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Devi

Devī (/ˈdvi/; Sanskrit: देवी) is the Sanskrit word for a female celestial being, typically translated as a 'goddess'; the masculine form is deva. Devi and deva mean 'heavenly, divine, anything of excellence', and are also gender-specific terms for a deity in Hinduism.

A sculpture of the goddess Lakshmi

The concept and reverence for goddesses appears in the Vedas, which were composed around the 2nd millennium BCE. However, they do not play a vital role in that era.[1] Goddesses such as Lakshmi, Parvati, Durga, Saraswati, Sita, Radha and Kali have continued to be revered in the modern era.[1] The medieval era Puranas witness a major expansion in mythology and literature associated with Devi, with texts such as the Devi Mahatmya, wherein she manifests as the ultimate truth and supreme power. She has inspired the Shaktism tradition of Hinduism. Further, Devi and her primary form Parvati is viewed as central in the Hindu traditions of Shaktism and Shaivism.[1][2]

Etymology

Devi and deva are Sanskrit terms found in Vedic literature around the 3rd millennium BCE. Deva is masculine, and the related feminine equivalent is devi.[3] Monier-Williams translates it as 'heavenly, divine, terrestrial things of high excellence, exalted, shining ones'.[4][5] Etymologically, the cognates of devi are Latin dea and Greek thea.[6] When capitalised, Devi maata refers to the mother goddess in Hinduism.[7] Deva is short for devatā and devi for devika.[4]

According to Douglas Harper, the etymological root dev- means "a shining one", from *div-, "to shine", it is a cognate of the Greek dios, Gothic divine and Latin deus (Old Latin deivos).[8]

History

The worship of Devi-like deities dates back to period of Indus Valley civilisation.[9][10]

The Devīsūkta of the Rigveda (10.125.1 to 10.125.8) is among the most studied hymns declaring that the ultimate reality is a goddess:[11][12]

I have created all worlds at my will without being urged by any higher Being, and dwell within them. I permeate the earth and heaven, and all created entities with my greatness and dwell in them as eternal and infinite consciousness.

— Devi Sukta, Rigveda 10.125.8, Translated by June McDaniel[13][14]

The Vedas name numerous cosmic goddesses such as Devi (power), Prithvi (earth), Aditi (cosmic moral order), Vāc (sound), Nirṛti (destruction), Ratri (night) and Aranyani (forest); bounty goddesses such as Dinsana, Raka, Puramdhi, Parendi, Bharati and Mahi are among others are mentioned in the Rigveda.[1]: 6–17, 55–64  However, the goddesses are not discussed as frequently as gods (devas).[1] Devi appears in late Vedic texts dated to be pre-Buddhist, but verses dedicated to her do not suggest that her characteristics were fully developed in the Vedic era.[1]: 18–19  All gods and goddesses are distinguished in Vedic times,[1]: 18  but in post-Vedic texts, particularly in the early medieval era literature, they are ultimately seen as aspects or manifestations of one Devi, the Supreme Power.[15]

Devi is the supreme being in the Shakta tradition of Hinduism; in the Smarta tradition, she is one of the five primary forms of Brahman that is revered.[16][17] In other Hindu traditions, Devi embodies the active energy and power of Deva, and they always appear together complementing each other. Examples of this are Parvati with Shiva in Shaivism, Saraswati with Brahma in Brahmanism and Lakshmi with Vishnu, Sita with Rama and Radha with Krishna in Vaishnavism.[18][19][20]

Devi-inspired philosophy is propounded in many Hindu texts such as the Devi Upanishad, which teaches that Shakti is essentially Brahman (ultimate metaphysical Reality) and that from her arises prakṛti (matter) and purusha (consciousness) and that she is bliss and non-bliss, the Vedas and what is different from it, the born and the unborn and all of the universe. Shakti is Parvati, Shiva’s wife. [21] She is also mentioned as the creative power of Shiva in Tripura Upanishad, Bahvricha Upanishad and Guhyakali Upanishad.[11]

Devi identifies herself in the Devi Upanishad as Brahman in her reply to the gods stating that she rules the world, blesses devotees with riches, that she is the supreme deity to whom all worship is to be offered and that she infuses Ātman in every soul.[21] Devi asserts that she is creator of earth and heaven and resides there.[11] Her creation of the sky as father and the seas as mother is reflected as the 'Inner Supreme Self'.[11] Her creations are not prompted by any higher being and she resides in all her creations. She is, states Devi, the eternal and infinite consciousness engulfing earth and heaven, and 'all forms of bliss and non-bliss, knowledge and ignorance, Brahman and Non-Brahman'. The tantric aspect in Devi Upanishad, says June McDaniel, is the usage of the terms yantra, bindu, bija, mantra, shakti and chakra.[11]

Among the major world religions, the concept of Goddess in Hinduism as the divine feminine, has had the strongest presence since ancient times.[22]

Examples

Parvati

 
Parvati riding a lion with her son Ganesha

Parvati is the Hindu goddess of love, beauty, purity, fertility and devotion.[23][24][25] She is the mother goddess in Hinduism and has many attributes and aspects. Each of her aspects is expressed with a different name, giving her over 1008 names in regional Hindu mythologies of India, including the popular name Gauri.[26] Along with Lakshmi (goddess of wealth and prosperity) and Saraswati (goddess of knowledge and learning), she forms the trinity of Hindu goddesses.[27]

Parvati is the wife of Shiva – the destroyer, recycler and regenerator of universe and all life.[28] She is the mother of Hindu gods Ganesha and Kartikeya.[29]

Rita Gross states,[30] that the view of Parvati only as ideal wife and mother is incomplete symbolism of the power of the feminine in the mythology of India. Parvati, along with other goddesses, are involved with the broad range of culturally valued goals and activities.[30] Her connection with motherhood and female sexuality does not confine the feminine or exhaust their significance and activities in Hindu literature.She manifests in every activity, from water to mountains, from arts to inspiring warriors, from agriculture to dance. Parvati's numerous aspects, states Gross, reflects the Hindu belief that the feminine has universal range of activities, and her gender is not a limiting condition.[1][30]

In Hindu belief, Parvati is the recreative energy and power of Shiva, and she is the cause of a bond that connects all beings and a means of their spiritual release.[31][32]

Devi is portrayed as the ideal wife, mother, and householder in Indian legends.[33] In Indian art, this vision of ideal couple is derived from Shiva and Parvati as being half of the other, represented as Ardhanarishvara.[34][35][36] Parvati is found extensively in ancient Indian literature, and her statues and iconography grace ancient and medieval era Hindu temples all over South Asia and Southeast Asia.[37][38]

Lakshmi

 
Lakshmi

Lakshmi, also called Sri, is the Hindu goddess of wealth, fortune, and prosperity (both material and spiritual). She is the consort and active energy of Vishnu.[39] Her four hands represent the four goals of human life considered important to the Hindu way of life – dharma, kama, artha, and moksha.[40][41] She is the mother goddess in Hinduism. She is also part of Tridevi which consists of Lakshmi, Parvati (goddess of power, fertility, love, beauty), and Saraswati (goddess of music, wisdom, and learning).

