empire until it found an opportunity for reviving its frontiers during the late 13th century.[17]

The Pandyas entered their golden age under Maravarman I and Jatavarman Sundara Pandya I (13th century).[8][9] Some early efforts by Maravarman I to expand into the Chola country were effectively checked by the Hoysalas.[18] Jatavarman I (c. 1251) successfully expanded the kingdom into the Telugu country (as far north as Nellore), south Kerala, and conquered northern Sri Lanka.[8][9] The city of Kanchi became a secondary capital of the Pandyas.The Hoysalas, in general, were confined to Mysore Plateau and even king Somesvara was killed in a battle with Pandyas.[19] Maravarman Kulasekhara I (1268) defeated an alliance of the Hoysalas and the Cholas (1279) and invaded Sri Lanka. The venerable Tooth Relic of the Buddha was carried away by the Pandyas. During this period, the rule of the kingdom was shared among several royals, one of them enjoying primacy over the rest.[19] An internal crisis in the Pandya kingdom coincided with the Khalji invasion of south India in 1310–11.[9] The ensuing political crisis saw more sultanate raids and plunder, the loss of south Kerala (1312), and north Sri Lanka (1323) and the establishment of the Madurai sultanate (1334[2]).[20][21] The Pandyas of Ucchangi (9th–13th century), in the Tungabhadra Valley were related to the Pandyas of Madurai.[9]

According to tradition, the legendary Sangams ("the Academies") were held in Madurai under the patronage of the Pandyas, and some of the Pandyan rulers claimed to be poets themselves. Pandya Nadu was home to a number of renowned temples, including the Meenakshi Temple in Madurai. The revival of the Pandya power by Kadungon (7th century CE) coincided with the prominence of the Shaivite nayanars and the Vaishnavite alvars.[22] It is known that the Pandya rulers followed Jainism for a short period of time in history.[9][23]

Etymology and origin legends

The etymology of Pandya is still a matter of considerable speculation among scholars. One theory is that the word pandya is derived from the ancient Tamil word "pandu" meaning "old".[24] The theory suggests that in early historic Tamil lexicon the word pandya means old country in contrast with Chola meaning new country, Chera meaning hill country and Pallava meaning branch in Sanskrit.[25] Another theory is that the word Pandya is derived from the Sanskrit word Pandu to mean white or pale, in reference to king Pandu and the Pandavas.[26] Apart from these derivations mentioned, a number of other theories do appear in historical studies.[27]

According to the ancient Tamil legends, the three brothers Cheran, Cholan and Pandyan ruled in common at the southern city of Korkai. While Pandya remained at home, his two brothers Cheran and Cholan after a separation founded their own kingdoms in north and west.[28] Epic poem Silappatikaram mentions that the emblem of the Pandyas was that of a fish.[29] Indian traditions such as the Great Epics and the Puranas often associate southern India with Sage Agastya (who had his ashrama in the south). Agastya appears prominently in medieval Tamil literature also.[30]

Folklores attributes Alli Rani (meaning "the queen Alli") as one of the early historic rulers of the Pandyas. She is attributed as an "amazonian queen" whose servants were men and administrative officials and army were women.[31] She is thought of ruling the whole western and northern coast of Sri Lanka from her capital Kudiramalai, where remains of what is thought of as her fort are found.[32] She is sometimes seen as an incarnation of the Pandya associated gods, Meenakshi and Kannagi.[33]

Chandra-vamsa

The medieval Pandya kings were claimed to have belonged to the Chandra-vamsa or the Lunar Race.[34] They claimed Pururavas and Nahusha as ancestors.[35] Pururavas is listed as one of the ancestors in the Velvikudi Inscription of Nedunjadaiyan Varaguna-varman I (Jatila Parantaka Nedunjadaiyan).[36]

Sources of Pandya history

The Greek ambassador to Chandragupta Maurya, Megasthenes mentions Queens of Pandyas as 'Pandaia' and locates them in the south of India extending into ocean. It consisted of 365 villages which met the needs of the royal palace each day of the year. He described the queen as daughter of Heracles (by some author as Shiva or Krishna).[37] Madurai, capital of Pandyas is mentioned in Kautilya's Arthashastra (4th century BCE) as 'Mathura of the south'.[38]

Archaeological sources

 
Mangulam inscription (3rd and 2nd centuries BCE)

Pandyas are also mentioned in the inscriptions of Maurya emperor Asoka (3rd century BCE). In his inscriptions (2nd and 13th Major Rock Edict[39]) Asoka refers to the peoples of south India – the Cholas, Cheras, Pandyas and Satiyaputras.[40][41] These polities, although not part of the Maurya empire, were on friendly terms with Asoka:

The conquest by dharma has been won here, on the borders, and even six hundred yojanas (5,400–9,600 km) away, where the Greek king Antiochos rules, beyond there where the four kings named Ptolemy, Antigonos, Magas and Alexander rule, likewise in the south among the Cholas, the Pandyas, and as far as Tamraparni river.[42]

The earliest Pandya to be found in epigraph is Nedunjeliyan, figuring in the Tamil-Brahmi Mangulam inscription (near Madurai) assigned to 3rd and 2nd centuries BCE.[43] The record documents a gift of rock-cut beds, to a Jain ascetic. It is assumed that the people found in the Mangulam inscription, Nedunjeliyan, Kadalan, and Izhanchadikan predates rulers such as Talaiyanganam Nedunjelyan and Palyaga-salai Mudukudimi Peruvaludi.[44][39]

Kharavela, the Kalinga king who ruled during c. 1st century BCE, in his Hathigumpha inscription, claims to have destroyed an old confederacy of Tamil countries ("the tamira–desa–sanghata") which had lasted 132 years, and to have acquired a large quantity of pearls from the Pandyas.[41]

Silver punch-marked coins with the fish symbol of the Pandyas dating from around the same time have also been found.[45]

Early Tamil literature

The early historic Pandyas are celebrated in the earliest available Tamil poetry.[9] The poems refers to about twelve Pandya rulers.[13] According to tradition, the legendary Sangams ("the Academies") were held in Madurai under the patronage of the Pandyas. Several Tamil literary works, such as Iraiyanar Agapporul, mention the legend of three separate Sangams and ascribe their patronage to the Pandyas.[46]

 
Srivilliputhur Andal temple built by Pandyas Primarily, is the official Emblem of Tamil Nadu.[47]

Pandya rulers from early historic south India[48][13]

Pandya rulers – such as Nedunjeliyan, the Victor of Talaiyalanganam, and Mudukudimi Peruvaludi, the Patron of Several Sacrificial Halls ("the Palyaga-salai") – find mention in a number of poems (such as Mathuraikkanci).[44][49]

Beside several short poems found in the Akananuru and the Purananuru collections, there are two major works – Mathuraikkanci and Netunalvatai – which give a glimpse into the society and commercial activities in the Pandya country during the early historic period.[50][51] The Purananuru and Agananuru collections contain poems sung in praise of various Pandya rulers and also poems that were claimed to be composed by the rulers themselves.[52]

Besides the poems, king Peruvaludi is also mentioned in later copper-plate grant (8th–9th century CE).[49] In the work Mathuraikkanci, the author Mankudi Maruthanar, refers to his patron, Talaihalanganum Nedunjeliyan, as the Lord of Korkai and the Warlord of the Southern Parathavar People.[49] It contains a full-length description of Madurai and the Pandya country under the rule of Nedunjeliyan. In the famous battle of Talaiyalanganam (in east Tanjore), the Pandya is said to have defeated his enemies (which included the Chera and the Chola).[49] He is also praised for his victory of Mizhalai and Mutturu, two "vel" centres along the ocean (in Pudukkottai).[49] The Netunalvatai (in the collection of Pattupattu) by Nakkirar contains a description of king Nedunjeliyan's palace.[52]

Foreign sources

class=notpageimage|
South Asia circa 150 BCE.[53]

Greek and Latin sources (early centuries CE) refer to the ancient Tamil country, same as the Tamilakam, as "Lymyrike" or "Damirice" (or Dymirice/Dimirixe or Damirice) and its ruling families.[13]

  • Pandyas are also mentioned by Greek author Megasthenes (4th century BCE) where he writes about south Indian kingdom being ruled by women.[54] He described the Pandya country in Indika as "occupying the portion of India which lies southward and extends to the sea". According to his account, the kingdom had 365 villages, each of which was expected to meet the needs of the royal household for one day in the year. He described the Pandya queen at the time, Pandaia as the daughter of Herakles.[55][56]
  • Pliny the Elder refers to the Pandya ruler of Madurai in general terms (first century CE).[13]
  • The author of the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea (first century CE) describes the riches of a "Pandian kingdom"[13][14]

...Nelcynda is distant from Muziris by river and sea about five hundred stadia, and is of another kingdom, the Pandian. This place [Nelcynda] also is situated on a river, about one hundred and twenty stadia from the [Arabian] sea.... [57]

...the kingdom of Panyue is also called Hanyuewang. It is several thousand li to the southeast of Tianzhu (northern India)...The inhabitants are small; they are the same height as the Chinese...

Scholar John E. Hill identified Panyue as Pandya kingdom.[62] However, others have identified it with an ancient state located in modern Burma[63] or Assam.[64]

  • The Chinese traveler Xuanzang mentions a kingdom further south from Kanchipuram, a kingdom named Malakutta, identified with Madurai described by his Buddhist friends at Kanchipuram.[65]
  • In the later part of the 13th century (in 1288 and 1293 CE) Venetian traveller Marco Polo visited the Pandya kingdom and left a vivid description of the land and its people.[66][67]

The darkest man is here the most highly esteemed and[68] better than the others who are not so dark. Let me add that in very truth these people portray and depict their gods and their idols black and their devils white as snow. For they say that god and all the saints are black and the devils are all white. That is why they portray them as I have described.[69]

History

Early historic Pandyas

Main article: Early Pandyan Kingdom
 
Vaigai River in Madurai

Mauryan emperor Asoka (3rd century BCE) seems to have been on friendly terms with the people of south India and Sri Lanka (the Cholas, the Pandyas, the Satiya Putras, the Kerala Putras and the Tamraparnis). There are no indications that Asoka tried to conquer the extreme south India (the Tamilakam – the Abode of the Tamils).[70]

The three chiefly lines of the early historic south India – the Cheras, Pandyas and Cholas – were known as the mu-vendar ("the three vendars"). They traditionally based at their original headquarters in the interior Tamil Nadu (Karur, Madurai and Uraiyur respectively).[12] The powerful chiefdoms of the three ventar dominated the political and economic life of early historic south India.[71] The frequent conflicts between the Chera, the Chola and the Pandya are well documented in ancient (the Sangam) Tamil poetry.[72] The Cheras, Cholas and Pandyas also controlled the ports of Muziris (Muchiri), Korkai and Kaveri respectively (for the trade with the Graeco-Roman world).[12] The gradual shift from chiefdoms to kingdoms seems to have occurred in the following period.[71]

 
Pandya coin with temple between hills and elephant (Sri Lanka ca. 1st century CE) (British Museum)

The famous inscription of king Kharavela at Hathigumpha (mid-first century BCE[12]) mentions the defeat of a confederacy of the "Tramira" countries which had been a threat to Kalinga. It also remembers the precious pearls brought to the capital as booty from the "Pandya" realm.[73] The Pandya chiefdom was famous for its pearl fisheries and silk industry.[12] Korkai and Alagankulam are believed to have been the exchange centres of the Pandyas. Korkai, a port at the mouth of the river Tambraparni, was linked to the famous pearl fisheries and Alagankulam was also developed as a port.[74]

A number of coins attributed to early historic Pandyas are found from the region.[72] Inscriptions, datable to c. 2nd century BCE, recording royal grants – both from royals and wealthy commoners – were also discovered from the Pandya country.[75]

The Pandya seems to be the most prominent of the three "ventar" rulers. There are even references to a Pandya queen from 3rd century BCE representing a confederacy of the Tamil countries.[12] Madurai, in south Tamil Nadu, was the most important cultural centre in south India as the core of the Tamil speakers.[75] Megalithic relics such as menhirs, dolmens, urn burials, stone circles and rock-cut chambers/passages can be found in south India. Burial goods include iron objects, ivory ornaments, Black-and-Red Ware and even some Roman Imperial coins.[76] The so-called "velir" hill chieftains are assumed to be associated with these megalithic burials.[71]

Greek and Latin accounts (early centuries CE), coins with legends in Tamil-Brahmi script, and Tamil-Brahmi inscriptions suggest the continuity of the Pandya dynasty from the 3rd century BCE to early centuries CE.[13] The early Pandyas, along with the Cheras and the Cholas, were eventually displaced by the Kalabhra dynasty.[15]

Medieval Pandyas

Pandya revival (7th–10th centuries CE)

 
Vettuvan Koil, Kalugumalai, Tuticorin. Pandya kingdom, 8th century CE
 
Enthroned god Vishnu, Pandya dynasty, second half of the 8th–early 9th century CE (Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City)
 
Manikkavachakar, Shaiva poet-saint and minister of Pandya king Varaguna II (dated to early 12th century) Los Angeles County Museum of Art

The Pandya kingdom was revived by king Kadungon (r. 590–620 CE[16]) towards the end of the 6th century CE.[9][77] In the Velvikudi inscription, a later copper-plate, Kadungon appears as the "destroyer" of the "anti-Brahmanical" Kalabhra kings.[16] With the decline of the Kalabhra dynasty, the Pandyas grew steadily in power and territory. With the Cholas in obscurity in Uraiyur, the Tamil country was divided between the Pallavas of Kanchi and the Pandyas of Madurai.

