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Satavahana dynasty

August 09, 2023

The Satavahanas (Sādavāhana or Sātavāhana,[5] IAST: Sātavāhana), also referred to as the Andhras in the Puranas, were an ancient Indian dynasty based in the Deccan region. Most modern scholars believe that the Satavahana rule began in the late second century BCE and lasted until the early third century CE, although some assign the beginning of their rule to as early as the 3rd century BCE based on the Puranas, but uncorroborated by archaeological evidence.[6] The Satavahana kingdom mainly comprised the present-day Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, and Maharashtra. At different times, their rule extended to parts of modern Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, and Karnataka. The dynasty had different capital cities at different times, including Pratishthana (Paithan) and Amaravati (Dharanikota).

Satavahana Empire
(Andhras)
Late 2nd century BCE–Early 3rd century CE
Approximate extent of the Satavahana Empire, in the early 1st century CE.[1]
CapitalPratishthana
Amaravati
Common languagesPrakrit
Sanskrit
Religion
Hinduism[2][3]
Buddhism
GovernmentMonarchy
King 
Historical eraClassical India
• Established
Late 2nd century BCE
• Disestablished
Early 3rd century CE
Today part ofIndia[4]

The origin of the dynasty is uncertain, but according to the Puranas, their first king overthrew the Kanva dynasty. In the post-Maurya era, the Satavahanas established peace in the Deccan region and resisted the onslaught of foreign invaders. In particular their struggles with the Saka (Western Satraps) went on for a long time. The dynasty reached its zenith under the rule of Gautamiputra Satakarni and his successor Vasisthiputra Pulamavi. The kingdom had fragmented into smaller states by the early 3rd century CE.

The Satavahanas were early issuers of Indian state coinage struck with images of their rulers. They formed a cultural bridge and played a vital role in trade and the transfer of ideas and culture to and from the Indo-Gangetic Plain to the southern tip of India.

Origins

The date and place of origin of the Satavahanas, as well as the meaning of the dynasty's name, are a matter of debate among historians. Some of these debates have happened in the context of regionalism, with the present-day Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Telangana being variously claimed as the original homeland of the Satavahanas.[7]

Etymology

 
Early coin of Satakarni I (70-60 BCE). Obverse legend:
(𑀲𑀺𑀭𑀺) 𑀲𑀸   𑀡𑀺(𑀲), (Siri) Sātakaṇi(sa).[8]

Śātavāhana, Śālivāhana, Śātakarṇi seem to be Sanskritised versions of the indigenous name Sātakaṇi, which appear as Sālavāhaṇa in Prakrit vernacular.[9]

According to one theory, the word "Satavahana" (Brahmi script: 𑀲𑀸𑀤𑀯𑀸𑀳𑀦 Sādavāhana or 𑀲𑀸𑀢𑀯𑀸𑀳𑀦 Sātavāhana,[5] IAST: Sātavāhana) is a Prakrit form of the Sanskrit Sapta-Vahana ("driven by seven"; in Hindu mythology, the chariot of the sun god is drawn by seven horses). This would indicate that the Satavahanas originally claimed association with the legendary solar dynasty, as was common in ancient India.[10] According to Inguva Kartikeya Sarma, the dynasty's name is derived from the words sata ("sharpened", "nimble" or "swift") and vahana ("vehicle"); the expression thus means "one who rides a nimble horse".[11]

Another theory connects their name to the earlier Satiyaputa dynasty. Yet another theory derives their name from the Munda words Sadam ("horse") and Harpan ("son"), implying "son of the performer of a horse sacrifice".[12] Several rulers of the dynasty bear the name or title "Satakarni". Satavahana, Satakarni, Satakani and Shalivahana appear to be variations of the same word. Damodar Dharmanand Kosambi theorised that the word "Satakarni" is derived from the Munda words sada ("horse") and kon ("son").[13]

The Puranas use the name "Andhra" for the Satavahanas. The term "Andhra" may refer to the ethnicity or territory of the dynasty (see Original homeland below). It does not appear in the dynasty's own records.[6]

Tamil epic Silappatikaram mentions a "Nurruvar Kannar", who helped Chera king Senguttuvan during his Himalaya campaign. The direct translation of the term Nurruvar Kannar is "the hundred Karnas" or "Satakarni", hence the Nurruvar Kannar has been identified with the Satavahana dynasty.[14][15][16]

The Kathasaritsagara ascribes a mythical etymology in which a widowed, childless king named Deepakarni was prophesied to find a lion-riding child as his heir. During a jungle hunt, he found such a child riding a yaksha-turned-lion named Sāta. After adoption, the child became the king eventually and came to be known as Sātavāhana or Sāta-supported.[citation needed]

Original homeland

 
Early sculpture from Pauni, ancient Vidarbha, where coins of Satakarni were also found.[17][18] Pillar with Naga Mucalinda protecting the throne of the Buddha at Pauni (Bhandara District). 2nd-1st century BCE. National Museum of India.[19]

The use of the names "Andhra" and "Andhra-Jatiya" in the Puranas has led some scholars, such as E. J. Rapson and R.G Bhandarkar, to believe that the dynasty originated in the eastern Deccan region (the historic Andhra region, present-day Andhra Pradesh and Telangana).[20][21] At Kotilingala in Telangana, coins bearing the legend "Rano Siri Chimuka Satavahanasa" were found.[22] Epigraphist and numismatist P. V. P. Sastry initially identified Chimuka with the dynasty's founder Simuka,[23] Coins attributed to Simuka's successors Kanha and Satakarni I were also discovered at Kotilingala.[24] Based on these discoveries, historians such as Ajay Mitra Shastri, D. R. Reddy, S. Reddy, and Shankar R. Goyal theorised that Kotlingala was the original home of the Satavahanas. Ajay Mitra Shastri stated that the finding of the coins at Kotilingala give "a clear pointer to the region where we have to locate the original center of the Satavahana political authority."[25] However, the coin samples from Kotlingala are small, and it is not certain if these coins were minted there or reached there from somewhere else.[26] Moreover, the identification of Chimuka of Kotilingala with the dynasty's founder Simuka has been contested by several scholars including P. L. Gupta and I. K. Sarma, who identified Chimuka as a later ruler.[27][28] P. V. P. Sastry also later changed his view and stated that the two kings were different.[23] In addition to the Kotilinga find, a coin of the Satavahana prince Saktikumara, who was in the fourth generation of the founder, has been reported as a stratified find from the Kurnool district of Andhra Pradesh.[25] As for the Puranas, these texts could have been compiled at a later date and it is not certain if the Satavahanas were referred to as Andhras during their time.[28][29]

Andhra tribes were known to be living near Yamuna river bank during 700 BCE and "Apastamba" who is author of Apastamba Dharmasutra was their preacher. They started moving south and initially settled south of Vindhya Mountains. They established Kingdoms. Built several cities. These cities are widely spread between present South Maharashtra and Andhra Pradesh states. Paithan (Prathishtanapuram) was their capital. They are Satavahana Kings. It was mentioned, described by Megasthenes during Chandragupta Maurya reign in his book Indica.[30]

Another section of scholars believe that the Satavahanas originated in western Deccan (present-day Maharashtra).[20] All four extant inscriptions from the early Satavahana period (c. 1st century BCE) have been found in and around this region. One of the earliest known Satavahana inscriptions was that found at Cave No.19 of the Pandavleni Caves in Nashik district, which was issued during the reign of Kanha (100-70 BCE).[31] An inscription found at Naneghat was issued by Nayanika (or Naganika), the widow of Satakarni I; another inscription found at Naneghat has been dated to the same period on a paleographic basis. A slightly later inscription dated to the reign of Satakarni II has been found at Sanchi in Madhya Pradesh, located to the north of Maharashtra.[7] The majority of the other Satavahana inscriptions have also been found in western Deccan.[26] On the other hand, the epigraphic evidence from eastern Deccan does not mention the Satavahanas before the 4th century CE.[28] At Nevasa, a seal and coins attributed to Kanha have been discovered.[32] Coins attributed to Satakarni I have also been discovered at Nashik, Nevasa, and Pauni in Maharashtra (besides places in eastern Deccan and present-day Madhya Pradesh).[22] Based on this evidence, some historians argue that the Satavahanas initially came to power in the area around their capital Pratishthana (modern Paithan, Maharashtra) and then expanded their territory to eastern Deccan.[33] Carla Sinopoli cautions that the inference about the western Deccan origin of the Satavahanas is "tentative at best" given the small sample of early inscriptions.[34]

Inscription of king Kanha (100-70 BCE)
 
Cave No.19 of Satavahana king Kanha at the Nasik Caves, 1st century BCE.
 
Inscription of king Kanha in cave No.19, Nasik Caves. This is one of the oldest known Satavahana inscription, circa 100-70 BCE.[7] Brahmi script:
𑀲𑀸𑀤𑀯𑀸𑀳𑀦𑀓𑀼𑀮𑁂 𑀓𑀦𑁆𑀳𑁂𑀭𑀸𑀚𑀺𑀦𑀺 𑀦𑀸𑀲𑀺𑀓𑁂𑀦
𑀲𑀫𑀡𑁂𑀦 𑀫𑀳𑀸𑀫𑀸𑀢𑁂𑀡 𑀮𑁂𑀡 𑀓𑀸𑀭𑀢
Sādavāhanakule Kanhe rājini Nāsikakena Samaṇena mahāmāteṇa leṇa kārita
"Under King Kanha of the Satavahana family this cave has been caused to be made by the officer in charge of the Sramanas at Nasik".[5]
 
Naneghat inscription. Dated to 70-60 BCE, in the reign of Satakarni I.[7]

Kanha's Pandavleni mentions the term maha-matra (officer-in-charge), which indicates that the early Satavahanas followed the Mauryan administrative model.[35] C. Margabandhu theorised that the Satavahanas were called Andhras because they were natives of eastern Deccan (the Andhra region), although they first established their empire in western Deccan after having served as Mauryan subordinates. Himanshu Prabha Ray (1986) opposes this theory, stating that the Andhra was originally an ethnic term, and did not come to denote the geographical region of eastern Deccan until well after the Satavahana period.[7] According to Vidya Dehejia, the writers of the Puranas (which could have been written after the Satavahana period) mistook the Satavahana presence in eastern Deccan as evidence for their origin in that region, and wrongly labelled them as "Andhra".[36]

Puranas called the Satavahana kings as Andhrabhrityah. Andhra is both a tribal and a territorial name, the latter territorial denotation of present Telugu lands came into usage only well after the Satavahana period had ended, which meant that the term Andhra represented only the Andhra tribe (who had originated in North India along the Yamuna river banks as per Rigveda) and not the present Andhra region or its Telugu people. The term Andhrabhrityas (Andhra servants) may imply two things, one being that the Andhras were originally servants of the Mauryas or the Sungas. The other one, as per some scholars is that the expression is taken to indicate the servants of some other Andhra rulers. These scholars also suggest Kannada origin for the Satavahanas meaning that the dynasty originated in present-day Karnataka, and initially owed allegiance to some Andhra rulers.[37] A Satavahana inscription found on a slab of the upper drum (medhi) of the Kanaganahalli mahastupa mentions year 16 of Vasisthiputra Sri Chimuka Satavahana's reign, which can be dated from ca. 110 BCE.[38][39][40] V. S. Sukthankar theorised that the territorial division Satavahani-Satahani (Satavahanihara or Satahani-rattha), in present-day Bellary district, was the homeland of the Satavahana family.[41] However, Dr. Gopalchari challenged Sukthankar's theory by pointing out that not a single inscription of the early Satavahanas is found in Bellary District and that the only Satavahana inscription in Bellary District was that of Pulumavi, who belongs to the later-phase of Satavahana history.[42] A stupa in Kanaganahalli village of Karnataka, dated between the first century BCE and first century CE, features limestone panels depicting portraits of Chimuka (Simuka), Satakani (Satakarni) and other Satavahana rulers.[43] As per historian Parmanand Gupta, in the medieval times, Srisailam region or the Sriparvata area was known as Kannadu and Kannavisaya which is the contracted form of Satakarninadu and Satakarnivisaya, which seem to be identical with the territorial indicator Satavahanihara of the Myakadoni inscription of Pulumayi or the Satavahaniratta of the Hirahadagalli grant consisting of the Ballari region indicated to be the original homeland of the Satavahanas as per another historian V. S. Sukthankar.[44] Ptolemy (100-170 CE) mentions a Satavahana king Sire Polemaios, who is identified with Sri Pulumayi (or Pulumavi), whose name is derived from the Kannada word for Puli, meaning tiger. Some scholars indicate that the name Pulumayi is actually Kannada's 'Puli Maiyi' or 'One with the body of a tiger' indicating native Kannada origin for the Satavahanas.[45]

Varna

The varna of the dynasty is debated by modern scholars, who have variously argued for Shudra, Kshatriya, and Brahmana origins of the dynasty.[46]

The Puranas call the founder of the Satavahana family a vṛṣala (Shudra or low-born).[47]

The Nashik inscription of Gautami Balashri describes her son Gautamiputra Satakarni as eka-bamhana (Sanskrit: eka-brahmana). Some scholars, such as V.V. Mirashi, have interpreted the term as "sole Brahmana", and argued that Satavahanas were Brahmanas.[48] Hem Chandra Raychaudhuri interprets the term as "unique Brahmana", and notes that the inscription also describes Gautamiputra as "the destroyer of the pride and conceit of Kshatriyas", which according to him strongly suggests that Gautamiputra claimed to be a Brahmana.[49]

The critics of this theory point out that Gautamiputra's family had matrimonial relations with the non-Brahmana Shakas, and the Satavahanas could not have been Brahmanas because the same inscription also describes Gautamiputra as the one who stopped admixture of varnas (vinivatita chatu vana sankara).[50][51] Historian V. Sundara Rama Sastry argues that the interpretation of the term "eka-bamhana" as "the only Brahmana" does not make sense as the king was obviously not the only member of his varna: instead, he interprets the term as an epithet indicating that the king "excelled even the Brahmans".[48] Historian R. G. Bhandarkar interprets the term "the only protector" of the Brahmanas.[52]

Some Jain works and the Dvātriṃśat-Puttalikā represent Shalivahana (whom some modern scholars identify as a Satavahana king) as of mixed Brahmana and Naga origin. Based on this, some scholars, such as D.C. Sircar, theorize that the Satavahanas were originally non-Brahmanas who started claiming Brahmana status after establishing matrimonial relations with some Brahmana families.[53]

History

Information about the Satavahanas comes from the Puranas, some Buddhist and Jain texts, the dynasty's inscriptions and coins, and foreign (Greek and Roman) accounts that focus on trade.[54] The information provided by these sources is not sufficient to reconstruct the dynasty's history with absolute certainty. As a result, there are multiple theories about the Satavahana chronology.[55]

Foundation

class=notpageimage|
South Asia circa 150 BCE.[56]

Simuka is mentioned as the first king in a list of royals in a Satavahana inscription at Naneghat. The various Puranas state that the first king of the dynasty ruled for 23 years, and mention his name variously as Sishuka, Sindhuka, Chhismaka, Shipraka, etc. These are believed to be corrupted spellings of Simuka, resulting from copying and re-copying of manuscripts.[57] Simuka cannot be dated with certainty based on available evidence. Based on the following theories, the beginning of the Satavahana rule is dated variously from 271 BCE to 30 BCE.[58] According to the Puranas, the first Andhra king overthrew the Kanva rule. He is named as Balipuccha in some texts.[59] D. C. Sircar dated this event to c. 30 BCE, a theory supported by many other scholars.[55]

The Matsya Purana mentions that the Andhra dynasty ruled for around 450 years. As the Satavahana rule ended in the early 3rd century, the beginning of their rule can be dated to the 3rd century BCE. The Indica of Megasthenes (350 – 290 BCE) mentions a powerful tribe named "Andarae", whose king maintained an army of 100,000 infantry, 2,000 cavalry and 1,000 elephants. If Andarae is identified with the Andhras, this can be considered additional evidence of Satavahana rule starting in the 3rd century BCE. The Brahmanda Purana states that "the four Kanvas will rule the earth for 45 years; then (it) will again go to the Andhras". Based on this statement, the proponents of this theory argue that the Satavahana rule began immediately after the Maurya rule, followed by a Kanva interregnum, and then, a revival of the Satavahana rule. According to one version of the theory Simuka succeeded the Mauryans. A variation of the theory is that Simuka was the person who restored the Satavahana rule by overthrowing the Kanvas; the compiler of the Puranas confused him with the founder of the dynasty.[35]

Most modern scholars believe that the Satavahana ruler began in the first century BCE and lasted until the second century CE. This theory is based on Puranic records as well as archaeological and numismatic evidence. The theory that dates their rule to an earlier period is now largely discredited because the various Puranas contradict each other, and are not fully supported by epigraphic or numismatic evidence.[6]

The oldest Satavahana inscription is the one found on a slab of the upper drum (medhi) of the Kanaganahalli Great Stupa mentioning year 16 of Vasisthiputra Sri Chimuka Satavahana's reign, which can be dated from ca. 110 BCE.[38][39][40][60]