In the ancient scriptures of India, all women are declared to be embodiments of Lakshmi.[40] The marriage and relationship between Lakshmi and Vishnu as wife and husband, states Patricia Monaghan, is "the paradigm for rituals and ceremonies for the bride and groom in Hindu weddings."[42]

Archaeological discoveries and ancient coins suggest the recognition and reverence for goddess Lakshmi in the Scytho-Parthian kingdom and throughout India by the 1st millennium BCE.[43] She is also revered in other non-Hindu cultures of Asia, such as in Tibet.[44] Lakshmi's iconography and statues have also been found in Hindu temples throughout Southeast Asia, estimated to be from second half of 1st millennium CE.[45][46] In modern times, Lakshmi is worshipped as the goddess of wealth. The festivals of Diwali and Sharad Purnima (Kojagiri Purnima) are celebrated in her honor.[47]

Saraswati

 
Image of goddess Saraswati

Saraswati, is the Hindu goddess of knowledge, music, arts, wisdom and learning.[48] She is the consort of Brahma.[49]

The earliest known mention of Saraswati as a goddess is in Rigveda. She has remained significant as a goddess from the Vedic age through modern times of Hindu traditions.[48] Some Hindus celebrate the festival of Vasant Panchami (the fifth day of spring) in her honour,[50] and mark the day by helping young children learn how to write alphabets on that day.[51] She is also part of Tridevi which consists of Saraswati, Parvati (goddess of power, fertility, love, beauty), and Lakshmi (goddess of material wealth, prosperity, and fortune).

Saraswati is often depicted dressed in pure white, often seated on a white lotus.[52] She not only embodies knowledge but also the experience of the highest reality. Her iconography is typically in white themes from dress to flowers to swan – the colour symbolizing Sattwa Guna or purity, discrimination for true knowledge, insight and wisdom.[48][53]

She is generally shown to have four arms, but sometimes just two. The four hands hold items with symbolic meaning – a pustaka (book or script), a mala (rosary, garland), a water pot and a musical instrument (lute or vina).[48] The book she holds symbolizes the Vedas representing the universal, divine, eternal, and true knowledge as well as all forms of learning. A mālā of crystals, representing the power of meditation, a pot of water represents powers to purify the right from wrong.[48] The musical instrument, typically a veena, represents all creative arts and sciences,[54] and her holding it symbolizes expressing knowledge that creates harmony.[48][54] The Saraswatirahasya Upanishad of the Yajurveda contain ten verses called "dasa sloki" which are in praise of Sarasvati.[55] In this Upanishad, she is extolled as

You are the swan gliding over the pond of creative energy, waves and waves of creative forces emanating from your form! Radiant Goddess resplendent in white, dwell forever in the Kashmir of my heart.[56]

Saraswati is also found outside India, such as in Japan, Vietnam, Bali (Indonesia) and Myanmar.[1]: 95 [57]

Durga and Kali

 
 
Durga (left) killing the demon Mahishasura. In her most ferocious form, Durga metamorphoses into Kali (right).

Vedic literature does not have any particular goddess matching the concept of Durga. Her legends appear in the medieval era, as angry, ferocious form of mother goddess Parvati take the avatar as Durga or Kali.[1]: 45–48  She manifests as a goddess with eight or ten arms holding weapons and skulls of demons, and is astride on a tiger or lion.[58][59] In Skanda Purana, Devi Bhagvata Puran and other purans Parvati assumes the form of a warrior-goddess and defeats a demon called Durg who assumes the form of a buffalo. In this aspect, she is known by the name Durga.[1]: 96–97  In later Hindu literature, states Jansen, she is attributed the role of the "energy, power (shakti) of the Impersonal Absolute".[60]

In the Shaktism traditions of Hinduism, found particularly in eastern states of India, Durga is a popular goddess form of Parvati. In the medieval era composed texts such as the Puranas, she emerges as a prominent goddess in the context of crisis, when evil asuras were on the ascent. The male gods were unable to contain and subdue the forces of evil. The warrior goddess, Parvati, kills the asura, and is thereafter invincible, and revered as "preserver of Dharma, destroyer of evil".[60]

Durga's emergence and mythology is described in the Puranas, particularly the Devi Mahatmya. The text describes Kālī's emerging out of Parvati when she becomes extremely angry. Parvati's face turns pitch dark, and suddenly Kali springs forth from Parvati's forehead. She is black, wears a garland of human heads, is clothed in a tiger skin, rides a tiger, and wields a staff topped by a human skull. She destroys the asuras. Literature on goddess Kali recounts several such appearances, mostly in her terrifying but protective aspects. Kali appears as an independent deity, or like Durga, viewed as the wife of Shiva.[60] In this aspect, she represents the omnipotent Shakti of Shiva. She holds both the creative and destructive power of time.[citation needed] Kali, also called Kalaratri, is called in Yoga Vasistha as Prakṛti or "all of nature". She is described in the text, state Shimkhanda and Herman, as the "one great body of cosmos", and same as Devis "Durga, Jaya and Siddha, Virya, Gayatri, Saraswati, Uma, Savitri".[61] She is the power that supports the earth, with all its seas, islands, forests, deserts and mountains, asserts Yoga Vasistha.[61] She is not to be confused with the Kali Yuga, which is spelled similarly yet holds a different meaning. The Kali Yuga is presented as a threat to Mother India, with pictures from the nineteenth century depicting the age as a "ferocious meat-eating demon" in comparison to India's depiction of "a cow giving milk to her children".[62]

The largest annual festival associated with the goddess is Durga Puja celebrated in the month of Ashvin (September–October), where nine manifestations of Parvati (Navadurga) are worshipped, each on a day over nine days.[60] These are: Shailaputri, Brahmacharini, Chandraghanta, Kushmanda, Skandamata, Katyayani, Kaalratri, Mahagauri and Siddhidaatri.

Tridevi

In the feminist Shaktidharma denomination of Hinduism, the supreme deity Mahadevi manifests as the goddess Mahasaraswati in order to create, as the goddess Mahalaxmi in order to preserve, and as the goddess Mahakali (Parvati) in order to destroy. These three forms of the supreme goddess Mahadevi are collectively called the Tridevi.These Tridevi are said to be the Shakti of all the Gods or Deva. Like Mahasaraswati is the Shakti of Brahma; Lakshmi is the Shakti of Vishnu; and Mahakali is Shakti of Shiva.

Sita

 

Sita, an incarnation of Lakshmi, is the wife of Rama, an avatar of Vishnu. She is shakti or prakriti of Rama as told in the Ram Raksha Stotram. In Sita Upanishad, a shakta Upanishad, Sita is extolled as the supreme goddess.[63] The Upanishad identifies Sita with Prakrti (nature) which is constituted by "will" ichha, activity (kriya) and knowledge (jnana).[64] The Upanishad also states that Sita emerged while furrowing, at the edge of the plough.[65][66] She is extolled as one of the Panchakanya for her virtuous qualities; taking their names destroys all sins.[67]

Her life story and journeys with her husband Rama and brother-in-law Lakshmana are part of the Hindu epic Ramayana, an allegorical story with Hindu spiritual and ethical teachings.[68] However, there are many versions of Ramayana, and her story as a goddess in Hindu mythology. Her legends also vary in southeast Asian versions of the epic Ramayana, such as in the Ramakien of Thailand where she is spelled as Sida (or Nang Sida).[69]

In Valmiki Ramayana, Sita is repeatedly expressed as manifestation of Lakshmi, as the one who blesses abundance in agriculture, food, and wealth. She is referred to golden goddess, wherein after Rama (Vishnu) is bereaved of her, he refuses to marry again, insists that he is married solely and forever to her, and uses a golden image of Sita as a substitute in the performance of his duties as a king.[61]: 63  Sita, in many Hindu mythology, is the Devi associated with agriculture, fertility, food and wealth for continuation of humanity.[61]: 58, 64 

Radha

 
Krishna serving goddess Radha

Radha means "prosperity, success, and lightning." She is the female counterpart and consort of Krishna. She is also considered as the internal potency of Krishna. In Puranic literature such as the Brahma Vaivarta Purana, she is known as the Goddess of love and is also described as the "Prakriti" along with goddess Lakshmi, Parvati, Saraswati and Gayatri. She has figured prominently in the poems of Vidyapati (1352–1448) as a cosmic queen and later became inspiration behind many forms of art, literature, music and dance. She is also seen as the incarnation of Lakshmi.[70] Some traditions worship Radha as the lover consort of Krishna while many other traditions worship Radha as the married consort of Lord Krishna.