From 6th century to 9th century CE, the Chalukyas of Badami, the Pallavas of Kanchi, and Pandyas of Madurai dominated the politics of south India. The Badami Chalukyas were eventually replaced by the Rashtrakutas in the Deccan.[78] The Pandyas took on the growing Pallava ambitions in south India, and from time to time they also joined in alliances with the kingdoms of the Deccan Plateau (such as with the Gangas of Talakad in late 8th century CE).[75] In the middle of the 9th century, the Pandyas had managed to advance as far as Kumbakonam (north-east of Tanjore on the Kollidam river).[75]

Sendan (r. 654–70 CE), the third king of the Pandyas of Madurai, is known for expanding his kingdom to the Chera country (western Tamil Nadu and central Kerala). Arikesari Maravarman (r. 670–700 CE), the fourth Pandya ruler, is known for his battles against the Pallavas of Kanchi. Pallava king Narasimhavarman I (r. 630–668 CE), the famous conqueror of Badami, claimed to have defeated the Pandyas. Chalukya king Paramesvaravarman I "Vikramaditya" (r. 670–700 CE) is known to have fought battles with the Pallavas, the Gangas, and probably with the Pandyas too, on the Kaveri basin.[16]

Kirtivarman II (r. 744/5–55 CE), the last Chalukya king, managed to lose to his southern countries as a result of his battles with the Pandyas. Pandya kings Maravarman Rajasimha I (r. 730–65 CE) and Nedunjadaiyan/Varagunavarman I (r. 765–815 CE) threatened Pallava king Nandivarman II Pallavamalla (r. 731–96 CE) who had managed to defeat the Gangas in c. 760 CE. Varagunavarman I invaded the Pallava country, conquered the Kongu country (western Tamil Nadu) and Venadu (south Kerala). King Srimara Srivallabha (r. 815–62 CE) sailed to Sri Lanka, subjugated king Sena I, and sacked his capital Anuradhapura (the Panya invasion of Sri Lanka followed a period of vassalage).[16] However, Srimara Srivallabha was soon overpowerd by Pallava king Nripatunga (r. 859–99 CE). Sena II, the king of Sri Lanka, invaded the Pandya country, sacked Madurai and chose Varagunavarman II (r. c. 862–880 CE[79]) as the new king soon after.[16] It is proposed that the start of the Kollam Era, the Kerala calendar, in 825 CE marked the liberation of Venadu from Pandya control.[80]

During the rule of Dantivarman (r. 796–847 CE), the Pallava territory was reduced by the encroachment from the Pandyas from the south (and Rashtrakutas and the Telugu-Cholas from north). Pallava king Nandivarman III (r. 846–69 CE) was able to defeat the Pandyas and Telugu-Cholas (and even the Rashtrakutas) with the help of the Gangas and the emerging Cholas.[16]

Pandya kings (6th–10th century CE)
Pandya ruler Reign Ref.
Kadungon c. 590–620 CE [16][79]
Maravarman Avanisulamani c. 620–645 CE [79]
Cheliyan Sendan (Chendan) c. 654–670 CE [16][79]
Arikesari Maravarman (Parankusan) c. 670–700 CE [16][79]
Ko Chadaiyan Ranadhira c. 700–730 CE [79]
Maravarman Rajasimha I c. 730–765 CE [16][79]
Jatila Parantaka Nedunjadaiyan

(Varaguna-varman I)

c. 765–815 CE [16][79]
Maravarman Srimara Srivallabha c. 815–862 CE [16]
Varaguna-varman II c. 862–880 CE [79]
Parantaka Viranarayana c. 880–900/905 CE [79]
Maravarman Rajasimha II c. 900–920 CE [79]
 
Kalugumalai Jain beds, Pandya kingdom, king Jatila Parantaka Nedunjadaiyan (8th century CE)

Under Chola influence (10th–13th centuries)

See also: Pandyan Civil War (1169-1177)
 
Pandya country in the Chola Empire (12th century)

While the Pandyas and the Rashtrakutas were busy engaging the Pallavas, with the Gangas and the Simhalas (Sri Lanka) also in the mix, the Cholas emerged from the Kaveri delta and took on the chieftains of Thanjavur[81] (the Mutharaiyar chieftain had transferred their loyalty from the Pallava to the Pandya[82]). The Chola king Vijayalaya conquered Thanjavur by defeating the Mutharaiyar chieftain around c. 850 CE.[82] The Pandya control north of the Kaveri river was severely weakened by this move (and straightened the position of the Pallava ruler Nripatunga).[82] Pandya ruler Varaguna-varman II (r. c. 862–880 CE[79]) responded by marching into the Chola country and facing a formidable alliance of Pallava prince Aparajita, the Chola king Aditya I and the Ganga king Prithvipati I. The Pandya king suffered a crushing defeat (c. 880 CE) in a battle fought near Kumbakonam.[82]

By c. 897 CE, Chola king Aditya I was the master of the old Pallava, Ganga and Kongu countries. It is a possibility that Aditya I conquered the Kongu country from the Pandya king Parantaka Viranarayana (r. 880–900 CE).[82] Parantaka I, successor to Aditya, invaded the Pandya territories in 910 CE and captured Madurai from king Maravarman Rajasimha II (hence the title "Madurai Konda").[82] Rajasimha II received help from the Sri Lankan king Kassapa V, still got defeated by Parantaka I in the battle of Vellur, and fled to Sri Lanka. Rajasimha then found refuge in the Chera country, leaving even his royal insignia in Sri Lanka, the home of his mother.[82][83]

The Cholas were defeated by a Rashtrakuta-lead confederacy in the battle of Takkolam in 949 CE.[17] By mid-950s, the Chola kingdom had shrunk to the size of a small principality (its vassals in the extreme south had proclaimed their independence).[17] It is a possibility that Pandya ruler Vira Pandya defeated Chola king Gandaraditya and claimed independence.[17] Chola ruler Sundara Parantaka II (r. 957–73) responded by defeating Vira Pandya I in two battles (and Chola prince Aditya II killed Vira Pandya on the second occasion). The Pandyas were assisted by Sri Lanka forces of king Mahinda IV.[17]

Chola emperor Rajaraja I (r. 985–1014 CE) is known to have attacked the Pandyas.[75] He fought against an alliance of the Pandya, Chera and Sri Lankan kings, and defeated the Cheras and "deprived" the Pandyas of their ancient capital Madurai.[84] Emperor Rajendra I continued to occupy the Pandya kingdom, and even appointed a series of Chola viceroys with the title "Chola Pandya" to rule from Madurai (over Pandya and Western Chera/Kerala countries). The very of beginning of Chola emperor Kulottunga's rule (r. from 1070 CE) was marked by the loss of Sri Lanka and a rebellion in the Pandya country.[84]

The second half of the 12th century witnessed a major internal crisis in the Pandya country (between princes Parakrama Pandya and Kulasekhara Pandya). The neighbouring kingdoms of Sri Lanka, under Parakramabahu I, Venadu Chera/Kerala, under the Kulasekharas,[84] and the Cholas, under Rajadhiraja II and Kulottunga III, joinined in and took sides with any of the two princes or their kins.[85][84]

Pandya kings (10th century–first half of 11th century CE):

  • Sundara Pandya I
  • Vira Pandya I (Veerapandyan)
  • Vira Pandya II
  • Amarabhujanga Tivrakopa
  • Srivallabha Manakulachala (1101–1124 CE)
  • Maravarman Srivallabha (1132–1161 CE)
  • Parakrama I (1161–1162 CE)
  • Kulasekara III
  • Vira Pandya III
  • Jatavarman Srivallabha (1175–1180 CE)
  • Jatavarman Kulasekara I (1190–1216 CE)[86]

Imperial Pandyas (13th–14th centuries)

The Pandya empire included extensive territories, at times including large portions of south India and Sri Lanka. The rule of the empire was shared among several royals, one of them enjoying primacy over the rest. The Pandya king at Madurai thus controlled these vast regions through the collateral family branches subject to Madurai.[9][87]

 
An aerial view of Madurai city from Meenakshi Temple
Pandya kings (13th–14th centuries CE)
Pandya ruler Reign
Maravarman Sundara I 1216–1238 CE
Sundaravarman Kulasekara II 1238–1240 CE
Maravarman Sundara II 1238–1251 CE
Jatavarman Sundara I 1251–1268 CE
Maravarman Kulasekara I 1268–1310 CE
Sundara Pandya IV 1309–1327 CE
Vira Pandya IV 1309–1345 CE

Maravarman Sundara I

The foundation for the Pandya supremacy in south India was laid by Maravarman Sundara I early in the 13th century.[88] He succeeded his older brother Jatavarman Kulasekhara in 1216.[89] He invaded the Chola country, sacked Uraiyur and Thanjavur, and drove the Chola king Kulothunga III into exile.[89][90] The Chola king subsequently made a formal submission to Maravarman Sundara I and acknowledged his overlordship.[89] Attempts by the next Chola king Rajaraja III (1216 – 46 CE[8]) for self-rule (to stop the Pandya invasion into the Chola country[8]), with the help of the Hoysalas king Narasimha II (r. 1220 – 1238 CE), resulted in a battle between the Pandya and Hoysala forces at Mahendramangalam on the Kaveri Valley. Maravarman Sundara I was defeated and Rajaraja III was restored in the Chola country.[89] Sometime later Chola prince Rajendra III attacked the Pandyas and defeated two Pandya royals including Maravarman Sundara II.[89] Hoysala king Somesvara (r. 1233 – 1267 CE[8]) then came to the aid of the Pandyas, defeated Rajendra III and then made peace with the Cholas.[89][90]

Jatavarman Sundara I

 
Jatavarman Vira II's fish insignia at Koneswaram temple in Trincomalee (Eastern Province)[91]

Jatavarman Sundara I ascended the Pandya throne in 1251 CE.[8] He led his army to the Chola country (even as far as Nellore), to Sri Lanka and to south Kerala.[8] He was also successful in confining the Hoysala control to the Mysore Plateau (the ancient Chola country was now overrun by the Pandyas[8]).[89] Kanchi functioned as the second major city in the kingdom.[89] In his conquests, Jatavarman Sundara I was assisted by number of Pandya royals such as Jatavarman Vira Pandya.[89]

Jatavarman Sundara I subdued Rajendra II around 1258–1260 CE and made him pay tribute.[90] The rule of the Cholas ended c. 1279 with Rajendra III.[8] The Pandya attacked the Hoysalas in the Kaveri and captured the fort of Kannanur Koppam.[89] Hoysala king Somesvara was forced to fall back into the Mysore Plateau.[89] The Hoysala king, pressed by enemies from north and south, "assigned" the southern half of his kingdom to his younger son Ramanatha (r. 1254–1292[8]). Somesvara was eventually killed by the Pandya in 1262 CE.[89] Ramanatha managed to recover Kannanur and hold against the Pandya power.[87][92][93] Jatavarman Sundara I also came into conflict with the Kadava ruler Kopperunjinga II.[94][89] It seems that Bana (Magadai) and Kongu countries came under the Pandya rule during the wars against the Hoysalas and the Kadavas.[89] Jatavarman Sundara I also fought the Kakatiya ruler Ganapati (1199–1262[8]).[87] Sri Lanka was invaded by Jatavarman Sundara I in 1258[95] and on his behalf by his younger brother Jatavarman Vira II between 1262 and 1264 CE.[96] The island was again invaded and defeated by Jatavarman Vira II in 1270 CE.[97]