𑀭𑀸𑀜𑁄 𑀲𑀺𑀭𑀺 𑀙𑀺𑀫𑀼𑀓 𑀲𑀸𑀢𑀯𑀸𑀳𑀦𑀲 𑀲𑁄𑀟𑁂 𑀯𑀙𑀭𑁂 𑁛𑁗 𑀫𑀸𑀢𑀺𑀲𑁂𑀓

Rano siri chimu(ka) sātavāhanasa soḍe vachare 10 6 mātiseka

"In the year sixteen 16 of King Siri Chimuka Sātavāhana"

— Kanaganahalli inscription of the 16th year of Simuka.[61]

On another stone slab at Kanaganahalli, the king is possibly shown together with a Nagaraja, and the inscription reads:

𑀭𑀸𑀚𑀸 𑀲𑀺𑀭𑀺 𑀙𑀺𑀫𑀼𑀓𑁄 𑀲𑀸𑀤𑀯𑀸𑀳𑀦𑁄 𑀦𑀸𑀕𑀭𑀸𑀬 𑀲𑀔𑀥𑀸𑀪𑁄
Rājā Siri Chimuko Sādavāhano nāgarāya Sakhadhābho
"Lord King Simuka the Satavahana, Nagaraja Sakhadhābho"

— Kanaganahalli inscription of Simuka.[62]

Early expansion

Sanchi donations (50 BCE- 0 CE)
 
The southern gateway of the Great Stupa at Sanchi was, according to an inscription (see arrow), donated under the rule of "King Satakarni", probably Satakarni II.[64]
 
The inscription appears on the relief of a stupa at the center of the top architrave, at the rear. It is written in three lines in early Brahmi script over the dome of the stupa in this relief.[63] Dated circa 50 BCE- 0 CE.
Text of the inscription:
𑀭𑀸𑀜𑁄 𑀲𑀺𑀭𑀺 𑀲𑀸𑀢𑀓𑀡𑀺𑀲 / 𑀆𑀯𑁂𑀲𑀡𑀺𑀲 𑀯𑀸𑀲𑀺𑀣𑀻𑀧𑀼𑀢𑀲 / 𑀆𑀦𑀁𑀤𑀲 𑀤𑀸𑀦𑀁
Rāño Siri Sātakaṇisa / āvesaṇisa vāsitḥīputasa / Ānaṁdasa dānaṁ
"Gift of Ananda, the son of Vasithi, the foreman of the artisans of rajan Siri Satakarni"[63]

Simuka was succeeded by his brother Kanha (also known as Krishna), who extended the kingdom up to Nashik in the west.[65][35] His successor Satakarni I conquered western Malwa, Anupa (Narmada valley) and Vidarbha, taking advantage of the turmoil caused by Greek invasions of northern India. He performed Vedic sacrifices including Ashvamedha and Rajasuya. Instead of the Buddhists, he patronised Brahmins and donated a substantial amount of wealth to them.[12] The Hathigumpha inscription of the Kalinga king Kharavela mentions a king named "Satakani" or "Satakamini", who some[66] identify with Satakarni I. The inscription describes dispatching of an army and Kharavela's threat to a city. Since the inscription is only partially legible, different scholars interpret the events described in the inscription differently. According to R. D. Banerji and Sailendra Nath Sen, Kharavela sent out an army against Satakarni.[67] According to Bhagwal Lal, Satakarni wanted to avoid an invasion of his kingdom by Kharavela. So, he sent horses, elephants, chariots and men to Kharavela as a tribute.[68] According to Sudhakar Chattopadhyaya, Kharavela's army diverted its course after failing to advance against Satakarni.[69] According to Alain Daniélou, Kharavela was friendly with Satakarni, and only crossed his kingdom without any clashes.[70]

Satakarni's successor Satakarni II ruled for 56 years, during which he captured eastern Malwa from the Shungas.[71] This allowed him access to the Buddhist site of Sanchi, in which he is credited with the building of the decorated gateways around the original Mauryan Empire and Sunga stupas.[72] Satakarni II is known from a dedicatory inscription at Sanchi.[64] He was succeeded by Lambodara. The coins of Lambodara's son and successor Apilaka have been found in eastern Madhya Pradesh.[12] However, Andrew Ollett argues that there is only one Satakarni, as the alleged first Satakarni is assigned ten years, and the second, fifty years by other scholars, but the only dated inscription of this king is Candankheda seal from his reign's year 30, around 60 BCE, and he ruled ca. 88-42 BCE.[73][74]

Art of Sanchi

The Satavahanas contributed greatly to the embellishment of the Buddhist stupa of Sanchi. It was heavily repaired under King Satakarni II. The gateways and the balustrade were built after 70 BCE, and appear to have been commissioned by the Satavahanas. An inscription on the Southern Gateway records that it was the work of Satakarni II's royal architect Ananda.[75] An inscription records the gift of one of the top architraves of the Southern Gateway by the artisans of the Satavahana Emperor Satakarni:

Gift of Ananda, the son of Vasithi, the foreman of the artisans of rajan Siri Satakarni[76]

Sanchi under the Satavahanas
1st century BCE/CE.
 
  •  

    Architrave

  •  

    Architrave

  •  

    Yakshini.

  •  

    Pillar capital.

  •  

    Lion pillar capital.


  •  

    The Miracle of Walking in the air at Savrasti.

  •  

    Pipal tree.

  •  

    Miracle of the Buddha walking on the River Nairanjana

  •  

    Bimbisara with his royal cortege issuing from the city of Rajagriha to visit the Buddha.

  •  

    Foreigners making a dedication to the Great Stupa at Sanchi.

  •  

    Procession of king Suddhodana from Kapilavastu.

First Western Satraps invasion under Nahapana

Main article: Western Satraps
See also: Saka-Satavahana Wars

Little is known about Apilaka's successors, except cryptic references to one Kuntala Satakarni. The next well-known ruler of the dynasty was Hāla, who composed Gaha Sattasai in Maharashtri Prakrit. Like Hala, his four successors also ruled for very short periods (a total of 12 years), indicating troubled times for the Satavahanas.[12]

Epigraphic and numismatic evidence suggests that the Satavahanas earlier controlled the northern Deccan Plateau, the northern Konkan coastal plains, and the mountain passes connecting these two regions. During 15-40 CE, their northern neighbours - the Western Kshatrapas - extended their influence into these regions.[77] The Western Kshatrapa ruler Nahapana is known to have ruled the former Satavahana territory, as attested by the inscriptions of his governor and son-in-law, Rishabhadatta.[78]

First revival

 
A coin of Nahapana restruck by the Satavahana king Gautamiputra Satakarni. Nahapana's profile and coin legend are still clearly visible.
 
The defeated "Saka-Yavana-Palhava" (Brahmi script: 𑀲𑀓 𑀬𑀯𑀦 𑀧𑀮𑁆𑀳𑀯) mentioned in the Nasik cave 3 inscription of Queen Gotami Balasiri (end of line 5 of the inscription).[79]

The Satavahana power was revived by Gautamiputra Satakarni, who is considered the greatest of the Satavahana rulers.[65] Charles Higham dates his reign c. 103 – c. 127 CE.[65] S. Nagaraju dates it 106–130 CE,[80] the new consensus is shared by Shailendra Bhandare, Akira Shimada, and Oskar von Hinuber, who regard Gautamiputra Satakarni's reign was ca. 60-85 CE, as it is evident from history that "Gautamiputra Saatakarni" in the year 78CE defeated Vikramaditya of Ujjain, which in turn was celebrated and named "Yug Aadi" means Beginning of New Era (New Year for Andhra, Karnataka, Maharashtra (Gudi padwa), Telangana states). Ever since these states people followed Saatavaahana calendar.[81][82][83] Andrew Ollett considers it as 60-84 CE.[84] The king defeated by him appears to have been the Western Kshatrapa ruler Nahapana, as suggested by Nahapana's coins overstuck with names and titles of Gautamiputra.[78] The Nashik prashasti inscription of Gautamiputra's mother Gautami Balashri, dated to the 20th year after his death, records his achievements. The most liberal interpretation of the inscription suggests that his kingdom extended from the present-day Rajasthan in the north to Krishna river in the south, and from Saurashtra in the west to Kalinga in the east. He assumed the titles Raja-Raja (King of Kings) and Maharaja (Great King), and was described as the Lord of Vindhya.[12]

During the last years of his reign, his administration was apparently handled by his mother, which could have been a result of an illness or military preoccupation.[12] According to the Nasik inscription made by his mother Gautami Balashri, he was the one ...[85]

… who crushed down the pride and conceit of the Kshatriyas; who destroyed the Sakas (Western Satraps), Yavanas (Indo-Greeks) and Pahlavas (Indo-Parthians),... who rooted out the Khakharata family (the Kshaharata family of Nahapana); who restored the glory of the Satavahana race.

— Inscription of Queen Mother Gautami Balashri at Cave No.3 of the Pandavleni Caves in Nashik.

Gautamiputra was succeeded by his son Vasisthiputra Sri Pulamavi (or Pulumayi). According to Sailendra Nath Sen, Pulumavi ruled from 96 to 119 CE.[12] According to Charles Higham, he ascended the throne around 110 CE,[65] according to Shailendra Bhandare, Akira Shimada, and Oskar von Hinuber Vasisthiputra Sri Pulamavi ruled ca. 85-125 CE,[81][86][87] and Andrew Ollett considers it to be ca. 84-119 CE.[84] Pulumavi features in a large number of Satavahana inscriptions and his coins have been found distributed over a wide area. This indicates that he maintained Gautamiputra's territory, and ruled a prosperous kingdom. He is believed to have added the Bellary region to Satakarni's kingdom. His coins featuring ships with double mast have been found on the Coromandel Coast, indicating involvement in maritime trade and naval power. The old stupa at Amaravati was perhaps renovated during his reign.[12] though recent scholarship tends to spread the dates of this wider.

Second Western Satraps invasion under Rudradaman I

 
Coin of Vashishtiputra Satakarni.

Pulumavi's successor was his brother Vashishtiputra Satakarni. According to S. N. Sen he ruled during 120–149 CE;[12] according to Charles Higham, his regnal years spanned 138–145 CE.[65] He entered into a marriage alliance with the Western Satraps, marrying the daughter of Rudradaman I.[12]

The Junagadh inscription of Rudradaman I states that he defeated Satakarni, the lord of Dakshinapatha (Deccan), twice. It also states that he spared the life of the defeated ruler because of close relations:[65]

"Rudradaman (...) who obtained good report because he, in spite of having twice in fair fight completely defeated Satakarni, the lord of Dakshinapatha, on account of the nearness of their connection did not destroy him."

— Junagadh rock inscription

According to D. R. Bhandarkar and Dineshchandra Sircar, the ruler defeated by Rudradaman was Gautamiputra Satakarni. However, E. J. Rapson believed that the defeated ruler was his son Vasishthiputra Pulumavi.[88] Shailendra Nath Sen and Charles Higham believe that the defeated ruler was Vashishtiputra's successor Shivaskanda or Shiva Sri Pulumayi (or Pulumavi).[65][12]

As a result of his victories, Rudradaman regained all the former territories previously held by Nahapana, except for the extreme south territories of Pune and Nasik. Satavahana dominions were limited to their original base in the Deccan and eastern central India around Amaravati.

Second revival

 
Coin of Yajna Sri Satakarni, British Museum.

Sri Yajna Sātakarni, the last person belonging to the main Satavahana dynastic line, briefly revived the Satavahana rule. According to S. N. Sen, he ruled during 170–199 CE.[12] Charles Higham dates the end of his reign to 181 CE. His coins feature images of ships, which suggest naval and marine trade success.[65] Wide distribution of his coins, and inscriptions at Nashik, Kanheri and Guntur indicate that his rule extended over both eastern and western parts of Deccan. He recovered much of the territory lost the Western Kshatrapas, and issued silver coinage, imitating them. During the last years of his reign, the Abhiras captured the northern parts of the kingdom, around Nashik region.[12]

Decline

After Yajna Satakarni, the dynasty was soon extinguished following the rise of its feudatories, perhaps on account of a decline in central power.[89] On the other hand, the Western Satraps would continue to prosper for the next two centuries, until their extinction by the Gupta Empire. Yajna Sri was succeeded by Madhariputra Swami Isvarasena. The next king Vijaya ruled for 6 years. His son Vasishthiputra Sri Chadha Satakarni ruled for 10 years.[12] Pulumavi IV, the last king of the main line, ruled until c. 225 CE. During his reign, several Buddhist monuments were constructed at sites including Nagarjunakonda and Amaravati.[65] Madhya Pradesh was also part of his kingdom.[12]

After the death of Pulumavi IV, the Satavahana empire fragmented into five smaller kingdoms:[12]

  1. Northern part, ruled by a collateral branch of the Satavahanas (which ended in early 4th century[65])
  2. Western part around Nashik, ruled by the Abhira dynasty
  3. Eastern part (Krishna-Guntur region), ruled by the Andhra Ikshvakus
  4. South-western parts (northern Karanataka), ruled by the Chutus of Banavasi
  5. South-eastern part, ruled by the Pallavas

Territorial extent

class=notpageimage|
Main polities in Asia, circa -100.[90][91][92]

The Satavahana territory included northern Deccan region, spanning the present-day Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra and Telangana states. At times, their rule also extended to present-day Gujarat, Karnataka and Madhya Pradesh. The Nashik prashasti inscription issued by Gautami Balashri, the mother of Gautamiputra Satakarni, claims that her son ruled an extensive territory that stretched from Gujarat in the north to northern Karnataka in the south. It is not clear if Gautamiputra had effective control over these claimed territories. In any case, historical evidence suggests that his control over these territories did not last long.[93] Moreover, this realm was not continuous: many areas in this region remained under the control of the hunter-gatherers and other tribal communities.[94]

As per historian M. Govinda Pai, Ptolemy (100-170 CE) states that when Siro Polemaios (Vasishthiputra Sri Pulumayi) was ruling from his capital Paithan in the north (reign c. 85-125 CE), another Satavahana prince called Baleokouros or Baleokoura (Vilivayakura) was ruling from Hippokoura (Huvina Hipparagi) of Basavana Bagewadi taluk of Vijayapura district of present Karnataka in the south who was none other than his own son. Pai identifies this prince Vilivaya-kura as another form of Vilivaya Kumara (meaning the son of Vilivaya), and he goes on to prove that Vilivaya is indeed merely another rendering of Pulumayi which was transformed as per Prakrit rules, the spoken form of this language during that period, and due to common parlance. Thus, Vilivayakura means a son of Pulumayi who was ruling from Huvina Hipparagi in present Karnataka. Pai identifies all the 10 cities mentioned by Ptolemy as lying between the river Benda (or Binda) or Bhima river in the north and Banaouasei (Banavasi) in the south, viz. Nagarouris (Nagur), Tabaso (Tavasi), Inde (Indi), Tiripangalida (Gadhinglaj), Hippokoura (Huvina Hipparagi), Soubouttou (Savadi), Sirimalaga (Malkhed), Kalligeris (Kalkeri), Modogoulla (Mudgal) and Petirgala (Pattadakal), as being located in Northern Karnataka.[95]

The Satavahana capital kept shifting with time. The Nashik inscription describes Gautamiputra as the lord of Benakataka, suggesting that this was the name of his capital. Ptolemy (2nd century CE) mentioned Pratishthana (modern Paithan) as the capital of Pulumavi.[93] At other times, the Satavahana capitals included Dharanikota and Junnar.[9] M. K. Dhavalikar theorised that the original Satavahana capital was located at Junnar, but had to be moved to Pratishthana because of Saka-Kushana incursions from the north-west.[96]

Several Satavahana-era inscriptions record grants to religious monasteries. The settlements most frequently mentioned as the residences of donors in these inscriptions include the sea ports of Sopara, Kalyan, Bharuch, Kuda (unidentified), and Chaul. The most frequently mentioned inland settlements include Dhanyakatakam/Dharanikota, Junnar, Nashik, Paithan, and Karad.[93]

Other important Satavahana sites in western Deccan include Govardhana, Nevasa, Ter, and Vadgaon-Madhavpur. The ones in eastern Deccan include Amaravati, Dhulikatta, Kotalingala and Peddabankur.[97]

Administration

 
Ashoka with his Queens, at Sannati (Kanaganahalli Stupa), 1st-3rd century CE. The inscription "Rāya Asoko" (𑀭𑀸𑀬 𑀅𑀲𑁄𑀓𑁄, "King Ashoka") in Brahmi script is carved on the relief.[98][99][100]

The Satavahanas followed the administration guidelines of the Shastras. Their government was less top-heavy than that of the Mauryans, and featured several levels of feudatories:[12]

  • Rajan, the hereditary rulers
  • Rajas, petty princes who struck coins in their own names
  • Maharathis, hereditary lords who could grant villages in their own names and maintained matrimonial relations with the ruling family
  • Mahabhojas
  • Mahasenapati (civil administrator under Pulumavi II; governor of a janapada under Pulumavi IV)
  • Mahatalavara ("great watchman")

The royal princes (kumaras) were appointed as viceroys of the provinces.[12]

The ahara appears to have been the largest geographical subdivision of the Satavahana polity. Several inscriptions refer to aharas named after the governors appointed to rule them (e.g. Govardhanahara, Mamalahara, Satavanihara and Kapurahara).[93] This suggests that the Satavahanas attempted to build a formal administrative and revenue collection structure.[101]

The inscriptions of Gautamiputra Satakarni suggest the existence of a bureaucratic structure, although it is not certain how stable and effective this structure was. For example, two inscriptions from Nashik Cave 11 record donations of agricultural land to ascetic communities. They state that the ascetics would enjoy tax exemption and non-interference from the royal officials. The first inscription states that the grant was approved by Gautamiputra's minister Sivagupta on the king's verbal orders, and preserved by the "great lords". The second inscription records a grant by Gautamiputra and his mother, and mentions Syamaka as the minister of the Govardhana ahara. It states that the charter was approved by a woman named Lota, who according to archaeologist James Burgess' interpretation, was the chief lady-in-waiting of Gautamiputra's mother.[102]

The Satavahana-era inscriptions mention three types of settlements: nagara (city), nigama (market town) and gāma (village).[93]

According to Sastri, "the Satavahanas were described as 'lords of the three oceans' and promoted overseas colonization and trade. Under them, Buddhist art attained the superb forms of beauty and elegance preserved to this day in the cave-temples of western India and the survivals from the stupa of Amaravati, Goli, Nagarjunikonda".[103] This tradition was followed by successors of Satavahana in the eastern and western Deccan.[103]

Economy

 
Indian ship on lead coin of Vasisthiputra Sri Pulamavi, testimony to the naval, seafaring and trading capabilities of the Satavahanas during the 1st–2nd century CE.