Radha was made famous through Jayadeva's Gitagovinda poem which was written in 12th century. It is a lyrical drama, a "mystical erotic poem" which describes the love of Krishna and Radha.[71] Some other texts which mentioned Radha are – Brahma Vaivarta Purana, Padma Purana, Skanda Purana, Devi Bhagvata Purana, Matsya Purana, Narada Pancharatra, Brahma Samhita, Shiva Purana and Garga Samhita.

Radha was born in Barsana and every year her birthday is celebrated as "Radhashtami". She is described by scriptures as the chief of gopis. She is also revered as the queen of Barsana, Vrindavan and her spiritual abode Goloka.[72] Her love affair with Krishna was set in Vraja and its surrounding forests. It is said that "Krishna enchants the world but Radha can even enchant Krishna due to her selfless love and complete dedication towards him".

Radha has always been a part of the bhakti movement symbolising "yearning of human soul drawn to Krishna". In South India, she is considered as Bhumidevi.[73]

Though goddess Radha has more than thousand names but some of her common names used by devotees are – Radhika, Radhe, Radharani, Madhavi, Keshavi, Shyama, Kishori, Shreeji, Swamini ji (in Pushtimarg), Raseshwari, Vrindavaneshwari and Laadli ji.

Mahadevi

In the sixth century when Devi Mahatmya came into practice the name Devi (goddess) or Mahadevi (Great Goddess) came into prominence to represent one female goddess to encompass the discrete goddesses like Parvati and so forth.[74] In the Hindu mythology, Devi and Deva are usually paired, complement and go together, typically shown as equal but sometimes the Devi is shown smaller or in the subordinate role.[75] Some goddesses, however, play an independent role in Hindu pantheon, and are revered as Supreme without any male god(s) present or with males in subordinate position.[75] Mahadevi, as mother goddess, is an example of the later, where she subsumes all goddesses, becomes the ultimate goddess, and is sometimes just called Devi.[75]

Theological texts projected Mahadevi as ultimate reality in the universe as a "powerful, creative, active, transcendent female being."[76] The Puranas and Tantra literature of India celebrates this idea, particularly between the 12th–16th century, and the best example of such texts being the various manuscript versions of Devi Bhagavata Purana with the embedded Devi Gita therein.[75][76][77]

Devi Bhagavata Purana gives prime position to Mahadevi as the mother of all-encompassing the three worlds and gives her the position of being all of universe – the material and the spiritual.[78] In the Upanishadic text Devi Upanishad, a Sakta Upanishad and an important Tantric text probably composed sometime between the ninth and fourteenth centuries the Goddess is addressed in the most general and universal of terms, as Mahadevi, and represents all goddesses as different manifestations of her.[79] The Lalita Sahasranama (Thousand names of Lalita (Parvati) states that Mahadevi is known by different synonyms such as Jagatikanda (anchors the world), Vishvadhika (one who surpasses the universe), Nirupama (one who has no match), Parameshwari (dominant governor), Vyapini (encompasses everything), Aprameya (immeasurable), Anekakotibrahmadajanani (creator of many universes), Vishvagarbha (she whose Garba or womb subsumes the universe), Sarvadhara (helps all), Sarvaga (being everywhere at the same time, Sarvalokesi (governs all worlds) and Vishavdaharini one who functions for the whole universe).[78]

The Mahadevi goddess has many aspects to her personality. She focuses on that side of her that suits her objectives, but unlike male Hindu deities, her powers and knowledge work in concert in a multifunctional manner.[80] The ten aspects of her, also called Mahavidyas (or great forms of her knowledge) are forms of Parvati and they are: Kali, Tara, Tripura Sundari, Bhairavi, Bhuvanesvari, Chhinnamasta, Dhumavati, Bagalamukhi, Matangi and Kamala.

Tantra and Devis

 
Yantra are used as icons for Devi in Tantra; above is Tripura-Bhairavi yantra

Tantric literature such as Soundarya Lahari meaning "Flood of Beauty", credited to Adi Shankaracharya a shakta or tantric poem, is dedicated to the Supreme Deity of the sect, Parvati who is considered much superior to Shiva. It celebrates Parvati and her feminine persona. It is an approach to the tantra through Parvati.[81][82]

In Shakti Tantra traditions, Devis are visualized with yantra and are a tool for spiritual journey for the tantric adept.[83] The adepts ritually construct triangle yantras with proper use of visualization, movement, and mantra. The adepts believe, state John Stratton Hawley and Donna Marie Wulff, that "to establish such yantra is to place the macrocosm within oneself", and doing so can yield temporal benefits, spiritual powers or enlightenment.[83]

A tantric text titled "Vigyan Bhairav Tantra", 'Vigyan' meaning "consciousness" is a conversation between Shiva and Parvati rendered in 112 verses, elaborates on "wisdom and insight of pure consciousness."[84]

Devi Puja is the worship of Parvati which is observed through four forms of Devi Yantra; the first is Tara that exists in the realm of the fourth chakra representing the spiritual heart; Saraswati emanates in the first chakra; Lakshmi forms the second chakra; and Parvati is at the heart of the third chakra and completes the chakra. Worship through this Yantra leads to the realization of "cosmic energy" within oneself.[85]

Matrikas

Matrikas, that is, the mothers, are seven or eight female divinities, which are depicted as a group. They are all forms of Parvati. They are Brahmani, Vaishnavi, Maheshvari, Indrani, Kaumari, Varahi and Chamundi or Narasimhi.[1]: 151–152  The Matrikas concept are important in Tantric traditions.[86] They are described in the Isaanasivagurudevapaddhati, as creations to facilitate Lord Shiva face his adversary Andhakasura. All the Matrikas are depicted in a sitting position, Lalitasana, and bedecked with heavy jewellery.[87]

Scholars state that the concept of Matrikas as powerful goddesses emerged in the early 1st millennium AD, and possibly much earlier.[88][89]

The idea of eight mother goddesses together is found in Himalayan Shaivism, while seven divine mothers (Sapta Matrika) is more common in South India.[90]

 
The Devi Matrikas (flanked by Shiva and Ganesha), representing various Shakti aspects, from 9th-century Madhya Pradesh

