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Christian democracy

January 01, 1970

For other uses, see Christian democracy (disambiguation).

Christian democracy is a political ideology inspired by Christian social teaching to respond to the challenges of contemporary society and politics.[1][2]

A gathering of supporters of Christian Democratic Union in Dessau, 1990

Christian democracy has drawn mainly from Catholic social teaching[3][4] and neo-scholasticism,[5][6][7] as well as the Neo-Calvinist tradition within Christianity;[8][9] it later gained ground with Lutherans and Pentecostals,[nb 1] among other denominational traditions of Christianity in various parts of the world.[nb 2][11] During the nineteenth century, its principal concerns were to reconcile Catholicism with democracy,[6][7] to answer the "social question" surrounding capitalism and the working class,[12][13] and to resolve the tensions between church and state.[14][15] In the twentieth century, Christian democrats led postwar Western and Southern Europe in building modern welfare states and constructing the European Union.[16] Furthermore; in the late twentieth and early twenty-first century, Christian democracy has gained support in Eastern Europe among former communist states suffering from corruption and stagnation.[17][18]

On the European left-right political spectrum, Christian democracy has been difficult to pinpoint, as Christian democrats have often rejected liberal economics and individualism and advocated state intervention, while simultaneously defending private property rights against excessive state intervention.[19] This has meant that Christian democracy has historically been considered centre-left on economics and centre-right on many social and moral issues.[20] More recently, Christian democrats have positioned themselves as the centre-right; as with both the European People's Party and European Christian Political Movement, with which many Christian democratic parties in Europe are affiliated.[21] Christian democrats support a "slightly regulated market economy", featuring an effective social security system,[22] thus a social market economy.[23]

Worldwide, many Christian democratic parties are members of the Centrist Democrat International. Examples of major Christian democratic parties include the Christian Democratic Union of Germany, the Dutch Christian Democratic Appeal, The Centre in Switzerland, the Spanish People's Party, the Mexican National Action Party, the Austrian People's Party, and the Christian Democratic Party of Chile.[24] Many Christian democratic parties in the Americas are affiliated with the Christian Democrat Organization of America.[25]

Christian democracy continues to be influential in Europe and Latin America, although it is also present in other parts of the world.[26]

Overview of political viewpoints edit

As a generalization, it can be said that Christian democratic parties in Europe tend to be moderately conservative and, in several cases, form the main conservative party in their respective countries (e.g., in Germany, Spain, Belgium, and Switzerland), such as the Christian Democratic People's Party of Switzerland, the Christian Social Party, the Evangelical People's Party of Switzerland and the Federal Democratic Union of Switzerland. By contrast, Christian democratic parties in Latin America tend to vary in their position on the political spectrum depending on the country they are in, being either more left-leaning,[27][28] as in the case of the Christian Democratic Party in Chile, or more right-leaning, as in the case of the National Action Party in Mexico. Geoffrey K. Roberts and Patricia Hogwood have noted that "Christian democracy has incorporated many of the views held by liberals, conservatives and socialists within a wider framework of moral and Christian principles."[29]

Christian democrats are usually socially conservative[30] and generally have a relatively skeptical stance towards abortion and same-sex marriage, although some Christian democratic parties have accepted the limited legalization of both. They advocate for a consistent life ethic concerning their opposition to capital punishment and assisted suicide.[31][32] Christian democrats have also supported the prohibition of drugs.[nb 3] Christian democratic parties are often likely to assert their country's Christian heritage and explicitly affirm Christian ethics rather than adopting a more liberal or secular stance;[nb 4] at the same time, Christian democratic parties enshrine confessional liberty.[36] Christian democracy fosters an "ecumenical unity achieved on the religious level against the atheism of the government in the Communist countries."[nb 5]

Christian democrats' views include traditional moral values (on marriage, abortion, prohibition of drugs, etc.),[38] opposition to secularization, opposition to state atheism, a view of the evolutionary (as opposed to revolutionary) development of society, an emphasis on law and order, and a rejection of communism.[37][10] Christian democrats are open to change (for example, in the structure of society) and not necessarily supportive of the social status quo, and have an emphasis on human rights and individual initiative. A rejection of secularism and an emphasis on the fact that the individual is part of a community and has duties towards it. Christian democrats hold that the various sectors of society (such as education, family, economy, and state) have autonomy and responsibility over their sphere, a concept known as sphere sovereignty.[39] One sphere ought not to dictate the obligations of another social entity; for example, the sphere of the state is not permitted to interfere with raising children, a role that belongs to the sphere of the family.[39] Within the sphere of government, Christian democrats maintain that civil issues should first be addressed at the lowest level of government before being examined at a higher level, a doctrine known as subsidiarity.[22] These concepts of sphere sovereignty and subsidiarity are considered cornerstones of Christian democracy political ideology.[40]

Christian democrats emphasize community, social justice, and solidarity, alongside supporting a welfare state, labor unions, and support for regulation of market forces.[41] Most European Christian democrats reject the concept of class struggle and instead prefer co-determination,[42][43] while US Christian democrats support a distributist economic system containing widespread distribution of productive property, in particular increased worker ownership (workplace democracy) and management (workers' self-management) of their production.[44][45][46]

The Christian democratic welfare state aims at supporting families and often relies on intermediary institutions to deliver social services and social insurance, often with the support of the state.[47]

Christian democrats support the principle of stewardship, which upholds the idea that humans should safeguard the planet for future generations of life.[22] Christian democrats also tend to have a conciliatory view concerning immigration.[48]

Political philosophy edit

No single author has been recognized by all Christian democrats as the leading Christian democratic thinker, but Jacques Maritain comes closest.[49] Thus, in terms of impact, he is in no way akin to Karl Marx, Edmund Burke, or John Locke.[49] Other authors critical to forming Christian democratic ideology include Pope Leo XIII,[50] Pope Pius XI,[51] Emmanuel Mounier,[52] Heinrich Pesch,[53] Abraham Kuyper,[54] and Luigi Sturzo.[55]

General inspiration edit

Neo-scholasticism edit

Christian democracy can trace its philosophical roots to Thomas Aquinas and his thoughts on Aristotelian ontology and the Christian tradition.[5] According to Aquinas, human rights are based on natural law and are defined as the things humans need to function correctly. For example, food is a human right because, without food, humans cannot function properly. Aquinas affirmed that humans are images of the divine, which follows human dignity and equality; all humans are equal because they all share that nature.[56] Aquinas also affirmed the natural reality of family and household, based on the lifelong commitment of husband and wife, perfected with children, a unit that has priority over other communities.[57] Aquinas also argued that public power could legitimately appropriate private owners of their resources for the common good when used for people in genuine need.[58] When Leo XIII became pope, he issued the Papal Encyclical Aeterni Patris, which rehabilitated scholastic philosophy.[59] The pope highlighted Aquinas's views on liberty, authority, laws, justice, and charity in this encyclical.[60]

Aquinas's ideas would later be the foundation for the idea of subsidiarity, alongside the ideas that the state is to serve the people and that there is universal solidarity amongst humanity.[61] A significant Neo-Scholastic was Jacques Maritain, who attempted to reconcile democracy and human rights with Thomist natural law.[62] Maritain argued that human rights are based on natural law and that democracy needs Christianity to succeed.[63] Jacques Maritain would use Thomist ideas of property to reduce inequality, arguing that the state should be involved if individuals do not use their property correctly.[64] Jacques Maritain and Emmanuel Mounier would also use Thomist thinking in developing their idea of personalism.[65]

Neo-Calvinism edit

Another intellectual element of Christian democracy was neo-Calvinism.[8] The neo-Calvinist political ideas relied on John Calvin's ideas of the sovereignty of God and common grace.[66] God's sovereignty was particularly useful in light of the French revolution and notions of individual and state sovereignty.[66] It was the basis of sphere sovereignty, which helped the interests of Reformed Christians, which have historically been a minority. In sphere sovereignty, each sphere has its activity area related to God.[66] Within this view of sphere sovereignty, it was the state's role to pursue public justice.[67] Another element was that life is religious, and politics should reflect this.[68]

Orthodoxy edit

The development of Orthodox Christian democracy has been held back by the fact that Orthodox Politics has not received church support in the way that Rerum Novarum encouraged Christian democracy, or how early Christian democrats such as Luigi Sturzo received tacit consent for his political activities.[69] Russian Christian democrats, for example, have had to develop a doctrine of democracy.[70]

Political thought edit

Academics have noted a few ideas key to Christian democracy, including personalism,[71][72][73][74] solidarity[71][75] (or some variant of social capitalism[76][77]), popularism[78][79] (or some variant of its catch-all nature[73][80]), notions of "pluralism"[71][81][82] (which in a vertical sense relates to subsidiarity,[83][84] and in a horizontal sense denotes sphere sovereignty)[85][86] and stewardship.[87][88][89]

Personalism edit

Personalism is a political doctrine generally linked to Emmanuel Mounier.[90] It focuses on the person, their intellect, responsibilities, and value.[91] It stresses that humans are free beings with dignity and political rights, but these rights must be used for the common good.[71] It also stresses that true human freedom is used in line with God's will.[92] It is against the individualist and collectivist notions of humanity.[71] It also stresses that people become full when they are members of their communities.[74] In practical policy, it leads to a few conclusions:

  • Human life is sacred and is an end in itself. It is, therefore, against abortion and euthanasia.[93]
  • The family unit is an essential part of society and must be defended.[94]
  • Traditional gender roles must be respected; this leads to a rejection of same-sex marriages.[95]
  • Freedom is not a license for Moral permissiveness.[96]

Personalism has generally been the underlying basis in Christian democracy that leads to human rights, especially in relation to a right to life, a right to family and a right to aid, a right to suffrage, freedom of conscience, and freedom of religion.[97]

Solidarity and social capitalism edit

The Christian democratic political economy has not tethered itself to one "third way" between capitalism and socialism, but rather various ways between capitalism and socialism.[98] Over time, Christian democrats moved from solidarism to a social market economy.[99]

Initially, many Catholic political movements in the 19th century opposed capitalism and socialism equally, as both were based on materialism and social conflict.[100] Initially, the system that Catholics advocated was one of corporatism, based on bringing back a guild-organized economy.[100][101] The idea was a society where individuals were organized by their economic position.[102] In these corporatist systems, the fathers were the head of families.[102] One of these conceptions was that of Franz von Baader, who advocated for proletariat enfranchisement in the corporatist system.[103] Baader is recognized as the first person to advocate for workplace codetermination.[104] Codetermination would become a key point of unity amongst the Christian democratic trade unions.[105] In the 19th century and early 20th century, the Lutheran social Christians advocated an authoritarian view of corporatism,[106] and the Neo-Calvinist corporatist idea has been credited as an inspiration for the polder system that currently exists in the Netherlands.[107] Many of these corporatisms would advance the idea of replacing the elected parliament with corporative parliament recognizing the various corporate estates of the nation; industrialists, small businesses, peasants, landowners, workers, etc.[107][102] The papal encyclical Rerum Novarum would recognize some of the principles behind corporatism.[108]

The Christian democratic notion of corporatism was found within Heinrich Pesch's solidarism.[53] Pesch's solidarism argued for international solidarity based on shared humanity, national solidarity based on shared nationality, familiar solidarity for family members, and class and cross-class solidarity based on shared interests in the workplace.[109] This latter solidarity focused on occupational associations advancing collective interests, codetermination,[109] and a "third house of parliament" that would advise on economic matters.[110] Heinrich Pesch's idea of corporatism would be a qualified notion of subsidiarity.[110] Pesch's ideas would be influential in the Papal Encyclical Quadragesimo Anno, given that Pesch's disciple Oswald von Nell-Breuning would draft the document.[111][112] Quadragesimo Anno was significant in legitimatizing the push for a corporatist system and subjected it to the notion of subsidiarity.[113] Around this time, corporatism became increasingly prominent among young Catholics frustrated with parliamentary politics[114] and, in many instances, would inspire authoritarian and fascist regimes movements in Austria, France, Spain, Portugal,[113] and Germany.[115][106] Eventually, corporatism fell out of the political debate due to this association with authoritarian and fascist regimes.[116]

Another economic idea within Christian democracy is the social market economy, which is widely influential across much of continental Europe. The social market is an essentially free market economy based on a free price system and private property. However, it supports government activity to promote competitive markets with a comprehensive social welfare system and effective public services to address social inequalities resulting from free market outcomes.[117] The market is seen not as an end but as a means of generating wealth to achieve broader social goals and maintain societal cohesion.[118] The basis of the social market economy is ordoliberalism,[119] or German neoliberalism,[120] an idea related to thinkers such as Walter Eucken, Franz Böhm, Ludwig Erhard, and Alfred Müller-Armack.[121] Ordoliberals viewed the concentration of power as a significant danger to liberty.[122] They desired an economic constitution that would ensure competition in markets and free decisions, where people are uninfluenced by the government.[123] As a result of the economic constitution, this model is mildly corporatist.[124] This model of capitalism, sometimes called Rhine–Alpine capitalism or social capitalism, is contrasted with Anglo-American capitalism or enterprise capitalism. Whereas the Anglo-capitalist model aims to remove restrictions on capitalism and enable individual prosperity, the Rhinish Model embeds the market into the social framework, with the goals of nation-building and of taking care of citizens.[125]

Beginning in the 1980s, European Christian democratic parties have partially adopted "neo-liberal" policies.[126][127] However, Christian democrats in the American Solidarity Party instead adopted distributism. The promotion of the Christian democratic concepts of sphere sovereignty and subsidiarity led to the creation of corporatist welfare states throughout the world that continue to exist to this day.[nb 6] In keeping with the Christian democratic concepts of the cultural mandate and the preferential option for the poor, Christian justice is viewed as demanding that the welfare of all people, especially the poor and vulnerable, must be protected because every human being has dignity, being made in the image of God.[22][129] In many countries, Christian democrats organized labor unions that competed with communist and social democratic unions, in contrast to conservatism's stance against worker organizations. In solidarity with these labor unions, in Belgium, for example, Christian democrats have lobbied for Sunday blue laws that guarantee workers and civil servants a day of rest in line with historic Christian Sabbath principles.[130]