Maravarman Kulasekara I

Sundara Pandya I (died in 1268) was succeeded by Maravarman Kulasekara I.[87] Around 1279 the combined force of Hoysala king Ramanatha and Rajendra III was defeated by Maravarman Kulasekara I.[87] Maravarman Kulasekara I, now virtually unchallenged, ruled over the Chola country and southern Tamil speaking portions of Hoysala kingdom. He also invaded Sri Lanka, ruled by Bhuvanaikabahu I, "carried away to the Pandya country the venerable Tooth Relic", and the wealth of the island.[87] Sri Lanka remained under Pandya control until c. 1308–1309 CE.[87]

Decline of Pandyas

After the death of Maravarman Kulasekhara I (1310), his sons Vira Pandya IV and Sundara Pandya IV fought a war of succession for control of the empire. It seems that Maravarman Kulasekhara wanted Vira Pandya to succeed him (who in turn was defeated by Sundara Pandya after a short period of time).[98] Unfortunately, the Pandya civil war coincided with the Khalji raids in south India.[99] Taking advantage of the political situation, the neighbouring Hoysala king Ballala III invaded the Pandya territory. However, Ballala had to retreat to his capital, when Alauddin Khalji's general Malik Kafur invaded his kingdom at the same time.[100] After subjugating Ballala III, the Khalji forces marched to the Pandya territory in March 1311.[101] The Pandya brothers fled their headquarters, and the Khaljis pursued them unsuccessfully.[102][103] By late April 1311, the Khaljis gave up their plans to pursue the Pandya princes, and returned to Delhi with the plunder.[104][105] By 1312 the Pandya control over south Kerala was also lost.[9][106]

After the departure of the Khaljis, Vira and Sundara Pandya resumed their conflict. Sundara Pandya was defeated, and sought help from the Khaljis. With their help, he regained control of the South Arcot region by 1314.[105] Subsequently, there were two more expeditions from the sultanate in 1314 led by Khusro Khan and in 1323 by Jauna Khan under the Punjab-born sultan Ghiyath al-Din Tughluq.[105]

The family quarrels and the sultanate invasions shattered the Pandya empire beyond revival[9] and coinage discoveries made imply that the Pandyas were left with the old South Arcot region.[107] In 1323, the Jaffna kingdom declared its independence from the crumbling Pandya influence.[20][21]

Tenkasi Pandyas (14th–16th centuries)

The Pandya kings from Sadaavarman Parakrama Pandya to his successors who ruled with Tenkasi as their capital.[108] With the invasion of the Sultanates, Vijayanagaras, and Nayakars from the fourteenth century onwards, the Pandyas lost their traditional capital of Madurai and shifted to cities like Tenkasi and Tirunelveli.[2] Tenkasi was the last capital of the Pandyas.[109] All the Pandyas from Sadaavarman Parakrama Pandya and his next generations were crowned in the Adheenam Mutt[110] in Kasi Viswanathar temple.[111] During the same period, some Pandyas ruled with Tirunelveli as their capital. Kayatharu, Vadakkuvalliyur, and Ukkirankottai are some of their major cities. Inscriptions on them are found in Tenkasi's Kasi Viswanathar temple, Brahmadesam, Tirunelveli dt.Brahmadesam, Cheranmadevi, Ambasamudram, Kalakkad and Pudukkottai. The last Pandyan king to be known in the history of the Pandyas was Kolakonda, who was also among the Tenkasi Pandyas.

Although the Vijayanagara Empire and the Nayaks ruled Madurai after the 14th century, they were occasionally opposed by the Pandyas. Sometimes they have ruled Madurai. Prominent among them were Saadavarman Vikrama Pandya (1401–1422 AD) and his son, Arikesari Parakrama Pandya.[112] They had built 32 forts around Madurai. Later, when Vishwanatha Nayakkar became the Madurai Mandalasuvaran, he feared of Pandya resurgence in Madurai. He divided Madurai into 72 districts, including 16 districts of those closest to the Pandyas.[113] He gave them positions and made them separate from the Pandyas. This made Pandyas to lose Madurai forever.[112]

King Period
Sadaavarman Parakrama Pandya 1422–1463 AD
Kulasekara Pandiyan III 1429–1473 AD
Aksharan Perumal Parakrama Pandya 1473–1506 AD
Kulasekara Pandya 1479–1499 AD
Sadaverman Sewallapa Pandya 1534–1543 AD
Parakrama Kulasekaran 1543–1552 AD
Nelveli Maran 1552–1564 AD
Sadaavarman Adeevirama Pandya 1564–1604 AD
Varathuranga Pandya 1588–1612 AD
Varagunarama Pandya 1613–1618 AD
Kollankondan (N.A.)

Legacy

While the previous sultanate raids were content with plunder, the Tughluqs under Ulugh Khan (later Muhammad bin Tughluq[2]) annexed the former Pandya dominions to the sultanate as the province of Ma'bar. Most of south India came under the sultanate rule and was divided into five provinces – Devagiri, Tiling, Kampili, Dorasamudra and Ma'bar.[107] Jalal ud-Din Hasan Khan was appointed governor of the newly created southernmost Ma'bar province.[114][115] In c. 1334, Jalal ud-Din Hasan Khan declared his independence and created Madurai sultanate.[2] The Pandyas shifted their capital to Tenkasi and continued to rule a small area until the end of the 16th century as Tenkasi Pandyas.[2]

Bukka Raya I of Vijayanagara empire conquered the city of Madurai in c. 1370,[2] imprisoned the sultan, released and restored Arcot's prince Sambuva Raya to the throne. Bukka Raya I appointed his son Veera Kumara Kampana as the viceroy of the Tamil region. Meanwhile, Madurai sultanate was replaced by the Nayak governors of Vijayanagara in 1378.[116] In 1529 the Nayak governors declared independence and established Madurai Nayak dynasty.[9]

Economy

Early history

 
Ancient Silk Road trade routes
 
The gopura of Nellaiappar Temple

The Pandya country, located at the extreme south-western tip of South Asia, served as an important meeting point throughout the history of the India. The location was economically and geopolitically significant as a key point connecting the shipping between Southeast Asia and the Middle East. Graeco-Roman merchants frequented the ancient Tamil country, present day south India and Sri Lanka, securing contacts with the Tamil chiefdoms of the Pandya, Chola and Chera families.[11] The western sailors also established a number of trading settlements on the harbours of the ancient Tamil region.[11] The trade with South Asia by the Greco-Roman world flourished since the time of the Ptolemaic dynasty[117] a few decades before the start of the Common Era and remained long after the fall of the Western Roman Empire.[118][119] The contacts between south India and the Middle East continued even after the Byzantium's loss of the ports of Egypt and the Red Sea[120] in the 7th century CE.

The early historic Pandya country was famous for its supply of pearls. The ancient port of Korkai, in present-day Thoothukudi, was the center of pearl trade. Written records from Graeco-Roman and Egyptian voyagers give details about the pearl fisheries off the Gulf of Mannar. Greek historian Megasthenes reported about the pearl fisheries, indicating that the Pandyas derived great wealth from the pearl trade.[121] Convicts were according to the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea used as pearl divers in Korkai.[122] The Periplus even mentions that "pearls inferior to the Indian sort are exported in great quantity from the marts of Apologas and Omana".[123] The pearls from the Pandya country were also in demand in the kingdoms of north India.[124] Literary references of the pearl fishing mention how the fishermen, who dive into the sea, avoid attacks from sharks, bring up the right-whorled chank and blow on the sounding shell.[125]

Pandya coinage

See also: Pandya coinage
 
One of the early coins of the Pandyas showing their emblem of the Two Fishes

The early coins of Tamilakam bore the symbols of the Three Crowned Kings, the tiger, the fish and the bow, representing the symbols of the Cholas, Pandyas and Cheras.[126] Coins of Pandyas bear the legend of different Pandya ruler in different times. The Pandyas had issued silver punch-marked and die struck copper coins in the early period.[127] A few gold coins were attributed to the Pandya rulers of this period. These coins bore the image of fish, singly or in pairs, which were their emblem.[128]

Some of the coins had the names Sundara, Sundara Pandya or merely the letter 'Su' were etched. Some of the coins bore a boar with the legend of 'Vira-Pandya.[129] It had been said that those coins were issued by the Pandyas and the feudatories of the Cholas but could not be attributed to any particular king. The coins of Pandyas were basically square. Those coins were etched with elephant on one side and the other side remained blank. The inscription on the silver and gold coins during the Pandyas, were in Tamil-Brahmi and the copper coins bore the Tamil legends.[130] The coins of the Pandyas, which bore the fish symbols, were termed as 'Kodandaraman' and 'Kanchi' Valangum Perumal'.[131] Apart from these, 'Ellamthalaiyanam' was seen on coins which had the standing king on one side and the fish on the other. 'Samarakolahalam' and 'Bhuvanekaviram' were found on the cois having a Garuda, 'Konerirayan' on coins having a bull and 'Kaliyugaraman' on coins that depict a pair of feet.[132]

Religion

 
God Vishnu, goddess Meenakshi and god Shiva (Meenakshi Temple, Madurai)

The Pandya period (c. 13th century CE) was characterised by a temple-centered elite form of Hinduism, a popular bhakti religion and an even more widespread local forms of Hinduism. The distinctions between the three were not clearly differentiated. The worship of the gods Vishnu and Shiva was generally supported by the elite and Shiva was generally later supported by the elite.[5] The bhakti movement emphasized the mutual intense emotional attachment between the god and the devotee.[133]

The Pandya country was home to a number of renowned temples including the Meenakshi Temple in Madurai.[134] As some of the largest employers and landowners of the Pandya country, the temples played an important part in the Tamil economy and society.[135] They generally also served as banks, schools, dispensaries, and poorhouses (thus performing valuable social functions). The large walled temple complexes of the Pandya country also contained several administrative offices and bazaars.[135]

It is known that the early Pandya rulers followed Jainism while at some point they converted to Hinduism. They supported the Bhakti movement from both Vaishnavism and Shaivism of Hinduism.[136]

Architecture

Further information: Pandyan art and architecture
 
Alagar Koyil, Tamil Nadu
 
Meenakshi Temple, Madurai
 
Vanamamalai Perumal temple, Nanguneri, Tamil Nadu

The early temple architecture phase in Tamil Nadu opens with the rock-cut cave temples.[137][138]

The Tamil country is home to the 'South Indian' or 'Dravidian' style of medieval temple architecture.[137]

  • Typical temple consists of a hall and a square sanctum (the gabhagrha)
  • The foundation block, or socle, is known as the adhisthana.
  • Walls of the sanctum are generally divided by pilasters.
  • Superstructure: 'kutina' type (stepped stories in pyramidal form with decorative bands/parapets or the hdras)
  • The parapet is composed of miniature shrines (called the kutas and salas) connected by wall elements (the harantaras).
  • On top, a necking that supports a solid dome, or cupola (crowned by a pot and finial)—the sikhara.
  • Gopura: the great entrance buildings[139]

The major Pandya contributions to the Dravidian architecture comes after the Pallava (7th–9th centuries) and the Chola periods (9th–12th centuries).[137]

  • Gopuras are extremely large and elaborately decorated (capped by a barrel vault).[137]
  • Successively built walls and gopuras.[137]

Finest Pandyan architectures:

Jambukeswarar Temple, Tiruchirapalli[137]

In popular culture

The Pandyas are a secondary subject of the Tamil films Aayirathil Oruvan (2010), Ponniyin Selvan: I (2022), Ponniyin Selvan: II (2023), and Yaathisai (2023).