See also

References

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Bibliography

  • Narayan, Aiyangar. Essays On Indo-Aryan Mythology-Vol. Asian Educational Services. ISBN 978-81-206-0140-6.
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  • Brown, Cheever Mackenzie (1998). The Devi Gita: The Song of the Goddess: A Translation, Annotation, and Commentary. SUNY Press. ISBN 978-0-7914-3939-5.
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  • Kinsley, David (19 July 1988). Hindu Goddesses: Visions of the Divine Feminine in the Hindu Religious Tradition. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-90883-3.
  • Manners, David Charles (5 June 2014). Limitless Sky. Ebury Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4735-0167-6.
  • McDaniel, June (9 July 2004). Offering Flowers, Feeding Skulls : Popular Goddess Worship in West Bengal: Popular Goddess Worship in West Bengal. Oxford University Press, USA. ISBN 978-0-19-534713-5.
  • Mahadevan, T. M. P. (1975). Upaniṣads: Selections from 108 Upaniṣads. Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 978-81-208-1611-4.
  • Nair, Shantha N. (1 January 2008). Echoes of Ancient Indian Wisdom. Pustak Mahal. ISBN 978-81-223-1020-7.
  • Kinsley, David (1987). Hindu Goddesses: Visions of the Divine Feminine in the Hindu Religious Tradition. Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 978-81-208-0394-7.
  • Klostermaier, Klaus K. (10 March 2010). Survey of Hinduism, A: Third Edition. SUNY Press. ISBN 978-0-7914-8011-3.
  • Red, Sam (16 September 2015). Looking for Tantra: Living the tantric dream. New Generation Publishing. ISBN 978-1-78507-505-6.
  • Stiles, Mukunda (1 August 2011). Tantra Yoga Secrets: Eighteen Transformational Lessons to Serenity, Radiance, and Bliss. Weiser Books. ISBN 978-1-60925-362-2.
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  • Pintchman, Tracy (1994). The Rise of the Goddess in the Hindu Tradition. SUNY Press, New York. ISBN 0-7914-2112-0.
  • Wangu, Madhu Bazaz (2003). Images of Indian Goddesses: Myths, Meanings, and Models. Abhinav Publications, New Delhi, India. ISBN 81-7017-416-3.
  • Hawley & Wulff (1996), , University of California Press, ISBN 978-0-520-20058-6

External links

  • Smithsonian
  • , The Arthur M. Sackler Gallery and Freer Gallery of Art
  • Shrimad Devi Bhagavatam Translation by Swami Vijñanananda
  • Devi, a Proto-Indo-European Goddess