Popularism edit

Popolarismo (or popularism) is a political doctrine conceived by Don Luigi Sturzo,[nb 7] however in reality this was Christian democracy in the political sphere.[132] The papal encyclical Graves de communi re prohibited Christian democracy to be a political ideology, and so Sturzo used the term popularism instead.[133] Popularism helped European Catholics come to accept democracy,[134] and so the idea has been linked to Christian democratic ideas of democracy,[135] which Sturzo Defined as:

The political and social system resting on the free, organic participation of the whole people in the common good.[136]

Academics have tied the idea of popularism to the way Christian democratic parties encompass sections of the whole population.[137] This results from the inherent religious center allowing cut across class divisions.[138] In realization of this, Christian democratic parties tend to invoke the title "People's Parties".[139] Academic Carlo Invernizzi Accetti links the idea of popularism to proportional representation, pillarization, and consociational democracy.[140]

Pluralism edit

The Christian democratic notion of pluralism is about how humans are generally embedded in a social framework. John Witte, explaining the origin of Christian democracy, describes pluralism thus:

Both Protestant and Catholic parties inveighed against the reductionist extremes and social failures of liberal democracies and social democracies. Liberal democracies, they believed, had sacrificed the community for the individual; social democracies had sacrificed the individual for the community. Both parties returned to a traditional Christian teaching of "social pluralism" or "subsidiarity", which stressed the dependence and participation of the individual in family, church, school, business, and other associations. Both parties stressed the responsibility of the state to respect and protect the "individual in community".[5]

Sphere sovereignty stresses the horizontal element; social communities have roles they must uphold and certain liberty and autonomy.[86] Here the government had the role of policing the spheres.[86] Subsidiarity is the vertical element,[84] where the state has the role of protecting and regulating the spheres.[141] The state must not interfere if these communities are behaving effectively.[142] This also means that a state can intervene when these communities are not competent.[84] In practice, subsidiarity has been used to justify the creation of international organizations, as higher international authorities need to exist to police nation-states.[143]

Stewardship edit

The idea of stewardship has traditionally been linked to managerial skills regarding property and income;[144] Stewardship can be found in neo-Calvinist Abraham Kuyper's works, where it relates to a person's responsibilities over what is entrusted to them, especially their property.[145] In Social Catholic circles in the 1970s, stewardship was explicitly linked to environmental matters.[144] Stewardship was found in the first programs of the Christian Democratic Appeal, and from here alongside the works of American bishops, the idea would spread to other Christian democratic parties.[89] They view competent and efficient government as emblematic of a "just steward", which includes just stewardship over environmental matters.[88] Pope Francis took a firm stance on environmentalism in the papal encyclical Laudato Si in 2015.[88] Here, the idea of stewardship comes from the correct translation of Genesis, where God entrusts man with stewardship of the earth.[88]

History edit

19th century edit

The origins of Christian democracy go back to the French Revolution, where initially, French republicanism and the Catholic Church were deeply hostile to one another as the revolutionary government had attacked the church, confiscated the church's lands, persecuted its priests, and attempted to establish a new religion around reason and the supreme being.[146] After the decades following the French Revolution, the Catholic Church saw the rise of liberalism as a threat to Catholic values. The rise of capitalism and the resulting industrialization and urbanization of society were seen to be destroying traditional communal and family life. According to the Catholic Church, liberal economics promoted selfishness and materialism with the liberal emphasis on individualism, tolerance, and free expression, enabling all kinds of self-indulgence and permissiveness to thrive.[146] Consequently, for much of the 19th century, the Catholic Church was hostile to democracy and liberalism.

This hostility to democracy and liberalism would be challenged by liberal Catholics who believed the alliance between the church and aristocracy was a barrier to the church's mission.[147] Initially, this group desired to reconcile the Catholics with the state of modern politics, getting Catholics involved in parties, public action, and parliamentarianism.[148] This, however, was not an endorsement of democracy, and the liberal Catholics maintained they did not adhere to liberalism.[149] Eventually, the movement's leading figures, such as Félicité de La Mennais, would become more accepting of democracy.[150] The group came to be associated with a desire for a free press, freedom of association and worship, and free education.[147][151]

Around this time, Catholic social thought developed, with social Catholic theologians and activists advocating the interests of workers in society. Some activists, such as Frédéric Ozanam, the Society of St Vincent de Paul founder, were more amenable to liberal democracy.[152] Ozanam criticized economic liberalism and the commodification of labor and argued that charity was insufficient to deal with these problems and that labor associations and state intervention were needed.[153] Italian Popular Party leader Luigi Sturzo credits Ozanam as the first Christian democrat.[154] One of the more influential theologians in Germany was Wilhelm von Ketteler, who encouraged Catholics to accept the modern state.[155] Ketteler argued for productive associations with profit sharing, Christian trade unions, and general workers' rights.[156]

In the 1870s, Catholic political movements arose independently of the Catholic Church to defend Catholic interests from the liberal states. In Europe, generally, the liberal states desired to wrestle control over the Catholic education system; however, in Germany and Italy, this was a direct attack against the church.[157] The Catholic political movements specifically opposed liberal secularism and state control of education; the parties that came out of these movements include the Centre Party (Germany), the Catholic Party (Belgium), various Catholic parties in the Netherlands, and the Christian Social Party (Austria). Initially, most of these parties accepted the anti-liberal beliefs of the Catholic Church at the time; many Catholics behind these movements believed all spheres of life should be regulated by religion.[158] These movements were initially built by ultramontanes,[159] were against the liberal view that church and state must be separated,[100] and used the term "Christian democracy" in opposition to liberal democracy.[16] The Centre Party in Germany seems to be an exception to this trend in that they defended the Catholic Church through an appeal to liberal freedoms and democracy. Additionally, the Centre Party, inspired by Ketteler, supported social legislation.[155][160]

Despite the thoroughly pro-Catholic position of these movements, the church itself resisted the movements, seeing them as a challenge to the church's control of the laity.[16] Over time, the impact of electoral politics on these parties pushed them to be more accepting of liberal democracy. To form effective political coalitions, these parties evolved from Catholic parties to parties inspired by Christianity and turned to voters, not the Catholic Church, for legitimacy.[161] During this time, the Catholic parties took an inter-class nature, such that they comprised trade unionists, landlords, industrialists, peasants, and artisans,[162] which academics have linked to the notion of popularism.[163]

Protestant confessional politics was more wide and varied. The most significant movement was in the Netherlands, where Reformed, neo-Calvinist Protestants founded the Anti-Revolutionary Party. Similarly to the Catholics, this party was formed out of similar concerns with liberal control of education.[164][165] The party was against the ideas of the French revolution,[164] and its founder, Abraham Kuyper, held that the government derived its authority from God, not from the people.[166] However, Kuyper and the Anti-Revolutionary Party did support organic democratic representation and promoted universal household suffrage.[167] In Germany, this element came from the Lutheran Adolf Stoecker, who established the Christian Social Party, and those who followed him. The Christian social movement aimed to challenge Marxist socialism, so Stoecker supported pro-worker economic policies to win over the working class. However, when this failed, Stoecker turned to anti-Semitism.[168] In Switzerland, Stoecker and his fellow allies generated some interest in Protestant political organization, but Protestants largely accepted the predominance of liberalism, so there was only minor growth of a Protestant political movement.[169]

Between Rerum novarum and World War II edit

The papacy of Pope Leo XIII was a turning point in the development of Christian democracy,[170] and he attempted to infuse democracy and liberalism with Catholic values.[171] In the papal encyclical Rerum novarum in 1891, Pope Leo XIII recognized workers' misery and argued for means to improve workers' conditions. He also attacked economic liberalism and condemned the rise of socialism, and generally encouraged a corporatist approach to labor relations.[172] Rerum novarum would provide Catholic labor movements with an intellectual platform and would coincide with the rise of Christian trade unions across Europe.[173][172] It was the catalyst for the beginning of Christian democracy in France,[174] Italy, and Austria.[175] The same year as the release of Rerum Novarum, Abraham Kuyper organized the Christian Social Congress alongside the Protestant workers' movement, where Kuyper outlined their social principles and policy. These actions reinforced the push for Christian social action in the Netherlands.[176] In Graves de communi re, the pope would protest against using Christian democracy as a political label, preferring it to describe a social movement.[175]

Some academics consider the Catholic political parties around this time to be essentially Catholic and not Christian democratic.[177][178] However, others consider the new Italian People's Party and the Popular Democratic Party (France) Christian democratic.[179][180] These parties advocated political liberties, religious liberties, economic reform, and social partnership, policies to support democracy and internationalism.[181][182] The Italian People's Party also advocated for regionalism and proportional representation.[183] At the beginning of the Weimar Republic, Adam Stegerwald attempted to reform the Centre Party into a Christian democratic party, uniting Catholics and Protestants.[184] In Belgium, the rising workers' movement came to form the increasingly powerful Christian democratic faction of the Catholic Party.[185] This period also saw other Catholic parties forming; Bavarian Catholics broke away and formed the Bavarian People's Party due to the Centre Party's participation in establishing the Weimar Republic.[186] In Switzerland, Catholics formed the Swiss Conservative People's Party, which, as a party, was divided between three competing demographics; rural Catholics who wanted greater regional independence, Catholic workers who wanted economic reform, and the more conservative groups who opposed democracy.[187] Overall, the party was held together by the Catholic faith and anti-socialist and anti-liberal tendencies.[188] In Ireland, Fianna Fáil was founded as a Catholic political party.[189] Fine Gael, Fianna Fáil, and Labor would all be avenues for Christian democracy in the post-war period.[190]

In the early 20th century, Protestant confessional politics developed further. In Weimar Germany, Stoecker's Christian social party joined the German National People's Party as its labor wing in 1918.[184] The Christian social parliamentarians from this party would then leave in 1929 to form the Christian Social People's Service (CSVD).[191] Protestant workers' movements in Switzerland gradually developed mutual aid funds into an independent trade union movement. Around this time, Swiss Protestants formed the Evangelical People's Party. The 1930s saw the rise of the Christian People's Party in Norway. It was built on the work of Pietist Lutherans, and the party was initially founded to defend the country's Christian heritage against the rise of secularization.[192] There was cooperation between the Protestant and Catholic parties during this period. The Catholic and Protestant parties would form joint governments in the Netherlands and Germany.[193][194] However, this cooperation did not challenge the underlying differences between the movements; in Germany, there was tension from cooperation with Protestants,[195] while in the Netherlands, the Anti-Revolutionaries would not support pro-Vatican policies.[194]

A significant factor that helped Christian democracy during this period was the lay Catholic Action movements. These organizations stress the apostolate of the laity, which is the role of everyday Catholics in spreading the faith.[196] In practice, these movements helped support the Christian trade unions and Christian democratic parties across Europe.[197] In Italy, Catholic Action supported the Italian Popular Party, and the rise of Mussolini would act as an anti-fascist force.[198] Catholic Action would later help the post-war Christian democracy.[199] Likewise, Catholic Action would work in the resistance in France and help found the MRP.[198]

In 1931, Pope Pius XI released the encyclical Quadragesimo anno, which was released on the 40th anniversary of Rerum novarum, and aimed to clarify the subsequent social doctrine of the church. The encyclical doubled down on the pronouncements of Rerum novarum on economic liberalism and socialism.[200] The attack against socialism was broadened to include moderate socialism,[201] and within the encyclical, the pope outlined a corporatist structure of society based on the notion of "subsidiarity".[202][203] However, the pope would stress the autonomy of this corporatist system to distinguish it from fascism.[204] This Quadragesimo Anno would come to influence the economic programs of Catholic parties of the time, such as the Popular Democratic Party,[205] and the Dutch Roman Catholic State Party,[206] alongside influencing Belgian Catholics.[207] The Centre Party, Christian Social Party, and Swiss Conservative People's Party already advocated corporatism based on economists such as Heinrich Pesch, Oswald von Nell-Breuning, and Karl von Vogelsang.[208] In Germany and Austria, Quadragesimo anno renewed the vigor for corporatism.[209] In Ireland, Political Catholics would pursue a policy of vocationalism taken directly from Quadragesimo anno. This vocationalism was most evident in the corporatist nature of the Irish upper house.[210]

Across Europe, the Catholic and Protestant parties faced the threat of fascism. Amidst the rise of Fascism in Italy, the Italian People's Party, under Stuzo, attempted to challenge Mussolini by forming a coalition with the socialist party.[211] Luigi Sturzo was ordered by the Catholic Church in 1923 to disband his Italian People's Party and exit politics.[212] Poor electoral performance in 1924 would make Sturzo give party leadership to Alcide De Gasperi and go into exile.[213][214] Once in power, the fascists disbanded the Italian People's Party. This would precede the signing of the Lateran Treaty between the Catholic Church and the Italian fascists in 1929.[215] The Centre Party and the CSVD would face the rise of the Nazi Party in Germany. Once the Nazis attained power in 1933, they attempted to take total power with the Enabling Act in 1923. Internally, the Centre Party was divided on the Enabling Act, but many became persuaded that Hitler would not eliminate the Reichstag.[216][217] Comparatively, the historical anti-Semitism of the Protestant Christian Social movement left the Christian Socials susceptible to Nazism. The Nazi Party would infiltrate the Protestant unions linked to CSVD in 1931.[218] Eventually, both parties would sign the Enabling Act, and both parties would summarily dissolve. In Austria, the Christian Socials would have already disbanded before Germany annexed Austria.[219] In Austria, a short civil war between authoritarians and social democrats would divide the Christian Socials, many of which would help build the authoritarian state. Outside of Italy, Germany and, Austria, many Catholic and Protestant parties would ultimately be dissolved when Nazi Germany invaded the rest of Europe in World War II. Many Christian democrats would assist in the resistance in France.[220]

The post-war period edit

After World War II, "both Protestant and Catholic political activists helped to restore democracy to war-torn Europe and extend it overseas".[5] Christian resistors were significant in establishing post-war Christian democracy movements in France,[221] Germany,[222] and Italy.[223] The collapse of fascism led to the discrediting of the radical right.[224] In Germany, conservatism was associated with reactionary and anti-democratic attitudes. The Christian democrats could claim to be untainted by fascism and thereby draw together conservative Catholics and bourgeois Protestants.[225] In both Germany and Italy, the Christian democratic parties encompassed former conservatives.[224] The Christian democratic parties dominated the post-war scene. In Italy, the new Christian Democratic Party led the coalition government under Alcide De Gasperi, and in France, the Popular Republican Movement became the largest party in parliament in 1946.[226] In Germany, France, and Italy, the Christian democratic parties helped establish their respective countries' constitutions. Between the 1940s and 1990s, Christian democratic parties were in power across western Europe; "In Germany they were in power for 36 years out of 50, in Italy for 47 years out of 52, in Belgium 47 years out of 53, and in Netherlands for 49 years of 53; even in France they were influential up to 1962".[227]

In the post-war period, Christian democratic parties became more conservative, partially in response to communism and secularism.[228] The Christian democrats also won the women's vote in their respective countries due to the pro-family policies of Christian democrats.[229] Christian democrats pursued decentralization policies during this time, encouraging regionalism in Germany, Italy, and Belgium. This was sought with increased favor as a result of experiencing fascism.[230] Christian democratic parties were also crucial in pushing for codeterminative works councils and workers on boards during this time.[42][43] Despite this initial power, cracks started to appear; Christian democracy in France declined substantially, as Popular Republican Movement and its successors quickly fell apart.[231] French Christian democrats would ultimately become subsumed into Gaullist parties.