See also

References

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Further reading

  • Balambal, V. (1998). Studies in the History of the Sangam Age. Kalinga Publications. ISBN 978-81-85163-87-1.
  • Carswell, John. 1991. "The Port of Mantai, Sri Lanka." RAI, pp. 197–203.
  • Curtin, Philip D. (1984). Cross-Cultural Trade in World History. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-26931-5.
  • Hill, John E. 2004. The Peoples of the West from the Weilüe 魏略 by Yu Huan 魚豢: A Third Century Chinese Account Composed between 239 and 265 CE. Draft annotated English translation.
  • Holl, Augustin (2003). Ethnoarchaeology of Shuwa-Arab Settlements. Lexington Books. ISBN 978-0-7391-0407-1.
  • Husaini, A.Q. (1972). History of The Pandya Country.
  • Keay, John (2000) [2001]. India: A history. India: Grove Press. ISBN 0-8021-3797-0.
  • Kulke, Hermann; Dietmar Rothermund (2004). A History of India (4 ed.).
  • Lindsay, W S (2006). History of Merchant Shipping and Ancient Commerce. Adamant Media Corporation. ISBN 0-543-94253-8.
  • Nagasamy, R (1981). Tamil Coins – A study. Institute of Epigraphy, Tamil Nadu State Dept. of Archaeology.
  • Purushottam, Vi. Pi. (1989). Cankakala Mannar Kalanilai Varalaru.
  • Ray, Himanshu Prabha, ed. 1996. Tradition and Archaeology: Early Maritime Contacts in the Indian Ocean. Proceedings of the International Seminar Techno-Archaeological Perspectives of Seafaring in the Indian Ocean 4th cent. BC – 15th cent. AD New Delhi, 28 February – 4 March 1994. New Delhi, and Jean-François SALLES, Lyon. First published 1996. Reprinted 1998. Manohar Publishers & Distributors, New Delhi.
  • Reddy, P. Krishna Mohan. 2001. "Maritime Trade of Early South India: New Archaeological Evidences from Motupalli, Andhra Pradesh." East and West Vol. 51 – Nos. 1–2 (June 2001), pp. 143–156.
  • Tripathi, Rama Sankar (1967). History of Ancient India. India: Motilal Banarsidass Publications. ISBN 81-208-0018-4.
  • Sastri, K. A. Nilakanta. The Pandyan Kingdom: From the Earliest Times to the Sixteenth Century.
  • N. Subrahmanian (1962). History of Tamilnad (To A. D. 1336). Madurai: Koodal. OCLC 43502446. Archived from the original on 23 November 2016.
  • Venkata Subramanian, T. K. (1988). Environment and Urbanisation in Early Tamilakam. Tamil University. p. 55. ISBN 978-81-7090-110-5. {{cite book}}: |work= ignored (help)
  • Banarsi Prasad Saksena (1992). "The Khaljis: Alauddin Khalji". In Mohammad Habib and Khaliq Ahmad Nizami (ed.). A Comprehensive History of India: The Delhi Sultanat (A.D. 1206–1526). Vol. 5 (Second ed.). The Indian History Congress / People's Publishing House. OCLC 31870180.
  • K.K.R. Nair (1987). "Venad: Its Early History". Journal of Kerala Studies. University of Kerala. 14 (1): 1–34. ISSN 0377-0443.
  • Kishori Saran Lal (1950). History of the Khaljis (1290–1320). Allahabad: The Indian Press. OCLC 685167335.
  • Noboru Karashima, ed. (2014). A Concise History of South India: Issues and Interpretations. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-809977-2.
  • Romila Thapar (2003). The Penguin History of Early India: From the Origins to AD 1300. Penguin Books India. ISBN 978-0-14-302989-2.
  • Peter Jackson (2003). The Delhi Sultanate: A Political and Military History. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-54329-3.