devi, other, uses, disambiguation, main, article, mahadevi, devī, sanskrit, sanskrit, word, female, celestial, being, typically, translated, goddess, masculine, form, deva, deva, mean, heavenly, divine, anything, excellence, also, gender, specific, terms, deit. For other uses see Devi disambiguation Main article Mahadevi Devi ˈ d eɪ v i Sanskrit द व is the Sanskrit word for a female celestial being typically translated as a goddess the masculine form is deva Devi and deva mean heavenly divine anything of excellence and are also gender specific terms for a deity in Hinduism A sculpture of the goddess Lakshmi The concept and reverence for goddesses appears in the Vedas which were composed around the 2nd millennium BCE However they do not play a vital role in that era 1 Goddesses such as Lakshmi Parvati Durga Saraswati Sita Radha and Kali have continued to be revered in the modern era 1 The medieval era Puranas witness a major expansion in mythology and literature associated with Devi with texts such as the Devi Mahatmya wherein she manifests as the ultimate truth and supreme power She has inspired the Shaktism tradition of Hinduism Further Devi and her primary form Parvati is viewed as central in the Hindu traditions of Shaktism and Shaivism 1 2 Contents 1 Etymology 2 History 3 Examples 3 1 Parvati 3 2 Lakshmi 3 3 Saraswati 3 4 Durga and Kali 3 5 Tridevi 3 6 Sita 3 7 Radha 3 8 Mahadevi 3 9 Tantra and Devis 3 9 1 Matrikas 4 See also 5 References 5 1 Bibliography 6 External linksEtymology EditDevi and deva are Sanskrit terms found in Vedic literature around the 3rd millennium BCE Deva is masculine and the related feminine equivalent is devi 3 Monier Williams translates it as heavenly divine terrestrial things of high excellence exalted shining ones 4 5 Etymologically the cognates of devi are Latin dea and Greek thea 6 When capitalised Devi maata refers to the mother goddess in Hinduism 7 Deva is short for devata and devi for devika 4 According to Douglas Harper the etymological root dev means a shining one from div to shine it is a cognate of the Greek dios Gothic divine and Latin deus Old Latin deivos 8 History EditSee also God and gender in Hinduism The worship of Devi like deities dates back to period of Indus Valley civilisation 9 10 The Devisukta of the Rigveda 10 125 1 to 10 125 8 is among the most studied hymns declaring that the ultimate reality is a goddess 11 12 I have created all worlds at my will without being urged by any higher Being and dwell within them I permeate the earth and heaven and all created entities with my greatness and dwell in them as eternal and infinite consciousness Devi Sukta Rigveda 10 125 8 Translated by June McDaniel 13 14 The Vedas name numerous cosmic goddesses such as Devi power Prithvi earth Aditi cosmic moral order Vac sound Nirṛti destruction Ratri night and Aranyani forest bounty goddesses such as Dinsana Raka Puramdhi Parendi Bharati and Mahi are among others are mentioned in the Rigveda 1 6 17 55 64 However the goddesses are not discussed as frequently as gods devas 1 Devi appears in late Vedic texts dated to be pre Buddhist but verses dedicated to her do not suggest that her characteristics were fully developed in the Vedic era 1 18 19 All gods and goddesses are distinguished in Vedic times 1 18 but in post Vedic texts particularly in the early medieval era literature they are ultimately seen as aspects or manifestations of one Devi the Supreme Power 15 Devi is the supreme being in the Shakta tradition of Hinduism in the Smarta tradition she is one of the five primary forms of Brahman that is revered 16 17 In other Hindu traditions Devi embodies the active energy and power of Deva and they always appear together complementing each other Examples of this are Parvati with Shiva in Shaivism Saraswati with Brahma in Brahmanism and Lakshmi with Vishnu Sita with Rama and Radha with Krishna in Vaishnavism 18 19 20 Devi inspired philosophy is propounded in many Hindu texts such as the Devi Upanishad which teaches that Shakti is essentially Brahman ultimate metaphysical Reality and that from her arises prakṛti matter and purusha consciousness and that she is bliss and non bliss the Vedas and what is different from it the born and the unborn and all of the universe Shakti is Parvati Shiva s wife 21 She is also mentioned as the creative power of Shiva in Tripura Upanishad Bahvricha Upanishad and Guhyakali Upanishad 11 Devi identifies herself in the Devi Upanishad as Brahman in her reply to the gods stating that she rules the world blesses devotees with riches that she is the supreme deity to whom all worship is to be offered and that she infuses Atman in every soul 21 Devi asserts that she is creator of earth and heaven and resides there 11 Her creation of the sky as father and the seas as mother is reflected as the Inner Supreme Self 11 Her creations are not prompted by any higher being and she resides in all her creations She is states Devi the eternal and infinite consciousness engulfing earth and heaven and all forms of bliss and non bliss knowledge and ignorance Brahman and Non Brahman The tantric aspect in Devi Upanishad says June McDaniel is the usage of the terms yantra bindu bija mantra shakti and chakra 11 Among the major world religions the concept of Goddess in Hinduism as the divine feminine has had the strongest presence since ancient times 22 Examples EditParvati Edit Main article Parvati Parvati riding a lion with her son Ganesha Parvati is the Hindu goddess of love beauty purity fertility and devotion 23 24 25 She is the mother goddess in Hinduism and has many attributes and aspects Each of her aspects is expressed with a different name giving her over 1008 names in regional Hindu mythologies of India including the popular name Gauri 26 Along with Lakshmi goddess of wealth and prosperity and Saraswati goddess of knowledge and learning she forms the trinity of Hindu goddesses 27 Parvati is the wife of Shiva the destroyer recycler and regenerator of universe and all life 28 She is the mother of Hindu gods Ganesha and Kartikeya 29 Rita Gross states 30 that the view of Parvati only as ideal wife and mother is incomplete symbolism of the power of the feminine in the mythology of India Parvati along with other goddesses are involved with the broad range of culturally valued goals and activities 30 Her connection with motherhood and female sexuality does not confine the feminine or exhaust their significance and activities in Hindu literature She manifests in every activity from water to mountains from arts to inspiring warriors from agriculture to dance Parvati s numerous aspects states Gross reflects the Hindu belief that the feminine has universal range of activities and her gender is not a limiting condition 1 30 In Hindu belief Parvati is the recreative energy and power of Shiva and she is the cause of a bond that connects all beings and a means of their spiritual release 31 32 Devi is portrayed as the ideal wife mother and householder in Indian legends 33 In Indian art this vision of ideal couple is derived from Shiva and Parvati as being half of the other represented as Ardhanarishvara 34 35 36 Parvati is found extensively in ancient Indian literature and her statues and iconography grace ancient and medieval era Hindu temples all over South Asia and Southeast Asia 37 38 Lakshmi Edit Main article Lakshmi Lakshmi Lakshmi also called Sri is the Hindu goddess of wealth fortune and prosperity both material and spiritual She is the consort and active energy of Vishnu 39 Her four hands represent the four goals of human life considered important to the Hindu way of life dharma kama artha and moksha 40 41 She is the mother goddess in Hinduism She is also part of Tridevi which consists of Lakshmi Parvati goddess of power fertility love beauty and Saraswati goddess of music wisdom and learning In the ancient scriptures of India all women are declared to be embodiments of Lakshmi 40 The marriage and relationship between Lakshmi and Vishnu as wife and husband states Patricia Monaghan is the paradigm for rituals and ceremonies for the bride and groom in Hindu weddings 42 Archaeological discoveries and ancient coins suggest the recognition and reverence for goddess Lakshmi in the Scytho Parthian kingdom and throughout India by the 1st millennium BCE 43 She is also revered in other non Hindu cultures of Asia such as in Tibet 44 Lakshmi s iconography and statues have also been found in Hindu temples throughout Southeast Asia estimated to be from second half of 1st millennium CE 45 46 In modern times Lakshmi is worshipped as the goddess