Similarly, minor Christian democratic parties such as the People's Democratic Party (PDP) would rise in post-Franco Spain. However, these movements were too divided and lacked the political necessity of religious cleavages to play a dominant role in Spanish democracy. These Christian democratic parties would fail, and the Christian democrats would join the Spanish Popular Party.[232]

Protestant Christian democracy developed in multifaceted ways in the post-war period. In Germany, it arose amongst the Lutheran ordoliberals. These Lutherans looked to Christian theologians such as Karl Barth and Dietrich Bonhoeffer to path a way that obeyed worldly authority but also challenged the Nazi regime.[233][234] The core of the ordoliberal ideology was a strong state that enabled market competition.[235] During the war, the ordoliberals worked with Bonhoeffer to develop a political and socio-economic plan for the post-war period,[236] and after the war, they joined with Catholics to form the Christian Democratic Union.[237] The ordoliberals termed their vision a "social market economy",[238] a vision the Catholics would also come to champion.[239] In Sweden, it arose amongst the Pentecostals, where it coalesced in the Christian Democrats, founded in 1964 as a reaction to secularization.[10][240] The Finnish Christian Democrats, formed in 1957, and the Danish Christian People's Party, formed in 1970, defended Christian schooling and dissented against secular trends such as atheism and liberal abortion policies.[241] The Nordic Christian democratic parties did not represent the Lutheran state church but non-conformist Christians and lay activists within the Lutheran state church.[242] In the Netherlands, the Protestant Anti-Revolutionary Party and Christian Historical Union joined the Catholic People's Party to form Christian Democratic Appeal.[89]

European Christian democrats were a significant force in the creation of the European Union. At the beginning of the European project, three significant men were Konrad Adenauer, Robert Schuman, and Alcide De Gasperi, all Christian democrats.[243] When the Rome Treaty was signed, Christian democrats were the leading governments in four of the six countries, Germany, Italy, Belgium, and Luxembourg, and were a part of the coalition government in the Netherlands at the time.[243] At least until the mid-1980s, social democrats were hostile to the institutions of the European Communities – even in the 1970s, Swedish Prime Minister Olof Palme called the European Commission "conservative", "capitalist", "clerical", and "colonialist".[244] Indeed, the European Union has the ideas of subsidiarity and personalism embedded within it.[245] The influence of Christian democracy on the European Union is such that one academic has called the European Union a "Christian democracy".[246] Alongside the European Union was the development of European Christian democratic parties. This appeared in the 1940s with the Nouvelles Equipes Internationales,[247] which would evolve into the European Union of Christian Democrats in 1965,[248] and, finally, the European People's Party in 1976.[249]

21st century edit

Christian democratic parties no longer have as much power in European politics.[250] Indeed, in Italy, the Christian democratic party collapsed.[251] The reasons for the decline in Christian democracy are multifaceted, partly due to European secularization and the loss of a voting base.[252] The death of communism and the rise of neo-liberalism have also dented the movement, and the financial crisis has also shown flaws in Christian democratic welfare.[252] Furthermore, immigration and the rise of populism have further put pressure on Christian democracy, as it is torn between the right's call for restrictions, the businesses' call for an open labor market, and the religious call for more charity to immigrants.[252]

Some Christian democratic parties, particularly in Europe, no longer emphasize religion and have become much more secular in recent years.[253][254] Recently, many minor Christian democratic parties, such as the Christian Union, and others across Europe, did not feel represented in the existing political establishment, so they formed a political organization in the European Christian Political Movement.[255] These parties stressed the Christian history of Europe alongside advocating for traditional Christian values and economic and environmental justice.[256]

Many Muslim parties in Muslim countries have looked to the Christian democratic tradition for inspiration. The most notable is Turkey's ruling Justice and Development Party (usually known by the Turkish acronym AKP, for Adalet ve Kalkınma Partisi), which is Islamic and has moved towards the tradition.[257] However, this link is questioned, given that AKP's movement toward Christian democracy may be to curry the favor of European parties in European integration, something the European Christian democrats ultimately shot down.[258] Other Islamic groups that have been linked include the Democratic League of Kosovo[259] and Mohammad Morsi in Egypt.[260] Some Muslim democratic parties embraced by Christian democrats are the National Awakening Party (Indonesia) and the Lakas–Christian Muslim Democrats (Philippines), who have joined the Centrist Democrat International.

Outside Western Europe edit

Main article: List of Christian democratic parties

The international organization of Christian democratic parties, the Centrist Democrat International (CDI), formerly known as the Christian Democratic International, is the second-largest international political organization in the world, after the Socialist International. European Christian democratic parties have a regional organization, the European People's Party, which forms the largest group in the European Parliament: the European People's Party Group.

Latin America edit

Early Christian democracy in Latin America formed in the early 20th century, and these parties were generally conservative, and their main aim was to protect the interests of the Catholic church.[261] These parties viewed Christianity as the origin and soul of democratic values and advocated an organic conception of society, decentralization, and corporatism.[262] Christian democrats would become more progressive in the 1960s and 1970s, partially due to the consequences of the Second Vatican Council between 1961 and 1963.[263] This led to the growth of liberation theology in Latin American Catholicism, which stressed class conflict over the Christian democratic class mediation.[263] Furthermore, due to the US policy against socialism in Latin America, Christian democratic parties could position themselves as progressive and demand social reforms.[27]

Furthermore, Christian democrats accepted modernism and technocracy and began to advocate centralized planning.[264] In the 1980s, due to international trends such as the Washington consensus, Christian democrats accepted neoliberal policies in their nations, leading to future electoral losses.[265] Throughout this period, Christian democratic parties have played a force for democracy, such as COPEI, which helped establish Democratic Venezuela,[266] and the PDC in Chile, the main opposition to Pinochet.[267]

Christian democracy has been especially important in Chile (see Christian Democratic Party of Chile) and Venezuela (see COPEI – Christian Democratic Party of Venezuela), among others, and partly also in Mexico, starting with the ascendancy of President Vicente Fox in 2000, followed by Felipe Calderón (see National Action Party (Mexico)). Cuba counts several Christian democratic political associations on the island and in exile. Perhaps the most significant is Movimiento Cristiano de Liberación (MCL), led by Cuban dissident Oswaldo Payá, who was killed in a tragic automobile accident in the summer of 2012 and has been nominated for the Nobel Peace Prize. In Uruguay, the Christian Democratic Party of Uruguay, although numerically small, was instrumental in creating the leftist Broad Front in 1971.

Asia

South Korea

Although Christian democratic movements are not prevalent in the East Asia as Christianity is not a main religion there, liberal parties in South Korea, the only country in the East Asia where Christianity is the main religion, tend to have Christian democratic tendencies. Democratic Party of Korea, which is the main liberal party of South Korea, supports building universal welfare state.[268] However they tend to be conservative on social issues due to the influence of Christianity. Democratic Party of Korea oppose anti-discrimination law, gay marriage, civil union and abortion. [269][270][271][272]

Central and Eastern Europe edit

Poland edit

Christian democratic movements in Poland formed in 1890 and gained increasing prominence from 1916, such that various Christian democratic movements coalesced into the Christian Democratic Party in 1919.[273] The party's economic program drew from Rerum Novarum and later Quadragesimo anno. The party would encourage cross-class solidarity, co-ownership, and co-determination.[274] For the first half of the 1920s the party had considerable influence in government, providing cabinet members and a prime minister.[275] After the coup d'état in 1926, the party's influence worsened. The party would eventually side with the opposition left and form the Labour Party in 1937.[276]

Romania edit

Christian democracy has developed in countries with Eastern Orthodox majorities in unique and disparate ways. Romania has seen small Christian parties – such as the National Peasants' Party in 1926, which promoted Christian morality, democracy and social justice.[277] In the 1980s, Corneliu Coposu, would affiliate the party with the CDI, and on the fall of Communism, would re-enroll the party as the Christian Democratic National Peasants' Party in 1990. This new party advocated market economies with social protection, subsidiarity and citizens liberties. Corneliu Coposu, hoped Romania would become "the Capital of Orthodox Christian-Democracy".[278]

Russia edit

Russian Christian democracy was beset by personality clashes between leaders, and Russian Christian democracy was bifurcated into two ideological camps.[279] The first wanted to import a carbon copy of Western Christian democracy into the Russian political scene, such as the RCDU, CDUR and RCPD.[280] The Christians that make up these groups are not from Orthodoxy themselves – they are newly Orthodox Christians or Protestants.[281] The largest party of the other group was the Russian Christian Democratic Movement, which attempted to unify democracy with orthodoxy on the basis of statism and patriotism (73–74).[282] In practice they acted as democrats or patriots, depending on circumstances.[283] It would gradually move to the right, adopt and ally with orthodox-monarchists and national-republicans.[284] The party would eventually leave the democratic group.[285]

Post-Iron Curtain edit

After the end of the socialist experience in Central and Eastern Europe, and especially with European integration, many parties from former socialist countries become members of the Christian democratic umbrella organization, the European People's Party (EPP). Examples include the KDU-ČSL in the Czech Republic, the Croatian Democratic Union in Croatia, the Civic Platform in Poland, etc. Hungary's Fidesz was part of the EPP from 2004 to 2021; its leader, Viktor Orbán, claimed Hungary to be a "Christian democracy".[286] Many of those parties pushed for a re-traditionalization of society, pro-family policies, a Bismarckian welfare state, and identity politics based on Christianity while maintaining a pro-European integration attitude.[287] The ideals of Christian democracy also inspire other Euroskeptic parties, and they are grouped under the umbrella of the European Conservatives and Reformists Party; an example is Law and Justice in Poland.

Greece edit

In Greece, New Democracy is deemed to be a Christian democratic party – though it often moves back and forth from Christian democracy to liberal conservatism intermittently.[288]

Britain edit

Christian democracy in the UK was sporadic and un-unified. One group was the Catholic Social Guild, established in 1909 to propagate a Catholic alternative to socialism. They encouraged Catholics to work within the Labour Party and push policies for families, a living wage, social partnership in industry, and property diffusion.[289] Another group was the People and Freedom Group, established during Sturzo's exile in the UK.[214] They were a largely middle-class organization set up in response to pain felt by Catholics during the Spanish Civil War. They published their manifesto, "For Democracy" in 1939.[290] The Catholic Worker was another Christian democratic group at the time.[290] In general, British Christian democrats, especially those in the People and Freedom Group, attempted to push the Labour Party towards Christian democracy, and they made a significant attempt to portray Christian democracy as left-wing.[291] Ultimately the People and Freedom Group failed to do so and became disillusioned with the Labour Party.[292] On the other hand, the Catholic Worker aimed to make Labour policies acceptable to Catholics.[293] More recently, Christian Peoples Alliance is a Christian democratic party that emphasizes the country's Christian heritage and advocates for the principles of "active compassion, respect for life, social justice, wise stewardship, empowerment, and reconciliation."[294]

Australia edit

Christian democratic parties in Australia include the Democratic Labor Party and, arguably, the disbanded Christian Democratic Party.

The Democratic Labor Party was formed in 1955 as a split from the Australian Labor Party (ALP). In Victoria and New South Wales, state executive members, parliamentarians, and branch members associated with the Industrial Groups or B. A. Santamaria and "The Movement" (and therefore strongly identified with Roman Catholicism) were expelled from the party. They formed the Democratic Labor Party (DLP). Later in 1957, a similar split occurred in Queensland, with the resulting group joining the DLP. The party also had sitting members from Tasmania and New South Wales at various times, though it was much stronger in the states mentioned above. The Democratic Labor Party (DLP) did not claim to be a Christian democratic party, but it has been considered such by historian Michael Fogarty.[295] The party's goals were anti-communism, the decentralization of industry, population, administration, and ownership.[296] In its view that the ALP was filled with communists, the party decided it would prefer the ruling conservative Liberal and Country parties over the ALP.[297] However, it was more morally conservative, militantly anti-communist, and socially compassionate than the Liberals. The DLP heavily lost ground in the federal election of 1974, which saw its primary vote cut by nearly two-thirds and the election of an ALP government.