External links

  •   Media related to Pandyan Dynasty at Wikimedia Commons

February 16, 2024
pandya, dynasty, pandyan, dynasty, tamil, paːɳɖijɐr, also, referred, pandyas, madurai, ancient, tamil, dynasty, south, india, among, four, great, kingdoms, tamilakam, other, three, being, pallavas, cholas, cheras, existing, since, least, centuries, dynasty, pa. The Pandyan dynasty Tamil paːɳɖijɐr also referred to as the Pandyas of Madurai was an ancient Tamil dynasty of South India and among the four great kingdoms of Tamilakam the other three being the Pallavas the Cholas and the Cheras 7 Existing since at least the 4th to 3rd centuries BCE the dynasty passed through two periods of imperial dominance the 6th to 10th centuries CE and under the Later Pandyas 13th to 14th centuries CE Under Jatavarman Sundara Pandyan I and Maravarman Kulasekara Pandyan I the Pandyas ruled extensive territories including regions of present day South India and northern Sri Lanka through vassal states subject to Madurai 8 9 Pandyan dynastyPaṇṭiya PeraracuThe Pandya dynasty at its greatest extent in 1290 CE under Maravarman Kulasekara Pandyan I CapitalKorkai port early historic 1 Madurai till 1335 CE 2 Tenkasi till 1618 CE 2 Official languagesTamilSanskrit 3 4 ReligionHinduism main 5 JainismBuddhism minor Demonym s PandiyarGovernmentMonarchy 560 590 CEKadungon 1613 1618 CEVaragunaramaHistorical eraMedieval eraPreceded by Succeeded byChola Empire Tenkasi PandyasMadurai Nayak dynastyVijayanagara EmpireDelhi SultanateJaffna kingdomToday part ofIndiaSri LankaThe rulers of the three Tamil dynasties were referred to as the three crowned rulers the mu ventar of the Tamil country 7 10 The origin and the timeline of the Pandya dynasty are difficult to establish 9 The early Pandya chieftains ruled their country Pandya Nadu from the ancient period which included the inland city of Madurai and the southern port of Korkai 11 12 The Pandyas are celebrated in the earliest available Tamil poetry Sangam literature 9 Graeco Roman accounts as early as 4th century BCE 9 the edicts of Maurya emperor Ashoka coins with legends in Tamil Brahmi script and Tamil Brahmi inscriptions suggest the continuity of the Pandya dynasty from the 3rd century BCE to the early centuries CE 13 14 11 The early historic Pandyas faded into obscurity upon the rise of the Kalabhra dynasty in south India 15 From the 6th century to the 9th century CE the Chalukyas of Badami or Rashtrakutas of the Deccan the Pallavas of Kanchi and Pandyas of Madurai dominated the politics of south India The Pandyas often ruled or invaded the fertile estuary of Kaveri the Chola country the ancient Chera country Kongu and central Kerala and Venadu southern Kerala the Pallava country and Sri Lanka 16 The Pandyas fell into decline with the rise of the Cholas of Thanjavur in the 9th century and were in constant conflict with the latter The Pandyas allied themselves with the Sinhalese and the Cheras against the Chola Empire until it found an opportunity for reviving its frontiers during the late 13th century 17 The Pandyas entered their golden age under Maravarman I and Jatavarman Sundara Pandya I 13th century 8 9 Some early efforts by Maravarman I to expand into the Chola country were effectively checked by the Hoysalas 18 Jatavarman I c 1251 successfully expanded the kingdom into the Telugu country as far north as Nellore south Kerala and conquered northern Sri Lanka 8 9 The city of Kanchi became a secondary capital of the Pandyas The Hoysalas in general were confined to Mysore Plateau and even king Somesvara was killed in a battle with Pandyas 19 Maravarman Kulasekhara I 1268 defeated an alliance of the Hoysalas and the Cholas 1279 and invaded Sri Lanka The venerable Tooth Relic of the Buddha was carried away by the Pandyas During this period the rule of the kingdom was shared among several royals one of them enjoying primacy over the rest 19 An internal crisis in the Pandya kingdom coincided with the Khalji invasion of south India in 1310 11 9 The ensuing political crisis saw more sultanate raids and plunder the loss of south Kerala 1312 and north Sri Lanka 1323 and the establishment of the Madurai sultanate 1334 2 20 21 The Pandyas of Ucchangi 9th 13th century in the Tungabhadra Valley were related to the Pandyas of Madurai 9 According to tradition the legendary Sangams the Academies were held in Madurai under the patronage of the Pandyas and some of the Pandyan rulers claimed to be poets themselves Pandya Nadu was home to a number of renowned temples including the Meenakshi Temple in Madurai The revival of the Pandya power by Kadungon 7th century CE coincided with the prominence of the Shaivite nayanars and the Vaishnavite alvars 22 It is known that the Pandya rulers followed Jainism for a short period of time in history 9 23 Contents 1 Etymology and origin legends 1 1 Chandra vamsa 2 Sources of Pandya history 2 1 Archaeological sources 2 2 Early Tamil literature 2 3 Foreign sources 3 History 3 1 Early historic Pandyas 3 2 Medieval Pandyas 3 2 1 Pandya revival 7th 10th centuries CE 3 2 2 Under Chola influence 10th 13th centuries 3 3 Imperial Pandyas 13th 14th centuries 3 3 1 Maravarman Sundara I 3 3 2 Jatavarman Sundara I 3 3 3 Maravarman Kulasekara I 3 3 4 Decline of Pandyas 3 4 Tenkasi Pandyas 14th 16th centuries 3 4 1 Legacy 4 Economy 4 1 Early history 4 2 Pandya coinage 5 Religion 6 Architecture 7 In popular culture 8 See also 9 References 10 Further reading 11 External linksEtymology and origin legendsThe etymology of Pandya is still a matter of considerable speculation among scholars One theory is that the word pandya is derived from the ancient Tamil word pandu meaning old 24 The theory suggests that in early historic Tamil lexicon the word pandya means old country in contrast with Chola meaning new country Chera meaning hill country and Pallava meaning branch in Sanskrit 25 Another theory is that the word Pandya is derived from the Sanskrit word Pandu to mean white or pale in reference to king Pandu and the Pandavas 26 Apart from these derivations mentioned a number of other theories do appear in historical studies 27 According to the ancient Tamil legends the three brothers Cheran Cholan and Pandyan ruled in common at the southern city of Korkai While Pandya remained at home his two brothers Cheran and Cholan after a separation founded their own kingdoms in north and west 28 Epic poem Silappatikaram mentions that the emblem of the Pandyas was that of a fish 29 Indian traditions such as the Great Epics and the Puranas often associate southern India with Sage Agastya who had his ashrama in the south Agastya appears prominently in medieval Tamil literature also 30 Folklores attributes Alli Rani meaning the queen Alli as one of the early historic rulers of the Pandyas She is attributed as an amazonian queen whose servants were men and administrative officials and army were women 31 She is thought of ruling the whole western and northern coast of Sri Lanka from her capital Kudiramalai where remains of what is thought of as her fort are found 32 She is sometimes seen as an incarnation of the Pandya associated gods Meenakshi and Kannagi 33 Chandra vamsa The medieval Pandya kings were claimed to have belonged to the Chandra vamsa or the Lunar Race 34 They claimed Pururavas and Nahusha as ancestors 35 Pururavas is listed as one of the ancestors in the Velvikudi Inscription of Nedunjadaiyan Varaguna varman I Jatila Parantaka Nedunjadaiyan 36 Sources of Pandya historyThe Greek ambassador to Chandragupta Maurya Megasthenes mentions Queens of Pandyas as Pandaia and locates them in the south of India extending into ocean It consisted of 365 villages which met the needs of the royal palace each day of the year He described the queen as daughter of Heracles by some author as Shiva or Krishna 37 Madurai capital of Pandyas is mentioned in Kautilya s Arthashastra 4th century BCE as Mathura of the south 38 Archaeological sources nbsp Mangulam inscription 3rd and 2nd centuries BCE Pandyas are also mentioned in the inscriptions of Maurya emperor Asoka 3rd century BCE In his inscriptions 2nd and 13th Major Rock Edict 39 Asoka refers to the peoples of south India the Cholas Cheras Pandyas and Satiyaputras 40 41 These polities although not part of the Maurya empire were on friendly terms with Asoka The conquest by dharma has been won here on the borders and even six hundred yojanas 5 400 9 600 km away where the Greek king Antiochos rules beyond there where the four kings named Ptolemy Antigonos Magas and Alexander rule likewise in the south among the Cholas the Pandyas and as far as Tamraparni river 42 The earliest Pandya to be found in epigraph is Nedunjeliyan figuring in the Tamil Brahmi Mangulam inscription near Madurai assigned to 3rd and 2nd centuries BCE 43 The record documents a gift of rock cut beds to a Jain ascetic It is assumed that the people found in the Mangulam inscription Nedunjeliyan Kadalan and Izhanchadikan predates rulers such as Talaiyanganam Nedunjelyan and Palyaga salai Mudukudimi Peruvaludi 44 39 Kharavela the Kalinga king who ruled during c 1st century BCE in his Hathigumpha inscription claims to have destroyed an old confederacy of Tamil countries the tamira desa sanghata which had lasted 132 years and to have acquired a large quantity of pearls from the Pandyas 41 Silver punch marked coins with the fish symbol of the Pandyas dating from around the same time have also been found 45 Early Tamil literature The early historic Pandyas are celebrated in the earliest available Tamil poetry 9 The poems refers to about twelve Pandya rulers 13 According to tradition the legendary Sangams the Academies were held in Madurai under the patronage of the Pandyas Several Tamil literary works such as Iraiyanar Agapporul mention the legend of three separate Sangams and ascribe their patronage to the Pandyas 46 nbsp Srivilliputhur Andal temple built by Pandyas Primarily is the official Emblem of Tamil Nadu 47 Pandya rulers from early historic south India 48 13 Koon Pandya Nedunjeliyan I Aariyap Padai Kadantha Puda pandya Palyagasalai Mudukudumi Peruvaludi 44 Nedunjeliyan II Nan Maran Nedunj Cheliyan III Talaiyaalanganathu Seruvendra 44 Maran Valudi Kadalan Valuthi Musiri Mutriya Cheliyan Ukkirap Peruvaludi Alli Raani Neenmugan TammuzhPandya rulers such as Nedunjeliyan the Victor of Talaiyalanganam and Mudukudimi Peruvaludi the Patron of Several Sacrificial Halls the Palyaga salai find mention in a number of poems such as Mathuraikkanci 44 49 Beside several short poems found in the Akananuru and the Purananuru collections there are two major works Mathuraikkanci and Netunalvatai which give a glimpse into the society and commercial activities in the Pandya country during the early historic period 50 51 The Purananuru and Agananuru collections contain poems sung in praise of various Pandya rulers and also poems that were claimed to be composed by the rulers themselves 52 Besides the poems king Peruvaludi is also mentioned in later copper plate grant 8th 9th century CE 49 In the work Mathuraikkanci the author Mankudi Maruthanar refers to his patron Talaihalanganum Nedunjeliyan as the Lord of Korkai and the Warlord of the Southern Parathavar People 49 It contains a full length description of Madurai and the Pandya country under the rule of Nedunjeliyan In the famous battle of Talaiyalanganam in east Tanjore the Pandya is said to have defeated his enemies which included the Chera and the Chola 49 He is also praised for his victory of Mizhalai and Mutturu two vel centres along the ocean in Pudukkottai 49 The Netunalvatai in the collection of Pattupattu by Nakkirar contains a description of king Nedunjeliyan s palace 52 Foreign sources nbsp South Asia150 BCESATAVAHANASMAHAMEGHA VAHANASSAMATATASAUDUMBARASYAUDHEYASPAURAVASVRISHNISKUNINDASINDO GREEKSGRECO BACTRIANSMITRASARJUNAYANASMALAVASSHUNGASPANDYASCHOLASCHERASLOULANHAN DYNASTY class notpageimage South Asia circa 150 BCE 53 Greek and Latin sources early centuries CE refer to the ancient Tamil country same as the Tamilakam as Lymyrike or Damirice or Dymirice Dimirixe or Damirice and its ruling families 13 Pandyas are also mentioned by Greek author Megasthenes 4th century BCE where he writes about south Indian kingdom being ruled by women 54 He described the Pandya country in Indika as occupying the portion of India which lies southward and extends to the sea According to his account the kingdom had 365 villages each of which was expected to meet the needs of the royal household for one day in the year He described the Pandya queen at the time Pandaia as the daughter of Herakles 55 56 Pliny the Elder refers to the Pandya ruler of Madurai in general terms first century CE 13 The author of the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea first century CE describes the riches of a Pandian kingdom 13 14 Nelcynda is distant from Muziris by river and sea about five hundred stadia and is of another kingdom the Pandian This place Nelcynda also is situated on a river about one hundred and twenty stadia from the Arabian sea 57 The country of the Pandyas was described as Pandya Mediterranea and Modura Regia Pandionis by Ptolemy c 140 CE 13 58 Strabo states that an Indian king called Pandion sent Augustus Caesar presents and gifts of honour 59 12 The 1st century Greek historian Nicolaus of Damascus met at Antioch the ambassador sent by a king from India named Pandion or according to others Porus to Caesar Augustus c 13 CE Strabo XV 4 and 73 60 61 The Roman emperor Julian received an embassy from a Pandya about 361 CE 9 Chinese historian Yu Huan in his 3rd century CE text the Weilue mentions the Panyue kingdom the kingdom of Panyue is also called Hanyuewang It is several thousand li to the southeast of Tianzhu northern India The inhabitants are small they are the same height as the Chinese Scholar John E Hill identified Panyue as Pandya kingdom 62 However others have identified it with an ancient state located in modern Burma 63 or Assam 64 The Chinese traveler Xuanzang mentions a kingdom further south from Kanchipuram a kingdom named Malakutta identified with Madurai described by his Buddhist friends at Kanchipuram 65 In the later part of the 13th century in 1288 and 1293 CE Venetian traveller Marco Polo visited the Pandya kingdom and left a vivid description of the land and its people 66 67 The darkest man is here the most highly esteemed and 68 better than the others who are not so dark Let me add that in very truth these people portray and depict their gods and their idols black and their devils white as snow For they say that god and all the saints are black and the devils are all white That is why they portray them as I have described 69 HistoryEarly historic Pandyas Main article