of wealth The festivals of Diwali and Sharad Purnima Kojagiri Purnima are celebrated in her honor 47 Saraswati Edit Main article Saraswati Image of goddess Saraswati Saraswati is the Hindu goddess of knowledge music arts wisdom and learning 48 She is the consort of Brahma 49 The earliest known mention of Saraswati as a goddess is in Rigveda She has remained significant as a goddess from the Vedic age through modern times of Hindu traditions 48 Some Hindus celebrate the festival of Vasant Panchami the fifth day of spring in her honour 50 and mark the day by helping young children learn how to write alphabets on that day 51 She is also part of Tridevi which consists of Saraswati Parvati goddess of power fertility love beauty and Lakshmi goddess of material wealth prosperity and fortune Saraswati is often depicted dressed in pure white often seated on a white lotus 52 She not only embodies knowledge but also the experience of the highest reality Her iconography is typically in white themes from dress to flowers to swan the colour symbolizing Sattwa Guna or purity discrimination for true knowledge insight and wisdom 48 53 She is generally shown to have four arms but sometimes just two The four hands hold items with symbolic meaning a pustaka book or script a mala rosary garland a water pot and a musical instrument lute or vina 48 The book she holds symbolizes the Vedas representing the universal divine eternal and true knowledge as well as all forms of learning A mala of crystals representing the power of meditation a pot of water represents powers to purify the right from wrong 48 The musical instrument typically a veena represents all creative arts and sciences 54 and her holding it symbolizes expressing knowledge that creates harmony 48 54 The Saraswatirahasya Upanishad of the Yajurveda contain ten verses called dasa sloki which are in praise of Sarasvati 55 In this Upanishad she is extolled asYou are the swan gliding over the pond of creative energy waves and waves of creative forces emanating from your form Radiant Goddess resplendent in white dwell forever in the Kashmir of my heart 56 Saraswati is also found outside India such as in Japan Vietnam Bali Indonesia and Myanmar 1 95 57 Durga and Kali Edit Main articles Durga and Kali Durga left killing the demon Mahishasura In her most ferocious form Durga metamorphoses into Kali right Vedic literature does not have any particular goddess matching the concept of Durga Her legends appear in the medieval era as angry ferocious form of mother goddess Parvati take the avatar as Durga or Kali 1 45 48 She manifests as a goddess with eight or ten arms holding weapons and skulls of demons and is astride on a tiger or lion 58 59 In Skanda Purana Devi Bhagvata Puran and other purans Parvati assumes the form of a warrior goddess and defeats a demon called Durg who assumes the form of a buffalo In this aspect she is known by the name Durga 1 96 97 In later Hindu literature states Jansen she is attributed the role of the energy power shakti of the Impersonal Absolute 60 In the Shaktism traditions of Hinduism found particularly in eastern states of India Durga is a popular goddess form of Parvati In the medieval era composed texts such as the Puranas she emerges as a prominent goddess in the context of crisis when evil asuras were on the ascent The male gods were unable to contain and subdue the forces of evil The warrior goddess Parvati kills the asura and is thereafter invincible and revered as preserver of Dharma destroyer of evil 60 Durga s emergence and mythology is described in the Puranas particularly the Devi Mahatmya The text describes Kali s emerging out of Parvati when she becomes extremely angry Parvati s face turns pitch dark and suddenly Kali springs forth from Parvati s forehead She is black wears a garland of human heads is clothed in a tiger skin rides a tiger and wields a staff topped by a human skull She destroys the asuras Literature on goddess Kali recounts several such appearances mostly in her terrifying but protective aspects Kali appears as an independent deity or like Durga viewed as the wife of Shiva 60 In this aspect she represents the omnipotent Shakti of Shiva She holds both the creative and destructive power of time citation needed Kali also called Kalaratri is called in Yoga Vasistha as Prakṛti or all of nature She is described in the text state Shimkhanda and Herman as the one great body of cosmos and same as Devis Durga Jaya and Siddha Virya Gayatri Saraswati Uma Savitri 61 She is the power that supports the earth with all its seas islands forests deserts and mountains asserts Yoga Vasistha 61 She is not to be confused with the Kali Yuga which is spelled similarly yet holds a different meaning The Kali Yuga is presented as a threat to Mother India with pictures from the nineteenth century depicting the age as a ferocious meat eating demon in comparison to India s depiction of a cow giving milk to her children 62 The largest annual festival associated with the goddess is Durga Puja celebrated in the month of Ashvin September October where nine manifestations of Parvati Navadurga are worshipped each on a day over nine days 60 These are Shailaputri Brahmacharini Chandraghanta Kushmanda Skandamata Katyayani Kaalratri Mahagauri and Siddhidaatri Tridevi Edit Main article Tridevi In the feminist Shaktidharma denomination of Hinduism the supreme deity Mahadevi manifests as the goddess Mahasaraswati in order to create as the goddess Mahalaxmi in order to preserve and as the goddess Mahakali Parvati in order to destroy These three forms of the supreme goddess Mahadevi are collectively called the Tridevi These Tridevi are said to be the Shakti of all the Gods or Deva Like Mahasaraswati is the Shakti of Brahma Lakshmi is the Shakti of Vishnu and Mahakali is Shakti of Shiva Sita Edit Sita Main article Sita Sita an incarnation of Lakshmi is the wife of Rama an avatar of Vishnu She is shakti or prakriti of Rama as told in the Ram Raksha Stotram In Sita Upanishad a shakta Upanishad Sita is extolled as the supreme goddess 63 The Upanishad identifies Sita with Prakrti nature which is constituted by will ichha activity kriya and knowledge jnana 64 The Upanishad also states that Sita emerged while furrowing at the edge of the plough 65 66 She is extolled as one of the Panchakanya for her virtuous qualities taking their names destroys all sins 67 Her life story and journeys with her husband Rama and brother in law Lakshmana are part of the Hindu epic Ramayana an allegorical story with Hindu spiritual and ethical teachings 68 However there are many versions of Ramayana and her story as a goddess in Hindu mythology Her legends also vary in southeast Asian versions of the epic Ramayana such as in the Ramakien of Thailand where she is spelled as Sida or Nang Sida 69 In Valmiki Ramayana Sita is repeatedly expressed as manifestation of Lakshmi as the one who blesses abundance in agriculture food and wealth She is referred to golden goddess wherein after Rama Vishnu is bereaved of her he refuses to marry again insists that he is married solely and forever to her and uses a golden image of Sita as a substitute in the performance of his duties as a king 61 63 Sita in many Hindu mythology is the Devi associated with agriculture fertility food and wealth for continuation of humanity 61 58 64 Radha Edit Main article Radha Krishna serving goddess Radha Radha means prosperity success and lightning She is the female counterpart and consort of Krishna She is also considered as the internal potency of Krishna In Puranic literature such as the Brahma Vaivarta Purana she is known as the Goddess of love and is also described as the Prakriti along with goddess Lakshmi Parvati Saraswati and Gayatri She has figured prominently in the poems of Vidyapati 1352 1448 as a cosmic queen and later became inspiration behind many forms of art literature music and dance She is also seen as the incarnation of Lakshmi 70 Some traditions worship Radha as the lover consort of Krishna while many other traditions worship Radha as the married consort of Lord Krishna Radha was made famous through Jayadeva s Gitagovinda poem which was written in 12th century It is a lyrical drama a mystical erotic poem which describes the love of Krishna and Radha 71 Some other texts which mentioned Radha are Brahma Vaivarta Purana Padma Purana Skanda Purana Devi Bhagvata Purana Matsya Purana Narada Pancharatra Brahma Samhita Shiva Purana and Garga Samhita Radha was born in Barsana and every year her birthday is celebrated as Radhashtami She is described by scriptures as the