The DLP never regained its previous support in subsequent elections and formally disbanded in 1978, but a small group within the party refused to accept this decision and created a small, reformed successor party (now the Democratic Labour Party). In 2006, the new DLP experienced a resurgence. The successor party struggled through decades of Victorian elections before finally gaining a parliamentary seat when the Victorian upper house was redesigned. Nevertheless, its electoral support is still minimal in Victoria (around 2%). It has recently reformed state parties in Queensland and New South Wales. In the 2010 Australian federal election, the DLP won the sixth senate seat in Victoria, giving it representation in the Australian Senate.[298]

The former Christian Democratic Party, initially known as the "Call to Australia (Fred Nile) Group",[299] was a strongly religious conservative party in Australia.[300] It is a Christian right party, akin to the Canadian Christian Heritage Party and New Zealand Christian Heritage Party.[301][302] In 2011, the Victorian and Western Australian branches of the Christian Democratic Party (CDP) voted to form a new party, Australian Christians,[303] while the former Christian Democratic Party was wound up due to governance issues in 2022, and its leader, Fred Nile, moved onto a new party: "Christ in Government (Fred Nile Alliance)".[304]

North America edit

Historically, there has been no Christian democratic movement in the United States. This is potentially a result of the two-party system in the US and the constitutional separation of church and state.[305] However, for European Christian democrats, the United States has been a source of inspiration for how Christianity and democracy can work together.[306] Indeed, for Jacques Maritain, America was the realization of the Christian democratic ideal.[307] Thus, Invernizzi Accetti states:

from the point of view of Christian Democrats themselves, the United States didn't need a Christian Democratic party or movement because it already was a Christian Democracy.[308]

However there have been some Christian democratic Groups in the US; Inspired by the "People and Freedom Group" in the UK, US Catholics set up similar groups in American cities.[309]

The American Solidarity Party is a minor third party in the United States that identifies as a Christian democratic party.[310]

The Center for Public Justice is a Christian democratic public policy organization that desires to "bring the principles of a Christian worldview to bear on the political realm."[311]

See also edit

International Christian democratic organizations edit

Related concepts edit

References edit

Notes edit

  1. ^ Pentecostals have also secured parliamentary representation in countries such as Australia, Colombia, Nicaragua, and Peru, and have helped form Christian political parties that have won parliamentary seats. A noteworthy case is Sweden's Christian Democrats party, not only because it is in a continent where Pentecostals have struggled to make political headway but also because its Pentecostal founder, Lewi Pethrus, who challenged secularization by creating institutions to foster a Christian counterculture, was active at a time when Pentecostals in Sweden or the United States shunned politics.[10]
  2. ^ "Concurrent with this missionary movement in Africa, both Protestant and Catholic political activists helped to restore democracy to war-torn Europe and extend it overseas. Protestant political activism emerged principally in England, the Lowlands, and Scandinavia under the inspiration of both social gospel movements and neo-Calvinism. Catholic political activism emerged principally in Italy, France, and Spain under the inspiration of both Rerum Novarum and its early progeny and of neo-Thomism. Both formed political parties, which now fall under the general aegis of the Christian Democratic Party movement. Both Protestant and Catholic parties inveighed against the reductionist extremes and social failures of liberal democracies and social democracies. [5]
  3. ^ Conservatives, including the Christian democrats, favor an abstinence strategy that aims at a controlled use of legal drugs such as alcohol, nicotine, and medical drugs, on the one hand, and prohibiting the use of illegal drugs (whether soft or hard), on the other.[33][34]
  4. ^ The main ideological and integrative theme present from the start concerned an emphasis on general Christian values, both as a moral rejection of the atheist, immoral and materialist Nazism and as a manner of distinction vis à vis social democracy. The thrust of the Christian democratic argument was that politics had to be founded in Christianity and that a moral recovery was a prerequisite for social and economic recuperation. It was imperative to concede the importance of Christian ethics after an epoch of such inhuman and atheist cruelty.(Heidenheimer 1960:33-4; Mintzel 1982:133)[35]
  5. ^ European Christian democracy after the Second World War really represented a common political front against the People's Democracies, that is, Christian democracy was a kind of ecumenical unity achieved on the religious level against the atheism of the government in the Communist countries.[37]
  6. ^ The Christian democrats promoted a corporatist welfare state, based on the principles of the so-called "sphere sovereignty" and "subsidiarity" in social policy.[128]
  7. ^ Sturzo outlined his conception of popularism as follows: "Popularism is democratic, but it differs from liberal democracy in that it denies the individualist and centralising system of the State and wishes the State to be organic and decentralised. It is liberal (in the wholesome sense of the word) because it takes its stand on the civil and political liberties, which it upholds as equal for all, without party monopolies and without persecution of religion, races or classes. It is social in the sense of a radical reform of the present capitalist system, but it parts company with Socialism because it admits of private property while insisting on the social function of such property. It proclaims its Christian character because to-day there can be no ethics or civilisation other than Christian. Popularism was the antithesis of the totalitarian State."[131]

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Further reading edit

  • Gehler, Michael; Kaiser, Wolfram (2004a), Political Catholicism in Europe 1918–1945, Routledge, ISBN 0-7146-5650-X
  • Gehler, Michael; Kaiser, Wolfram (2004b), Christian Democracy in Europe since 1945, Routledge, ISBN 0-7146-5662-3
  • Gehler, Michael; Kaiser, Wolfram; Wohnout, Helmut, eds. (2001), Christdemokratie in Europa im 20. Jahrhundert / Christian Democracy in 20th Century Europe, Böhlau Verlag, ISBN 3-205-99360-8
  • Invernizzi Accetti, Carlo (2019). What is Christian Democracy?: Politics, Religion and Ideology. New York: Cambridge University Press.
  • Kaiser, Wolfram (2007), Christian Democracy and the Origins of European Union, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-88310-8
  • Kaiser, Wolfram; Kosicki, Piotr (2021). Political Exile in the Global Twentieth Century: Catholic Christian Democrats in Europe and the Americas. Belgium: S.l.: Leuven University Press. p. 21. ISBN 978-946-27030-70.

External links edit

 
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Christian Democracy.

Key texts edit

Other resources edit

  • New Advent Catholic Encyclopedia – an article on Christian Democracy
  • Christian Democracy in Western Europe: 1820–1953 24 February 2012 at the Wayback Machine – a book by Michael Fogarty
  • For Democracy (1939) – People and Freedom Group
  • – Freiburg Circle
  • – an essay by former (1992–2015) UK Conservative MP David Willetts
  • – an article by Nicholas Townsend, April 2015