Early Pandyan Kingdom nbsp Vaigai River in MaduraiMauryan emperor Asoka 3rd century BCE seems to have been on friendly terms with the people of south India and Sri Lanka the Cholas the Pandyas the Satiya Putras the Kerala Putras and the Tamraparnis There are no indications that Asoka tried to conquer the extreme south India the Tamilakam the Abode of the Tamils 70 The three chiefly lines of the early historic south India the Cheras Pandyas and Cholas were known as the mu vendar the three vendars They traditionally based at their original headquarters in the interior Tamil Nadu Karur Madurai and Uraiyur respectively 12 The powerful chiefdoms of the three ventar dominated the political and economic life of early historic south India 71 The frequent conflicts between the Chera the Chola and the Pandya are well documented in ancient the Sangam Tamil poetry 72 The Cheras Cholas and Pandyas also controlled the ports of Muziris Muchiri Korkai and Kaveri respectively for the trade with the Graeco Roman world 12 The gradual shift from chiefdoms to kingdoms seems to have occurred in the following period 71 nbsp Pandya coin with temple between hills and elephant Sri Lanka ca 1st century CE British Museum The famous inscription of king Kharavela at Hathigumpha mid first century BCE 12 mentions the defeat of a confederacy of the Tramira countries which had been a threat to Kalinga It also remembers the precious pearls brought to the capital as booty from the Pandya realm 73 The Pandya chiefdom was famous for its pearl fisheries and silk industry 12 Korkai and Alagankulam are believed to have been the exchange centres of the Pandyas Korkai a port at the mouth of the river Tambraparni was linked to the famous pearl fisheries and Alagankulam was also developed as a port 74 A number of coins attributed to early historic Pandyas are found from the region 72 Inscriptions datable to c 2nd century BCE recording royal grants both from royals and wealthy commoners were also discovered from the Pandya country 75 The Pandya seems to be the most prominent of the three ventar rulers There are even references to a Pandya queen from 3rd century BCE representing a confederacy of the Tamil countries 12 Madurai in south Tamil Nadu was the most important cultural centre in south India as the core of the Tamil speakers 75 Megalithic relics such as menhirs dolmens urn burials stone circles and rock cut chambers passages can be found in south India Burial goods include iron objects ivory ornaments Black and Red Ware and even some Roman Imperial coins 76 The so called velir hill chieftains are assumed to be associated with these megalithic burials 71 Greek and Latin accounts early centuries CE coins with legends in Tamil Brahmi script and Tamil Brahmi inscriptions suggest the continuity of the Pandya dynasty from the 3rd century BCE to early centuries CE 13 The early Pandyas along with the Cheras and the Cholas were eventually displaced by the Kalabhra dynasty 15 Medieval Pandyas Pandya revival 7th 10th centuries CE nbsp Vettuvan Koil Kalugumalai Tuticorin Pandya kingdom 8th century CE nbsp Enthroned god Vishnu Pandya dynasty second half of the 8th early 9th century CE Metropolitan Museum of Art New York City nbsp Manikkavachakar Shaiva poet saint and minister of Pandya king Varaguna II dated to early 12th century Los Angeles County Museum of ArtThe Pandya kingdom was revived by king Kadungon r 590 620 CE 16 towards the end of the 6th century CE 9 77 In the Velvikudi inscription a later copper plate Kadungon appears as the destroyer of the anti Brahmanical Kalabhra kings 16 With the decline of the Kalabhra dynasty the Pandyas grew steadily in power and territory With the Cholas in obscurity in Uraiyur the Tamil country was divided between the Pallavas of Kanchi and the Pandyas of Madurai From 6th century to 9th century CE the Chalukyas of Badami the Pallavas of Kanchi and Pandyas of Madurai dominated the politics of south India The Badami Chalukyas were eventually replaced by the Rashtrakutas in the Deccan 78 The Pandyas took on the growing Pallava ambitions in south India and from time to time they also joined in alliances with the kingdoms of the Deccan Plateau such as with the Gangas of Talakad in late 8th century CE 75 In the middle of the 9th century the Pandyas had managed to advance as far as Kumbakonam north east of Tanjore on the Kollidam river 75 Sendan r 654 70 CE the third king of the Pandyas of Madurai is known for expanding his kingdom to the Chera country western Tamil Nadu and central Kerala Arikesari Maravarman r 670 700 CE the fourth Pandya ruler is known for his battles against the Pallavas of Kanchi Pallava king Narasimhavarman I r 630 668 CE the famous conqueror of Badami claimed to have defeated the Pandyas Chalukya king Paramesvaravarman I Vikramaditya r 670 700 CE is known to have fought battles with the Pallavas the Gangas and probably with the Pandyas too on the Kaveri basin 16 Kirtivarman II r 744 5 55 CE the last Chalukya king managed to lose to his southern countries as a result of his battles with the Pandyas Pandya kings Maravarman Rajasimha I r 730 65 CE and Nedunjadaiyan Varagunavarman I r 765 815 CE threatened Pallava king Nandivarman II Pallavamalla r 731 96 CE who had managed to defeat the Gangas in c 760 CE Varagunavarman I invaded the Pallava country conquered the Kongu country western Tamil Nadu and Venadu south Kerala King Srimara Srivallabha r 815 62 CE sailed to Sri Lanka subjugated king Sena I and sacked his capital Anuradhapura the Panya invasion of Sri Lanka followed a period of vassalage 16 However Srimara Srivallabha was soon overpowerd by Pallava king Nripatunga r 859 99 CE Sena II the king of Sri Lanka invaded the Pandya country sacked Madurai and chose Varagunavarman II r c 862 880 CE 79 as the new king soon after 16 It is proposed that the start of the Kollam Era the Kerala calendar in 825 CE marked the liberation of Venadu from Pandya control 80 During the rule of Dantivarman r 796 847 CE the Pallava territory was reduced by the encroachment from the Pandyas from the south and Rashtrakutas and the Telugu Cholas from north Pallava king Nandivarman III r 846 69 CE was able to defeat the Pandyas and Telugu Cholas and even the Rashtrakutas with the help of the Gangas and the emerging Cholas 16 Pandya kings 6th 10th century CE Pandya ruler Reign Ref Kadungon c 590 620 CE 16 79 Maravarman Avanisulamani c 620 645 CE 79 Cheliyan Sendan Chendan c 654 670 CE 16 79 Arikesari Maravarman Parankusan c 670 700 CE 16 79 Ko Chadaiyan Ranadhira c 700 730 CE 79 Maravarman Rajasimha I c 730 765 CE 16 79 Jatila Parantaka Nedunjadaiyan Varaguna varman I c 765 815 CE 16 79 Maravarman Srimara Srivallabha c 815 862 CE 16 Varaguna varman II c 862 880 CE 79 Parantaka Viranarayana c 880 900 905 CE 79 Maravarman Rajasimha II c 900 920 CE 79 nbsp Kalugumalai Jain beds Pandya kingdom king Jatila Parantaka Nedunjadaiyan 8th century CE Under Chola influence 10th 13th centuries See also Pandyan Civil War 1169 1177 nbsp Pandya country in the Chola Empire 12th century While the Pandyas and the Rashtrakutas were busy engaging the Pallavas with the Gangas and the Simhalas Sri Lanka also in the mix the Cholas emerged from the Kaveri delta and took on the chieftains of Thanjavur 81 the Mutharaiyar chieftain had transferred their loyalty from the Pallava to the Pandya 82 The Chola king Vijayalaya conquered Thanjavur by defeating the Mutharaiyar chieftain around c 850 CE 82 The Pandya control north of the Kaveri river was severely weakened by this move and straightened the position of the Pallava ruler Nripatunga 82 Pandya ruler Varaguna varman II r c 862 880 CE 79 responded by marching into the Chola country and facing a formidable alliance of Pallava prince Aparajita the Chola king Aditya I and the Ganga king Prithvipati I The Pandya king suffered a crushing defeat c 880 CE in a battle fought near Kumbakonam 82 By c 897 CE Chola king Aditya I was the master of the old Pallava Ganga and Kongu countries It is a possibility that Aditya I conquered the Kongu country from the Pandya king Parantaka Viranarayana r 880 900 CE 82 Parantaka I successor to Aditya invaded the Pandya territories in 910 CE and captured Madurai from king Maravarman Rajasimha II hence the title Madurai Konda 82 Rajasimha II received help from the Sri Lankan king Kassapa V still got defeated by Parantaka I in the battle of Vellur and fled to Sri Lanka Rajasimha then found refuge in the Chera country leaving even his royal insignia in Sri Lanka the home of his mother 82 83 The Cholas were defeated by a Rashtrakuta lead confederacy in the battle of Takkolam in 949 CE 17 By mid 950s the Chola kingdom had shrunk to the size of a small principality its vassals in the extreme south had proclaimed their independence 17 It is a possibility that Pandya ruler Vira Pandya defeated Chola king Gandaraditya and claimed independence 17 Chola ruler Sundara Parantaka II r 957 73 responded by defeating Vira Pandya I in two battles and Chola prince Aditya II killed Vira Pandya on the second occasion The Pandyas were assisted by Sri Lanka forces of king Mahinda IV 17 Chola emperor Rajaraja I r 985 1014 CE is known to have attacked the Pandyas 75 He fought against an alliance of the Pandya Chera and Sri Lankan kings and defeated the Cheras and deprived the Pandyas of their ancient capital Madurai 84 Emperor Rajendra I continued to occupy the Pandya kingdom and even appointed a series of Chola viceroys with the title Chola Pandya to rule from Madurai over Pandya and Western Chera Kerala countries The very of beginning of Chola emperor Kulottunga s rule r from 1070 CE was marked by the loss of Sri Lanka and a rebellion in the Pandya country 84 The second half of the 12th century witnessed a major internal crisis in the Pandya country between princes Parakrama Pandya and Kulasekhara Pandya The neighbouring kingdoms of Sri Lanka under Parakramabahu I Venadu Chera Kerala under the Kulasekharas 84 and the Cholas under Rajadhiraja II and Kulottunga III joinined in and took sides with any of the two princes or their kins 85 84 Pandya kings 10th century first half of 11th century CE Sundara Pandya I Vira Pandya I Veerapandyan Vira Pandya II Amarabhujanga Tivrakopa Srivallabha Manakulachala 1101 1124 CE Maravarman Srivallabha 1132 1161 CE Parakrama I 1161 1162 CE Kulasekara III Vira Pandya III Jatavarman Srivallabha 1175 1180 CE Jatavarman Kulasekara I 1190 1216 CE 86 Imperial Pandyas 13th 14th centuries The Pandya empire included extensive territories at times including large portions of south India and Sri Lanka The rule of the empire was shared among several royals one of them enjoying primacy over the rest The Pandya king at Madurai thus controlled these vast regions through the collateral family branches subject to Madurai 9 87 nbsp An aerial view of Madurai city from Meenakshi TemplePandya kings 13th 14th centuries CE Pandya ruler ReignMaravarman Sundara I 1216 1238 CESundaravarman Kulasekara II 1238 1240 CEMaravarman Sundara II 1238 1251 CEJatavarman Sundara I 1251 1268 CEMaravarman Kulasekara I 1268 1310 CESundara Pandya IV 1309 1327 CEVira Pandya IV 1309 1345 CEMaravarman Sundara I The foundation for the Pandya supremacy in south India was laid by Maravarman Sundara I early in the 13th century 88 He succeeded his older brother Jatavarman Kulasekhara in 1216 89 He invaded the Chola country sacked Uraiyur and Thanjavur and drove the Chola king Kulothunga III into exile 89 90 The Chola king subsequently made a formal submission to Maravarman Sundara I and acknowledged his overlordship 89 Attempts by the next Chola king Rajaraja III 1216 46 CE 8 for self rule to stop the Pandya invasion into the Chola country 8 with the help of the Hoysalas king Narasimha II r 1220 1238 CE resulted in a battle between the Pandya and Hoysala forces at Mahendramangalam on the Kaveri Valley Maravarman Sundara I was defeated and Rajaraja III was restored in the Chola country 89 Sometime later Chola prince Rajendra III attacked the Pandyas and defeated two Pandya royals including Maravarman Sundara II 89 Hoysala king Somesvara r 1233 1267 CE 8 then came to the aid of the Pandyas defeated Rajendra III and then made peace with the Cholas 89 90 Jatavarman Sundara I nbsp Jatavarman Vira II s fish insignia at Koneswaram temple in Trincomalee Eastern Province 91 Jatavarman Sundara I ascended the Pandya throne in 1251 CE 8 He led his army to the Chola country even as far as Nellore to Sri Lanka and to south Kerala 8 He was also successful in confining the Hoysala control to the Mysore Plateau the ancient Chola country was now overrun by the Pandyas 8 89 Kanchi functioned as the second major city in the kingdom 89 In his conquests Jatavarman Sundara I was assisted by number of Pandya royals such as Jatavarman Vira Pandya 89 Jatavarman Sundara I subdued Rajendra II around 1258 1260 CE and made him pay tribute 90 The rule of the Cholas ended c 1279 with Rajendra III 8 The Pandya attacked the Hoysalas in the Kaveri and captured the fort of Kannanur Koppam 89 Hoysala king Somesvara was forced to fall back into the Mysore Plateau 89 The Hoysala king pressed by enemies from north and south assigned the southern half of his kingdom to his younger son Ramanatha r 1254 1292 8 Somesvara was eventually killed by the Pandya in 1262 CE 89 Ramanatha managed to recover Kannanur and hold against the Pandya power 87 92 93 Jatavarman Sundara I also came into conflict with the Kadava ruler Kopperunjinga II 94 89 It seems that Bana Magadai and Kongu countries came under the Pandya rule during the wars against the Hoysalas and the Kadavas 89 Jatavarman Sundara I also fought the Kakatiya ruler Ganapati 1199 1262 8 87 Sri Lanka was invaded by Jatavarman Sundara I in 1258 95 and on his behalf by his younger brother Jatavarman Vira II between 1262 and 1264 CE 96 The island was again invaded and defeated by Jatavarman Vira II in 1270 CE 97 Maravarman Kulasekara I Sundara Pandya I died in 1268 was succeeded by Maravarman Kulasekara I 87 Around 1279 the combined force of Hoysala king Ramanatha and Rajendra III was defeated by Maravarman Kulasekara I 87 Maravarman Kulasekara I now virtually unchallenged ruled over the Chola country and southern Tamil speaking portions of Hoysala kingdom He also invaded Sri Lanka ruled by Bhuvanaikabahu I carried away to the Pandya country the venerable Tooth Relic and the wealth of the island 87 Sri Lanka remained under Pandya control until c 1308 1309 CE 87 Decline of Pandyas After the death of Maravarman Kulasekhara I 1310 his sons Vira Pandya IV and Sundara Pandya IV fought a war of succession for control of the empire It seems that Maravarman Kulasekhara wanted Vira Pandya to succeed him who in turn was defeated by Sundara