chief of gopis She is also revered as the queen of Barsana Vrindavan and her spiritual abode Goloka 72 Her love affair with Krishna was set in Vraja and its surrounding forests It is said that Krishna enchants the world but Radha can even enchant Krishna due to her selfless love and complete dedication towards him Radha has always been a part of the bhakti movement symbolising yearning of human soul drawn to Krishna In South India she is considered as Bhumidevi 73 Though goddess Radha has more than thousand names but some of her common names used by devotees are Radhika Radhe Radharani Madhavi Keshavi Shyama Kishori Shreeji Swamini ji in Pushtimarg Raseshwari Vrindavaneshwari and Laadli ji Mahadevi Edit Main article Mahadevi In the sixth century when Devi Mahatmya came into practice the name Devi goddess or Mahadevi Great Goddess came into prominence to represent one female goddess to encompass the discrete goddesses like Parvati and so forth 74 In the Hindu mythology Devi and Deva are usually paired complement and go together typically shown as equal but sometimes the Devi is shown smaller or in the subordinate role 75 Some goddesses however play an independent role in Hindu pantheon and are revered as Supreme without any male god s present or with males in subordinate position 75 Mahadevi as mother goddess is an example of the later where she subsumes all goddesses becomes the ultimate goddess and is sometimes just called Devi 75 Theological texts projected Mahadevi as ultimate reality in the universe as a powerful creative active transcendent female being 76 The Puranas and Tantra literature of India celebrates this idea particularly between the 12th 16th century and the best example of such texts being the various manuscript versions of Devi Bhagavata Purana with the embedded Devi Gita therein 75 76 77 Devi Bhagavata Purana gives prime position to Mahadevi as the mother of all encompassing the three worlds and gives her the position of being all of universe the material and the spiritual 78 In the Upanishadic text Devi Upanishad a Sakta Upanishad and an important Tantric text probably composed sometime between the ninth and fourteenth centuries the Goddess is addressed in the most general and universal of terms as Mahadevi and represents all goddesses as different manifestations of her 79 The Lalita Sahasranama Thousand names of Lalita Parvati states that Mahadevi is known by different synonyms such as Jagatikanda anchors the world Vishvadhika one who surpasses the universe Nirupama one who has no match Parameshwari dominant governor Vyapini encompasses everything Aprameya immeasurable Anekakotibrahmadajanani creator of many universes Vishvagarbha she whose Garba or womb subsumes the universe Sarvadhara helps all Sarvaga being everywhere at the same time Sarvalokesi governs all worlds and Vishavdaharini one who functions for the whole universe 78 The Mahadevi goddess has many aspects to her personality She focuses on that side of her that suits her objectives but unlike male Hindu deities her powers and knowledge work in concert in a multifunctional manner 80 The ten aspects of her also called Mahavidyas or great forms of her knowledge are forms of Parvati and they are Kali Tara Tripura Sundari Bhairavi Bhuvanesvari Chhinnamasta Dhumavati Bagalamukhi Matangi and Kamala Tantra and Devis Edit Main article Tantra Yantra are used as icons for Devi in Tantra above is Tripura Bhairavi yantra Tantric literature such as Soundarya Lahari meaning Flood of Beauty credited to Adi Shankaracharya a shakta or tantric poem is dedicated to the Supreme Deity of the sect Parvati who is considered much superior to Shiva It celebrates Parvati and her feminine persona It is an approach to the tantra through Parvati 81 82 In Shakti Tantra traditions Devis are visualized with yantra and are a tool for spiritual journey for the tantric adept 83 The adepts ritually construct triangle yantras with proper use of visualization movement and mantra The adepts believe state John Stratton Hawley and Donna Marie Wulff that to establish such yantra is to place the macrocosm within oneself and doing so can yield temporal benefits spiritual powers or enlightenment 83 A tantric text titled Vigyan Bhairav Tantra Vigyan meaning consciousness is a conversation between Shiva and Parvati rendered in 112 verses elaborates on wisdom and insight of pure consciousness 84 Devi Puja is the worship of Parvati which is observed through four forms of Devi Yantra the first is Tara that exists in the realm of the fourth chakra representing the spiritual heart Saraswati emanates in the first chakra Lakshmi forms the second chakra and Parvati is at the heart of the third chakra and completes the chakra Worship through this Yantra leads to the realization of cosmic energy within oneself 85 Matrikas Edit Main article Matrikas Matrikas that is the mothers are seven or eight female divinities which are depicted as a group They are all forms of Parvati They are Brahmani Vaishnavi Maheshvari Indrani Kaumari Varahi and Chamundi or Narasimhi 1 151 152 The Matrikas concept are important in Tantric traditions 86 They are described in the Isaanasivagurudevapaddhati as creations to facilitate Lord Shiva face his adversary Andhakasura All the Matrikas are depicted in a sitting position Lalitasana and bedecked with heavy jewellery 87 Scholars state that the concept of Matrikas as powerful goddesses emerged in the early 1st millennium AD and possibly much earlier 88 89 The idea of eight mother goddesses together is found in Himalayan Shaivism while seven divine mothers Sapta Matrika is more common in South India 90 The Devi Matrikas flanked by Shiva and Ganesha representing various Shakti aspects from 9th century Madhya PradeshSee also EditDeva Hinduism Shaktism Shakti Pitha Saundarya Lahari ShaktiReferences Edit a b c d e f g h i j k l Kinsley David 1988 Hindu Goddesses Vision of the Divine Feminine in the Hindu Religious Traditions University of California Press ISBN 0 520 06339 2 Flood Gavin ed 2003 The Blackwell Companion to Hinduism Blackwell Publishing Ltd ISBN 1 4051 3251 5 pp 200 203 Klostermaier 2010 p 496 a b Klostermaier 2010 p 492 Klostermaier Klaus 2010 A Survey of Hinduism 3rd Edition State University of New York Press ISBN 978 0 7914 7082 4 pages 101 102 Hawley John Stratton and Donna Marie Wulff 1998 Devi Goddesses of India Motilal Banarsidass ISBN 978 81 208 1491 2 page 2 John Stratton Hawley and Donna Marie Wulff 1998 Devi Goddesses of India Motilal Banarsidass ISBN 978 81 208 1491 2 pages 18 21 Deva Etymology Dictionary Douglas Harper 2015 Thomaskutty Johnson Glimpses of the Feminine in Indian Religion and Society A Christian Perspective by Johnson Thomaskutty 81 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a Cite journal requires journal help Bhattacharji Sukumari Sukumari 1998 Legends of Devi Orient Blackswan ISBN 978 81 250 1438 6 a b c d e McDaniel 2004 p 90 Brown 1998 p 26 McDaniel 2004 p 90 Brown 1998 p 26 Sanskrit original see ऋग व द स क त १० १२५ for an alternate English translation see The Rig Veda Mandala 10 Hymn 125 Ralph T H Griffith Translator for Fuller Christopher John 2004 The Camphor Flame Popular Hinduism and Society in India Princeton University Press ISBN 978 0 691 12048 5 page 41 Flood Gavin D 1996 An Introduction to Hinduism Cambridge University Press p 17 ISBN 978 0 521 43878 0 Dancing with Siva Mandala 2 Hinduism Himalayanacademy com 1 December 2004 Retrieved 18 June 2012 Stella Kramrisch 1975 The Indian Great Goddess History of Religions Vol 14 No 4 page 261 Ananda Coomaraswamy Saiva Sculptures Museum of Fine Arts Bulletin Vol 20 No 118 page 17 Rankin John 1 June 1984 Teaching Hinduism Some Key Ideas British Journal of Religious Education 6 3 133 160 doi 10 1080 0141620840060306 ISSN 0141 6200 a b McDaniel 2004 pp 90 91 Bryant Edwin 2007 Krishna A Sourcebook Oxford University Press p 441 Dehejia H V Parvati Goddess of Love Mapin ISBN 978 81 85822 59 4 James Hendershot Penance Trafford ISBN 978 1 4907 1674 9 pp 78 Chandra Suresh 1998 Encyclopaedia of Hindu Gods and Goddesses ISBN 978 81 7625 039 9 pp 245 246 Keller and Ruether 2006 Encyclopedia of Women and Religion in North America Indiana University Press ISBN 978 0 253 34685 8 pp 663 Schuon Frithjof 2003 Roots of the Human Condition ISBN 978 0 941532 37 2 pp 32 Balfour Edward The Encyclopaedia of India and of Eastern and Southern Asia Parvati p 153 at Google Books pp 153 Haag James W et al 2013 The Routledge Companion to Religion and Science Routledge ISBN 978 0 415 74220 7 pp 491 496 a b c Gross Rita M 1978 Hindu Female Deities