January 01, 1970
christian, democracy, other, uses, disambiguation, political, ideology, inspired, christian, social, teaching, respond, challenges, contemporary, society, politics, gathering, supporters, christian, democratic, union, dessau, 1990, drawn, mainly, from, catholi. For other uses see Christian democracy disambiguation Christian democracy is a political ideology inspired by Christian social teaching to respond to the challenges of contemporary society and politics 1 2 A gathering of supporters of Christian Democratic Union in Dessau 1990 Christian democracy has drawn mainly from Catholic social teaching 3 4 and neo scholasticism 5 6 7 as well as the Neo Calvinist tradition within Christianity 8 9 it later gained ground with Lutherans and Pentecostals nb 1 among other denominational traditions of Christianity in various parts of the world nb 2 11 During the nineteenth century its principal concerns were to reconcile Catholicism with democracy 6 7 to answer the social question surrounding capitalism and the working class 12 13 and to resolve the tensions between church and state 14 15 In the twentieth century Christian democrats led postwar Western and Southern Europe in building modern welfare states and constructing the European Union 16 Furthermore in the late twentieth and early twenty first century Christian democracy has gained support in Eastern Europe among former communist states suffering from corruption and stagnation 17 18 On the European left right political spectrum Christian democracy has been difficult to pinpoint as Christian democrats have often rejected liberal economics and individualism and advocated state intervention while simultaneously defending private property rights against excessive state intervention 19 This has meant that Christian democracy has historically been considered centre left on economics and centre right on many social and moral issues 20 More recently Christian democrats have positioned themselves as the centre right as with both the European People s Party and European Christian Political Movement with which many Christian democratic parties in Europe are affiliated 21 Christian democrats support a slightly regulated market economy featuring an effective social security system 22 thus a social market economy 23 Worldwide many Christian democratic parties are members of the Centrist Democrat International Examples of major Christian democratic parties include the Christian Democratic Union of Germany the Dutch Christian Democratic Appeal The Centre in Switzerland the Spanish People s Party the Mexican National Action Party the Austrian People s Party and the Christian Democratic Party of Chile 24 Many Christian democratic parties in the Americas are affiliated with the Christian Democrat Organization of America 25 Christian democracy continues to be influential in Europe and Latin America although it is also present in other parts of the world 26 Contents 1 Overview of political viewpoints 2 Political philosophy 2 1 General inspiration 2 1 1 Neo scholasticism 2 1 2 Neo Calvinism 2 1 3 Orthodoxy 2 2 Political thought 2 2 1 Personalism 2 2 2 Solidarity and social capitalism 2 2 3 Popularism 2 2 4 Pluralism 2 2 5 Stewardship 3 History 3 1 19th century 3 2 Between Rerum novarum and World War II 3 3 The post war period 3 4 21st century 4 Outside Western Europe 4 1 Latin America 4 2 Central and Eastern Europe 4 2 1 Poland 4 2 2 Romania 4 2 3 Russia 4 2 4 Post Iron Curtain 4 3 Greece 4 4 Britain 4 5 Australia 4 6 North America 5 See also 5 1 International Christian democratic organizations 5 2 Related concepts 6 References 6 1 Notes 6 2 Citations 6 3 Sources 7 Further reading 8 External links 8 1 Key texts 8 2 Other resourcesOverview of political viewpoints editAs a generalization it can be said that Christian democratic parties in Europe tend to be moderately conservative and in several cases form the main conservative party in their respective countries e g in Germany Spain Belgium and Switzerland such as the Christian Democratic People s Party of Switzerland the Christian Social Party the Evangelical People s Party of Switzerland and the Federal Democratic Union of Switzerland By contrast Christian democratic parties in Latin America tend to vary in their position on the political spectrum depending on the country they are in being either more left leaning 27 28 as in the case of the Christian Democratic Party in Chile or more right leaning as in the case of the National Action Party in Mexico Geoffrey K Roberts and Patricia Hogwood have noted that Christian democracy has incorporated many of the views held by liberals conservatives and socialists within a wider framework of moral and Christian principles 29 Christian democrats are usually socially conservative 30 and generally have a relatively skeptical stance towards abortion and same sex marriage although some Christian democratic parties have accepted the limited legalization of both They advocate for a consistent life ethic concerning their opposition to capital punishment and assisted suicide 31 32 Christian democrats have also supported the prohibition of drugs nb 3 Christian democratic parties are often likely to assert their country s Christian heritage and explicitly affirm Christian ethics rather than adopting a more liberal or secular stance nb 4 at the same time Christian democratic parties enshrine confessional liberty 36 Christian democracy fosters an ecumenical unity achieved on the religious level against the atheism of the government in the Communist countries nb 5 Christian democrats views include traditional moral values on marriage abortion prohibition of drugs etc 38 opposition to secularization opposition to state atheism a view of the evolutionary as opposed to revolutionary development of society an emphasis on law and order and a rejection of communism 37 10 Christian democrats are open to change for example in the structure of society and not necessarily supportive of the social status quo and have an emphasis on human rights and individual initiative A rejection of secularism and an emphasis on the fact that the individual is part of a community and has duties towards it Christian democrats hold that the various sectors of society such as education family economy and state have autonomy and responsibility over their sphere a concept known as sphere sovereignty 39 One sphere ought not to dictate the obligations of another social entity for example the sphere of the state is not permitted to interfere with raising children a role that belongs to the sphere of the family 39 Within the sphere of government Christian democrats maintain that civil issues should first be addressed at the lowest level of government before being examined at a higher level a doctrine known as subsidiarity 22 These concepts of sphere sovereignty and subsidiarity are considered cornerstones of Christian democracy political ideology 40 Christian democrats emphasize community social justice and solidarity alongside supporting a welfare state labor unions and support for regulation of market forces 41 Most European Christian democrats reject the concept of class struggle and instead prefer co determination 42 43 while US Christian democrats support a distributist economic system containing widespread distribution of productive property in particular increased worker ownership workplace democracy and management workers self management of their production 44 45 46 The Christian democratic welfare state aims at supporting families and often relies on intermediary institutions to deliver social services and social insurance often with the support of the state 47 Christian democrats support the principle of stewardship which upholds the idea that humans should safeguard the planet for future generations of life 22 Christian democrats also tend to have a conciliatory view concerning immigration 48 Political philosophy editNo single author has been recognized by all Christian democrats as the leading Christian democratic thinker but Jacques Maritain comes closest 49 Thus in terms of impact he is in no way akin to Karl Marx Edmund Burke or John Locke 49 Other authors critical to forming Christian democratic ideology include Pope Leo XIII 50 Pope Pius XI 51 Emmanuel Mounier 52 Heinrich Pesch 53 Abraham Kuyper 54 and Luigi Sturzo 55 General inspiration edit Neo scholasticism edit Christian democracy can trace its philosophical roots to Thomas Aquinas and his thoughts on Aristotelian ontology and the Christian tradition 5 According to Aquinas human rights are based on natural law and are defined as the things humans need to function correctly For example food is a human right because without food humans cannot function properly Aquinas affirmed that humans are images of the divine which follows human dignity and equality all humans are equal because they all share that nature 56 Aquinas also affirmed the natural reality of family and household based on the lifelong commitment of husband and wife perfected with children a unit that has priority over other communities 57 Aquinas also argued that public power could legitimately appropriate private owners of their resources for the common good when used for people in genuine need 58 When Leo XIII became pope he issued the Papal Encyclical Aeterni Patris which rehabilitated scholastic philosophy 59 The pope highlighted Aquinas s views on liberty authority laws justice and charity in this encyclical 60 Aquinas s ideas would later be the foundation for the idea of subsidiarity alongside the ideas that the state is to serve the people and that there is universal solidarity amongst humanity 61 A significant Neo Scholastic was Jacques Maritain who attempted to reconcile democracy and human rights with Thomist natural law 62 Maritain argued that human rights are based on natural law and that democracy needs Christianity to succeed 63 Jacques Maritain would use Thomist ideas of property to reduce inequality arguing that the state should be involved if individuals do not use their property correctly 64 Jacques Maritain and Emmanuel Mounier would also use Thomist thinking in developing their idea of personalism 65 Neo Calvinism edit Another intellectual element of Christian democracy was neo Calvinism 8 The neo Calvinist political ideas relied on John Calvin s ideas of the sovereignty of God and common grace 66 God s sovereignty was particularly useful in light of the French revolution and notions of individual and state sovereignty 66 It was the basis of sphere sovereignty which helped the interests of Reformed Christians which have historically been a minority In sphere sovereignty each sphere has its activity area related to God 66 Within this view of sphere sovereignty it was the state s role to pursue public justice 67 Another element was that life is religious and politics should reflect this 68 Orthodoxy edit The development of Orthodox Christian democracy has been held back by the fact that Orthodox Politics has not received church support in the way that Rerum Novarum encouraged Christian democracy or how early Christian democrats such as Luigi Sturzo received tacit consent for his political activities 69 Russian Christian democrats for example have had to develop a doctrine of democracy 70 Political thought edit Academics have noted a few ideas key to Christian democracy including personalism 71 72 73 74 solidarity 71 75 or some variant of social capitalism 76 77 popularism 78 79 or some variant of its catch all nature 73 80 notions of pluralism 71 81 82 which in a vertical sense relates to subsidiarity 83 84 and in a horizontal sense denotes sphere sovereignty 85 86 and stewardship 87 88 89 Personalism edit Personalism is a political doctrine generally linked to Emmanuel Mounier 90 It focuses on the person their intellect responsibilities and value 91 It stresses that humans are free beings with dignity and political rights but these rights must be used for the common good 71 It also stresses that true human freedom is used in line with God s will 92 It is against the individualist and collectivist notions of humanity 71 It also stresses that people become full when they are members of their communities 74 In practical policy it leads to a few conclusions Human life is sacred and is an end in itself It is therefore against abortion and euthanasia 93 The family unit is an essential part of society and must be defended 94 Traditional gender roles must be respected this leads to a rejection of same sex marriages 95 Freedom is not a license for Moral permissiveness 96 Personalism has generally been the underlying basis in Christian democracy that leads to human rights especially in relation to a right to life a right to family and a right to aid a right to suffrage freedom of conscience and freedom of religion 97 Solidarity and social capitalism edit The Christian democratic political economy has not tethered itself to one third way between capitalism and socialism but rather various ways between capitalism and socialism 98 Over time Christian democrats moved from solidarism to a social market economy 99 Initially many Catholic political movements in the 19th century opposed capitalism and socialism equally as both were based on materialism and social conflict 100 Initially the system that Catholics advocated was one of corporatism based on bringing back a guild organized economy 100 101 The idea was a society where individuals were organized by their economic position 102 In these corporatist systems the fathers were the head of families 102 One of these conceptions was that of Franz von Baader who advocated for proletariat enfranchisement in the corporatist system 103 Baader is recognized as the first person to advocate for workplace codetermination 104 Codetermination would become a key point of unity amongst the Christian democratic trade unions 105 In the 19th century and early 20th century the Lutheran social Christians advocated an authoritarian view of corporatism 106 and the Neo Calvinist corporatist idea has been credited as an inspiration for the polder system that currently exists in the Netherlands 107 Many of these corporatisms would advance the idea of replacing the elected parliament with corporative parliament recognizing the various corporate estates of the nation industrialists small businesses peasants landowners workers etc 107 102 The papal encyclical Rerum Novarum would recognize some of the principles behind corporatism 108 The Christian democratic notion of corporatism was found within Heinrich Pesch s solidarism 53 Pesch s solidarism argued for international solidarity based on shared humanity national solidarity based on shared nationality familiar solidarity for family members and class and cross class solidarity based on shared interests in the workplace 109 This latter solidarity focused on occupational associations advancing collective interests codetermination 109 and a third house of parliament that would advise on economic matters 110 Heinrich Pesch s idea of corporatism would be a qualified notion of subsidiarity 110 Pesch s ideas would be influential in the Papal Encyclical Quadragesimo Anno given that Pesch s disciple Oswald von Nell Breuning would draft the document 111 112 Quadragesimo Anno was significant in legitimatizing the push for a corporatist system and subjected it to the notion of subsidiarity 113 Around this time corporatism became increasingly prominent among young Catholics frustrated with parliamentary politics 114 and in many instances would inspire authoritarian and fascist regimes movements in Austria France Spain Portugal 113 and Germany 115 106 Eventually corporatism fell out of the political debate due to this association with authoritarian and fascist regimes 116 Another economic idea within Christian democracy is the social market economy which is widely influential across much of continental Europe The social market is an essentially free market economy based on a free price system and private property However it supports government activity to promote competitive markets with a comprehensive social welfare system and effective public services to address social inequalities resulting from free market outcomes 117 The market is seen not as an end but as a means of generating wealth to achieve broader social goals and maintain societal cohesion 118 The basis of the social market economy is ordoliberalism 119 or German neoliberalism 120 an idea related to thinkers such as Walter Eucken Franz Bohm Ludwig Erhard and Alfred Muller Armack 121 Ordoliberals viewed the concentration of power as a significant danger to liberty 122 They desired an economic constitution that would ensure competition in markets and free decisions where people are uninfluenced by the government 123 As a result of the economic constitution this model is mildly corporatist 124 This model of capitalism sometimes called Rhine Alpine capitalism or social capitalism is contrasted with Anglo American capitalism or enterprise capitalism Whereas the Anglo capitalist model aims to remove restrictions on capitalism and enable individual prosperity the Rhinish Model embeds the market into the social framework with the goals of nation building and of taking care of citizens 125 Beginning in the 1980s European Christian democratic parties have partially adopted neo liberal policies 126 127 However Christian democrats in the American Solidarity Party instead adopted distributism The promotion of the Christian democratic concepts of sphere sovereignty and subsidiarity led to the creation of corporatist welfare states throughout the world that continue to exist to this day nb 6 In keeping with the Christian democratic concepts of the cultural mandate and the preferential option for the poor Christian justice is viewed as demanding that the welfare of all people especially the poor and vulnerable must be protected because every human being has dignity being made in the image of God 22 129 In many countries Christian democrats organized labor unions that competed with communist and social democratic unions in contrast to conservatism s stance against worker organizations In solidarity with these labor unions in Belgium for example Christian democrats have lobbied for Sunday blue laws that guarantee workers and civil servants a day of rest in line with historic Christian Sabbath principles 130 Popularism edit Popolarismo or popularism is a political doctrine conceived by Don Luigi Sturzo nb 7 however in