The Satavahanas participated in (and benefited from) economic expansion through intensification of agriculture, increased production of other commodities, and trade within and beyond the Indian subcontinent.[104]

During the Satavahana period, several large settlements emerged in the fertile areas, especially along the major rivers. The amount of land under agricultural use also expanded significantly, as a result of forest clearance and construction of irrigation reservoirs.[101]

The exploitation of sites with mineral resources may have increased during the Satavahana period, leading to the emergence of new settlements in these areas. Such sites facilitated commerce and crafts (such as ceramic ware). The increased craft production during the Satavahana period is evident from archaeological discoveries at sites such as Kotalingala, as well as epigraphic references to artisans and guilds.[101]

The Satavahanas controlled the Indian sea coast, and as a result, they dominated the growing Indian trade with the Roman Empire. The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea mentions two important Satavahana trade centres: Pratishthana and Tagara. Other important urban centres included Kondapur, Banavasi and Madhavpur. Nanaghat was the site of an important pass that linked the Satavahana capital Pratishthana to the sea.[65]

Religion

 
The Pompeii Lakshmi ivory statuette was found in the ruin of Pompeii (destroyed in an eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 CE). It is thought to have come from Bhokardan in the Satavahana realm in the first half of the 1st century CE. It testifies to Indo-Roman trade relations in the beginning of our era.

The Satavahanas were Hindus and claimed Brahmanical status,[2] although they also made generous donations to Buddhist monasteries.[105] The lay people in the Satavahana period perhaps generally did not exclusively support a particular religious group .[77]

The Naneghat inscription of Nayanika, recorded on the walls of a cave, mentions that her husband Satakarni I performed several Vedic sacrifices, including ashvamedha (horse sacrifice), rajasuya (royal consecration), and agnyadheya (fire ceremony).[106] The inscription also records substantial fees paid to Brahmin priests and attendees for these sacrifices. For example, 10,001 cows were granted for the Bhagala-Dasaratra sacrifice; and 24,400 coins were granted for another sacrifice, whose name is not clear.[107]

A number of Buddhist monastic sites emerged in the Deccan region during the Satavahana period. However, the exact relations between these monasteries and the Satavahana government is not clear.[97] The Pandavleni Caves inscription issued during the reign of Kanha states that the cave was excavated by maha-matra (officer-in-charge) of the shramanas (non-Vedic ascetics). Based on this, Sudhakar Chattopadhyaya concludes that Kanha favoured Buddhism, and had an administrative department dedicated to the welfare of Buddhist monks.[35]

However, Carla M. Sinopoli notes that although there are some records of donations to the Buddhist monasteries by the Satavahana royals, the vast majority of the donations were made by the non-royals. The most common among these donors were merchants, and many of the monasteries were located along the important trade routes.[97] The merchants probably donated to the monasteries, because these sites facilitated trade by serving as rest houses, and possibly by directly participating in the trade.[2] The monasteries appear to have been an important venue for displaying charitable donations, including the donations made to non-Buddhists (especially Brahmins).[105]

Language

Most of the Satavahana inscriptions and coin legends are in a Middle Indo-Aryan language.[108] This language has been termed "Prakrit" by some modern scholars, but this terminology can be considered correct only if the term "Prakrit" is defined broadly to include every Middle Indo-Aryan language that is "not exactly Sanskrit". The language of the inscriptions is actually closer to Sanskrit than to the literary Prakrit used in the Gaha Sattasai anthology attributed to the Satavahana king Hala.[109]

According to Gunadya, besides Sanskrit and Prakrit there is another language called 'Desi' which may mean the native language or the language of common man. Commenting on the Desi language Dr.D.C.Sircar remarks "It was apparently Early Telugu which was in older times very closer to Tamil than it is now was the mother tongue of the common people". Later Satavahana kings like Gauthamiputra Satakarni, Vastistiputra pulamovi and Yajna Satakarni had their names in two languages i.e.; Prakrit and Desi, a native language.[110]

The Satvahanas also used Sanskrit in political inscriptions, but rarely.[111] A fragmentary inscription found close to the Nashik prashasti of Gautamiputra Satakarni uses Sanskrit verses in vasanta-tilaka metre to describe a deceased king (probably Gautamiputra). A Sanskrit inscription found at Sannati probably refers to Gautamiputra Shri Satakarni, one of whose coins also features a Sanskrit legend.[108]

The Satavahanas also issued bilingual coins featuring Middle Indo-Aryan language on one side, and Desi language (possibly Old Tamil) on the other side.[112]

Inscriptions

 
Inscription of Gautamiputra Satakarni, Nasik Caves No.3, Inscription No.4. Circa 150 CE.

Several Brahmi script inscriptions are available from the Satavahana period, but most of these record donations to Buddhist institutions by individuals, and do not provide much information about the dynasty. The inscriptions issued by the Satavahana royals themselves also primarily concern religious donations, although some of them provide some information about the rulers and the imperial structure.[113]

The earliest extant Satavahana inscription is from Nashik Cave 19, which states that the cave was commissioned by Mahamatra Saman of Nashik during the reign of king Kanha.[7]

At Naneghat, an inscription issued by Nayanika, the widow of Satakarni I, has been found. It records Nayanika's lineage and mentions the Vedic sacrifices performed by the royal family.[7] Another inscription at Naneghat comprises names of Satavahana royals, appearing as labels over their bas-relief portraits. The portraits are now completely eroded, but the inscription is believed to be contemporary to Nayanika's inscription on a paleographic basis.[26]

The next oldest Satavahana-era inscription appears on a sculpted gateway element of Stupa 1 at Sanchi. It states that the element was donated by Ananda, who was the son of Siri Satakarni's foreman of artisans. This inscription is probably from the reign of Satakarni II.[26]

Coinage

Satavahana bilingual coinage in Prakrit and Dravidian (possibly Old Tamil) (c.150 CE)
 
 
Bilingual coinage of Sri Vasishthiputra Pulumavi in Prakrit and Dravidian (possibly Old Tamil), and transcription of the obverse Prakrit legend.

Obverse: Portrait of the king. Legend in Prakrit in the Brahmi script (starting at 12 o'clock):
𑀭𑀜𑁄 𑀯𑀸𑀲𑀺𑀣𑀺𑀧𑀼𑀢𑀲 𑀲𑀺𑀭𑀺 𑀧𑀼𑀎𑀼𑀫𑀸𑀯𑀺𑀲
Raño Vāsiṭhiputasa Siri-Puḷumāvisa
"Of King Lord Pulumavi, son of Vasishthi"

Reverse: Ujjain and arched-hill symbols. Legend in Dravidian (more closer to Tamil and to a lesser extent Telugu),[114] and the Dravidian script,[114] essentially similar to the Brahmi script[115] (starting at 12 o'clock):
𑀅𑀭𑀳𑀡𑀓𑀼 𑀯𑀸𑀳𑀺𑀣𑀺 𑀫𑀸𑀓𑀡𑀓𑀼 𑀢𑀺𑀭𑀼 𑀧𑀼𑀮𑀼𑀫𑀸𑀯𑀺𑀓𑀼
Arahaṇaku Vāhitti Mākaṇaku Tiru Pulumāviku[116]
or: Aracanaku Vācitti Makaṇaku Tiru Pulumāviku[117]
"Of King Tiru Pulumavi, son of Vasishthi"[115]

The Satavahanas were the earliest Indian rulers to issue their own coins with portraits of their rulers, starting with king Gautamiputra Satakarni, a practice derived from that of the Western Kshatrapas he defeated.[118] The Western Satraps themselves had been following the features of the coins of the Indo-Greek kings to the northwest.[119]

Thousands of lead, copper and potin Satavahana coins have been discovered in the Deccan region; a few gold and silver coins are also available. These coins do not feature uniform design or size, and suggest that multiple minting locations existed within the Satavahana territory, leading to regional differences in coinage.[113]

The coin legends of the Satavahanas, in all areas and all periods, used a Prakrit dialect without exception. In addition, some reverse coin legends are in Dravidian[114] (more similar to the Tamil[120][121] and Telugu languages),[114][113] in the Dravidian script (similar to the Brahmi script apart from a few variations).[114][115]

Several coins carry titles or matronyms that were common to multiple rulers (e.g. Satavahana, Satakarni, and Pulumavi), so the number of rulers attested by coinage cannot be determined with certainty. The names of 16 to 20 rulers appear on the various coins. Some of these rulers appear to be local elites rather than the Satavahana monarchs.[113]

The Satavahana coins give unique indications as to their chronology, language, and even facial features (curly hair, long ears and strong lips). They issued mainly lead and copper coins; their portrait-style silver coins were usually struck over coins of the Western Kshatrapa kings. The Satavahana coins also display various traditional symbols, such as elephants, lions, horses and chaityas (stupas), as well as the "Ujjain symbol", a cross with four circles at the end.

Other examples

Cultural achievements

 
Satavahana architecture at Cave No.3 of the Pandavleni Caves in Nashik. This cave was probably started during the reign of Gautamiputra Satakarni, and was finished and dedicated to the Buddhist Samgha during the reign of his son Vasishthiputra Pulumavi, circa 150 CE.

The Satavahanas patronised the Prakrit language instead of Sanskrit.[12] The Satavahana king Hāla is famous for compiling the collection of Maharashtri poems known as the Gaha Sattasai (Sanskrit: Gāthā Saptashatī), although from linguistic evidence it seems that the work now extant must have been re-edited in the succeeding century or two. Through this book, it was evident that agriculture was the main means of livelihood. Also many sorts of superstitions had prevailed. Additionally, Gunadhya, the minister of Hala, was the author of Brihatkatha.[122]

Sculptures

Madhukar Keshav Dhavalikar writes that "The Satavahana sculptures unfortunately has never been recognized as an independent school in spite of the fact it has its own distinctive characteristic features. The earliest in point of time is that in the Bhaja Vihara cave which marks the beginning of sculptural art in the Satavahana dominion around 200BC. It is profusely decorated with carvings, and even pillars have a lotus capital crowned with sphinx-like mythic animals."[123] Dhavalikar also writes that in Chankama "the panel occurring on the west pillar of Northern Gateway portrays a very important event in Buddha's life. It depicts votaries, two each on either side of what looks like a ladder which actually is the promenade which Buddha is supposed to have walked. It is said that Buddha, after attaining Enlightment, spent four weeks near the Bodhi tree. Of these, the third week he spent walking along the promenade (chankama) to and fro."[124]

Along with some of the above major Satavahana sculptures some more sculptures existed—namely, Dvarapala, Gajalaksmi, Shalabhanjikas, Royal Procession, Decorative pillar, etc.[125]

Bronze

 
Royal earrings, Andhra Pradesh, 1st century BCE.

Several metal figurines are found that could be attributed to the Satavahanas. A hoard of unique bronze objects were also found from Bramhapuri. Numerous articles obtained from there were Indian but also reflected Roman and Italian influence. A small statue of Poseidon, wine jugs, and a plaque depicting Perseus and Andromeda were also obtained from the house from where the objects were found.[126] The fine elephant in the Ashmolean Museum, the Yaksi image in the British Museum,[127] and the cornucopia found in Posheri, kept at Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj Vastu Sangrahalaya[128] can also be attributed to the Satavahana period.

Architecture

The sculptures of the Amaravati Stupa and the wider Amaravati style represent the architectural development of the Satavahana periods. They built Buddhist stupas in Amravati (95 feet high). They also constructed a large number of stupas at Goli, Jaggiahpeta, Gantasala, Amravati Bhattiprolu, and Shri Parvatam. Caves IX and X, containing Ajanta paintings, were patronised by Satavahana, and the painting throughout the caves appear to have started with them. Ashokan Stupas were enlarged, the earlier bricks and wood works being replaced with stone works. The most famous of these monuments are the stupas, the most famous among them being the Amravati Stupa and the Nagarjunakonda Stupa.

Paintings

The Satavahana paintings are the earliest surviving specimens—excluding prehistoric rock art—in India, and they are to be found only at the Ajanta Caves. There were two phases of artistic activity of Ajanta: the first occurring in the 2nd to 1st centuries BC, when Hinayana caves were excavated during Satavahana rule; the later in the second half of the 5th century under the Vakatakas. Vagaries of nature and some vandalism have taken a heavy toll on the Ajanta Caves. Only a few fragments related to the Satavahanas have survived in Caves No. 9 and 10, both of which are chaitya-grihas with stupas.

The most important surviving painting of the Satavahana period at Ajanta is the Chhadanta Jataka in Cave No. 10, but that, too, is only fragmentary. It is a painting of an elephant named Bodhisattva with six tusks, related to a mythological story. The human figures, both male and female, are typically Satavahanas, almost identical with their counterparts on the Sanchi Gateways so far as their physiognomy, costumes, and jewellery are concerned. The only difference is that the Sanchi figures have shed some of their weight.[129]

Art of Amaravati

Main article: Amaravati Stupa

The Satavahana rulers are also remarkable for their contributions to Buddhist art and architecture. They built great stupas in the Krishna River Valley, including the stupa at Amaravati in Andhra Pradesh. The stupas were decorated in marble slabs and sculpted with subjects including scenes from the life of the Buddha, portrayed in a characteristic slim and elegant style. The regional Amaravati style of sculpture also influenced the sculpture of Southeast Asia.[130]

List of rulers

Multiple Puranas contain chronology of Satavahana kings. However, there are inconsistencies among the various Puranas over the number of kings in the dynasty, the names of the kings, and the length of their rule. In addition, some of the kings listed in the Puranas are not attested via archaeological and numismatic evidence. Similarly, there are some kings known from coins and inscriptions, whose names are not found in the Puranic lists.[58][35]

The reconstructions of the Satavahana kings by historians fall into two categories:

  • According to the first one, 30 Satavahana kings ruled for around 450 years, starting from Simuka's rule immediately after the fall of the Mauryan empire. This view relies heavily on the Puranas, and is now largely discredited.
  • According to the second (and more widely accepted) category of reconstructions, the Satavahana rule started in around first century BCE. The chronologies in this category contain a smaller number of kings, and combine Puranic records with archaeological, numismatic and textual evidence.[131]

Because of uncertainty regarding the establishment date of the Satavahana kingdom, it is difficult to give absolute dates for the reigns of the Satavahana kings.[58] Therefore, many modern scholars do not assign absolute dates to the reigns of the historically attested Satavahana kings, and those who do vary greatly with each other.[6]

List based on Archeology

Himanshu Prabha Ray provides the following chronology, based on archaeological and numismatic evidence:[20]

List of Satavahana dynasty rulers
Serial. Nu Ruler Reign
1 Simuka before 100 BCE
2 Kanha c. 100–70 BCE
3 Satakarni I c. 70–60 BCE
4 Satakarni II c. 50–25 BCE
Kshatrapa interregnum rule with vassal Satavahana kings
5 Hāla (vassal under Kshatrapas) c. 20–24 CE
6 Nahapana (Kshatrapas King) c. 54–100 CE
Restored Satavahana dynasty
7 Gautamiputra Satakarni c. 86–110 CE
8 Pulumavi c. 110–138 CE
9 Vashishtiputra Satakarni c. 138–145 CE
10 Shiva Shri Pulumavi c. 145–152 CE
11 Shiva Skanda Satakarni c. 145–152 CE
12 Yajna Shri Satakarni c. 152–181 CE
13 Vijaya Satakarni until c. 200 CE
Regional Satavahana rulers of south-eastern Deccan:[104]
14 Chandra Shri 3rd century CE
15 Pulumavi II 3rd century CE
16 Abhira Isvarasena 3rd century CE
17 Madhariputra Sakasena 3rd century CE
18 Haritiputra Satakarni 3rd century CE

List based on Puranas

The various Puranas give different lists of the Satavahana rulers. The Matsya Purana states that 30 Andhra kings ruled for 460 years, but some of its manuscripts name only 19 kings whose reigns add up to 448.5 years. The Vayu Purana also mentions that there were 30 Andhra kings, but its various manuscripts name only 17, 18, and 19 kings respectively; the reigns add up to 272.5, 300, and 411 years respectively. Many of these kings are not attested by historical evidence. On the other hand, some Satavahana kings attested by numismatic evidence (such as Rudra Satakarni) are not mentioned in the Puranas at all.[132]