as a Resource for the Contemporary Rediscovery of the Goddess Journal of the American Academy of Religion 46 3 269 291 Ananda Coomaraswamy Saiva Sculptures Museum of Fine Arts Bulletin Vol 20 No 118 Apr 1922 pp 17 Stella Kramrisch 1975 The Indian Great Goddess History of Religions Vol 14 No 4 pp 261 Wojciech Maria Zalewski 2012 The Crucible of Religion Culture Civilization and Affirmation of Life ISBN 978 1 61097 828 6 pp 136 Betty Seid 2004 The Lord Who Is Half Woman Ardhanarishvara Art Institute of Chicago Museum Studies Vol 30 No 1 Notable Acquisitions at The Art Institute of Chicago pp 48 49 MB Wangu 2003 Images of Indian Goddesses Myths Meanings and Models ISBN 978 81 7017 416 5 Chapter 4 and pp 86 89 A Pande 2004 Ardhanarishvara the Androgyne Probing the Gender Within ISBN 978 81 291 0464 9 pp 20 27 Hariani Santiko The Goddess Durga in the East Javanese Period Asian Folklore Studies Vol 56 No 2 1997 pp 209 226 Ananda Coomaraswamy Saiva Sculptures Museum of Fine Arts Bulletin Vol 20 No 118 Apr 1922 pp 15 24 A Parasarthy 1983 Symbolism in Hinduism CMP ISBN 978 81 7597 149 3 pages 57 59 a b Rhodes Constantina 2011 Invoking Lakshmi The Goddess of Wealth in Song and Ceremony State University of New York Press ISBN 978 1 4384 3320 2 pp 29 47 220 252 Divali THE SYMBOLISM OF LAKSHMI Archived 8 November 2014 at the Wayback Machine National Library and Information System Authority Trinidad and Tobago 2009 Monaghan Patricia ed 2010 Goddesses in World Culture Volume 1 Praeger ISBN 978 0 313 35465 6 pp 5 11 Vishnu Asha 1993 Material life of northern India Based on an archaeological study 3rd century B C to 1st century B C ISBN 978 81 7099 410 7 pp 194 195 Miranda Shaw 2006 Buddhist Goddesses of India Princeton University Press ISBN 978 0 691 12758 3 Chapter 13 with pages 258 262 Roveda Vitorio June 2004 The Archaeology of Khmer Images Aseanie 13 13 11 46 O goddess where art thou Archived 9 November 2014 at the Wayback Machine S James Cornell University 2011 Jones Constance 2011 Religious Celebrations An Encyclopedia of Holidays Festivals Solemn Observances and Spiritual Commemorations Editor J Gordon Melton ISBN 978 1 59884 205 0 pp 253 254 798 a b c d e f Kinsley 1988 pp 55 64 Encyclopaedia of Hinduism p 1214 Sarup amp Sons ISBN 978 81 7625 064 1 Vasant Panchami Saraswati Puja Archived 23 September 2014 at the Wayback Machine Know India Odisha Fairs and Festivals The festival of Vasant Panchami A new beginning Alan Barker United Kingdom Catherine Ludvik 2007 Sarasvati Riverine Goddess of Knowledge From the Manuscript carrying Viṇa player to the Weapon wielding Defender of the Dharma BRILL p 1 Jean Holm and John Bowke 1998 Picturing God Bloomsbury Academic ISBN 978 1 85567 101 0 pages 99 101 a b Griselda Pollock and Victoria Turvey Sauron 2008 The Sacred and the Feminine Imagination and Sexual Difference ISBN 978 1 84511 520 3 pages 144 147 T M P Mahadevan 1975 Upaniṣads Selections from 108 Upaniṣads Motilal Banarsidass pp 239 ISBN 978 81 208 1611 4 Linda Johnsen 5 May 2009 The Complete Idiot s Guide to Hinduism 2nd Edition DK Publishing pp 169 ISBN 978 1 101 05257 0 Thomas Donaldson 2001 Iconography of the Buddhist Sculpture of Orissa ISBN 978 81 7017 406 6 pages 274 275 Pattanaik Devdutt 2014 Pashu Animal Tales from Hindu Mythology Penguin ISBN 978 0 14 333247 3 pp 40 42 Kempton Sally 2013 Awakening Shakti The Transformative Power of the Goddesses of Yoga ISBN 978 1 60407 891 6 pp 165 167 a b c d Jansen Eva Rudy 2001 The Book of Hindu Imagery Gods Manifestations and Their Meaning Holland Binkey Kok ISBN 978 90 74597 07 4 pp 133 134 41 a b c d Shimkhada D and P K Herman 2009 The Constant and Changing Faces of the Goddess Goddess Traditions of Asia Cambridge Scholars ISBN 978 1 4438 1134 7 pp 212 213 Religions in the Modern World Dalal 2014 p 1069 Mahadevan 1975 p 239 Warrier Dr A G Krishna Sita Upanishad Translated from the Original Sanskrit text The Theosophical Publishing House Chennai Nair 2008 p 581 Apte 1970 p 73 A Arni A and M Chitrakar M Sita s Ramayana Tara ISBN 978 93 80340 03 6 SN Desai 2005 Hinduism in Thai Life Popular Prakashan ISBN 978 81 7154 189 8 pages 86 107 121 123 Chandra 1998 p 259 Klostermaier 2010 p 290 Narayan p 517 Chandra 1998 p 259 60 Kinsley 1987 p 132 a b c d Eva Rudy Jansen The Book of Hindu Imagery Gods Manifestations and Their Meaning Holland Binkey Kok ISBN 978 90 74597 07 4 pages 127 128 a b Tracy Pintchman 2001 Seeking Mahadevi Constructing the Identities of the Hindu Great Goddess State University of New York Press ISBN 978 0 7914 5008 6 pages 1 12 19 32 191 192 Brown 1998 a b Kinsley 1987 p 133 Brown 1998 p 25 26 Tracy Pintchman 2001 Seeking Mahadevi Constructing the Identities of the Hindu Great Goddess State University of New York Press ISBN 978 0 7914 5008 6 pages 25 35 note 8 Edgerton Franklin Reviewed Work The Saundaryalahari or Flood of Beauty by W Norman Brown JSTOR 2941628 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a Cite journal requires journal help Clooney S J Francis X 1 March 2008 Encountering The Divine Mother In Hindu And Christian Hymns Religion amp the Arts 1 3 12 1 3 230 243 doi 10 1163 156852908X271042 a b John Stratton Hawley and Donna Marie Wulff 1998 Devi Goddesses of India Motilal Banarsidass ISBN 978 81 208 1491 2 pages 64 67 Red 2015 p 135 Stiles 2011 p 116 MB Wangu 2003 Images of Indian Goddesses Abhinav Publications ISBN 81 7017 416 3 page 41 Sapta Matrikas 12th C AD National Information Centre Archived from the original on 1 July 2007 Retrieved 31 October 2015 Chakravati Dhilp 2001 Archaeology and World Religion Editor Timothy Insoll Routledge ISBN 0 415 22154 4 pp 42 44 Tiwari Jagdish Narain 1971 Studies in Goddess Cults in Northern India with Reference to the First Seven Centuries AD Ph D thesis awarded by Australian National University pp 215 244 Bert van den Hoek 1993 Kathmandu as a sacrificial arena Urban Symbolism Editor Peter Nas BRILL ISBN 90 04 09855 0 pp 361 362 Bibliography Edit Narayan Aiyangar Essays On Indo Aryan Mythology Vol Asian Educational Services ISBN 978 81 206 0140 6 Apte Vaman Shivaram 1970 The Student s Sanskrit English Dictionary Containing Appendices on Sanskrit Prosody and Important Literary and Geographical Names in the Ancient History of India Motilal Banarsidass ISBN 978 81 208 0045 8 Brown Cheever Mackenzie 1998 The Devi Gita The Song of the Goddess A Translation Annotation and Commentary SUNY Press ISBN 978 0 7914 3939 5 Dalal Roshen 18 April 2014 Hinduism An Alphabetical Guide Penguin Books Limited ISBN 978 81 8475 277 9 Kinsley David 19 July 1988 Hindu Goddesses Visions of the Divine Feminine in the Hindu Religious Tradition University of California Press ISBN 978 0 520 90883 3 Manners David Charles 5 June 2014 Limitless Sky Ebury Publishing ISBN 978 1 4735 0167 6 McDaniel June 9 July 2004 Offering Flowers Feeding Skulls Popular Goddess Worship in West Bengal Popular Goddess Worship in West Bengal Oxford University Press USA ISBN 978 0 19 534713 5 Mahadevan T M P 1975 Upaniṣads Selections from 108 Upaniṣads Motilal Banarsidass ISBN 978 81 208 1611 4 Nair Shantha N 1 January 2008 Echoes of Ancient Indian Wisdom Pustak Mahal ISBN 978 81 223 1020 7 Kinsley David 1987 Hindu Goddesses Visions of the Divine Feminine in the Hindu Religious Tradition Motilal Banarsidass ISBN 978 81 208 0394 7 Klostermaier Klaus K 10 March 2010 Survey of Hinduism A Third Edition SUNY Press ISBN 978 0 7914 8011 3 Red Sam 16 September 2015 Looking for Tantra Living the tantric dream New Generation Publishing ISBN 978 1 78507 505 6 Stiles Mukunda 1 August 2011 Tantra Yoga Secrets Eighteen Transformational Lessons to Serenity Radiance and Bliss Weiser Books ISBN 978 1 60925 362 2 Chandra Suresh 1 January 1998 Encyclopaedia of Hindu Gods and Goddesses Sarup amp Sons ISBN 978 81 7625 039 9 Pintchman Tracy 1994 The Rise of the Goddess in the Hindu Tradition SUNY Press New York ISBN 0 7914 2112 0 Wangu Madhu Bazaz 2003 Images of Indian Goddesses Myths Meanings and Models Abhinav Publications New Delhi India ISBN 81 7017 416 3 Hawley amp Wulff 1996 Devi Goddesses of India University of California Press ISBN 978 0 520 20058 6External links Edit Wikimedia Commons has media related to Hindu goddesses Devi The Great Goddess An Exhibit Smithsonian Devi Manifestations and Aspects The Arthur M Sackler Gallery and Freer Gallery of Art Shrimad Devi Bhagavatam Translation by Swami Vijnanananda Devi a Proto Indo European Goddess Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Devi amp oldid 1151417765, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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