reality this was Christian democracy in the political sphere 132 The papal encyclical Graves de communi re prohibited Christian democracy to be a political ideology and so Sturzo used the term popularism instead 133 Popularism helped European Catholics come to accept democracy 134 and so the idea has been linked to Christian democratic ideas of democracy 135 which Sturzo Defined as The political and social system resting on the free organic participation of the whole people in the common good 136 Academics have tied the idea of popularism to the way Christian democratic parties encompass sections of the whole population 137 This results from the inherent religious center allowing cut across class divisions 138 In realization of this Christian democratic parties tend to invoke the title People s Parties 139 Academic Carlo Invernizzi Accetti links the idea of popularism to proportional representation pillarization and consociational democracy 140 Pluralism edit The Christian democratic notion of pluralism is about how humans are generally embedded in a social framework John Witte explaining the origin of Christian democracy describes pluralism thus Both Protestant and Catholic parties inveighed against the reductionist extremes and social failures of liberal democracies and social democracies Liberal democracies they believed had sacrificed the community for the individual social democracies had sacrificed the individual for the community Both parties returned to a traditional Christian teaching of social pluralism or subsidiarity which stressed the dependence and participation of the individual in family church school business and other associations Both parties stressed the responsibility of the state to respect and protect the individual in community 5 Sphere sovereignty stresses the horizontal element social communities have roles they must uphold and certain liberty and autonomy 86 Here the government had the role of policing the spheres 86 Subsidiarity is the vertical element 84 where the state has the role of protecting and regulating the spheres 141 The state must not interfere if these communities are behaving effectively 142 This also means that a state can intervene when these communities are not competent 84 In practice subsidiarity has been used to justify the creation of international organizations as higher international authorities need to exist to police nation states 143 Stewardship edit The idea of stewardship has traditionally been linked to managerial skills regarding property and income 144 Stewardship can be found in neo Calvinist Abraham Kuyper s works where it relates to a person s responsibilities over what is entrusted to them especially their property 145 In Social Catholic circles in the 1970s stewardship was explicitly linked to environmental matters 144 Stewardship was found in the first programs of the Christian Democratic Appeal and from here alongside the works of American bishops the idea would spread to other Christian democratic parties 89 They view competent and efficient government as emblematic of a just steward which includes just stewardship over environmental matters 88 Pope Francis took a firm stance on environmentalism in the papal encyclical Laudato Si in 2015 88 Here the idea of stewardship comes from the correct translation of Genesis where God entrusts man with stewardship of the earth 88 History edit19th century edit The origins of Christian democracy go back to the French Revolution where initially French republicanism and the Catholic Church were deeply hostile to one another as the revolutionary government had attacked the church confiscated the church s lands persecuted its priests and attempted to establish a new religion around reason and the supreme being 146 After the decades following the French Revolution the Catholic Church saw the rise of liberalism as a threat to Catholic values The rise of capitalism and the resulting industrialization and urbanization of society were seen to be destroying traditional communal and family life According to the Catholic Church liberal economics promoted selfishness and materialism with the liberal emphasis on individualism tolerance and free expression enabling all kinds of self indulgence and permissiveness to thrive 146 Consequently for much of the 19th century the Catholic Church was hostile to democracy and liberalism This hostility to democracy and liberalism would be challenged by liberal Catholics who believed the alliance between the church and aristocracy was a barrier to the church s mission 147 Initially this group desired to reconcile the Catholics with the state of modern politics getting Catholics involved in parties public action and parliamentarianism 148 This however was not an endorsement of democracy and the liberal Catholics maintained they did not adhere to liberalism 149 Eventually the movement s leading figures such as Felicite de La Mennais would become more accepting of democracy 150 The group came to be associated with a desire for a free press freedom of association and worship and free education 147 151 Around this time Catholic social thought developed with social Catholic theologians and activists advocating the interests of workers in society Some activists such as Frederic Ozanam the Society of St Vincent de Paul founder were more amenable to liberal democracy 152 Ozanam criticized economic liberalism and the commodification of labor and argued that charity was insufficient to deal with these problems and that labor associations and state intervention were needed 153 Italian Popular Party leader Luigi Sturzo credits Ozanam as the first Christian democrat 154 One of the more influential theologians in Germany was Wilhelm von Ketteler who encouraged Catholics to accept the modern state 155 Ketteler argued for productive associations with profit sharing Christian trade unions and general workers rights 156 In the 1870s Catholic political movements arose independently of the Catholic Church to defend Catholic interests from the liberal states In Europe generally the liberal states desired to wrestle control over the Catholic education system however in Germany and Italy this was a direct attack against the church 157 The Catholic political movements specifically opposed liberal secularism and state control of education the parties that came out of these movements include the Centre Party Germany the Catholic Party Belgium various Catholic parties in the Netherlands and the Christian Social Party Austria Initially most of these parties accepted the anti liberal beliefs of the Catholic Church at the time many Catholics behind these movements believed all spheres of life should be regulated by religion 158 These movements were initially built by ultramontanes 159 were against the liberal view that church and state must be separated 100 and used the term Christian democracy in opposition to liberal democracy 16 The Centre Party in Germany seems to be an exception to this trend in that they defended the Catholic Church through an appeal to liberal freedoms and democracy Additionally the Centre Party inspired by Ketteler supported social legislation 155 160 Despite the thoroughly pro Catholic position of these movements the church itself resisted the movements seeing them as a challenge to the church s control of the laity 16 Over time the impact of electoral politics on these parties pushed them to be more accepting of liberal democracy To form effective political coalitions these parties evolved from Catholic parties to parties inspired by Christianity and turned to voters not the Catholic Church for legitimacy 161 During this time the Catholic parties took an inter class nature such that they comprised trade unionists landlords industrialists peasants and artisans 162 which academics have linked to the notion of popularism 163 Protestant confessional politics was more wide and varied The most significant movement was in the Netherlands where Reformed neo Calvinist Protestants founded the Anti Revolutionary Party Similarly to the Catholics this party was formed out of similar concerns with liberal control of education 164 165 The party was against the ideas of the French revolution 164 and its founder Abraham Kuyper held that the government derived its authority from God not from the people 166 However Kuyper and the Anti Revolutionary Party did support organic democratic representation and promoted universal household suffrage 167 In Germany this element came from the Lutheran Adolf Stoecker who established the Christian Social Party and those who followed him The Christian social movement aimed to challenge Marxist socialism so Stoecker supported pro worker economic policies to win over the working class However when this failed Stoecker turned to anti Semitism 168 In Switzerland Stoecker and his fellow allies generated some interest in Protestant political organization but Protestants largely accepted the predominance of liberalism so there was only minor growth of a Protestant political movement 169 Between Rerum novarum and World War II edit The papacy of Pope Leo XIII was a turning point in the development of Christian democracy 170 and he attempted to infuse democracy and liberalism with Catholic values 171 In the papal encyclical Rerum novarum in 1891 Pope Leo XIII recognized workers misery and argued for means to improve workers conditions He also attacked economic liberalism and condemned the rise of socialism and generally encouraged a corporatist approach to labor relations 172 Rerum novarum would provide Catholic labor movements with an intellectual platform and would coincide with the rise of Christian trade unions across Europe 173 172 It was the catalyst for the beginning of Christian democracy in France 174 Italy and Austria 175 The same year as the release of Rerum Novarum Abraham Kuyper organized the Christian Social Congress alongside the Protestant workers movement where Kuyper outlined their social principles and policy These actions reinforced the push for Christian social action in the Netherlands 176 In Graves de communi re the pope would protest against using Christian democracy as a political label preferring it to describe a social movement 175 Some academics consider the Catholic political parties around this time to be essentially Catholic and not Christian democratic 177 178 However others consider the new Italian People s Party and the Popular Democratic Party France Christian democratic 179 180 These parties advocated political liberties religious liberties economic reform and social partnership policies to support democracy and internationalism 181 182 The Italian People s Party also advocated for regionalism and proportional representation 183 At the beginning of the Weimar Republic Adam Stegerwald attempted to reform the Centre Party into a Christian democratic party uniting Catholics and Protestants 184 In Belgium the rising workers movement came to form the increasingly powerful Christian democratic faction of the Catholic Party 185 This period also saw other Catholic parties forming Bavarian Catholics broke away and formed the Bavarian People s Party due to the Centre Party s participation in establishing the Weimar Republic 186 In Switzerland Catholics formed the Swiss Conservative People s Party which as a party was divided between three competing demographics rural Catholics who wanted greater regional independence Catholic workers who wanted economic reform and the more conservative groups who opposed democracy 187 Overall the party was held together by the Catholic faith and anti socialist and anti liberal tendencies 188 In Ireland Fianna Fail was founded as a Catholic political party 189 Fine Gael Fianna Fail and Labor would all be avenues for Christian democracy in the post war period 190 In the early 20th century Protestant confessional politics developed further In Weimar Germany Stoecker s Christian social party joined the German National People s Party as its labor wing in 1918 184 The Christian social parliamentarians from this party would then leave in 1929 to form the Christian Social People s Service CSVD 191 Protestant workers movements in Switzerland gradually developed mutual aid funds into an independent trade union movement Around this time Swiss Protestants formed the Evangelical People s Party The 1930s saw the rise of the Christian People s Party in Norway It was built on the work of Pietist Lutherans and the party was initially founded to defend the country s Christian heritage against the rise of secularization 192 There was cooperation between the Protestant and Catholic parties during this period The Catholic and Protestant parties would form joint governments in the Netherlands and Germany 193 194 However this cooperation did not challenge the underlying differences between the movements in Germany there was tension from cooperation with Protestants 195 while in the Netherlands the Anti Revolutionaries would not support pro Vatican policies 194 A significant factor that helped Christian democracy during this period was the lay Catholic Action movements These organizations stress the apostolate of the laity which is the role of everyday Catholics in spreading the faith 196 In practice these movements helped support the Christian trade unions and Christian democratic parties across Europe 197 In Italy Catholic Action supported the Italian Popular Party and the rise of Mussolini would act as an anti fascist force 198 Catholic Action would later help the post war Christian democracy 199 Likewise Catholic Action would work in the resistance in France and help found the MRP 198 In 1931 Pope Pius XI released the encyclical Quadragesimo anno which was released on the 40th anniversary of Rerum novarum and aimed to clarify the subsequent social doctrine of the church The encyclical doubled down on the pronouncements of Rerum novarum on economic liberalism and socialism 200 The attack against socialism was broadened to include moderate socialism 201 and within the encyclical the pope outlined a corporatist structure of society based on the notion of subsidiarity 202 203 However the pope would stress the autonomy of this corporatist system to distinguish it from fascism 204 This Quadragesimo Anno would come to influence the economic programs of Catholic parties of the time such as the Popular Democratic Party 205 and the Dutch Roman Catholic State Party 206 alongside influencing Belgian Catholics 207 The Centre Party Christian Social Party and Swiss Conservative People s Party already advocated corporatism based on economists such as Heinrich Pesch Oswald von Nell Breuning and Karl von Vogelsang 208 In Germany and Austria Quadragesimo anno renewed the vigor for corporatism 209 In Ireland Political Catholics would pursue a policy of vocationalism taken directly from Quadragesimo anno This vocationalism was most evident in the corporatist nature of the Irish upper house 210 Across Europe the Catholic and Protestant parties faced the threat of fascism Amidst the rise of Fascism in Italy the Italian People s Party under Stuzo attempted to challenge Mussolini by forming a coalition with the socialist party 211 Luigi Sturzo was ordered by the Catholic Church in 1923 to disband his Italian People s Party and exit politics 212 Poor electoral performance in 1924 would make Sturzo give party leadership to Alcide De Gasperi and go into exile 213 214 Once in power the fascists disbanded the Italian People s Party This would precede the signing of the Lateran Treaty between the Catholic Church and the Italian fascists in 1929 215 The Centre Party and the CSVD would face the rise of the Nazi Party in Germany Once the Nazis attained power in 1933 they attempted to take total power with the Enabling Act in 1923 Internally the Centre Party was divided on the Enabling Act but many became persuaded that Hitler would not eliminate the Reichstag 216 217 Comparatively the historical anti Semitism of the Protestant Christian Social movement left the Christian Socials susceptible to Nazism The Nazi Party would infiltrate the Protestant unions linked to CSVD in 1931 218 Eventually both parties would sign the Enabling Act and both parties would summarily dissolve In Austria the Christian Socials would have already disbanded before Germany annexed Austria 219 In Austria a short civil war between authoritarians and social democrats would divide the Christian Socials many of which would help build the authoritarian state Outside of Italy Germany and Austria many Catholic and Protestant parties would ultimately be dissolved when Nazi Germany invaded the rest of Europe in World War II Many Christian democrats would assist in the resistance in France 220 The post war period edit After World War II both Protestant and Catholic political activists helped to restore democracy to war torn Europe and extend it overseas 5 Christian resistors were significant in establishing post war Christian democracy movements in France 221 Germany 222 and Italy 223 The collapse of fascism led to the discrediting of the radical right 224 In Germany conservatism was associated with reactionary and anti democratic attitudes The Christian democrats could claim to be untainted by fascism and thereby draw together conservative Catholics and bourgeois Protestants 225 In both Germany and Italy the Christian democratic parties encompassed former conservatives 224 The Christian democratic parties dominated the post war scene In Italy the new Christian Democratic Party led the coalition government under Alcide De Gasperi and in France the Popular Republican Movement became the largest party in parliament in 1946 226 In Germany France and Italy the Christian democratic parties helped establish their respective countries constitutions Between the 1940s and 1990s Christian democratic parties were in power across western Europe In Germany they were in power for 36 years out of 50 in Italy for 47 years out of 52 in Belgium 47 years out of 53 and in Netherlands for 49 years of 53 even in France they were influential up to 1962 227 In the post war period Christian democratic parties became more conservative partially in response to communism and secularism 228 The Christian democrats also won the women s vote in their respective countries due to the pro family policies of Christian democrats 229 Christian democrats pursued decentralization policies during this time encouraging regionalism in Germany Italy and Belgium This was sought with