Different scholars have explained these anomalies in different ways. Scholars such as R. G. Bhandarkar, D. C. Sircar and H. C. Raychaudhuri theorised that the Vayu Purana mentions only the main imperial branch of the dynasty, while the Matsya Purana puts together princes of all its branches.[132]

The names of the Andhra kings (in IAST), as mentioned in the various Puranas, are given below. These names vary across different manuscripts of the same Puranas, and some names are missing in some of the manuscripts. The list given below for each Purana contains the most exhaustive version. In the Puranas, Krishna (IAST: Kṛṣṇa) is described as brother of the first king, who overthrew the Kanva king Susharman. All other kings are described as sons of their predecessors. The first king of the Andhra-Bhrityas is also known as Shudraka or Suraka in the Kumarika Khanda of Skanda Purana (not present in the table below).[133]

Puranic genealogy of Andhra dynasty[134]
# Ruler Coins Epigraphy Bhagavata Brahmanda Matsya Vayu Vishnu Reign (years) Alternative names and reigns[135][136]
1 Simuka ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 23 Śiśuka (Matsya), Sindhuka (Vayu), Śipraka (Vishnu), Chhismaka (Brahmanda)
2 Kṛṣṇa (Kanha) ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 18
3 Śatakarṇi I ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 10 Śantakarṇa (Bhagavata), Mallakarni - 10 or 18 years (Matsya), Śri Śatakarṇi (Vishnu)
4 Pūrṇotsanga ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 18 Paurṇamāsa (Bhagavata)
5 Skandastambhi ✓ ✓ 18 Śrivasvani (Matsya)
6 Śatakarṇi II ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 56
7 Lambodara ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 18
8 Āpīlaka ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 12 Apītaka (Matsya), Ivīlaka (Vishnu), Hivilaka (Bhagavata)
9 Meghasvāti ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 18 Saudāsa (Brahmanda)
10 Svāti (Śatakarṇi) ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 12
11 Skandasvāti ✓ ✓ 7 Skandasvati - 28 years (Brahmanda)
12 Mṛgendra-Svātikarṇa ✓ ✓ 3 Mahendra Śatakarṇi (Brahmanda)
13 Kuntala-Svātikarṇa ✓ ✓ 8
14 Svātikarṇa ✓ ✓ 1
15 Pulomavi I ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 24 Pulomavi - 36 years (Matsya), Aṭamāna (Bhagavata), Paṭimavi (Vayu), Paṭumat (Vishnu), Ābhi - Brahmanda
16 Gaurakṛṣṇa ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 25 Gorakśāśvaśri (Matsya), Nemi Kṛṣṇa (Vayu), Arishṭakarman (Vishnu)
17 Hāla ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 5 Hāleya (Bhagavata); 1 year in one manuscript
18 Mandalaka ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 5 Talaka (Bhagavata), Saptaka (Vayu), Pattalaka (Vishnu), Bhavaka (Brahmanda)
19 Purindrasena ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 5 Purīṣabhiru (Bhagavata), Purikaṣena - 21 years (Vayu), Pravillasena (Vishnu), Pravillasena - 12 years (Brahmanda)
20 Sundara Śatakarṇi ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 1 Sundara Svatikarṇa (Matsya), Sunandana (Bhagavata)
21 Cakora Śatakarṇi (Chakora) ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 0.5
22 Śivasvāti ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 28 Svātisena - 1 year (Brahmanda), Śivasvāmi (Vayu)
23 Gautamīputra ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 21 Yantramati - 34 years (Brahmanda), Gotamīputra (Bhagavata and Vishnu); 24 years according to inscriptions
24 Pulomavi II (Vashishtiputra) ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 28 Purīmān (Bhagavata), Pulomat (Matsya), Pulimat (Vishnu). See also: Vashishtiputra Satakarni.
25 Śivaśri ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 7 Madaśirā (Bhagavata)
26 Śivaskanda Śatakarṇi ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 7
27 Yajñaśri ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 29 Yajñaśri Śatakarṇi - 19 years (Brahmanda), Yajñaśri - 9, 20 or 29 years (Matsya)
28 Vijaya ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 6
29 Candraśri (Chandrashri) ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 3 Candravijaya (Bhagavata), Daṇḍaśri (Brahmanda and Vayu), Vada-Śri or Candra-Śri-Śatakarṇi - 10 years (Matsya)
30 Pulomavi III ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 7 Sulomadhi (Bhagavata), Pulomavit (Matsya), Pulomarchis (Vishnu)

List of rulers

S. Nagaraju relies on the Puranic lists of 30 kings, and gives the following regnal dates:[80]

List of Satavahana dynasty rulers
S. No Ruler Reign
1 Simuka (r. 228 – 205 BCE)
2 Krishna (r. 205 – 187 BCE)
3 Satakarni I (r. 187 – 177 BCE)
4 Purnotsanga (r. 177 – 159 BCE)
5 Skandhastambhi (r. 159 – 141 BCE)
6 Satakarni II (r. 141 – 85 BCE)
7 Lambodara (r. 85 – 67 BCE)
8 Apilaka (r. 67 – 55 BCE)
9 Meghasvati (r. 55 – 37 BCE)
10 Svati (r. 37 – 19 BCE)
11 Skandasvati (r. 19 – 12 BCE)
12 Mrigendra Satakarni (r. 12 – 9 BCE)
13 Kunatala Satakarni (r. 9 – 1 BCE)
14 Satakarni III (r. 1 BCE – 1 CE)
15 Pulumavi I (r. 1 – 36 CE)
16 Gaura Krishna (r. 36 – 61 CE)
17 Hāla (r. 61 – 66 CE)
18 Mandalaka aka Puttalaka or Pulumavi II (r. 69 – 71 CE)
19 Purindrasena (r. 71 – 76 CE)
20 Sundara Satakarni (r. 76 – 77 CE)
21 Chakora Satakarni (r. 77 – 78 CE)
22 Shivasvati (r. 78 – 106 CE)
23 Gautamiputra Satkarni (r. 106 – 130 CE)
24 Vasisthiputra aka Pulumavi III (r. 130 – 158 CE)
25 Shiva Sri Satakarni (r. 158 – 165 CE)
26 Shivaskanda Satakarni (r. 165–172)
27 Sri Yajna Satakarni (r. 172 – 201 CE)
28 Vijaya Satakarni (r. 201 – 207 CE)
29 Chandra Sri Satakarni (r. 207 – 214 CE)
30 Pulumavi IV (r. 217 – 224 CE)

Mid-Chronology of Satavahana rulers

Apart from the two traditional views (long and short chronologies) there is another kind of analysis pointing out to a "Mid-Chronology", as it was already proposed by Dr. Dehejia and others, and particularly most recently by Shailendra Bhandare, who regards Satavahana's rule extended more than three centuries (c. 150 BCE to 250 CE)[137] with the flourish of trans-national trade, urbanism and monumental architecture in South India.

Bhandare regards Simuka to have ruled since around 160-150 BCE and that this date would still fit in well with Pargiter's 460 years to the Satavahanas, as it would fix the end of the dynasty around 300 CE, not too far from the mid-3rd century as consensus approximately lies.[138] Regarding Siri Satakani and his wife Naganika, Bhandhare considers their rule to have been somewhere around 110 +/- 20 BCE.[138]

List by Shailendra Bhandare

Bhandare also suggests the following sequence of reigns, based on his analysis of Satavahana coinage:[139]

  • Gautamiputa Satakani (ca. 60–85 CE)
  • Vasithiputa Siri Pulumayi (ca. 85–125 CE)
  • Vasithiputa Siri Satakani (ca. 125–152 CE)
  • Vasithiputa Siva Siri Pulumayi (ca. 152–160 CE)
  • Vasithiputa Siri Khada Satakani (ca. 160–165 CE)
  • Vasithiputa Vijaya Satakani (ca. 165–170 CE)
  • Siri Yaña Satakani (ca. 170–200 CE)
  • Gotamiputa Siri Cada (ca. 200–215 CE)
  • Gotamiputa Siri Vijaya Satakani (ca. 215–225 CE)

Shailendra Bhandare's edited list by Andrew Ollett

On the other hand, based to a large degree on Shailendra Bhandare's work, with slight corrections, Andrew Ollett (2017) mentions the following reigns for the whole Satavahana dynasty:[140]

  • Vasisthiputra Sri Chimuka Satavahana (ca. 120–96 BCE)
  • Krsna (ca. 96–88 BCE)
  • Sri Satakarni (ca. 88–42 BCE)
  • Sakti
  • Mantalaka
  • Sundara
  • Gautamiputra Siva Satakarni (?–60 CE)
  • Gautamiputra Sri Satakarni (ca. 60–84 CE)
  • Vasisthiputra Sri Pulumavi (ca. 84–119 CE)
  • Vasisthiputra Sri Satakarni (ca. 119–148 CE)
  • Vasisthiputra Sivasri Pulumavi (ca. 148–156 CE)
  • Vasisthiputra Sriskanda Satakarni (ca. 156–170 CE)
  • Gautamiputra Sriyajña Satakarni (ca. 171–199 CE)
  • Gautamiputra Srivijaya Satakarni (ca. 200–205 CE)
  • Vasisthiputra Sricanda Satakarni (ca. 206–220 CE)
  • Mathariputra Sri Pulumavi (ca. 220–230 CE)