Pandya after a short period of time 98 Unfortunately the Pandya civil war coincided with the Khalji raids in south India 99 Taking advantage of the political situation the neighbouring Hoysala king Ballala III invaded the Pandya territory However Ballala had to retreat to his capital when Alauddin Khalji s general Malik Kafur invaded his kingdom at the same time 100 After subjugating Ballala III the Khalji forces marched to the Pandya territory in March 1311 101 The Pandya brothers fled their headquarters and the Khaljis pursued them unsuccessfully 102 103 By late April 1311 the Khaljis gave up their plans to pursue the Pandya princes and returned to Delhi with the plunder 104 105 By 1312 the Pandya control over south Kerala was also lost 9 106 After the departure of the Khaljis Vira and Sundara Pandya resumed their conflict Sundara Pandya was defeated and sought help from the Khaljis With their help he regained control of the South Arcot region by 1314 105 Subsequently there were two more expeditions from the sultanate in 1314 led by Khusro Khan and in 1323 by Jauna Khan under the Punjab born sultan Ghiyath al Din Tughluq 105 The family quarrels and the sultanate invasions shattered the Pandya empire beyond revival 9 and coinage discoveries made imply that the Pandyas were left with the old South Arcot region 107 In 1323 the Jaffna kingdom declared its independence from the crumbling Pandya influence 20 21 Tenkasi Pandyas 14th 16th centuries The Pandya kings from Sadaavarman Parakrama Pandya to his successors who ruled with Tenkasi as their capital 108 With the invasion of the Sultanates Vijayanagaras and Nayakars from the fourteenth century onwards the Pandyas lost their traditional capital of Madurai and shifted to cities like Tenkasi and Tirunelveli 2 Tenkasi was the last capital of the Pandyas 109 All the Pandyas from Sadaavarman Parakrama Pandya and his next generations were crowned in the Adheenam Mutt 110 in Kasi Viswanathar temple 111 During the same period some Pandyas ruled with Tirunelveli as their capital Kayatharu Vadakkuvalliyur and Ukkirankottai are some of their major cities Inscriptions on them are found in Tenkasi s Kasi Viswanathar temple Brahmadesam Tirunelveli dt Brahmadesam Cheranmadevi Ambasamudram Kalakkad and Pudukkottai The last Pandyan king to be known in the history of the Pandyas was Kolakonda who was also among the Tenkasi Pandyas Although the Vijayanagara Empire and the Nayaks ruled Madurai after the 14th century they were occasionally opposed by the Pandyas Sometimes they have ruled Madurai Prominent among them were Saadavarman Vikrama Pandya 1401 1422 AD and his son Arikesari Parakrama Pandya 112 They had built 32 forts around Madurai Later when Vishwanatha Nayakkar became the Madurai Mandalasuvaran he feared of Pandya resurgence in Madurai He divided Madurai into 72 districts including 16 districts of those closest to the Pandyas 113 He gave them positions and made them separate from the Pandyas This made Pandyas to lose Madurai forever 112 King PeriodSadaavarman Parakrama Pandya 1422 1463 ADKulasekara Pandiyan III 1429 1473 ADAksharan Perumal Parakrama Pandya 1473 1506 ADKulasekara Pandya 1479 1499 ADSadaverman Sewallapa Pandya 1534 1543 ADParakrama Kulasekaran 1543 1552 ADNelveli Maran 1552 1564 ADSadaavarman Adeevirama Pandya 1564 1604 ADVarathuranga Pandya 1588 1612 ADVaragunarama Pandya 1613 1618 ADKollankondan N A Legacy While the previous sultanate raids were content with plunder the Tughluqs under Ulugh Khan later Muhammad bin Tughluq 2 annexed the former Pandya dominions to the sultanate as the province of Ma bar Most of south India came under the sultanate rule and was divided into five provinces Devagiri Tiling Kampili Dorasamudra and Ma bar 107 Jalal ud Din Hasan Khan was appointed governor of the newly created southernmost Ma bar province 114 115 In c 1334 Jalal ud Din Hasan Khan declared his independence and created Madurai sultanate 2 The Pandyas shifted their capital to Tenkasi and continued to rule a small area until the end of the 16th century as Tenkasi Pandyas 2 Bukka Raya I of Vijayanagara empire conquered the city of Madurai in c 1370 2 imprisoned the sultan released and restored Arcot s prince Sambuva Raya to the throne Bukka Raya I appointed his son Veera Kumara Kampana as the viceroy of the Tamil region Meanwhile Madurai sultanate was replaced by the Nayak governors of Vijayanagara in 1378 116 In 1529 the Nayak governors declared independence and established Madurai Nayak dynasty 9 EconomyEarly history nbsp Ancient Silk Road trade routes nbsp The gopura of Nellaiappar TempleThe Pandya country located at the extreme south western tip of South Asia served as an important meeting point throughout the history of the India The location was economically and geopolitically significant as a key point connecting the shipping between Southeast Asia and the Middle East Graeco Roman merchants frequented the ancient Tamil country present day south India and Sri Lanka securing contacts with the Tamil chiefdoms of the Pandya Chola and Chera families 11 The western sailors also established a number of trading settlements on the harbours of the ancient Tamil region 11 The trade with South Asia by the Greco Roman world flourished since the time of the Ptolemaic dynasty 117 a few decades before the start of the Common Era and remained long after the fall of the Western Roman Empire 118 119 The contacts between south India and the Middle East continued even after the Byzantium s loss of the ports of Egypt and the Red Sea 120 in the 7th century CE The early historic Pandya country was famous for its supply of pearls The ancient port of Korkai in present day Thoothukudi was the center of pearl trade Written records from Graeco Roman and Egyptian voyagers give details about the pearl fisheries off the Gulf of Mannar Greek historian Megasthenes reported about the pearl fisheries indicating that the Pandyas derived great wealth from the pearl trade 121 Convicts were according to the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea used as pearl divers in Korkai 122 The Periplus even mentions that pearls inferior to the Indian sort are exported in great quantity from the marts of Apologas and Omana 123 The pearls from the Pandya country were also in demand in the kingdoms of north India 124 Literary references of the pearl fishing mention how the fishermen who dive into the sea avoid attacks from sharks bring up the right whorled chank and blow on the sounding shell 125 Pandya coinage See also Pandya coinage nbsp One of the early coins of the Pandyas showing their emblem of the Two FishesThe early coins of Tamilakam bore the symbols of the Three Crowned Kings the tiger the fish and the bow representing the symbols of the Cholas Pandyas and Cheras 126 Coins of Pandyas bear the legend of different Pandya ruler in different times The Pandyas had issued silver punch marked and die struck copper coins in the early period 127 A few gold coins were attributed to the Pandya rulers of this period These coins bore the image of fish singly or in pairs which were their emblem 128 Some of the coins had the names Sundara Sundara Pandya or merely the letter Su were etched Some of the coins bore a boar with the legend of Vira Pandya 129 It had been said that those coins were issued by the Pandyas and the feudatories of the Cholas but could not be attributed to any particular king The coins of Pandyas were basically square Those coins were etched with elephant on one side and the other side remained blank The inscription on the silver and gold coins during the Pandyas were in Tamil Brahmi and the copper coins bore the Tamil legends 130 The coins of the Pandyas which bore the fish symbols were termed as Kodandaraman and Kanchi Valangum Perumal 131 Apart from these Ellamthalaiyanam was seen on coins which had the standing king on one side and the fish on the other Samarakolahalam and Bhuvanekaviram were found on the cois having a Garuda Konerirayan on coins having a bull and Kaliyugaraman on coins that depict a pair of feet 132 Religion nbsp God Vishnu goddess Meenakshi and god Shiva Meenakshi Temple Madurai The Pandya period c 13th century CE was characterised by a temple centered elite form of Hinduism a popular bhakti religion and an even more widespread local forms of Hinduism The distinctions between the three were not clearly differentiated The worship of the gods Vishnu and Shiva was generally supported by the elite and Shiva was generally later supported by the elite 5 The bhakti movement emphasized the mutual intense emotional attachment between the god and the devotee 133 The Pandya country was home to a number of renowned temples including the Meenakshi Temple in Madurai 134 As some of the largest employers and landowners of the Pandya country the temples played an important part in the Tamil economy and society 135 They generally also served as banks schools dispensaries and poorhouses thus performing valuable social functions The large walled temple complexes of the Pandya country also contained several administrative offices and bazaars 135 It is known that the early Pandya rulers followed Jainism while at some point they converted to Hinduism They supported the Bhakti movement from both Vaishnavism and Shaivism of Hinduism 136 ArchitectureFurther information Pandyan art and architecture nbsp Alagar Koyil Tamil Nadu nbsp Meenakshi Temple Madurai nbsp Vanamamalai Perumal temple Nanguneri Tamil NaduThe early temple architecture phase in Tamil Nadu opens with the rock cut cave temples 137 138 The Tamil country is home to the South Indian or Dravidian style of medieval temple architecture 137 Typical temple consists of a hall and a square sanctum the gabhagrha The foundation block or socle is known as the adhisthana Walls of the sanctum are generally divided by pilasters Superstructure kutina type stepped stories in pyramidal form with decorative bands parapets or the hdras The parapet is composed of miniature shrines called the kutas and salas connected by wall elements the harantaras On top a necking that supports a solid dome or cupola crowned by a pot and finial the sikhara Gopura the great entrance buildings 139 The major Pandya contributions to the Dravidian architecture comes after the Pallava 7th 9th centuries and the Chola periods 9th 12th centuries 137 Gopuras are extremely large and elaborately decorated capped by a barrel vault 137 Successively built walls and gopuras 137 Finest Pandyan architectures Jambukeswarar Temple Tiruchirapalli 137 Kallalagar temple Alagar Koyil 137 Meenakshi Temple Madurai 137 Nataraja Temple Chidambaram 137 In popular cultureThe Pandyas are a secondary subject of the Tamil films Aayirathil Oruvan 2010 Ponniyin Selvan I 2022 Ponniyin Selvan II 2023 and Yaathisai 2023 See alsoTamilakam Economy of ancient Tamil country History of Kerala History of Tamil Nadu Indian maritime history Indo Roman relations Indo Roman trade relations Industry in ancient Tamil country Karungalakudi List of Tamil monarchs Pandyan Civil War 1169 1177 TammuzhReferences Classical Indo Roman Trade Economic and Political Weekly 48 26 27 5 June 2015 a b c d e f g h Karashima Noburu 2014 The Fall of the Old States in A Concise History of South India Issues and Interpretations ed Noburu Karashima pp 173 74 New Delhi Oxford University Press Upinder Singh 2008 A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India From the Stone Age to the 12th Century Pearson Education India p 46 ISBN 978 81 317 1120 0 Kings of the Chola and Pandya dynasties also issued Tamil and bilingual Tamil Sanskrit inscriptions C Sivaramamurti 1977 L Art en Inde H N Abrams p 60 ISBN 978 0 8109 0630 3 Thus the state language was Sanskrit whether the inscriptions were from the north or the south and whether the dynasty was Gupta Vakatak a Vardhana Maukhari Pratihara Paramara Chandella Pala Sena Gahadavala Haihaya Ganga Pallava Chola Pandya Chalukya Rashtrakuta or Vijayanagar a Inscriptions were sometimes written in regional languages but they invariably had a preface in Sanskrit a b Thapar Romila India Society and Culture 8th 13th century Encyclopedia Britannica Retrieved 22 January 2021 Schwartzberg Joseph E 1978 A Historical atlas of South Asia Chicago University of Chicago Press p 146 map XIV 2 b ISBN 0226742210 a b Subbarayalu Y 2014 Early Tamil Polity in A Concise History of South India Issues and Interpretations ed Noburu Karashima pp 53 54 New Delhi Oxford University Press a b c d e f g h i j k l Karashima Noburu 2014 The Fall of the Old States in A Concise History of South India Issues and Interpretations ed Noburu Karashima pp 172 73 New Delhi Oxford University Press a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p Pandya dynasty Indian dynasty Encyclopedia Britannica Retrieved 21 September 2017 Britannica Guide to India Encyclopaedia Britannica Inc 1 March 2009 p 57 ISBN 978 1 59339 847 7 a b c d Classical Indo Roman Trade Economic and Political Weekly 48 26 27 5 June 2015 a b c d e f g Classical Indo Roman Trade Economic and Political Weekly 48 26 27 7 8 5 June 2015 a b c d e f g h Subbarayalu Y 2014 Early Tamil Polity in A Concise History of South India Issues and Interpretations ed Noburu Karashima pp 47 48 New Delhi Oxford University Press a b Vincent William 1805 The Periplus of the Erythrean Sea Cadell and Davies p 403 a b Romila Thapar 2003 p 327 a b c d e f g h i j k l m Noboru Karashima 2014 p 85 87 a b c d e Sastri K A Nilakanta 1958 second ed A History of South India from Prehistoric Times to the Fall of Vijayanagar Madras Oxford University Press 170 72 Sastri K A Nilakanta The Age of the Four Kingdoms A History of South India From Prehistoric Times to the Fall of Vijayanagar 1958 ed Oxford University Press pp 203 05 a b Sastri K A Nilakanta The Age of the Four Kingdoms A History of South India From Prehistoric Times to the Fall of Vijayanagar 1958 ed Oxford University Press pp 207 08 a b Sri Lanka and South East Asia Political Religious and Cultural Relations from A D c 1000 to c 1500 1978 By W M Sirisena 57 p a b Politics of Tamil Nationalism in Sri Lanka South Asian Publishers 1996 by Ambalavanar Sivarajah 22 p A Soundaram 2011 The Characteristic Features of Early Medieval Tamil Society In S Ganeshram C Bhavani eds History of People and Their Environs Bharathi Puthakalayam pp 68 69 ISBN 978 93 80325 91 0 Studies in South Indian Jainism Madras 1922 That after the fifth century A D Jainism became so very influential and powerful as to even become the state creed of some of the Pandyan kings Avari Burjor 1 July 2016 India The Ancient Past A History of the Indian Subcontinent from c 7000 BCE to CE 1200 Routledge p 249 ISBN 9781317236733 Madras University of 1973 Journal Humanities MALONEY