increased favor as a result of experiencing fascism 230 Christian democratic parties were also crucial in pushing for codeterminative works councils and workers on boards during this time 42 43 Despite this initial power cracks started to appear Christian democracy in France declined substantially as Popular Republican Movement and its successors quickly fell apart 231 French Christian democrats would ultimately become subsumed into Gaullist parties Similarly minor Christian democratic parties such as the People s Democratic Party PDP would rise in post Franco Spain However these movements were too divided and lacked the political necessity of religious cleavages to play a dominant role in Spanish democracy These Christian democratic parties would fail and the Christian democrats would join the Spanish Popular Party 232 Protestant Christian democracy developed in multifaceted ways in the post war period In Germany it arose amongst the Lutheran ordoliberals These Lutherans looked to Christian theologians such as Karl Barth and Dietrich Bonhoeffer to path a way that obeyed worldly authority but also challenged the Nazi regime 233 234 The core of the ordoliberal ideology was a strong state that enabled market competition 235 During the war the ordoliberals worked with Bonhoeffer to develop a political and socio economic plan for the post war period 236 and after the war they joined with Catholics to form the Christian Democratic Union 237 The ordoliberals termed their vision a social market economy 238 a vision the Catholics would also come to champion 239 In Sweden it arose amongst the Pentecostals where it coalesced in the Christian Democrats founded in 1964 as a reaction to secularization 10 240 The Finnish Christian Democrats formed in 1957 and the Danish Christian People s Party formed in 1970 defended Christian schooling and dissented against secular trends such as atheism and liberal abortion policies 241 The Nordic Christian democratic parties did not represent the Lutheran state church but non conformist Christians and lay activists within the Lutheran state church 242 In the Netherlands the Protestant Anti Revolutionary Party and Christian Historical Union joined the Catholic People s Party to form Christian Democratic Appeal 89 European Christian democrats were a significant force in the creation of the European Union At the beginning of the European project three significant men were Konrad Adenauer Robert Schuman and Alcide De Gasperi all Christian democrats 243 When the Rome Treaty was signed Christian democrats were the leading governments in four of the six countries Germany Italy Belgium and Luxembourg and were a part of the coalition government in the Netherlands at the time 243 At least until the mid 1980s social democrats were hostile to the institutions of the European Communities even in the 1970s Swedish Prime Minister Olof Palme called the European Commission conservative capitalist clerical and colonialist 244 Indeed the European Union has the ideas of subsidiarity and personalism embedded within it 245 The influence of Christian democracy on the European Union is such that one academic has called the European Union a Christian democracy 246 Alongside the European Union was the development of European Christian democratic parties This appeared in the 1940s with the Nouvelles Equipes Internationales 247 which would evolve into the European Union of Christian Democrats in 1965 248 and finally the European People s Party in 1976 249 21st century edit Christian democratic parties no longer have as much power in European politics 250 Indeed in Italy the Christian democratic party collapsed 251 The reasons for the decline in Christian democracy are multifaceted partly due to European secularization and the loss of a voting base 252 The death of communism and the rise of neo liberalism have also dented the movement and the financial crisis has also shown flaws in Christian democratic welfare 252 Furthermore immigration and the rise of populism have further put pressure on Christian democracy as it is torn between the right s call for restrictions the businesses call for an open labor market and the religious call for more charity to immigrants 252 Some Christian democratic parties particularly in Europe no longer emphasize religion and have become much more secular in recent years 253 254 Recently many minor Christian democratic parties such as the Christian Union and others across Europe did not feel represented in the existing political establishment so they formed a political organization in the European Christian Political Movement 255 These parties stressed the Christian history of Europe alongside advocating for traditional Christian values and economic and environmental justice 256 Many Muslim parties in Muslim countries have looked to the Christian democratic tradition for inspiration The most notable is Turkey s ruling Justice and Development Party usually known by the Turkish acronym AKP for Adalet ve Kalkinma Partisi which is Islamic and has moved towards the tradition 257 However this link is questioned given that AKP s movement toward Christian democracy may be to curry the favor of European parties in European integration something the European Christian democrats ultimately shot down 258 Other Islamic groups that have been linked include the Democratic League of Kosovo 259 and Mohammad Morsi in Egypt 260 Some Muslim democratic parties embraced by Christian democrats are the National Awakening Party Indonesia and the Lakas Christian Muslim Democrats Philippines who have joined the Centrist Democrat International Outside Western Europe editMain article List of Christian democratic parties The international organization of Christian democratic parties the Centrist Democrat International CDI formerly known as the Christian Democratic International is the second largest international political organization in the world after the Socialist International European Christian democratic parties have a regional organization the European People s Party which forms the largest group in the European Parliament the European People s Party Group Latin America edit Early Christian democracy in Latin America formed in the early 20th century and these parties were generally conservative and their main aim was to protect the interests of the Catholic church 261 These parties viewed Christianity as the origin and soul of democratic values and advocated an organic conception of society decentralization and corporatism 262 Christian democrats would become more progressive in the 1960s and 1970s partially due to the consequences of the Second Vatican Council between 1961 and 1963 263 This led to the growth of liberation theology in Latin American Catholicism which stressed class conflict over the Christian democratic class mediation 263 Furthermore due to the US policy against socialism in Latin America Christian democratic parties could position themselves as progressive and demand social reforms 27 Furthermore Christian democrats accepted modernism and technocracy and began to advocate centralized planning 264 In the 1980s due to international trends such as the Washington consensus Christian democrats accepted neoliberal policies in their nations leading to future electoral losses 265 Throughout this period Christian democratic parties have played a force for democracy such as COPEI which helped establish Democratic Venezuela 266 and the PDC in Chile the main opposition to Pinochet 267 Christian democracy has been especially important in Chile see Christian Democratic Party of Chile and Venezuela see COPEI Christian Democratic Party of Venezuela among others and partly also in Mexico starting with the ascendancy of President Vicente Fox in 2000 followed by Felipe Calderon see National Action Party Mexico Cuba counts several Christian democratic political associations on the island and in exile Perhaps the most significant is Movimiento Cristiano de Liberacion MCL led by Cuban dissident Oswaldo Paya who was killed in a tragic automobile accident in the summer of 2012 and has been nominated for the Nobel Peace Prize In Uruguay the Christian Democratic Party of Uruguay although numerically small was instrumental in creating the leftist Broad Front in 1971 AsiaSouth KoreaAlthough Christian democratic movements are not prevalent in the East Asia as Christianity is not a main religion there liberal parties in South Korea the only country in the East Asia where Christianity is the main religion tend to have Christian democratic tendencies Democratic Party of Korea which is the main liberal party of South Korea supports building universal welfare state 268 However they tend to be conservative on social issues due to the influence of Christianity Democratic Party of Korea oppose anti discrimination law gay marriage civil union and abortion 269 270 271 272 Central and Eastern Europe edit Poland edit Christian democratic movements in Poland formed in 1890 and gained increasing prominence from 1916 such that various Christian democratic movements coalesced into the Christian Democratic Party in 1919 273 The party s economic program drew from Rerum Novarum and later Quadragesimo anno The party would encourage cross class solidarity co ownership and co determination 274 For the first half of the 1920s the party had considerable influence in government providing cabinet members and a prime minister 275 After the coup d etat in 1926 the party s influence worsened The party would eventually side with the opposition left and form the Labour Party in 1937 276 Romania edit Christian democracy has developed in countries with Eastern Orthodox majorities in unique and disparate ways Romania has seen small Christian parties such as the National Peasants Party in 1926 which promoted Christian morality democracy and social justice 277 In the 1980s Corneliu Coposu would affiliate the party with the CDI and on the fall of Communism would re enroll the party as the Christian Democratic National Peasants Party in 1990 This new party advocated market economies with social protection subsidiarity and citizens liberties Corneliu Coposu hoped Romania would become the Capital of Orthodox Christian Democracy 278 Russia edit Russian Christian democracy was beset by personality clashes between leaders and Russian Christian democracy was bifurcated into two ideological camps 279 The first wanted to import a carbon copy of Western Christian democracy into the Russian political scene such as the RCDU CDUR and RCPD 280 The Christians that make up these groups are not from Orthodoxy themselves they are newly Orthodox Christians or Protestants 281 The largest party of the other group was the Russian Christian Democratic Movement which attempted to unify democracy with orthodoxy on the basis of statism and patriotism 73 74 282 In practice they acted as democrats or patriots depending on circumstances 283 It would gradually move to the right adopt and ally with orthodox monarchists and national republicans 284 The party would eventually leave the democratic group 285 Post Iron Curtain edit After the end of the socialist experience in Central and Eastern Europe and especially with European integration many parties from former socialist countries become members of the Christian democratic umbrella organization the European People s Party EPP Examples include the KDU CSL in the Czech Republic the Croatian Democratic Union in Croatia the Civic Platform in Poland etc Hungary s Fidesz was part of the EPP from 2004 to 2021 its leader Viktor Orban claimed Hungary to be a Christian democracy 286 Many of those parties pushed for a re traditionalization of society pro family policies a Bismarckian welfare state and identity politics based on Christianity while maintaining a pro European integration attitude 287 The ideals of Christian democracy also inspire other Euroskeptic parties and they are grouped under the umbrella of the European Conservatives and Reformists Party an example is Law and Justice in Poland Greece edit In Greece New Democracy is deemed to be a Christian democratic party though it often moves back and forth from Christian democracy to liberal conservatism intermittently 288 Britain edit Christian democracy in the UK was sporadic and un unified One group was the Catholic Social Guild established in 1909 to propagate a Catholic alternative to socialism They encouraged Catholics to work within the Labour Party and push policies for families a living wage social partnership in industry and property diffusion 289 Another group was the People and Freedom Group established during Sturzo s exile in the UK 214 They were a largely middle class organization set up in response to pain felt by Catholics during the Spanish Civil War They published their manifesto For Democracy in 1939 290 The Catholic Worker was another Christian democratic group at the time 290 In general British Christian democrats especially those in the People and Freedom Group attempted to push the Labour Party towards Christian democracy and they made a significant attempt to portray Christian democracy as left wing 291 Ultimately the People and Freedom Group failed to do so and became disillusioned with the Labour Party 292 On the other hand the Catholic Worker aimed to make Labour policies acceptable to Catholics 293 More recently Christian Peoples Alliance is a Christian democratic party that emphasizes the country s Christian heritage and advocates for the principles of active compassion respect for life social justice wise stewardship empowerment and reconciliation 294 Australia edit Christian democratic parties in Australia include the Democratic Labor Party and arguably the disbanded Christian Democratic Party The Democratic Labor Party was formed in 1955 as a split from the Australian Labor Party ALP In Victoria and New South Wales state executive members parliamentarians and branch members associated with the Industrial Groups or B A Santamaria and The Movement and therefore strongly identified with Roman Catholicism were expelled from the party They formed the Democratic Labor Party DLP Later in 1957 a similar split occurred in Queensland with the resulting group joining the DLP The party also had sitting members from Tasmania and New South Wales at various times though it was much stronger in the states mentioned above The Democratic Labor Party DLP did not claim to be a Christian democratic party but it has been considered such by historian Michael Fogarty 295 The party s goals were anti communism the decentralization of industry population administration and ownership 296 In its view that the ALP was filled with communists the party decided it would prefer the ruling conservative Liberal and Country parties over the ALP 297 However it was more morally conservative militantly anti communist and socially compassionate than the Liberals The DLP heavily lost ground in the federal election of 1974 which saw its primary vote cut by nearly two thirds and the election of an ALP government The DLP never regained its previous support in subsequent elections and formally disbanded in 1978 but a small group within the party refused to accept this decision and created a small reformed successor party now the Democratic Labour Party In 2006 the new DLP experienced a resurgence The successor party struggled through decades of Victorian elections before finally gaining a parliamentary seat when the Victorian upper house was redesigned Nevertheless its electoral support is still minimal in Victoria around 2 It has recently reformed state parties in Queensland and New South Wales In the 2010 Australian federal election the DLP won the sixth senate seat in Victoria giving it representation in the Australian Senate 298 The former Christian Democratic Party initially known as the Call to Australia Fred Nile Group 299 was a strongly religious conservative party in Australia 300 It is a Christian right party akin to the Canadian Christian Heritage Party and New Zealand Christian Heritage Party 301 302 In 2011 the Victorian and Western Australian branches of the Christian Democratic Party CDP voted to form a new party Australian Christians 303 while the former Christian Democratic Party was wound up due to governance issues in 2022 and its leader Fred Nile moved onto a new party Christ in Government Fred Nile Alliance 304 North America edit Historically there has been no Christian democratic movement in the United States This is potentially a result of the two party system in the US and the constitutional separation of church and state 305 However for European Christian democrats the United States has been a source of inspiration for how Christianity and democracy can work together 306 Indeed for Jacques Maritain America was the realization of the Christian democratic ideal 307 Thus Invernizzi Accetti states from the point of view of Christian Democrats themselves the United States didn t need a Christian Democratic party or movement because it already was a Christian Democracy 308 However there have been some Christian democratic Groups in the US Inspired by the People and Freedom Group in the UK US Catholics set up similar groups in American cities 309 The American Solidarity Party is a minor third party in the United States that identifies as a Christian democratic party 310 The Center for Public Justice is a Christian democratic public policy organization that desires to bring the principles of a Christian worldview to bear on the political realm 311 See also edit nbsp Christianity portal nbsp Conservatism portal nbsp Politics portal nbsp Religion portal nbsp Economics portal List of Christian democratic parties around the world International Christian democratic organizations edit Centrist Democrat International CDI formerly Christian Democratic International Christian Democratic Organization of America ODCA a CDI regional organization for the Americas European Christian Political Movement ECPM a European party non CDI European Democratic Party EDP a European party non CDI European People s Party EPP the largest transnational European party of Christian democratic and conservative parties a CDI and IDU regional Related concepts edit Catholic social teaching Centrism Christian corporatism Christian left Christian libertarianism Christian nationalism Christian reconstructionism Christian republic Christian right Christian socialism Christian state Christian values Christianity and politics Communitarianism Compassionate