See also

References

Citations

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External links

  •   Media related to Satavahana at Wikimedia Commons

August 09, 2023
satavahana, dynasty, satavahanas, sādavāhana, sātavāhana, iast, sātavāhana, also, referred, andhras, puranas, were, ancient, indian, dynasty, based, deccan, region, most, modern, scholars, believe, that, satavahana, rule, began, late, second, century, lasted, . The Satavahanas Sadavahana or Satavahana 5 IAST Satavahana also referred to as the Andhras in the Puranas were an ancient Indian dynasty based in the Deccan region Most modern scholars believe that the Satavahana rule began in the late second century BCE and lasted until the early third century CE although some assign the beginning of their rule to as early as the 3rd century BCE based on the Puranas but uncorroborated by archaeological evidence 6 The Satavahana kingdom mainly comprised the present day Andhra Pradesh Telangana and Maharashtra At different times their rule extended to parts of modern Gujarat Madhya Pradesh and Karnataka The dynasty had different capital cities at different times including Pratishthana Paithan and Amaravati Dharanikota Satavahana Empire Andhras Late 2nd century BCE Early 3rd century CESouth Asia0 50 CEMAHAMEGHA VAHANASSAMATATASINDO SCYTHIANSINDO GREEKSCHUTUSNORTHERNSATRAPSMITRASWESTERNSATRAPSYUEZHISINDO PARTHIANSPANDYASCHOLAS Approximate extent of the Satavahana Empire in the early 1st century CE 1 CapitalPratishthanaAmaravatiCommon languagesPrakritSanskritReligionHinduism 2 3 BuddhismGovernmentMonarchyKing Historical eraClassical India EstablishedLate 2nd century BCE DisestablishedEarly 3rd century CEPreceded by Succeeded byMaurya EmpireKanva dynasty Western KshatrapasAndhra IkshvakuChutu dynastyVakataka dynastyPallava dynastyAbhira dynastyToday part ofIndia 4 The origin of the dynasty is uncertain but according to the Puranas their first king overthrew the Kanva dynasty In the post Maurya era the Satavahanas established peace in the Deccan region and resisted the onslaught of foreign invaders In particular their struggles with the Saka Western Satraps went on for a long time The dynasty reached its zenith under the rule of Gautamiputra Satakarni and his successor Vasisthiputra Pulamavi The kingdom had fragmented into smaller states by the early 3rd century CE The Satavahanas were early issuers of Indian state coinage struck with images of their rulers They formed a cultural bridge and played a vital role in trade and the transfer of ideas and culture to and from the Indo Gangetic Plain to the southern tip of India Contents 1 Origins 1 1 Etymology 1 2 Original homeland 1 3 Varna 2 History 2 1 Foundation 2 2 Early expansion 2 2 1 Art of Sanchi 2 3 First Western Satraps invasion under Nahapana 2 4 First revival 2 5 Second Western Satraps invasion under Rudradaman I 2 6 Second revival 2 7 Decline 3 Territorial extent 4 Administration 5 Economy 6 Religion 7 Language 8 Inscriptions 9 Coinage 9 1 Other examples 10 Cultural achievements 10 1 Sculptures 10 2 Bronze 10 3 Architecture 10 4 Paintings 10 5 Art of Amaravati 11 List of rulers 11 1 List based on Archeology 11 2 List based on Puranas 11 2 1 List of rulers 11 3 Mid Chronology of Satavahana rulers 11 3 1 List by Shailendra Bhandare 11 3 2 Shailendra Bhandare s edited list by Andrew Ollett 12 See also 13 References 13 1 Citations 13 2 Sources 14 External linksOriginsThe date and place of origin of the Satavahanas as well as the meaning of the dynasty s name are a matter of debate among historians Some of these debates have happened in the context of regionalism with the present day Maharashtra Andhra Pradesh Karnataka and Telangana being variously claimed as the original homeland of the Satavahanas 7 Etymology Early coin of Satakarni I 70 60 BCE Obverse legend 𑀲 𑀭 𑀲 𑀡 𑀲 Siri Satakaṇi sa 8 Satavahana Salivahana Satakarṇi seem to be Sanskritised versions of the indigenous name Satakaṇi which appear as Salavahaṇa in Prakrit vernacular 9 According to one theory the word Satavahana Brahmi script 𑀲 𑀤𑀯 𑀳𑀦 Sadavahana or 𑀲 𑀢𑀯 𑀳𑀦 Satavahana 5 IAST Satavahana is a Prakrit form of the Sanskrit Sapta Vahana driven by seven in Hindu mythology the chariot of the sun god is drawn by seven horses This would indicate that the Satavahanas originally claimed association with the legendary solar dynasty as was common in ancient India 10 According to Inguva Kartikeya Sarma the dynasty s name is derived from the words sata sharpened nimble or swift and vahana vehicle the expression thus means one who rides a nimble horse 11 Another theory connects their name to the earlier Satiyaputa dynasty Yet another theory derives their name from the Munda words Sadam horse and Harpan son implying son of the performer of a horse sacrifice 12 Several rulers of the dynasty bear the name or title Satakarni Satavahana Satakarni Satakani and Shalivahana appear to be variations of the same word Damodar Dharmanand Kosambi theorised that the word Satakarni is derived from the Munda words sada horse and kon son 13 The Puranas use the name Andhra for the Satavahanas The term Andhra may refer to the ethnicity or territory of the dynasty see Original homeland below It does not appear in the dynasty s own records 6 Tamil epic Silappatikaram mentions a Nurruvar Kannar who helped Chera king Senguttuvan during his Himalaya campaign The direct translation of the term Nurruvar Kannar is the hundred Karnas or Satakarni hence the Nurruvar Kannar has been identified with the Satavahana dynasty 14 15 16 The Kathasaritsagara ascribes a mythical etymology in which a widowed childless king named Deepakarni was prophesied to find a lion riding child as his heir During a jungle hunt he found such a child riding a yaksha turned lion named Sata After adoption the child became the king eventually and came to be known as Satavahana or Sata supported citation needed Original homeland Early sculpture from Pauni ancient Vidarbha where coins of Satakarni were also found 17 18 Pillar with Naga Mucalinda protecting the throne of the Buddha at Pauni Bhandara District 2nd 1st century BCE National Museum of India 19 The use of the names Andhra and Andhra Jatiya in the Puranas has led some scholars such as E J Rapson and R G Bhandarkar to believe that the dynasty originated in the eastern Deccan region the historic Andhra region present day Andhra Pradesh and Telangana 20 21 At Kotilingala in Telangana coins bearing the legend Rano Siri Chimuka Satavahanasa were found 22 Epigraphist and numismatist P V P Sastry initially identified Chimuka with the dynasty s founder Simuka 23 Coins attributed to Simuka s successors Kanha and Satakarni I were also discovered at Kotilingala 24 Based on these discoveries historians such as Ajay Mitra Shastri D R Reddy S Reddy and Shankar R Goyal theorised that Kotlingala was the original home of the Satavahanas Ajay Mitra Shastri stated that the finding of the coins at Kotilingala give a clear pointer to the region where we have to locate the original center of the Satavahana political authority 25 However the coin samples from Kotlingala are small and it is not certain if these coins were minted there or reached there from somewhere else 26 Moreover the identification of Chimuka of Kotilingala with the dynasty s founder Simuka has been contested by several scholars including P L Gupta and I K Sarma who identified Chimuka as a later ruler 27 28 P V P Sastry also later changed his view and stated that the two kings were different 23 In addition to the Kotilinga find a coin of the Satavahana prince Saktikumara who was in the fourth generation of the founder has been reported as a stratified find from the Kurnool district of Andhra Pradesh 25 As for the Puranas these texts could have been compiled at a later date and it is not certain if the Satavahanas were referred to as Andhras during their time 28 29 Andhra tribes were known to be living near Yamuna river bank during 700 BCE and Apastamba who is author of Apastamba Dharmasutra was their preacher They started moving south and initially settled south of Vindhya Mountains They established Kingdoms Built several cities These cities are widely spread between present South Maharashtra and Andhra Pradesh states Paithan Prathishtanapuram was their capital They are Satavahana Kings It was mentioned described by Megasthenes during Chandragupta Maurya reign in his book Indica 30 Another section of scholars believe that the Satavahanas originated in western Deccan present day Maharashtra 20 All four extant inscriptions from the early Satavahana period c 1st century BCE have been found in and around this region One of the earliest known Satavahana inscriptions was that found at Cave No 19 of the Pandavleni Caves in Nashik district which was issued during the reign of Kanha 100 70 BCE 31 An inscription found at Naneghat was issued by Nayanika or Naganika the widow of Satakarni I another inscription found at Naneghat has been dated to the same period on a paleographic basis A slightly later inscription dated to the reign of Satakarni II has been found at Sanchi in Madhya Pradesh located to the north of Maharashtra 7 The majority of the other Satavahana inscriptions have also been found in western Deccan 26 On the other hand the epigraphic evidence from eastern Deccan does not mention the Satavahanas before the 4th century CE 28 At Nevasa a seal and coins attributed to Kanha have been discovered 32 Coins attributed to Satakarni I have also been discovered at Nashik Nevasa and Pauni in Maharashtra besides places in eastern Deccan and present day Madhya Pradesh 22 Based on this evidence some historians argue that the Satavahanas initially came to power in the area around their capital Pratishthana modern Paithan Maharashtra and then expanded their territory to eastern Deccan 33 Carla Sinopoli cautions that the inference about the western Deccan origin of the Satavahanas is tentative at best given the small sample of early inscriptions 34 Inscription of king Kanha 100 70 BCE Cave No 19 of Satavahana king Kanha at the Nasik Caves 1st century BCE Inscription of king Kanha in cave No 19 Nasik Caves This is one of the oldest known Satavahana inscription circa 100 70 BCE 7 Brahmi script 𑀲 𑀤𑀯 𑀳𑀦𑀓 𑀮 𑀓𑀦 𑀳 𑀭 𑀚 𑀦 𑀦 𑀲 𑀓 𑀦𑀲𑀫𑀡 𑀦 𑀫𑀳 𑀫 𑀢 𑀡 𑀮 𑀡 𑀓 𑀭𑀢 Sadavahanakule Kanhe rajini Nasikakena Samaṇena mahamateṇa leṇa karita Under King Kanha of the Satavahana family this cave has been caused to be made by the officer in charge of the Sramanas at Nasik 5 Naneghat inscription Dated to 70 60 BCE in the reign of Satakarni I 7 Kanha s Pandavleni mentions the term maha matra officer in charge which indicates that the early Satavahanas followed the Mauryan administrative model 35 C Margabandhu theorised that the Satavahanas were called Andhras because they were natives of eastern Deccan the Andhra region although they first established their empire in western Deccan after having served as Mauryan subordinates Himanshu Prabha Ray 1986 opposes this theory stating that the Andhra was originally an ethnic term and did not come to denote the geographical region of eastern Deccan until well after the Satavahana period 7 According to Vidya Dehejia the writers of the Puranas which could have been written after the Satavahana period mistook the Satavahana presence in eastern Deccan as evidence for their origin in that region and wrongly labelled them as Andhra 36 Puranas called the Satavahana kings as Andhrabhrityah Andhra is both a tribal and a territorial name the latter territorial denotation of present Telugu lands came into usage only well after the Satavahana period had ended which meant that the term Andhra represented only the Andhra tribe who had originated in North India along the Yamuna river banks as per Rigveda and not the present Andhra region or its Telugu people The term Andhrabhrityas Andhra servants may imply two things one being that the Andhras were originally servants of the Mauryas or the Sungas The other one as per some scholars is that the expression is taken to indicate the servants of some other Andhra rulers These scholars also suggest Kannada origin for the Satavahanas meaning that the dynasty originated in present day Karnataka and initially owed allegiance to some Andhra rulers 37 A Satavahana inscription found on a slab of the upper drum medhi of the Kanaganahalli mahastupa mentions year 16 of Vasisthiputra Sri Chimuka Satavahana s reign which can be dated from ca 110 BCE 38 39 40 V S Sukthankar theorised that the territorial division Satavahani Satahani Satavahanihara or Satahani rattha in present day Bellary district was the homeland of the Satavahana family 41 However Dr Gopalchari challenged Sukthankar s theory by pointing out that not a single inscription of the early Satavahanas is found in Bellary District and that the only Satavahana inscription in Bellary District was that of Pulumavi who belongs to the later phase of Satavahana history 42 A stupa in Kanaganahalli village of Karnataka dated between the first century BCE and first century CE features limestone panels depicting portraits of Chimuka Simuka Satakani Satakarni and other Satavahana rulers 43 As per historian Parmanand Gupta in the medieval times Srisailam region or the Sriparvata area was known as Kannadu and Kannavisaya which is the contracted form of Satakarninadu and Satakarnivisaya which seem to be identical with the territorial indicator Satavahanihara of the Myakadoni inscription of Pulumayi or the Satavahaniratta of the Hirahadagalli grant consisting of the Ballari region indicated to be the original homeland of the Satavahanas as per another historian V S Sukthankar 44 Ptolemy 100 170 CE mentions a Satavahana king Sire Polemaios who is identified with Sri Pulumayi or Pulumavi whose name is derived from the Kannada word for Puli meaning tiger Some scholars indicate that the name Pulumayi is actually Kannada s Puli Maiyi or One with the body of a tiger indicating native Kannada origin for the Satavahanas 45 Varna The varna of the dynasty is debated by modern scholars who have variously argued for Shudra Kshatriya and Brahmana origins of the dynasty 46 The Puranas call the founder of the Satavahana family a vṛṣala Shudra or low born 47 The Nashik inscription of Gautami Balashri describes her son Gautamiputra Satakarni as eka bamhana Sanskrit eka brahmana Some scholars such as V V Mirashi have interpreted the term as sole Brahmana and argued that Satavahanas were Brahmanas 48 Hem Chandra Raychaudhuri interprets the term as unique Brahmana and notes that the inscription also describes Gautamiputra as the destroyer of the pride and conceit of Kshatriyas which according to him strongly suggests that Gautamiputra claimed to be a Brahmana 49 The critics of this theory point out that Gautamiputra s family had matrimonial relations with the non Brahmana Shakas and the Satavahanas could not have been Brahmanas because the same inscription also describes Gautamiputra as the one who stopped admixture of varnas vinivatita chatu vana sankara 50 51 Historian V Sundara Rama Sastry argues that the interpretation of the term eka bamhana as the only Brahmana does not make sense as the king was obviously not the only member of his varna instead he interprets the term as an epithet indicating that the king excelled even the Brahmans 48 Historian R G Bhandarkar interprets the term the only protector of the Brahmanas 52 Some Jain works and the Dvatriṃsat Puttalika represent Shalivahana whom some modern scholars identify as a Satavahana king as of mixed Brahmana and Naga origin Based on this some scholars such as D C Sircar theorize that the Satavahanas were originally non Brahmanas who started claiming Brahmana status after establishing matrimonial relations with some Brahmana families 53 HistoryInformation about the Satavahanas comes from the Puranas some Buddhist and Jain texts the dynasty s inscriptions and coins and foreign Greek and Roman accounts that focus on trade 54 The information provided by these sources is not sufficient to reconstruct the dynasty s history with absolute certainty As a result there are multiple theories about the Satavahana chronology 55 Foundation South Asia150 BCESATAVAHANASMAHAMEGHA VAHANASSAMATATASAUDUMBARASYAUDHEYASPAURAVASVRISHNISKUNINDASINDO GREEKSGRECO BACTRIANSMITRASARJUNAYANASMALAVASSHUNGASPANDYASCHOLASCHERASLOULANHAN DYNASTY class notpageimage South Asia circa 150 BCE 56 Simuka is mentioned as the first king in a list of royals in a Satavahana inscription at Naneghat The various Puranas state that the first king of the dynasty ruled for 23 years and mention his name variously as Sishuka Sindhuka Chhismaka Shipraka etc These are believed to be corrupted spellings of Simuka resulting from copying and re copying of manuscripts 57 Simuka cannot be dated with certainty based on available evidence Based on the following theories the beginning of the Satavahana rule is dated variously from 271 BCE to 30 BCE 58 According to the Puranas the first Andhra king overthrew the Kanva rule He is named as Balipuccha in some texts 59 D C Sircar dated this event to c 30 BCE a theory supported by many other scholars 55 The Matsya Purana mentions that the Andhra dynasty ruled for around 450 years As the Satavahana rule ended in the early 3rd century the beginning of their rule can be dated to the 3rd century BCE The Indica of Megasthenes 350 290 BCE mentions a powerful tribe named Andarae whose king maintained an army of 100 000 infantry 2 000 cavalry and 1 000 elephants If Andarae is identified with the Andhras this can be considered additional evidence of Satavahana rule starting in the 3rd century BCE The Brahmanda Purana states that the four Kanvas will rule the earth for 45 years then it will again go to the Andhras Based on this statement the proponents of this theory argue that the Satavahana rule began immediately after the Maurya rule followed by a Kanva interregnum and then a revival of the Satavahana rule According to one version of the theory Simuka succeeded the Mauryans A variation of the theory is that Simuka was the person who restored the Satavahana rule by overthrowing the Kanvas the compiler of the Puranas confused him with the founder of the dynasty 35 Most modern scholars believe that the Satavahana ruler began in the first century BCE and lasted until the second century CE This theory is based on Puranic records as well as archaeological and numismatic evidence The theory that dates their rule to an earlier period is now largely discredited because the various Puranas contradict each other and are not fully supported by epigraphic or numismatic evidence 6 The oldest Satavahana inscription is the one found on a slab of the upper drum medhi of the Kanaganahalli Great Stupa mentioning year 16 of Vasisthiputra Sri Chimuka Satavahana s reign which can be dated from ca 110 BCE 38 39 40 60 𑀭 𑀜 𑀲 𑀭 𑀙 𑀫 𑀓 𑀲 𑀢𑀯 𑀳𑀦𑀲 𑀲 𑀟 𑀯𑀙𑀭 𑀫 𑀢 𑀲 𑀓Rano siri chimu ka satavahanasa soḍe vachare 10 6 matiseka In the year sixteen 16 of King Siri Chimuka Satavahana Kanaganahalli inscription of the 16th year of Simuka 61 On another stone slab at Kanaganahalli the king is possibly shown together with a Nagaraja and the inscription reads 𑀭 𑀚 