Clarence Thomas THE EFFECT OF EARLY COASTAL SEA TRAFFIC ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF CIVILIZATION IN SOUTH INDIA University of Pennsylvania Ph D 1968 Anthropology p 35 Oppert Gustav saloman 1888 On the Original Inhabitants of Bharatavarsa or India BoD Books on Demand p 104 ISBN 9925082196 Caldwell Bishop R 1989 History of Tinnevelly Asian Educational Services p 12 ISBN 9788120601611 Nakacami Iramaccantiran 1978 Studies in Ancient Tamil Law and Society Institute of Epigraphy State Department of Archaeology Government of Tamilnadu p 52 Karashima Noburu 2014 Beginnings of South Indian History in A Concise History of South India Issues and Interpretations ed Noburu Karashima pp 25 26 New Delhi Oxford University Press University Vijaya Ramaswamy Jawaharlal Nehru 25 August 2017 Historical Dictionary of the Tamils Rowman amp Littlefield p 50 ISBN 9781538106860 a href Template Cite book html title Template Cite book cite book a CS1 maint multiple names authors list link Raghavan M D 1971 Tamil culture in Ceylon a general introduction Kalai Nilayam pp 59 60 Shulman David Dean 14 July 2014 Tamil Temple Myths Sacrifice and Divine Marriage in the South Indian Saiva Tradition Princeton University Press p 124 ISBN 9781400856923 James Henry Nelson The Madura Country A Manual Asian Educational Services 1989 p 44 Ira Nakacami Iramaccantiran Nakacami Art and Culture of Tamil Nadu Sundeep Prakashan 1980 p 2 H K Sastri 1983 Velvikudi Grant of Nedunjadaiyan Epigraphia Indica Vol 17 Archaeological Survey of India p 305 Three Crowned Kings of Tamilakam National Geographic Society 28 January 2020 Retrieved 10 April 2021 Harman William P 1992 The sacred marriage of a Hindu goddess Motilal Banarsidass pp 30 6 ISBN 978 81 208 0810 2 a b Karashima Noburu 2014 Beginnings of South Indian History in A Concise History of South India Issues and Interpretations ed Noburu Karashima pp 26 27 New Delhi Oxford University Press Kulke and Rothermund p104 a b Keay p119 S Dhammika The Edicts of King Ashoka An English Rendering Buddhist Publication Society Kandy 1994 ISBN 955 24 0104 6 Umamaheshwari R 25 January 2018 Reading History with the Tamil Jainas A Study on Identity Memory and Marginalisation Springer ISBN 978 81 322 3756 3 a b c d Subbarayalu Y 2014 Early Tamil Polity in A Concise History of South India Issues and Interpretations ed Noburu Karashima pp 48 49 New Delhi Oxford University Press Champakalakshmi Radha 1996 Trade ideology and urbanization South India 300 BC to AD 1300 Oxford University Press p 123 ISBN 978 0 19 563870 7 Husaini Abdul Qadir The History of the Pandya Country p 5 Rao A V Shankaranarayana 2012 Temples of Tamil Nadu Vasan Publications pp 195 99 ISBN 978 81 8468 112 3 Sastri Kallidaikurichi Aiyah Nilakanta 1976 A history of South India from prehistoric times to the fall of Vijayanagar Oxford University Press pp 22 25 ISBN 978 0 19 560686 7 a b c d e Subbarayalu Y 2014 Early Tamil Polity in A Concise History of South India Issues and Interpretations ed Noburu Karashima pp 52 53 New Delhi Oxford University Press Venkataramaiah K M Linguistics International School of Dravidian 1996 A handbook of Tamil Nadu International School of Dravidian Linguistics p 548 ISBN 9788185692203 Karuṇaniti Kalainar Mu Araṅkacami Pal ani Kal akam Tancai Tamil p Palkalaik 1997 Gleanings from Sangam verses English version of Sangat Thamizh Tamil University p 245 ISBN 9788170902485 a b Roy Kaushik 3 June 2015 Warfare in Pre British India 1500BCE to 1740CE Routledge p 55 ISBN 9781317586920 Schwartzberg Joseph E 1978 A Historical atlas of South Asia Chicago University of Chicago Press pp 20 145 ISBN 0226742210 Caldwell Bishop R 2004 History of Tinnevelly Asian Educational Services p 16 ISBN 9788120601611 India By John Keay Caldwell Bishop R 2004 History of Tinnevelly Asian Educational Services p 15 ISBN 9788120601611 Periplus 54 Original Greek Ἡ dὲ Nelkynda stadioys mὲn ἀpὸ Moyzirews ἀpexei sxedὸn pentakosioys ὁmoiws dia te potamoῦ kaὶ pezῇ kaὶ diὰ 8alasshs basileias de ἐstin ἑteras tῆs Pandionos keῖtai dὲ kaὶ aὐtὴ parὰ potamὸn ὡseὶ ἀpὸ stadiwn ἑkatὸn eἴkosi tῆs 8alasshs Balfur Edward 1968 The Cyclopaedia of India and of Eastern and Southern Asia Akademische Druck u Verlagsanstalt p 105 The First Spring The Golden Age of India Abraham Eraly Google Books Books google co in Retrieved on 12 July 2013 Strabo Geography BOOK XV CHAPTER I section 73 Perseus tufts edu Retrieved on 12 July 2013 Keay p121 Hill John Bin Yang 2009 Between winds and clouds the making of Yunnan second century BCE to twentieth century CE Columbia University Press ISBN 978 0 231 14254 0 Yukteshwar Kumar 2005 A History of Sino Indian Relations APH Publishing p 12 ISBN 978 81 7648 798 6 Smith Vincent A 1999 The Early History of India Atlantic Publishers amp Dist p 453 ISBN 9788171566181 Travel and ethnology in the Renaissance South India through European eyes Joan Pau Rubies Muslim identity print culture and the Dravidian factor in Tamil Nadu J B Prashant More considered The Paṇḍyan Kingdom From the Earliest Times to the Sixteenth Century Kallidaikurichi Aiyah Nilakanta Sastri 1972 Romila Thapar 2003 p 184 a b c Romila Thapar 2003 p 231 a b Romila Thapar 2003 p 242 Romila Thapar 2003 p 211 212 Romila Thapar 2003 p 229 a b c d e Thapar Romila Southern Indian kingdoms India Encyclopaedia Britannica Online https www britannica com place India The Shunga kingdom ref46870 Romila Thapar 2003 p 230 Romila Thapar 2003 p 331 Noboru Karashima 2014 p 84 85 a b c d e f g h i j k l Sastri K A Nilakanta 1958 second ed A History of South India from Prehistoric Times to the Fall of Vijayanagar Madras Oxford University Press 165 Noboru Karashima 2014 p 89 Noboru Karashima 2014 p 121 123 a b c d e f g Sastri K A Nilakanta 1958 second ed A History of South India from Prehistoric Times to the Fall of Vijayanagar Madras Oxford University Press 167 68 Wijetunga Mudalige Karunaratna Wijetunga Sri Lanka and the Choḷas Sarvodaya Vishva Lekha Publishers 2003 p 82 a b c d Noboru Karashima 2014 p 122 124 Sastri K A Nilakanta 1958 second ed A History of South India from Prehistoric Times to the Fall of Vijayanagar Madras Oxford University Press 187 90 Sen Sailendra 2013 A Textbook of Medieval Indian History Primus Books pp 45 46 ISBN 978 9 38060 734 4 a b c d e f g Sastri K A Nilakanta 1958 second ed A History of South India from Prehistoric Times to the Fall of Vijayanagar Madras Oxford University Press 208 11 Sen Sailendra Nath 1999 Ancient Indian History and Civilization New Age International p 458 ISBN 9788122411980 a b c d e f g h i j k l m n Sastri K A Nilakanta 1958 second ed A History of South India from Prehistoric Times to the Fall of Vijayanagar Madras Oxford University Press 203 07 a b c Majumdar Ramesh Chandra 1977 Ancient India Motilal Banarsidass p 411 ISBN 9788120804364 Indrapala Karthigesu 2007 The evolution of an ethnic identity The Tamils in Sri Lanka C 300 BCE to C 1200 CE Colombo Vijitha Yapa p 324 ISBN 978 955 1266 72 1 Sen Sailendra Nath 1999 Ancient Indian History and Civilization New Age International p 439 ISBN 9788122411980 Congress Indian History 1957 Proceedings Indian History Congress p 186 Majumdar Ramesh Chandra Bhavan Bharatiya Vidya 1966 The History and Culture of the Indian People The struggle for empire Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan pp 257 jatavarman kadava Intirapala Karttikecu 1971 The collapse of the Rajarata civilization in Ceylon and the drift to the south west a symposium Ceylon Studies Seminar University of Ceylon p 96 India Andhra Pradesh 2000 Andhra Pradesh District Gazetteers Prakasam Director of Print and Stationery at the Government Secretariat Press copies can be from Government Publication Bureau Andhra Pradesh Connolly Peter Gillingham John Lazenby John 13 May 2016 The Hutchinson Dictionary of Ancient and Medieval Warfare Routledge p 100 ISBN 9781135936747 J B Prashant More Muslim Identity Print Culture and the Dravidian Factor in Tamil Nadu Orient Blackswan 2004 p 10 K V Raman Sri Varadarajaswami Temple Kanchi A Study of Its History Art and Architecture Abhinav Publications 2003 p 24 Banarsi Prasad Saksena 1992 p 412 Banarsi Prasad Saksena 1992 p 414 Banarsi Prasad Saksena 1992 pp 416 417 Kishori Saran Lal 1950 pp 208 213 Kishori Saran Lal 1950 p 212 a b c Peter Jackson 2003 p 207 Fauja Singh 1972 History of the Punjab A D 1000 1526 Editor Fauja Singh Abhinav Publications p 152 a b Nilakanta Sastri p 213 4 5 ப ற க லப ப ண ட யர க ப 1371 1650 தம ழ இண யப பல கல க கழகம Retrieved 27 November 2012 TVU www tamilvu org Retrieved 9 April 2020 Vanamamalai N Van amamalai Na 1981 Interpretation of Tamil Folk Creations Dravidian Linguistics Association Archived from the original on 10 March 2016 Retrieved 10 April 2020 த ன க ச க ச வ ச வந தச வ ம க ய ல வரல ற க ய ல வ ள ய ட 1964 a b Sathayanatha Iyer 1924 History of the Nayaks of Madura p 58 தம ழ வ ணன 1983 கட டப ம மன க ள ள க க ரன ச ன ன மண ம கல ப ரச ரம pp 18 19 Muthanna I M 1962 Karnataka History Administration amp Culture p 89 Aiyangar Krishnaswami S 1991 South India and Her Muhammadan Invaders Asian Educational Services 1991 India South pp 67 68 110 111 167 171 174 ISBN 9788120605367 Puri B N Das M N 1 December 2003 A Comprehensive History of India Comprehensive history of medieval India Sterling Publishers Pvt Ltd pp 90 91 ISBN 9788120725089 Lindsay 2006 p 101 Curtin 1984 100 The cyclopaedia of India and of Eastern and Southern Asia By Edward Balfour Holl 2003 9 Kulke and Rothermund p99 p107 Subrahmanian N Hikosaka Shu Samuel G John Thiagarajan P 1997 Tamil social history Madras Institute of Asian Studies ISBN 9788187892069 Venkata Subramanian 1988 p 55 Iyengar P T Srinivasa 2001 History of the Tamils From the Earliest Times to 600 AD Asian Educational Services p 22 ISBN 9788120601451 Retrieved 15 July 2007 Caldwell Robert 1881 A Political and General History of the District of Tinnevelly Asian Educational Services p 20 ISBN 9788120601451 Retrieved 15 July 2005 Sircar Dineshchandra 1970 Early Indian indigenous coins University of Calcutta p 98 The Journal of the Numismatic Society of India Numismatic Society of India 2005 p 67 Sircar Dineshchandra 1970 Early Indian indigenous coins University of Calcutta p 96 Savariroyan Pandit D 2004 Dravidian kingdoms and list of Pandiyan coins Asian Educational Services pp 48 49 ISBN 9788120617520 Shastri Ajay Mitra Kumar Manmohan S 1 January 1996 Numismatic Studies Vol Harman Publishing House p 46 ISBN 9788185151922 Nakacami Iramaccantiran Nagaswamy R 1981 Tamil Coins A Study Institute of Epigraphy Tamilnadu State Department of Archaeology p 102 Desikachari T 1991 South Indian Coins Asian Educational Services p 164 ISBN 9788120601550 Bhakti Hinduism Encyclopedia Britannica Retrieved 22 January 2021 A Soundaram 2011 The Characteristic Features of Early Medieval Tamil Society In S Ganeshram C Bhavani eds History of People and Their Environs Bharathi Puthakalayam pp 68 69 ISBN 978 93 80325 91 0 a b Hinduism Hinduism under Islam 11th 19th century Encyclopedia Britannica Retrieved 22 January 2021 Pandya dynasty Encyclopedia Britannica Retrieved 21 September 2017 a b c d e f g h i South Asian arts Encyclopedia Britannica Desai Pandurang Bhimarao 1971 Studies in Indian history and culture volume presented to Dr P B Desai on the occasion of his completing sixty years Prof P B Desai Felicitation Committee Karnatak University for copies write to the printer K E B s Print Press p 125 Allen Margaret Prosser 1991 Ornament in Indian Architecture University of Delaware Press p 350 ISBN 9780874133998 Further readingBalambal V 1998 Studies in the History of the Sangam Age Kalinga Publications ISBN 978 81 85163 87 1 Carswell John 1991 The Port of Mantai Sri Lanka RAI pp 197 203 Curtin Philip D 1984 Cross Cultural Trade in World History Cambridge University Press ISBN 978 0 521 26931 5 Hill John E 2004 The Peoples of the West from the Weilue 魏略 by Yu Huan 魚豢 A Third Century Chinese Account Composed between 239 and 265 CE Draft annotated English translation Holl Augustin 2003 Ethnoarchaeology of Shuwa Arab Settlements Lexington Books ISBN 978 0 7391 0407 1 Husaini A Q 1972 History of The Pandya Country Keay John 2000 2001 India A history India Grove Press ISBN 0 8021 3797 0 Kulke Hermann Dietmar Rothermund 2004 A History of India 4 ed Lindsay W S 2006 History of Merchant Shipping and Ancient Commerce Adamant Media Corporation ISBN 0 543 94253 8 Nagasamy R 1981 Tamil Coins A study Institute of Epigraphy Tamil Nadu State Dept of Archaeology Purushottam Vi Pi 1989 Cankakala Mannar Kalanilai Varalaru Ray Himanshu Prabha ed 1996 Tradition and Archaeology Early Maritime Contacts in the Indian Ocean Proceedings of the International Seminar Techno Archaeological Perspectives of Seafaring in the Indian Ocean 4th cent BC 15th cent AD New Delhi 28 February 4 March 1994 New Delhi and Jean Francois SALLES Lyon First published 1996 Reprinted 1998 Manohar Publishers amp Distributors New Delhi Reddy P Krishna Mohan 2001 Maritime Trade of Early South India New Archaeological Evidences from Motupalli Andhra Pradesh East and West Vol 51 Nos 1 2 June 2001 pp 143 156 Tripathi Rama Sankar 1967 History of Ancient India India Motilal Banarsidass Publications ISBN 81 208 0018 4 Sastri K A Nilakanta The Pandyan Kingdom From the Earliest Times to the Sixteenth Century N Subrahmanian 1962 History of Tamilnad To A D 1336 Madurai Koodal OCLC 43502446 Archived from the original on 23 November 2016 Venkata Subramanian T K 1988 Environment and Urbanisation in Early Tamilakam Tamil University p 55 ISBN 978 81 7090 110 5 a href Template Cite book html title Template Cite book cite book a work ignored help Banarsi Prasad Saksena 1992 The Khaljis Alauddin Khalji In Mohammad Habib and Khaliq Ahmad Nizami ed A Comprehensive History of India The Delhi Sultanat A D 1206 1526 Vol 5 Second ed The Indian History Congress People s Publishing House OCLC 31870180 K K R Nair 1987 Venad Its Early History Journal of Kerala Studies University of Kerala 14 1 1 34 ISSN 0377 0443 Kishori Saran Lal 1950 History of the Khaljis 1290 1320 Allahabad The Indian Press OCLC 685167335 Noboru Karashima ed 2014 A Concise History of South India Issues and Interpretations Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 809977 2 Romila Thapar 2003 The Penguin History of Early India From the Origins to AD 1300 Penguin Books India ISBN 978 0 14 302989 2 Peter Jackson 2003 The Delhi Sultanate A Political and Military History Cambridge University Press ISBN 978 0 521 54329 3 External links nbsp Media related to Pandyan Dynasty at Wikimedia Commons Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Pandya dynasty amp oldid 1202336471, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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