𑀲 𑀭 𑀙 𑀫 𑀓 𑀲 𑀤𑀯 𑀳𑀦 𑀦 𑀕𑀭 𑀬 𑀲𑀔𑀥 𑀪 Raja Siri Chimuko Sadavahano nagaraya Sakhadhabho Lord King Simuka the Satavahana Nagaraja Sakhadhabho Kanaganahalli inscription of Simuka 62 Early expansion Sanchi donations 50 BCE 0 CE The southern gateway of the Great Stupa at Sanchi was according to an inscription see arrow donated under the rule of King Satakarni probably Satakarni II 64 The inscription appears on the relief of a stupa at the center of the top architrave at the rear It is written in three lines in early Brahmi script over the dome of the stupa in this relief 63 Dated circa 50 BCE 0 CE Text of the inscription 𑀭 𑀜 𑀲 𑀭 𑀲 𑀢𑀓𑀡 𑀲 𑀆𑀯 𑀲𑀡 𑀲 𑀯 𑀲 𑀣 𑀧 𑀢𑀲 𑀆𑀦 𑀤𑀲 𑀤 𑀦 Rano Siri Satakaṇisa avesaṇisa vasitḥiputasa Anaṁdasa danaṁ Gift of Ananda the son of Vasithi the foreman of the artisans of rajan Siri Satakarni 63 Simuka was succeeded by his brother Kanha also known as Krishna who extended the kingdom up to Nashik in the west 65 35 His successor Satakarni I conquered western Malwa Anupa Narmada valley and Vidarbha taking advantage of the turmoil caused by Greek invasions of northern India He performed Vedic sacrifices including Ashvamedha and Rajasuya Instead of the Buddhists he patronised Brahmins and donated a substantial amount of wealth to them 12 The Hathigumpha inscription of the Kalinga king Kharavela mentions a king named Satakani or Satakamini who some 66 identify with Satakarni I The inscription describes dispatching of an army and Kharavela s threat to a city Since the inscription is only partially legible different scholars interpret the events described in the inscription differently According to R D Banerji and Sailendra Nath Sen Kharavela sent out an army against Satakarni 67 According to Bhagwal Lal Satakarni wanted to avoid an invasion of his kingdom by Kharavela So he sent horses elephants chariots and men to Kharavela as a tribute 68 According to Sudhakar Chattopadhyaya Kharavela s army diverted its course after failing to advance against Satakarni 69 According to Alain Danielou Kharavela was friendly with Satakarni and only crossed his kingdom without any clashes 70 Satakarni s successor Satakarni II ruled for 56 years during which he captured eastern Malwa from the Shungas 71 This allowed him access to the Buddhist site of Sanchi in which he is credited with the building of the decorated gateways around the original Mauryan Empire and Sunga stupas 72 Satakarni II is known from a dedicatory inscription at Sanchi 64 He was succeeded by Lambodara The coins of Lambodara s son and successor Apilaka have been found in eastern Madhya Pradesh 12 However Andrew Ollett argues that there is only one Satakarni as the alleged first Satakarni is assigned ten years and the second fifty years by other scholars but the only dated inscription of this king is Candankheda seal from his reign s year 30 around 60 BCE and he ruled ca 88 42 BCE 73 74 Art of Sanchi The Satavahanas contributed greatly to the embellishment of the Buddhist stupa of Sanchi It was heavily repaired under King Satakarni II The gateways and the balustrade were built after 70 BCE and appear to have been commissioned by the Satavahanas An inscription on the Southern Gateway records that it was the work of Satakarni II s royal architect Ananda 75 An inscription records the gift of one of the top architraves of the Southern Gateway by the artisans of the Satavahana Emperor Satakarni Gift of Ananda the son of Vasithi the foreman of the artisans of rajan Siri Satakarni 76 Sanchi under the Satavahanas1st century BCE CE Architrave Architrave Yakshini Pillar capital Lion pillar capital The Miracle of Walking in the air at Savrasti Pipal tree Miracle of the Buddha walking on the River Nairanjana Bimbisara with his royal cortege issuing from the city of Rajagriha to visit the Buddha Foreigners making a dedication to the Great Stupa at Sanchi Procession of king Suddhodana from Kapilavastu First Western Satraps invasion under Nahapana Main article Western Satraps See also Saka Satavahana Wars Little is known about Apilaka s successors except cryptic references to one Kuntala Satakarni The next well known ruler of the dynasty was Hala who composed Gaha Sattasai in Maharashtri Prakrit Like Hala his four successors also ruled for very short periods a total of 12 years indicating troubled times for the Satavahanas 12 Epigraphic and numismatic evidence suggests that the Satavahanas earlier controlled the northern Deccan Plateau the northern Konkan coastal plains and the mountain passes connecting these two regions During 15 40 CE their northern neighbours the Western Kshatrapas extended their influence into these regions 77 The Western Kshatrapa ruler Nahapana is known to have ruled the former Satavahana territory as attested by the inscriptions of his governor and son in law Rishabhadatta 78 First revival A coin of Nahapana restruck by the Satavahana king Gautamiputra Satakarni Nahapana s profile and coin legend are still clearly visible The defeated Saka Yavana Palhava Brahmi script 𑀲𑀓 𑀬𑀯𑀦 𑀧𑀮 𑀳𑀯 mentioned in the Nasik cave 3 inscription of Queen Gotami Balasiri end of line 5 of the inscription 79 The Satavahana power was revived by Gautamiputra Satakarni who is considered the greatest of the Satavahana rulers 65 Charles Higham dates his reign c 103 c 127 CE 65 S Nagaraju dates it 106 130 CE 80 the new consensus is shared by Shailendra Bhandare Akira Shimada and Oskar von Hinuber who regard Gautamiputra Satakarni s reign was ca 60 85 CE as it is evident from history that Gautamiputra Saatakarni in the year 78CE defeated Vikramaditya of Ujjain which in turn was celebrated and named Yug Aadi means Beginning of New Era New Year for Andhra Karnataka Maharashtra Gudi padwa Telangana states Ever since these states people followed Saatavaahana calendar 81 82 83 Andrew Ollett considers it as 60 84 CE 84 The king defeated by him appears to have been the Western Kshatrapa ruler Nahapana as suggested by Nahapana s coins overstuck with names and titles of Gautamiputra 78 The Nashik prashasti inscription of Gautamiputra s mother Gautami Balashri dated to the 20th year after his death records his achievements The most liberal interpretation of the inscription suggests that his kingdom extended from the present day Rajasthan in the north to Krishna river in the south and from Saurashtra in the west to Kalinga in the east He assumed the titles Raja Raja King of Kings and Maharaja Great King and was described as the Lord of Vindhya 12 During the last years of his reign his administration was apparently handled by his mother which could have been a result of an illness or military preoccupation 12 According to the Nasik inscription made by his mother Gautami Balashri he was the one 85 who crushed down the pride and conceit of the Kshatriyas who destroyed the Sakas Western Satraps Yavanas Indo Greeks and Pahlavas Indo Parthians who rooted out the Khakharata family the Kshaharata family of Nahapana who restored the glory of the Satavahana race Inscription of Queen Mother Gautami Balashri at Cave No 3 of the Pandavleni Caves in Nashik Gautamiputra was succeeded by his son Vasisthiputra Sri Pulamavi or Pulumayi According to Sailendra Nath Sen Pulumavi ruled from 96 to 119 CE 12 According to Charles Higham he ascended the throne around 110 CE 65 according to Shailendra Bhandare Akira Shimada and Oskar von Hinuber Vasisthiputra Sri Pulamavi ruled ca 85 125 CE 81 86 87 and Andrew Ollett considers it to be ca 84 119 CE 84 Pulumavi features in a large number of Satavahana inscriptions and his coins have been found distributed over a wide area This indicates that he maintained Gautamiputra s territory and ruled a prosperous kingdom He is believed to have added the Bellary region to Satakarni s kingdom His coins featuring ships with double mast have been found on the Coromandel Coast indicating involvement in maritime trade and naval power The old stupa at Amaravati was perhaps renovated during his reign 12 though recent scholarship tends to spread the dates of this wider Second Western Satraps invasion under Rudradaman I Coin of Vashishtiputra Satakarni Pulumavi s successor was his brother Vashishtiputra Satakarni According to S N Sen he ruled during 120 149 CE 12 according to Charles Higham his regnal years spanned 138 145 CE 65 He entered into a marriage alliance with the Western Satraps marrying the daughter of Rudradaman I 12 The Junagadh inscription of Rudradaman I states that he defeated Satakarni the lord of Dakshinapatha Deccan twice It also states that he spared the life of the defeated ruler because of close relations 65 Rudradaman who obtained good report because he in spite of having twice in fair fight completely defeated Satakarni the lord of Dakshinapatha on account of the nearness of their connection did not destroy him Junagadh rock inscription According to D R Bhandarkar and Dineshchandra Sircar the ruler defeated by Rudradaman was Gautamiputra Satakarni However E J Rapson believed that the defeated ruler was his son Vasishthiputra Pulumavi 88 Shailendra Nath Sen and Charles Higham believe that the defeated ruler was Vashishtiputra s successor Shivaskanda or Shiva Sri Pulumayi or Pulumavi 65 12 As a result of his victories Rudradaman regained all the former territories previously held by Nahapana except for the extreme south territories of Pune and Nasik Satavahana dominions were limited to their original base in the Deccan and eastern central India around Amaravati Second revival Coin of Yajna Sri Satakarni British Museum Sri Yajna Satakarni the last person belonging to the main Satavahana dynastic line briefly revived the Satavahana rule According to S N Sen he ruled during 170 199 CE 12 Charles Higham dates the end of his reign to 181 CE His coins feature images of ships which suggest naval and marine trade success 65 Wide distribution of his coins and inscriptions at Nashik Kanheri and Guntur indicate that his rule extended over both eastern and western parts of Deccan He recovered much of the territory lost the Western Kshatrapas and issued silver coinage imitating them During the last years of his reign the Abhiras captured the northern parts of the kingdom around Nashik region 12 Decline After Yajna Satakarni the dynasty was soon extinguished following the rise of its feudatories perhaps on account of a decline in central power 89 On the other hand the Western Satraps would continue to prosper for the next two centuries until their extinction by the Gupta Empire Yajna Sri was succeeded by Madhariputra Swami Isvarasena The next king Vijaya ruled for 6 years His son Vasishthiputra Sri Chadha Satakarni ruled for 10 years 12 Pulumavi IV the last king of the main line ruled until c 225 CE During his reign several Buddhist monuments were constructed at sites including Nagarjunakonda and Amaravati 65 Madhya Pradesh was also part of his kingdom 12 After the death of Pulumavi IV the Satavahana empire fragmented into five smaller kingdoms 12 Northern part ruled by a collateral branch of the Satavahanas which ended in early 4th century 65 Western part around Nashik ruled by the Abhira dynasty Eastern part Krishna Guntur region ruled by the Andhra Ikshvakus South western parts northern Karanataka ruled by the Chutus of Banavasi South eastern part ruled by the PallavasTerritorial extent 100INDO GREEKSSAKASShuleSABEANSMEROEAKSUMKUCHATagarcultureWUSUNLOULANOrdoscultureJINDONGHUYUEZHIKANGJUDinglingsSarmatiansSELEU CIDSPTOLE MIESPARTHIANEMPIRESUNGASSATAVA HANASHANDYNASTYXIONGNU class notpageimage Main polities in Asia circa 100 90 91 92 The Satavahana territory included northern Deccan region spanning the present day Andhra Pradesh Maharashtra and Telangana states At times their rule also extended to present day Gujarat Karnataka and Madhya Pradesh The Nashik prashasti inscription issued by Gautami Balashri the mother of Gautamiputra Satakarni claims that her son ruled an extensive territory that stretched from Gujarat in the north to northern Karnataka in the south It is not clear if Gautamiputra had effective control over these claimed territories In any case historical evidence suggests that his control over these territories did not last long 93 Moreover this realm was not continuous many areas in this region remained under the control of the hunter gatherers and other tribal communities 94 As per historian M Govinda Pai Ptolemy 100 170 CE states that when Siro Polemaios Vasishthiputra Sri Pulumayi was ruling from his capital Paithan in the north reign c 85 125 CE another Satavahana prince called Baleokouros or Baleokoura Vilivayakura was ruling from Hippokoura Huvina Hipparagi of Basavana Bagewadi taluk of Vijayapura district of present Karnataka in the south who was none other than his own son Pai identifies this prince Vilivaya kura as another form of Vilivaya Kumara meaning the son of Vilivaya and he goes on to prove that Vilivaya is indeed merely another rendering of Pulumayi which was transformed as per Prakrit rules the spoken form of this language during that period and due to common parlance Thus Vilivayakura means a son of Pulumayi who was ruling from Huvina Hipparagi in present Karnataka Pai identifies all the 10 cities mentioned by Ptolemy as lying between the river Benda or Binda or Bhima river in the north and Banaouasei Banavasi in the south viz Nagarouris Nagur Tabaso Tavasi Inde Indi Tiripangalida Gadhinglaj Hippokoura Huvina Hipparagi Soubouttou Savadi Sirimalaga Malkhed Kalligeris Kalkeri Modogoulla Mudgal and Petirgala Pattadakal as being located in Northern Karnataka 95 The Satavahana capital kept shifting with time The Nashik inscription describes Gautamiputra as the lord of Benakataka suggesting that this was the name of his capital Ptolemy 2nd century CE mentioned Pratishthana modern Paithan as the capital of Pulumavi 93 At other times the Satavahana capitals included Dharanikota and Junnar 9 M K Dhavalikar theorised that the original Satavahana capital was located at Junnar but had to be moved to Pratishthana because of Saka Kushana incursions from the north west 96 Several Satavahana era inscriptions record grants to religious monasteries The settlements most frequently mentioned as the residences of donors in these inscriptions include the sea ports of Sopara Kalyan Bharuch Kuda unidentified and Chaul The most frequently mentioned inland settlements include Dhanyakatakam Dharanikota Junnar Nashik Paithan and Karad 93 Other important Satavahana sites in western Deccan include Govardhana Nevasa Ter and Vadgaon Madhavpur The ones in eastern Deccan include Amaravati Dhulikatta Kotalingala and Peddabankur 97 Administration Ashoka with his Queens at Sannati Kanaganahalli Stupa 1st 3rd century CE The inscription Raya Asoko 𑀭 𑀬 𑀅𑀲 𑀓 King Ashoka in Brahmi script is carved on the relief 98 99 100 The Satavahanas followed the administration guidelines of the Shastras Their government was less top heavy than that of the Mauryans and featured several levels of feudatories 12 Rajan the hereditary rulers Rajas petty princes who struck coins in their own names Maharathis hereditary lords who could grant villages in their own names and maintained matrimonial relations with the ruling family Mahabhojas Mahasenapati civil administrator under Pulumavi II governor of a janapada under Pulumavi IV Mahatalavara great watchman The royal princes kumaras were appointed as viceroys of the provinces 12 The ahara appears to have been the largest geographical subdivision of the Satavahana polity Several inscriptions refer to aharas named after the governors appointed to rule them e g Govardhanahara Mamalahara Satavanihara and Kapurahara 93 This suggests that the Satavahanas attempted to build a formal administrative and revenue collection structure 101 The inscriptions of Gautamiputra Satakarni suggest the existence of a bureaucratic structure although it is not certain how stable and effective this structure was For example two inscriptions from Nashik Cave 11 record donations of agricultural land to ascetic communities They state that the ascetics would enjoy tax exemption and non interference from the royal officials The first inscription states that the grant was approved by Gautamiputra s minister Sivagupta on the king s verbal orders and preserved by the great lords The second inscription records a grant by Gautamiputra and his mother and mentions Syamaka as the minister of the Govardhana ahara It states that the charter was approved by a woman named Lota who according to archaeologist James Burgess interpretation was the chief lady in waiting of Gautamiputra s mother 102 The Satavahana era inscriptions mention three types of settlements nagara city nigama market town and gama village 93 According to Sastri the Satavahanas were described as lords of the three oceans and promoted overseas colonization and trade Under them Buddhist art attained the superb forms of beauty and elegance preserved to this day in the cave temples of western India and the survivals from the stupa of Amaravati Goli Nagarjunikonda 103 This tradition was followed by successors of Satavahana in the eastern and western Deccan 103 Economy Indian ship on lead coin of Vasisthiputra Sri Pulamavi testimony to the naval seafaring and trading capabilities of the Satavahanas during the 1st 2nd century CE The Satavahanas participated in and benefited from economic expansion through intensification of agriculture increased production of other commodities and trade within and beyond the Indian subcontinent 104 During the Satavahana period several large settlements emerged in the fertile areas especially along the major rivers The amount of land under agricultural use also expanded significantly as a result of forest clearance and construction of irrigation reservoirs 101 The exploitation of sites with mineral resources may have increased during the Satavahana period leading to the emergence of new settlements in these areas Such sites facilitated commerce and crafts such as ceramic ware The increased craft production during the Satavahana period is evident from archaeological discoveries at sites such as Kotalingala as well as epigraphic references to artisans and guilds 101 The Satavahanas controlled the Indian sea coast and as a result they dominated the growing Indian trade with the Roman Empire The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea mentions two important Satavahana trade centres Pratishthana and Tagara Other important urban centres included Kondapur Banavasi and Madhavpur Nanaghat was the site of an important pass that linked the Satavahana capital Pratishthana to the sea 65 Religion The Pompeii Lakshmi ivory statuette was found in the ruin of Pompeii destroyed in an eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 CE It is thought to have come from Bhokardan in the Satavahana realm in the first half of the 1st century CE It testifies to Indo Roman trade relations in the beginning of our era The Satavahanas were Hindus and claimed Brahmanical status 2 although they also made generous donations to Buddhist monasteries 105 The lay people in the Satavahana period perhaps generally did not exclusively support a particular religious group 77 The Naneghat inscription of Nayanika recorded on the walls of a cave mentions that her husband Satakarni I performed several Vedic sacrifices including ashvamedha horse sacrifice rajasuya royal consecration and agnyadheya fire ceremony 106 The inscription also records substantial fees paid to Brahmin priests and attendees for these sacrifices For example 10 001 cows were granted for the Bhagala Dasaratra sacrifice and 24 400 coins were granted for another sacrifice whose name is not clear 107 A number of Buddhist monastic sites emerged in the Deccan region during the Satavahana period However the exact relations between these monasteries and the Satavahana government is not clear 97 The Pandavleni Caves inscription issued during the reign of Kanha states that the cave was excavated by maha matra officer in charge of the shramanas non Vedic ascetics Based on this Sudhakar Chattopadhyaya concludes that Kanha favoured Buddhism and had an administrative department dedicated to the welfare of Buddhist monks 35 However Carla M Sinopoli notes that although there are some records of donations to the Buddhist monasteries by the Satavahana royals the vast majority of the donations were made by the non royals The most common among these donors were merchants and many of the monasteries were located along the important trade routes 97 The merchants probably donated to the monasteries because these sites facilitated trade by serving as rest houses and possibly by directly participating in the trade 2 The monasteries appear to have been an important venue for displaying charitable donations including the donations made to non Buddhists especially Brahmins 105 LanguageMost of the Satavahana inscriptions and coin legends are in a Middle Indo Aryan language 108 This language has been termed Prakrit by some modern scholars but this terminology can be considered correct only if the term Prakrit is defined broadly to include every Middle Indo Aryan language that is not exactly Sanskrit The language of the inscriptions is actually closer to Sanskrit than to the literary Prakrit used in the Gaha Sattasai anthology attributed to the Satavahana king Hala 109 According to Gunadya besides Sanskrit and Prakrit there is another language called Desi which may mean the native language or the language of common man Commenting on the Desi language Dr D C Sircar remarks It was apparently Early Telugu which was in older times very closer to Tamil than it is now was the mother tongue of the common people Later Satavahana kings like Gauthamiputra Satakarni Vastistiputra pulamovi and Yajna Satakarni had their names in two languages i e Prakrit and Desi a native language 110 The Satvahanas also used Sanskrit in political inscriptions but rarely 111 A fragmentary inscription found close to the Nashik prashasti of Gautamiputra Satakarni uses Sanskrit verses in vasanta tilaka metre to describe a deceased king probably Gautamiputra A Sanskrit inscription found at Sannati probably refers to Gautamiputra Shri Satakarni one of whose coins also features a Sanskrit legend 108 The Satavahanas also issued bilingual coins featuring Middle Indo Aryan language on one side and Desi language possibly Old Tamil on the other side 112 Inscriptions Inscription of Gautamiputra Satakarni Nasik Caves No 3 Inscription No 4 Circa 150 CE Several Brahmi script inscriptions are available from the Satavahana period but most of these record donations to Buddhist institutions by individuals and do not provide much information about the dynasty The inscriptions issued by the Satavahana royals themselves also primarily concern religious donations although some of them provide some information about the rulers and the imperial structure 113 The earliest extant Satavahana inscription is from Nashik Cave 19 which states that the cave was commissioned by Mahamatra Saman of Nashik during the reign of king Kanha 7 At Naneghat an inscription issued by Nayanika the widow of Satakarni I has been found It records Nayanika s lineage and mentions the Vedic sacrifices performed by the royal family 7 Another inscription at Naneghat comprises names of Satavahana royals appearing as labels over their bas relief portraits The portraits are now completely eroded but the inscription is believed to be contemporary to Nayanika s inscription on a paleographic basis 26 The next oldest Satavahana era inscription appears on a sculpted gateway element of Stupa 1 at Sanchi It states that the element was donated by Ananda who was the son of Siri Satakarni s foreman of artisans This inscription is probably from the reign of Satakarni II 26 CoinageSatavahana bilingual coinage in Prakrit and Dravidian possibly Old Tamil c 150 CE Bilingual coinage of Sri Vasishthiputra Pulumavi in Prakrit and Dravidian possibly Old Tamil and transcription of the obverse Prakrit legend Obverse Portrait of the king Legend in Prakrit in the Brahmi script starting at 12 o clock 𑀭𑀜 𑀯 𑀲 𑀣 𑀧 𑀢𑀲 𑀲 𑀭 𑀧 𑀎 𑀫 𑀯 𑀲Rano Vasiṭhiputasa Siri Puḷumavisa Of King Lord Pulumavi son of Vasishthi Reverse Ujjain and arched hill symbols Legend in Dravidian more closer to Tamil and to a lesser extent Telugu 114 and the Dravidian script 114 essentially similar to the Brahmi script 115 starting at 12 o clock 𑀅𑀭𑀳𑀡𑀓 𑀯 𑀳 𑀣 𑀫 𑀓𑀡𑀓 𑀢 𑀭 𑀧 𑀮 𑀫 𑀯 𑀓 Arahaṇaku Vahitti Makaṇaku Tiru Pulumaviku 116 or Aracanaku Vacitti Makaṇaku Tiru Pulumaviku 117 Of King Tiru Pulumavi son of Vasishthi 115 The Satavahanas were the earliest Indian rulers to issue their own coins with portraits of their rulers starting with king Gautamiputra Satakarni a practice derived from that of the Western Kshatrapas he defeated 118 The Western Satraps themselves had been following the features of the coins of the Indo Greek kings to the northwest 119 Thousands of lead copper and potin Satavahana coins have been discovered in the Deccan region a few gold and silver coins are also available These coins do not feature uniform design or size and suggest that multiple minting locations existed within the Satavahana territory leading to regional differences in coinage 113 The coin legends of the Satavahanas in all areas and all periods used a Prakrit dialect without exception In addition some reverse coin legends are in Dravidian 114 more similar to the Tamil 120 121 and Telugu languages 114 113 in the Dravidian script similar to the Brahmi script apart from a few variations 114 115 Several coins carry titles or matronyms that were common to multiple rulers e g Satavahana Satakarni and Pulumavi so the number of rulers attested by coinage cannot be determined with certainty The names of 16 to 20 rulers appear on the various coins Some of these rulers appear to be local elites rather than the Satavahana monarchs 113 The Satavahana coins give unique indications as to their chronology language and even facial features curly hair long ears and strong lips They issued mainly lead and copper coins their portrait style silver coins were usually struck over coins of the Western Kshatrapa kings The Satavahana coins also display various traditional symbols such as elephants lions horses and chaityas stupas as well as the Ujjain symbol a cross with four circles at the end Other examples Early Satavahana coinage Satakarni issue Maharashtra Vidarbha type 1st century BCE Satavahana 1st century BCE coin inscribed in Brahmi Sataka Nisa British Museum Coin of Gautamiputra Yajna Satakarni r 167 196 CE Cultural achievements Satavahana architecture at Cave No 3 of the Pandavleni Caves in Nashik This cave was probably started during the reign of Gautamiputra Satakarni and was finished and dedicated to the Buddhist Samgha during the reign of his son Vasishthiputra Pulumavi circa 150 CE The Satavahanas patronised the Prakrit language instead of Sanskrit 12 The Satavahana king Hala is famous for compiling the collection of Maharashtri poems known as the Gaha Sattasai Sanskrit Gatha Saptashati although from linguistic evidence it seems that the work now extant must have been re edited in the succeeding century or two Through this book it was evident that agriculture was the main means of livelihood Also many sorts of superstitions had prevailed Additionally Gunadhya the minister of Hala was the author of Brihatkatha 122 Sculptures Madhukar Keshav Dhavalikar writes that The Satavahana sculptures unfortunately has never been recognized as an independent school in spite of the fact it has its own distinctive characteristic features The earliest in point of time is that in the Bhaja Vihara cave which marks the beginning of sculptural art in the Satavahana dominion around 200BC It is profusely decorated with carvings and even pillars have a lotus capital crowned with sphinx like mythic animals 123 Dhavalikar also writes that in Chankama the panel occurring on the west pillar of Northern Gateway portrays a very important event in Buddha s life It depicts votaries two each on either side of what looks like a ladder which actually is the promenade which Buddha is supposed to have walked It is said that Buddha after attaining Enlightment spent four weeks near the Bodhi tree Of these the third week he spent walking along the promenade chankama to and fro 124 Along with some of the above major Satavahana sculptures some more sculptures existed namely Dvarapala Gajalaksmi Shalabhanjikas Royal Procession Decorative pillar etc 125 Bronze Royal earrings Andhra Pradesh 1st century BCE Several metal figurines are found that could be attributed to the Satavahanas A hoard of unique bronze objects were also found from Bramhapuri Numerous articles obtained from there were Indian but also reflected Roman and Italian influence A small statue of Poseidon wine jugs and a plaque depicting Perseus and Andromeda were also obtained from the house from where the objects were found 126 The fine elephant in the Ashmolean Museum the Yaksi image in the British Museum 127 and the cornucopia found in Posheri kept at Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj Vastu Sangrahalaya 128 can also be attributed to the Satavahana period Architecture The sculptures of the Amaravati Stupa and the wider Amaravati style represent the architectural development of the Satavahana periods They built Buddhist stupas in Amravati 95 feet high They also constructed a large number of stupas at Goli Jaggiahpeta Gantasala Amravati Bhattiprolu and Shri Parvatam Caves IX and X containing Ajanta paintings were patronised by Satavahana and the painting throughout the caves appear to have started with them Ashokan Stupas were enlarged the earlier bricks and wood works being replaced with stone works The most famous of these monuments are the stupas the most famous among them being the Amravati Stupa and the Nagarjunakonda Stupa Paintings The Satavahana paintings are the earliest surviving specimens excluding prehistoric rock art in India and they are to be found only at the Ajanta Caves There were two phases of artistic activity of Ajanta the first occurring in the 2nd to 1st centuries BC when Hinayana caves were excavated during Satavahana rule the later in the second half of the 5th century under the Vakatakas Vagaries of nature and some vandalism have taken a heavy toll on the Ajanta Caves Only a few fragments related to the Satavahanas have survived in Caves No 9 and 10 both of which are chaitya grihas with stupas The most important surviving painting of the Satavahana period at Ajanta is the Chhadanta Jataka in Cave No 10 but that too is only fragmentary It is a painting of an elephant named Bodhisattva with six tusks related to a mythological story The human figures both male and female are typically Satavahanas almost identical with their counterparts on the Sanchi Gateways so far as their physiognomy costumes and jewellery are concerned The only difference is that the Sanchi figures have shed some of their weight 129 Art of Amaravati Main article Amaravati Stupa The Satavahana rulers are also remarkable for their contributions to Buddhist art and architecture They built great stupas in the Krishna River Valley including the stupa at Amaravati in Andhra Pradesh The stupas were decorated in marble slabs and sculpted with subjects including scenes from the life of the Buddha portrayed in a characteristic slim and elegant style The regional Amaravati style of sculpture also influenced the sculpture of Southeast Asia 130 Amaravati Marbles fragments of Buddhist stupa Fragment of Amaravati stupa Mara s assault on the Buddha 2nd century Amaravati style Scroll supported by Indian Yaksha Amaravati Stupa 2nd 3rd century CE List of rulersMultiple Puranas contain chronology of Satavahana kings However there are inconsistencies among the various Puranas over the number of kings in the dynasty the names of the kings and the length of their rule In addition some of the kings listed in the Puranas are not attested via archaeological and numismatic evidence Similarly there are some kings known from coins and inscriptions whose names are not found in the Puranic lists 58 35 The reconstructions of the Satavahana kings by historians fall into two categories According to the first one 30 Satavahana kings ruled for around 450 years starting from Simuka s rule immediately after the fall of the Mauryan empire This view relies heavily on the Puranas and is now largely discredited According to the second and more widely accepted category of reconstructions the Satavahana rule started in around first century BCE The chronologies in this category contain a smaller number of kings and combine Puranic records with archaeological numismatic and textual evidence 131 Because of uncertainty regarding the establishment date of the Satavahana kingdom it is difficult to give absolute dates for the reigns of the Satavahana kings 58 Therefore many modern scholars do not assign absolute dates to the reigns of the historically attested Satavahana kings and those who do vary greatly with each other 6 List based on Archeology Himanshu Prabha Ray provides the following chronology based on archaeological and numismatic evidence 20 List of Satavahana dynasty rulers Serial Nu Ruler Reign1 Simuka before 100 BCE2 Kanha c 100 70 BCE3 Satakarni I c 70 60 BCE4 Satakarni II c 50 25 BCEKshatrapa interregnum rule with vassal Satavahana kings5 Hala vassal under Kshatrapas c 20 24 CE6 Nahapana Kshatrapas King c 54 100 CERestored Satavahana dynasty7 Gautamiputra Satakarni c 86 110 CE8 Pulumavi c 110 138 CE9 Vashishtiputra Satakarni c 138 145 CE10 Shiva Shri Pulumavi c 145 152 CE11 Shiva Skanda Satakarni c 145 152 CE12 Yajna Shri Satakarni c 152 181 CE13 Vijaya Satakarni until c 200 CERegional Satavahana rulers of south eastern Deccan 104 14 Chandra Shri 3rd century CE15 Pulumavi II 3rd century CE16 Abhira Isvarasena 3rd century CE17 Madhariputra Sakasena 3rd century CE18 Haritiputra Satakarni 3rd century CEList based on Puranas The various Puranas give different lists of the Satavahana rulers The Matsya Purana states that 30 Andhra kings ruled for 460 years but some of its manuscripts name only 19 kings whose reigns add up to 448 5 years The Vayu Purana also mentions that there were 30 Andhra kings but its various manuscripts name only 17 18 and 19 kings respectively the reigns add up to 272 5 300 and 411 years respectively Many of these kings are not attested by historical evidence On the other hand some Satavahana kings attested by numismatic evidence such as Rudra Satakarni are not mentioned in the Puranas at all 132 Different scholars have explained these anomalies in different ways Scholars such as R G Bhandarkar D C Sircar and H C Raychaudhuri theorised that the Vayu Purana mentions only the main imperial branch of the dynasty while the Matsya Purana puts together princes of all its branches 132 The names of the Andhra kings in IAST as mentioned in the various Puranas are given below These names vary across different manuscripts of the same Puranas and some names are missing in some of the manuscripts The list given below for each Purana contains the most exhaustive version In the Puranas Krishna IAST Kṛṣṇa is described as brother of the first king who overthrew the Kanva king Susharman All other kings are described as sons of their predecessors The first king of the Andhra Bhrityas is also known as Shudraka or Suraka in the Kumarika Khanda of Skanda Purana not present in the table below 133 Puranic genealogy of Andhra dynasty 134 Ruler Coins Epigraphy Bhagavata Brahmanda Matsya Vayu Vishnu Reign years Alternative names and reigns 135 136 1 Simuka 23 Sisuka Matsya Sindhuka Vayu Sipraka Vishnu Chhismaka Brahmanda 2 Kṛṣṇa Kanha 183 Satakarṇi I 10 Santakarṇa Bhagavata Mallakarni 10 or 18 years Matsya Sri Satakarṇi Vishnu 4 Purṇotsanga 18 Paurṇamasa Bhagavata 5 Skandastambhi 18 Srivasvani Matsya 6 Satakarṇi II 567 Lambodara 188 Apilaka 12 Apitaka Matsya Ivilaka Vishnu Hivilaka Bhagavata 9 Meghasvati 18 Saudasa Brahmanda 10 Svati Satakarṇi 1211 Skandasvati 7 Skandasvati 28 years Brahmanda 12 Mṛgendra Svatikarṇa 3 Mahendra Satakarṇi Brahmanda 13 Kuntala Svatikarṇa 814 Svatikarṇa 115 Pulomavi I 24 Pulomavi 36 years Matsya Aṭamana Bhagavata Paṭimavi Vayu Paṭumat Vishnu Abhi Brahmanda16 Gaurakṛṣṇa 25 Goraksasvasri Matsya Nemi Kṛṣṇa Vayu Arishṭakarman Vishnu 17 Hala 5 Haleya Bhagavata 1 year in one manuscript18 Mandalaka 5 Talaka Bhagavata Saptaka Vayu Pattalaka Vishnu Bhavaka Brahmanda 19 Purindrasena 5 Puriṣabhiru Bhagavata Purikaṣena 21 years Vayu Pravillasena Vishnu Pravillasena 12 years Brahmanda 20 Sundara Satakarṇi 1 Sundara Svatikarṇa Matsya Sunandana Bhagavata 21 Cakora Satakarṇi Chakora 0 522 Sivasvati 28 Svatisena 1 year Brahmanda Sivasvami Vayu 23 Gautamiputra 21 Yantramati 34 years Brahmanda Gotamiputra Bhagavata and Vishnu 24 years according to inscriptions24 Pulomavi II Vashishtiputra 28 Puriman Bhagavata Pulomat Matsya Pulimat Vishnu See also Vashishtiputra Satakarni 25 Sivasri 7 Madasira Bhagavata 26 Sivaskanda Satakarṇi 727 Yajnasri 29 Yajnasri Satakarṇi 19 years Brahmanda Yajnasri 9 20 or 29 years Matsya 28 Vijaya 629 Candrasri Chandrashri 3 Candravijaya Bhagavata Daṇḍasri Brahmanda and Vayu Vada Sri or Candra Sri Satakarṇi 10 years Matsya 30 Pulomavi III 7 Sulomadhi Bhagavata Pulomavit Matsya Pulomarchis Vishnu List of rulers S Nagaraju relies on the Puranic lists of 30 kings and gives the following regnal dates 80 List of Satavahana dynasty rulers S No Ruler Reign1 Simuka r 228 205 BCE 2 Krishna r 205 187 BCE 3 Satakarni I r 187 177 BCE 4 Purnotsanga r 177 159 BCE 5 Skandhastambhi r 159 141 BCE 6 Satakarni II r 141 85 BCE 7 Lambodara r 85 67 BCE 8 Apilaka r 67 55 BCE 9 Meghasvati r 55 37 BCE 10 Svati r 37 19 BCE 11 Skandasvati r 19 12 BCE 12 Mrigendra Satakarni r 12 9 BCE 13 Kunatala Satakarni r 9 1 BCE 14 Satakarni III r 1 BCE 1 CE 15 Pulumavi I r 1 36 CE 16 Gaura Krishna r 36 61 CE 17 Hala r 61 66 CE 18 Mandalaka aka Puttalaka or Pulumavi II r 69 71 CE 19 Purindrasena r 71 76 CE 20 Sundara Satakarni r 76 77 CE 21 Chakora Satakarni r 77 78 CE 22 Shivasvati r 78 106 CE 23 Gautamiputra Satkarni r 106 130 CE 24 Vasisthiputra aka Pulumavi III r 130 158 CE 25 Shiva Sri Satakarni r 158 165 CE 26 Shivaskanda Satakarni r 165 172 27 Sri Yajna Satakarni r 172 201 CE 28 Vijaya Satakarni r 201 207 CE 29 Chandra Sri Satakarni r 207 214 CE 30 Pulumavi IV r 217 224 CE Mid Chronology of Satavahana rulers Apart from the two traditional views long and short chronologies there is another kind of analysis pointing out to a Mid Chronology as it was already proposed by Dr Dehejia and others and particularly most recently by Shailendra Bhandare who regards Satavahana s rule extended more than three centuries c 150 BCE to 250 CE 137 with the flourish of trans national trade urbanism and monumental architecture in South India Bhandare regards Simuka to have ruled since around 160 150 BCE and that this date would still fit in well with Pargiter s 460 years to the Satavahanas as it would fix the end of the dynasty around 300 CE not too far from the mid 3rd century as consensus approximately lies 138 Regarding Siri Satakani and his wife Naganika Bhandhare considers their rule to have been somewhere around 110 20 BCE 138 List by Shailendra Bhandare Bhandare also suggests the following sequence of reigns based on his analysis of Satavahana coinage 139 Gautamiputa Satakani ca 60 85 CE Vasithiputa Siri Pulumayi ca 85 125 CE Vasithiputa Siri Satakani ca 125 152 CE Vasithiputa Siva Siri Pulumayi ca 152 160 CE Vasithiputa Siri Khada Satakani ca 160 165 CE Vasithiputa Vijaya Satakani ca 165 170 CE Siri Yana Satakani ca 170 200 CE Gotamiputa Siri Cada ca 200 215 CE Gotamiputa Siri Vijaya Satakani ca 215 225 CE Shailendra Bhandare s edited list by Andrew Ollett On the other hand based to a large degree on Shailendra Bhandare s work with slight corrections Andrew Ollett 2017 mentions the following reigns for the whole Satavahana dynasty 140 Vasisthiputra Sri Chimuka Satavahana ca 120 96 BCE Krsna ca 96 88 BCE Sri Satakarni ca 88 42 BCE Sakti Mantalaka Sundara Gautamiputra Siva Satakarni 60 CE Gautamiputra Sri Satakarni ca 60 84 CE Vasisthiputra Sri Pulumavi ca 84 119 CE Vasisthiputra Sri Satakarni ca 119 148 CE Vasisthiputra Sivasri Pulumavi ca 148 156 CE Vasisthiputra Sriskanda Satakarni ca 156 170 CE Gautamiputra Sriyajna Satakarni ca 171 199 CE Gautamiputra Srivijaya Satakarni ca 200 205 CE Vasisthiputra Sricanda Satakarni ca 206 220 CE Mathariputra Sri Pulumavi ca 220 230 CE See alsoMagadha History of India History of Hinduism List of Indian monarchs List of wars involving IndiaReferencesCitations Schwartzberg Joseph E 1978 A Historical atlas of South Asia Chicago University of Chicago Press p 145 map XIV 1 e ISBN 0226742210 a b c Sinopoli 2001 p 172 The Satavahana Phase academic oup com Retrieved 29 October 2022 K M Dayashankar 26 September 2014 Koti Lingala a major pilgrim destination The Hindu Retrieved 25 February 2020 a b c Burgess Epigraphia Indica Vol 8 p 93 a b c d Sinopoli 2001 p 166 a b c d e f g Sinopoli 2001 p 168 CNG eAuction 417 INDIA Post Mauryan Deccan Satavahanas Andhras Sri Satakarṇi Circa 70 60 BC BI Karshapana 19mm 3 44 g www cngcoins com Retrieved 11 December 2019 a b Kosambi Damodar Dharmanand 1956 Satavahana Origins Introduction to the study of India history second 1975 ed Mumbai Popular Prakashan pp 243 244 ISBN 978 81 7154 038 9 Shastri 1998 pp 20 21 Sarma 1980 p 3 a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s Sen 1999 pp 172 176 Kosambi 1975 p 243 Zvelebil Kamil 1992 Companion Studies to the History of Tamil Literature p 118 Zvelebil Kamil 1975 Tamil literature p 42 The Journal of the Numismatic Society of India Numismatic Society of India 53 1991 Pauni Vidarbha The latest site which contributed valuable numismatic evidence confirming once and for all ancient Vidarbha s early Satavahana affiliation is Pauni in district Bhandara Two seasons of joint excavation 1968 70 by the Nagpur University and the Archaeological Survey of India yielded reliable coin data from both the Stupa sites in Sarma 1980 p 38 Coins of a number of Satavahana rulers from Gautamiputra Satakarni onward have been discovered in large numbers in the Vidarbha region However no coin of any earlier king has been reported so far The present coin is therefore the first coin of Sri Satakarni to be reported from Vidarbha Another potin coin of Sri Satakarni has been recently discovered at Pauni 2 The discovery of these coins indicates for the first time the possibility of the rule of the early Satavahanas over the Vidarbha region Deo Shantaram Bhalchandra Joshi Jagat Pati 1972 Pauni Excavation 1969 70 Nagpur University p 99 The bas relief at Pauni or Bharhut in India which dates back to about the second century B C represents a vacant throne protected by a naga with many heads It also bears an inscription of the Naga Mucalinda Fig 3 SPAFA Digest Journal Of SEAMEO Project in Archaeology and Fine Arts SPAFA SPAFA Co ordinating Unit 1987 p 4 a b c Sinopoli 2001 p 167 Staff Rao P R Rao P Raghunadha 1989 Indian Heritage and Culture Sterling Publishers Pvt Ltd p 24 ISBN 9788120709300 a b Ray 1986 p 43 a b Shastri 1999 p 306 Rao 1993 p 5 a b Shastri Ajay Mitra Satavahanas Original Home and Nomenclature Bulletin of the Deccan College Research Institute 54 55 1994 p 381 a b c d Sinopoli 2001 p 169 Sarma 1980 pp 126 130 a b c Shimada 2012 p 45 Rocher Ludo 1986 The Puraṇas Otto Harrassowitz Verlag p 249 ISBN 9783447025225 Andhra Darshini in Telugu Vishalandhra Prachuranaalayam 1954 p 25 Brancaccio Pia 2010 The Buddhist Caves at Aurangabad Transformations in Art and Religion BRILL p 61 ISBN 978 9004185258 Rao 1976 p 8 Singh 2008 pp 381 382 Sinopoli 2001 pp 168 170 a b c d e Chattopadhyaya 1974 pp 17 56 Sinopoli 2001 pp 167 168 Sen 1999 p 172 a b Ollett Andrew 2017 Language of the Snakes Prakrit Sanskrit and the Language Order of Premodern India University of California Press Okland p 194 a b Poonacha K P 2013 Excavations at Kanaganahalli Archaeological Survey of India Delhi a b Nakanishi Maiko and Oskar von Hinuber 2014 Kanaganahalli Inscriptions Supplement to the Annual Report of the International Research Institute for Advanced Buddhology at Soka University for the Academic Year 2013 Vol 17 Tokyo Raychaudhuri 2006 pp 342 360 363 364 Ranade P V A New Interpretation The Origin of The Satavahanas Proceedings of the Indian History Congress vol 26 1964 p 62 Shimada 2012 p 43 Gupta Parmanand 1989 Geography from Ancient Indian Coins amp Seals Concept Publishing Company pp 22 23 ISBN 978 81 7022 248 4 Mysore State 1956 1966 Director of Publicity amp Information Government of Mysore 1966 p 15 B S L Hanumantha Rao 1976 The Age of Satavahanas Andhra Pradesh Sahitya Akademi p 10 Arguments are put forth trying to prove differently that they were Sudras Kshatriyas and Brahmins Dineschandra Sircar 1965 The Guhilas of Kiṣkindha Calcutta Sanskrit College p 9 OCLC 161579 a b V Sundara Rama Sastry 1990 Social Significance of Metronymic Epithets in Early Indian Ruling Dynasties A Study Proceedings of the Indian History Congress Indian History Congress 51 117 118 JSTOR 4414819 Hem Chandra Raychaudhuri Political History of Ancient India Seventh ed pp 365 366 P Krishna Mohan Reddy 1998 God Trade and Worship A Glimpse into the Religion of Early Andhradesa East and West Istituto Italiano per l Africa e l Oriente IsIAO 48 3 4 298 JSTOR 29757390 B S L Hanumantha Rao 1992 Address of the Sectional President Religion Politics and Society in Early Deccan Proceedings of the Indian History Congress 53 50 JSTOR 44142769 Sen 1999 pp 173 174 Dineschandra Sircar 1969 Ancient Malwa and the Vikramaditya Tradition Munshiram Manoharlal pp 67 68 ISBN 9788121503488 Sinopoli 2001 pp 162 163 a b Dhavalikar 1996 p 133 Schwartzberg Joseph E 1978 A Historical atlas of South Asia Chicago University of Chicago Press pp 20 145 ISBN 0226742210 Shastri 1998 p 42 a b c Singh 2008 pp 381 384 Thapar 2013 p 296 Ollett Andrew 2017 Appendix B APPENDIX B Satavahana Inscriptions Language of the Snakes University of California Press p 194 JSTOR 10 1525 j ctt1w8h1vk 14 Zin Monika 2018 Kanaganahalli in Satavahana art and Buddhism PDF Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies 41 540 note 7 Looking at that one slab from Kanaganahalli fig 14 40 in the upper panel we see a king We do not know exactly what the lower part showed because its large part is missing in any case it is a male person of rank The label of the inscription reads raja Siri Chimuko Sadavahano nagaraya Sakhadhabho The inscription lets us believe that it is the historical person of Sri Simuka founder of the Satavahana dynasty who is depicted here and that he was portrayed on the slab together with a nagaraja in Zin Monika 2012 The Buddha s Relics and the Nagas an Attempt to Throw Light on Some Depictions in the Amaravati School South Asian Archaeology and Art 2 763 and fig 14 a b John Marshall A guide to Sanchi p 48 a b Alcock Susan E Alcock John H D Arms Collegiate Professor of Classical Archaeology and Classics and Arthur F Thurnau Professor Susan E D Altroy Terence N Morrison Kathleen D Sinopoli Carla M 2001 Empires Perspectives from Archaeology and History Cambridge University Press p 169 ISBN 9780521770200 a b c d e f g h i j k Higham 2009 p 299 Singh 2008 p 382 Sen 1999 pp 176 177 Bhagwanlal Indraji 1885 The Hatigumpha and three other inscriptions in the Udayagiri caves near Cuttack Proceedings of the Leyden International Oriental Congress for 1883 pp 144 180 Chattopadhyaya 1974 pp 44 50 Alain Danielou 11 February 2003 A Brief History of India Inner Traditions Bear amp Co pp 139 141 ISBN 978 1 59477 794 3 Indian History Tata McGraw Hill Education p 251 ISBN 9781259063237 Jain Kailash Chand 1972 Malwa Through The Ages Motilal Banarsidass Publ p 154 ISBN 9788120808249 Ollett Andrew 2017 Language of the Snakes Prakrit Sanskrit and the Language Order of Premodern India University of California Press Okland footnote 5 p 190 and p 195 Falk Harry 2009 Two Dated Satavahana Epigraphs in Indo Iranian Journal 52 pp 197 200 Dhavalikar 2004 p 19 Original text L1 Rano Siri Satakarnisa L2 avesanisa Vasithiputasa L3 Anamdasa danam Marshall John A guide to Sanchi p 52 a b Fynes 1995 p 43 a b Fynes 1995 p 44 Hultzsch E 1906 Epigraphia Indica Vol 8 p 60 a b Rajesh Kumar Singh 2013 Ajanta Paintings 86 Panels of Jatakas and Other Themes Hari Sena pp 15 16 ISBN 9788192510750 a b Bhandare Shailendra 1999 Historical Analysis of the Satavahana Era A study of Coins University of Mumbai pp 168 178 Shimada Akira 2012 Early Buddhist Architecture in Context The Great Stupa at Amaravati ca 300 BCE 300 CE Brill p 51 von Hinuber Oskar 2016 Buddhist Texts and Buddhist Images New Evidence from Kanaganahalli Karnataka India ARIRIAB Vol XIX March 2016 p 16 a b Ollett Andrew 2017 Language of the Snakes Prakrit Sanskrit and the Language Order of Premodern India University of California Press Okland Table 2 Appendix A p 189 Inscription of Queen Mother Gautami Balashri at Cave No 3 of the Pandavleni Caves in Nashik Shimada Akira 2012 Early Buddhist Architecture in Context The Great Stupa at Amaravati ca 300 BCE 300 CE Brill p 52 von Hinuber Oskar 2016 Buddhist Texts and Buddhist Images New Evidence from Kanaganahalli Karnataka India ARIRIAB Vol XIX March 2016 p 15 Dutta 1990 p 52 The different branches of the Satavahana family which ruled in different parts of the kingdom after the decline in central authority were soon ousted by new powers some of which were probably feudatories at the outset Majumdar Ramesh Chandra 2003 Ancient India Delhi Motilal Banarsidass Coatsworth John Cole Juan Hanagan Michael P Perdue Peter C Tilly Charles Tilly Louise 16 March 2015 Global Connections Volume 1 To 1500 Politics Exchange and Social Life in World History Cambridge University Press p 138 ISBN 978 1 316 29777 3 Atlas of World History Oxford University Press 2002 p 51 ISBN 978 0 19 521921 0 Fauve Jeroen 2021 The European Handbook of Central Asian Studies p 403 ISBN 978 3 8382 1518 1 a b c d e Sinopoli 2001 p 170 Sinopoli 2001 p 439 Pai M Govinda 1942 THE VIḶIVAYAKURAS AND SIVALAKURA OF THE KOLHAPUR COINS Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute 23 1 4 319 329 ISSN 0378 1143 JSTOR 44002572 Dhavalikar 2004 p 22 a b c Sinopoli 2001 p 171 Thapar Romila 2012 Asoka and the Decline of the Mauryas Oxford University Press p 27 ISBN 9780199088683 Singh 2008 p 333 Alcock Susan E Alcock John H D Arms Collegiate Professor of Classical Archaeology and Classics and Arthur F Thurnau Professor Susan E D Altroy Terence N Morrison Kathleen D Sinopoli Carla M 2001 Empires Perspectives from Archaeology and History Cambridge University Press p 176 ISBN 9780521770200 a b c Sinopoli 2001 p 173 Sinopoli 2001 p 177 a b Sastri Nilakanta K A 1955 A History of South India Oxford University Press p 3 a b Sinopoli 2001 p 178 a b Sinopoli 2001 p 176 Sinopoli 2001 p 175 Sinopoli 2001 pp 175 176 a b Ollett 2017 p 41 Ollett 2017 p 38 Hanumantha Rao B S L 2001 The age of Satavahanas 2 print ed Hyderabad Potti Sreeramulu Telugu Univ ISBN 81 86073 86 8 OCLC 634973239 Ollett 2017 p 39 Ollett 2017 p 43 a b c d Sinopoli 2001 p 163 a b c d e Sircar D C 2008 Studies in Indian Coins Motilal Banarsidass Publishe p 113 ISBN 9788120829732 a b c The Satavahana issues are uniscriptural Brahmi but bilingual Prakrit and Old Tamil Proto Telugu in Epigraphia Andhrica 1975 p x Epigraphia Andhrica Government of Andhra Pradesh 1969 p XV Nakacami Iramaccantiran Nagaswamy R 1981 Tamil Coins A Study Institute of Epigraphy Tamilnadu State Department of Archaeology p 132 Art Los Angeles County Museum of Pal Pratapaditya 1986 Indian Sculpture Circa 500 B C A D 700 University of California Press pp 72 73 ISBN 9780520059917 Singh 2008 p 53 R Panneerselvam 1969 Further light on the bilingual coin of the Satavahanas Indo Iranian Journal 4 11 281 288 doi 10 1163 000000069790078428 JSTOR 24650366 James D Ryan 2013 The Heterodoxies in Tamil Nadu In Keith E Yandell John J Paul eds Religion and Public Culture Encounters and Identities in Modern South India Routledge pp 235 253 ISBN 978 1 136 81801 1 Datta Amaresh 1 January 1988 Encyclopaedia of Indian Literature Sahitya Akademi p 1375 ISBN 9788126011940 Dhavalikar 2004 p 57 The Satavahana sculptures unfortunately has never been recognized as an independent school in spite of the fact it has its own distinctive characteristic features The earliest in point of time is that in the Bhaja Vihara cave which marks the beginning of sculptural art in the Satavahana dominion around 200BC It is profusely decorated with carvings and even pillars have a lotus capital crowned with sphinx like mythic animals Dhavalikar 2004 p 63 the panel occurring on the west pillar of Northern Gateway portrays a very important event in Buddha s life It depicts votaries two each on either side of what looks like a ladder which actually is the promenade which Buddha is supposed to have walked It is said that Buddha after attaining Enlightment spent four weeks near the Bodhi tree Of these the third week he spent walking along the promenade chankama to and fro These sculptures are mentioned in Dhavalikar 2004 Only names have been mentioned Dhavalikar 2004 p 91 Chattopadhyaya Brajadulal 1 January 2009 A Social History of Early India Pearson Education India p 259 ISBN 9788131719589 Dhavalikar 2004 p 95 Dhavalikar 2004 pp 77 81 84 Rao 1994 p 20 Sinopoli 2001 pp 166 168 a b Dhavalikar 1996 p 134 Kr shṇaji Paṇḍuraṅga Kulakarṇi 1927 Sanskrit Drama amp Dramatists Their Chronology Mind and Art Dhavalikar 1996 p 139 Sir Ramkrishna Gopal Bhandarkar 1884 Early History of the Dekkan Down to the Mahomedan Conquest Printed at the Government Central Press p 25 Robert Sewell 1884 Lists of Inscriptions and Sketch of the Dynasties of Southern India Vol 2 Government Press p 145 Deccan Heritage Foundation Deccan Heritage Foundation Retrieved 11 December 2019 a b Bhandare Shailen January 2011 Linking the Past Overstruck Coins and the Chronology of the Satavahanas Felicitas Essay in Numismatics Epigraphy and History in Honour of Joe Cribb Eds Shailendra Bhandare and Sanjay Garg Retrieved 11 December 2019 via www academia edu Shimada Akira 2012 Early Buddhist Architecture in Context The Great Stupa at Amaravati ca 300 BCE 300 CE Brill pp 51 52 Ollett Andrew 2017 Language of the Snakes Prakrit Sanskrit and the Language Order of Premodern India University of California Press Okland Table 2 Appendix A pp 189 190 Sources Chattopadhyaya Sudhakar 1974 Some Early Dynasties of South India Motilal Banarsidass ISBN 9788120829411 Dhavalikar Madhukar Keshav 2004 Satavahana Art Delhi B L Bansal Sharada ISBN 978 81 88934 04 1 Dhavalikar Madhukar Keshav 1996 Satavahana Chronology A Re examination Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute 77 1 4 133 140 JSTOR 41702166 Dutta Mala 1990 A Study of the Satavahana Coinage Harman ISBN 978 81 85151 39 7 Falk Harry 2009 Two Dated Satavahana Epigraphs Indo Iranian Journal 52 2 197 206 doi 10 1163 001972409X445924 ISSN 0019 7246 Fynes R C C 1995 The Religious Patronage of the Satavahana Dynasty South Asian Studies 11 1 43 50 doi 10 1080 02666030 1995 9628494 Higham Charles 2009 Encyclopedia of Ancient Asian Civilizations Infobase ISBN 9781438109961 Joglekar S A 1946 SATAVAHANA AND SATAKARṆI Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute 27 3 4 237 287 ISSN 0378 1143 JSTOR 41688591 Kosambi Damodar Dharmanand 1975 An Introduction to the Study of Indian History Popular Prakashan ISBN 978 81 7154 038 9 Pradhan Shruti S 1994 FROM THE SATAVAHANAS TO THE ANDHRAS AND THE ANDHRA BHRTYAS Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute 75 1 4 121 142 ISSN 0378 1143 JSTOR 41694410 Rao B S L Hanumantha 1976 The Age of Satavahanas Andhra Pradesh Sahitya Akademi Rao P Raghunadha 1993 Ancient and medieval history of Andhra Pradesh Sterling Publishers ISBN 978 81 207 1495 3 Rao 1994 History and Culture of Andhra pradesh From the Earliest Times to the Present Day Sterling Publishers ISBN 978 81 207 1719 0 Ray Himanshu Prabha 1986 Monastery and guild commerce under the Satavahanas Oxford University Press ISBN 9780195619416 Raychaudhuri Hemchandra 2006 Political History of Ancient India From the Accession of Parikshit to the Extinction of the Gupta Dynasty Cosmo Publications ISBN 978 81 307 0291 9 Sarma I K 1980 Coinage of the Satavahana Empire Agam Sen Sailendra Nath 1999 Ancient Indian History and Civilization New Age International ISBN 9788122411980 Shastri Ajay Mitra 1999 The Age of the Satavahanas Aryan ISBN 978 81 7305 158 6 Shastri Ajay Mitra 1998 The Satavahanas and the Western Kshatrapas a historical framework Dattsons ISBN 978 81 7192 031 0 Shimada Akira 9 November 2012 Early Buddhist Architecture in Context BRILL ISBN 978 90 04 23283 9 Singh Upinder 2008 A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India From the Stone Age to the 12th Century Pearson Education India ISBN 978 81 317 1120 0 Sinopoli Carla M 2001 On the Edge of Empire Form and Substance in the Satavahana Dynasty In Alcock Susan E D Altroy Terence N Morrison Kathleen D Sinopoli Carla M eds Empires Perspectives from Archaeology and History Cambridge Cambridge University Press ISBN 9780521770200 Thapar Romila 2013 The Past Before Us Harvard University Press ISBN 978 0 674 72651 2External links Media related to Satavahana at Wikimedia Commons Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Satavahana dynasty amp oldid 1169162597, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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