conservatism Corporatism Cultural conservatism Distributism Dominion Theology Georgism Islamic democracy Liberation theology Moderation theory Neo Calvinism One nation conservatism Ordoliberalism Paleolibertarianism Political Catholicism Radical centrism Social conservatism Social credit Social democracy Social market economy Theodemocracy Third WayReferences editNotes edit Pentecostals have also secured parliamentary representation in countries such as Australia Colombia Nicaragua and Peru and have helped form Christian political parties that have won parliamentary seats A noteworthy case is Sweden s Christian Democrats party not only because it is in a continent where Pentecostals have struggled to make political headway but also because its Pentecostal founder Lewi Pethrus who challenged secularization by creating institutions to foster a Christian counterculture was active at a time when Pentecostals in Sweden or the United States shunned politics 10 Concurrent with this missionary movement in Africa both Protestant and Catholic political activists helped to restore democracy to war torn Europe and extend it overseas Protestant political activism emerged principally in England the Lowlands and Scandinavia under the inspiration of both social gospel movements and neo Calvinism Catholic political activism emerged principally in Italy France and Spain under the inspiration of both Rerum Novarum and its early progeny and of neo Thomism Both formed political parties which now fall under the general aegis of the Christian Democratic Party movement Both Protestant and Catholic parties inveighed against the reductionist extremes and social failures of liberal democracies and social democracies 5 Conservatives including the Christian democrats favor an abstinence strategy that aims at a controlled use of legal drugs such as alcohol nicotine and medical drugs on the one hand and prohibiting the use of illegal drugs whether soft or hard on the other 33 34 The main ideological and integrative theme present from the start concerned an emphasis on general Christian values both as a moral rejection of the atheist immoral and materialist Nazism and as a manner of distinction vis a vis social democracy The thrust of the Christian democratic argument was that politics had to be founded in Christianity and that a moral recovery was a prerequisite for social and economic recuperation It was imperative to concede the importance of Christian ethics after an epoch of such inhuman and atheist cruelty Heidenheimer 1960 33 4 Mintzel 1982 133 35 European Christian democracy after the Second World War really represented a common political front against the People s Democracies that is Christian democracy was a kind of ecumenical unity achieved on the religious level against the atheism of the government in the Communist countries 37 The Christian democrats promoted a corporatist welfare state based on the principles of the so called sphere sovereignty and subsidiarity in social policy 128 Sturzo outlined his conception of popularism as follows Popularism is democratic but it differs from liberal democracy in that it denies the individualist and centralising system of the State and wishes the State to be organic and decentralised It is liberal in the wholesome sense of the word because it takes its stand on the civil and political liberties which it upholds as equal for all without party monopolies and without persecution of religion races or classes It is social in the sense of a radical reform of the present capitalist system but it parts company with Socialism because it admits of private property while insisting on the social function of such property It proclaims its Christian character because to day there can be no ethics or civilisation other than Christian Popularism was the antithesis of the totalitarian State 131 Citations edit Caciagli Robeck amp Yong 2008 p 165 169 Invernizzi Accetti 2019 p 19 24 Heywood 2012 p 83 Galetti 2011 p 28 3 4 a b c d e Witte 1993 p 9 a b Caciagli Robeck amp Yong 2008 p 165 a b Invernizzi Accetti 2019 p 19 a b Nijhoff 2011 p 18 22 Freeden 2004 p 13 a b c Robeck amp Yong 2014 p 178 Freeden 2004 p 82 Fogarty 1957 p 3 Invernizzi Accetti 2019 p 139 140 Witte 1993 p 49 Fogarty 1957 p 149 166 a b c Kalyvas amp van Kersbergen 2010 p 185 Christian Democracy and the Fall of Communism Leuven University Press 2019 ISBN 978 94 6270 216 5 Karatnycky Adrian 1998 Christian Democracy Resurgent Raising the Banner of Faith in Eastern Europe Foreign Affairs 77 1 13 18 doi 10 2307 20048358 ISSN 0015 7120 Munro Andre Christian democracy Encyclopaedia Britannica Retrieved 5 November 2022 For this reason Christian democracy does not fit squarely in the ideological categories of left and right Kte pi 2009 p 131 The basic tenets of Christian democracy call for applying Christian principles to public policy Christian democratic parties tend to be socially conservative but otherwise left of centre with respect to economic and labour issues civil rights and foreign policy Geest Fred Van 4 July 2017 Introduction to Political Science A Christian Perspective InterVarsity Press ISBN 978 0 8308 9086 6 In fact there are scores of Christian Democratic parties throughout Europe and the world In the European Parliament they aer the dominant group joining together in a pan European party called the European People s Party as well as in another party called the European Christian Political Movement many Christian Democratic parties would be considered on the center right of the ideological spectrum What is distinctive about many of these parties is their explicit Christian identity a b c d Vervliet 2009 pp 48 51 Grabow 2011 p 24 25 Van Hecke amp Gerard 2004 Papini Roberto 1997 The Christian Democrat International Rowman amp Littlefield p 276 ISBN 978 0 8476 8300 0 Muller 2014 a b Invernizzi Accetti 2019 p 291 292 Szulc 1965 p 102 Roberts amp Hogwood 1997 Comelli 2021 Engeli amp Varone 2012 p 109 Cimmino 2017 Kerbo amp Strasser 2000 p 101 Coleman Kerbo amp Ramos 2001 p 413 van Kersbergen 2003 p 63 Heffernan Schindler 2008 p 144 a b Dussel 1981 p 217 Poppa 2010 p 12 a b Monsma 2012 p 133 Lamberts 1997 p 401 Matlary Veiden amp Hansen 2011 a b Fogarty 1957 p 66 a b Invernizzi Accetti 2019 p 163 165 Rosa Michelle La 16 July 2021 The American Solidarity Party is growing Can it succeed www pillarcatholic com Retrieved 14 December 2021 Solidarity In America The American Conservative 16 October 2020 Retrieved 21 December 2021 Patrick Harris The state of American solidarity SDP Talks Social Democratic Party Retrieved 14 November 2021 via YouTube Esping Andersen 1990 p 59 61 Almeida 2012 pp 117 a b Invernizzi Accetti 2019 p 23 Kselman amp Buttigieg 2003 p 4 Kselman amp Buttigieg 2003 p 69 Pombeni 2000 a b Fogarty 1957 p 427 Fogarty 1957 p 172 Kselman amp Buttigieg 2003 p 6 7 Bradley amp Brugger 2019 p 13 Bradley amp Brugger 2019 p 13 14 Bradley amp Brugger 2019 p 14 Bradley amp Brugger 2019 p 47 Bradley amp Brugger 2019 p 15 Bradley amp Brugger 2019 p 26 33 Heynickx 2018 p 40 Heynickx 2018 p 41 Heynickx 2018 p 27 Gehler amp Kaiser 2004a p 88 a b c Geest 2007 p 50 Geest 2007 p 51 Geest 2007 p 52 Shchipkov 1994a p 306 Shchipkov 1994a p 307 a b c d e Almond 1948 p 753 754 Invernizzi Accetti 2019 p 53 79 a b Fogarty 1957 p 27 40 a b Kalyvas amp van Kersbergen 2010 p 196 Kalyvas amp van Kersbergen 2010 p 196 200 Invernizzi Accetti 2019 p 139 168 Fogarty 1957 p 59 82 Invernizzi Accetti 2019 p 80 110 Witte 1993 p 55 56 Kalyvas amp van Kersbergen 2010 p 186 191 Fogarty 1957 p 48 58 Fogarty 1957 p 41 47 Invernizzi Accetti 2019 p 111 138 a b c Kalyvas amp van Kersbergen 2010 p 187 Evans amp Zimmermann 2014 p 57 58 a b c Nijhoff 2011 p 21 Fogarty 1995 p 145 a b c d Invernizzi Accetti 2019 p 243 244 a b c Hanley 1994 p 23 Invernizzi Accetti 2019 p 59 Fogarty 1957 p 28 29 Invernizzi Accetti 2019 p 68 Invernizzi Accetti 2019 p 69 Invernizzi Accetti 2019 p 69 70 Invernizzi Accetti 2019 p 70 Invernizzi Accetti 2019 p 70 1 Invernizzi Accetti 2019 p 72 79 Invernizzi Accetti 2019 p 150 Invernizzi Accetti 2019 p 149 153 155 a b c Adams 2001 p 60 Pollard 2017 p 42 a b c Pollard 2017 p 43 Swan 2013 p 154 155 McGaughey 2015 p 13 Employers and Workers Organisations 1948 p 97 a b Swan 2013 p 160 161 a b Kuyper 2021 p 299 300 Pollard 2017 p 44 45 a b Ederer 1991 p 596 610 a b Krason 2009 p 281 Chmielewski 1997 p 487 508 Invernizzi Accetti 2019 p 151 a b Bradley amp Brugger 2019 p 106 107 Pollard 2017 p 46 Pollard 2017 p 46 50 Pollard 2017 p 54 Turner 2008 pp 83 84 Turner 2008 p 84 Marinescu Bodislav amp Belingher 2013 p 519 Sorin Muresan 2014 p 93 94 Marinescu Bodislav amp Belingher 2013 p 519 521 Sorin Muresan 2014 p 113 Sorin Muresan 2014 p 115 Sorin Muresan 2014 p 69 Sorin Muresan 2014 p 127 128 Invernizzi Accetti 2019 p 233 237 Hanley 1994 p 6 67 95 Bak et al 1996 p 56 Mainwaring 2003 p 181 Witte Craeybeckx amp Meynen 2009 p 119 Sturzo 1939 p 479 Witte 1993 p 56 57 Witte 1993 p 56 Witte 1993 p 57 Invernizzi Accetti 2019 p 89 91 Barclay Carter 1943 p 460 Invernizzi Accetti 2019 p 103 104 Hanley 1994 p 38 Hanley 1994 p 34 Invernizzi Accetti 2019 p 94 97 99 Invernizzi Accetti 2019 p 119 120 Invernizzi Accetti 2019 p 123 Invernizzi Accetti 2019 p 132 a b Dwyer amp Montgomery 1994 p 920 Gootjes 2013 p 710 a b Adams 2001 p 59 a b Almond 1948 p 738 Maier 1969 p 290 291 Maier 1969 p 291 Maier 1969 p 182 Maier 1969 p 193 Almond 1948 p 739 Moody 1953 p 129 Sturzo 1947 p 3 a b Caciagli Robeck amp Yong 2008 p 166 167 Bradley amp Brugger 2019 p 44 Kalyvas 1996 p 171 Kalyvas 1996 p 259 Kalyvas 1996 p 66 259 Fogarty 1957 p 175 176 Kalyvas 1996 p 242 256 261 Kalyvas 1996 p 236 263 Invernizzi Accetti 2019 p 102 104 a b Kalyvas 1996 p 193 194 Fogarty 1957 p 160 172 Bowlin 2014 p 60 Bowlin 2014 p 172 181 Gordon 1998 p 426 427 Fogarty 1957 p 166 183 184 Caciagli Robeck amp Yong 2008 p 168 169 Irving 1973 p 10 a b Gehler amp Kaiser 2004a p 20 21 83 Almond 1948 p 741 2 Maier 1969 p 265 a b Maier 1969 p 196 Fogarty 1957 p 301 2 Gehler amp Kaiser 2004a p 201 214 Kalyvas 1996 Einaudi 1969 Fogarty 1957 p 322 323 333 Sturzo 1926 p 91 91 Irving 1973 p 46 Sturzo 1926 p 91 94 a b Patch 2018 p 15 Buchanan amp Conway 1996 p 192 195 Gehler amp Kaiser 2004a p 42 Gehler amp Kaiser 2004a p 53 54 Gehler amp Kaiser 2004a p 61 Buchanan amp Conway 1996 p 285 Buchanan amp Conway 1996 p 299 Fogarty 1957 p 183 Hanley 1994 p 148 149 Doring Huber amp Manow 2022 a b Kalyvas 1996 p 235 Patch 2018 p 11 15 Fogarty 1957 p 4 Fogarty 1957 p 211 231 a b Buchanan amp Conway 1996 p 78 83 84 Buchanan amp Conway 1996 p 86 Bradley amp Brugger 2019 p 91 92 Bradley amp Brugger 2019 p 92 Bradley amp Brugger 2019 p 102 106 Moody 1953 p 60 Moody 1953 p 56 Gehler amp Kaiser 2004a p 127 Gehler amp Kaiser 2004a p 71 Gehler amp Kaiser 2004a p 90 Gehler amp Kaiser 2004a p 44 45 59 60 149 Gehler amp Kaiser 2004a p 44 45 149 Buchanan amp Conway 1996 p 283 285 292 Gehler amp Kaiser 2004a p 118 Kalyvas 1996 p 186 Gehler amp Kaiser 2004a p 117 a b Felice 2001 p 235 Gehler amp Kaiser 2004a p 118 119 Patch 2018 p 41 Cary 1996 p 138 139 Patch 2018 p 32 34 42 Gehler amp Kaiser 2004a p 152 Buchanan amp Conway 1996 p 57 58 Buchanan amp Conway 1996 p 58 59 Buchanan amp Conway 1996 p 177 178 Buchanan amp Conway 1996 p 85 86 a b Kselman amp Buttigieg 2003 p 121 122 Layton Henry 1982 p 131 133 Kselman amp Buttigieg 2003 p 122 123 Kselman amp Buttigieg 2003 p 122 Hanley 1994 p 53 Hanley 1994 p 56 57 Hanley 1994 p 130 131 Van Hecke amp Gerard 2004 p 197 202 Van Hecke amp Gerard 2004 p 244 246 Krarup 2019a p 315 Krarup 2019b p 331 Krarup 2019a p 306 Grzonka 2018 p 371 373 Krarup 2019a p 310 Krarup 2019b p 333 Invernizzi Accetti 2019 p 153 155 Hanley 1994 p 125 Hanley 1994 p 125 126 Hanley 1994 p 126 a b Invernizzi Accetti 2019 p 250 Invernizzi Accetti 2019 p 251 252 Kaiser 2007 p 10 Invernizzi Accetti 2019 p 249 Kaiser 2007 p 191 251 Kaiser 2007 p 314 Hanley 1994 p 187 Bale amp Krouwel 2013 p 17 Bale amp Krouwel 2013 p 19 a b c Bale amp Krouwel 2013 p 20 Schiffino Ramjoue amp Varone 2009 p 577 578 Van Hecke amp Gerard 2004 p 307 Minnema 2011 p 82 83 ECPM 2003 Hale 2005 Invernizzi Accetti 2019 p 319 328 9 Kandur 2016 Invernizzi Accetti 2019 p 319 Invernizzi Accetti 2019 p 282 Invernizzi Accetti 2019 p 282 283 a b Invernizzi Accetti 2019 p 290 291 Invernizzi Accetti 2019 p 292 293 294 Invernizzi Accetti 2019 p 302 303 Invernizzi Accetti 2019 p 299 Invernizzi Accetti 2019 p 303 기자 김윤나영 17 August 2022 민주당 강령 포용적 복지국가 보편적 복지국가 로 수정 경향신문 in Korean Retrieved 24 April 2024 기사 인쇄 차별금지법 내가 가장 센 반대론자 결정은 우리 민주당이 하는 것 정치권과 개신교의 반동성애 결탁 www khan co kr Retrieved 24 April 2024 이재명 대표 21대 국회서 차별금지법 통과 않겠다 아이굿뉴스 in Korean 1 June 2023 Retrieved 24 April 2024 지방선거 앞둔 주요 정당들 동성애 동성혼 반대 뉴스앤조이 in Korean 31 May 2018 Retrieved 24 April 2024 이재명 후보 생명존중의날 제정 등 기독교계 8대 공약 내놓아 n news naver com in Korean Retrieved 24 April 2024 Gehler amp Kaiser 2004a p 123 124 Gehler amp Kaiser 2004a p 127 129 Gehler amp Kaiser 2004a p 125 Gehler amp Kaiser 2004a p 125 6 Adina Elena 2012 p 53 54 Adina Elena 2012 p 54 Shchipkov 1994b p 70 73 76 Shchipkov 1994b p 70 Shchipkov 1994b p 70 71 Shchipkov 1994b p 73 74 Shchipkov 1994b p 74 Shchipkov 1994b p 76 Sakwa 1994 p 279 Gallaher Carolyn Martin Garret Viktor Orban s Use and Misuse of Religion Serves as a Warning to Western Democracies School of International Service American University American university Retrieved 24 May 2022 Comelli Martino 10 May 2022 Christian democracy is to blame for Europe s democratic backsliding ECPR s Political Science Blog European Consortium for Political Research Retrieved 24 May 2022 Alexakis 2020 p 267 Hanley 1994 p 169 170 a b Hanley 1994 p 171 Hanley 1994 p 174 178 Hanley 1994 p 177 Hanley 1994 p 179 180 Bruce Steve 27 August 2020 British Gods Religion in Modern Britain Oxford University Press p 240 ISBN 978 0 19 885411 1 Fogarty 1957 p XXV Mackerras N R M 1958 Why the DLP exists Australian Institute of Policy and Science 30 34 4 30 34 JSTOR 20694698 via JSTOR Parliament of Australia 2022 The Democratic Labor Party an overview www aph gov au Retrieved 14 September 2022 It s official DLP wins Vic Senate seat Australian Conservative Archived from the original on 14 December 2010 Retrieved 23 March 2012 Australian Electoral Commission 2011 Call to Australia Fred Nile Group Australian Electoral Commission Retrieved 7 February 2023 Christian Democratic Party Christian Democratic Party Retrieved 20 October 2017 Robinson Geoffrey 12 April 2018 Why the Australian Christian right has weak political appeal The Conversation Retrieved 14 September 2022 Freston 2016 p 62 Lauder Simon 16 July 2012 Church leaders upset over Australian Christians name ABC News Eternity News 29 March 2022 Fred Nile says the Christian Democratic Party is officially dead Eternity News Retrieved 7 February 2023 Invernizzi Accetti 2019 p 312 Invernizzi Accetti 2019 p 313 Invernizzi Accetti 2019 p 315 Invernizzi Accetti 2019 p 316 Gehler amp Kaiser 2004a p 223 Longenecker 2016 In 2011 the Christian Democratic Party USA was formed and after the 2012 election it was re named as the American Solidarity Party Small political parties in the United States do not have a great track record but given the choices available to Christians the American Solidarity Party may 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Kalyvas Stathis N van Kersbergen Kees 2010 Christian Democracy Annual Review of Political Science 13 183 209 doi 10 1146 annurev polisci 11 021406 172506 Kandur Jane Louise 2016 Christian Democrats and Muslim Democrats Daily Sabah Retrieved 24 September 2022 Kerbo Harold R Strasser Hermann 2000 Modern Germany McGraw Hill ISBN 978 0 07 292819 8 Krarup Troels 2019a Ordo versus Ordnung Catholic or Lutheran roots of German ordoliberal economic theory PDF International Review of Economics 66 3 305 323 doi 10 1007 s12232 019 00323 y S2CID 159196045 Krarup Troels 2019b German political and economic ideology in the twentieth century and its theological problems The Lutheran genealogy of ordoliberalism European Journal of Cultural and Political Sociology 6 3 317 342 doi 10 1080 23254823 2018 1559745 S2CID 159307359 Krason Stephen M 2009 Principles of Heinrich Pesch s Solidarism The Catholic Social Science Review 14 477 483 doi 10 5840 cssr20091435 Kselman Thomas Buttigieg Thomas eds 2003 European Christian democracy historical legacies and comparative perspectives Notre Dame University of Notre Dame Press Kte pi Bill 2009 Belgium In Wankel Charles ed Encyclopedia of Business in Today s World A C Sage ISBN 978 1 4129 6427 2 Lamberts Emiel 1997 Christian Democracy in the European Union 1945 1995 Proceedings of the Leuven Colloquium 15 18 November 1995 Leuven University Press ISBN 9789061868088 Layton Henry Zig ed 1982 Conservative Politics in Western Europe New York St Martin s Press ISBN 9780312164188 Longenecker Dwight 12 May 2016 Is It Time for a US Christian Democracy Party Aleteia Retrieved 5 July 2016 Maier Hans 1969 Revolution and church the early history of Christian democracy 1789 1901 Notre Dame University of Notre Dame Press Mainwaring Scott 2003 Christian Democracy in Latin America Electoral Competition and Regime Conflicts Stanford University Press ISBN 978 0 8047 4598 7 Marinescu Cristian Bodislav Dumitru Alexandru Belingher Daniel 2013 THE SOCIAL MARKET ECONOMY THE ORDOLIBERAL DOCTRINE SITUATED BETWEEN CLASSIC LIBERALISM AND SOCIAL ECONOMY Calitatea 14 519 522 Matlary Janne Haaland Veiden Pal Hansen David 2011 Tre essays om Kristendemokrati Three essays about Christian democracy PDF archived from the original PDF on 11 March 2021 retrieved 23 February 2017 McGaughey Ewan 2015 The Codetermination Bargains The History of German Corporate and Labour Law LSE Law Society and Economy Working Papers 10 Minnema Alike 2011 European Christian Political Movement For Christian Politics in Europe Sfera Politicii 19 3 82 83 95 Monsma Stephen V 2012 Pluralism and Freedom Faith based Organizations in a Democratic Society Rowman amp Littlefield ISBN 978 1 4422 1430 9 Moody Joseph N 1953 Church and society Catholic social and political thought and movements 1789 1950 New York Arts Inc Muller Jan Werner 15 July 2014 The End of Christian Democracy Foreign Affairs Sorin Muresan Stefan 2014 Social Market Economy The Case of Germany Springer International Publishing AG Nijhoff Rob A 2011 Christian Democracy in neo Calvinist perspective Sfera Politicii 3 157 18 22 Pombeni Paolo 2000 The ideology of Christian Democracy Journal of Political Ideologies 5 3 289 300 doi 10 1080 713682945 ISSN 1356 9317 S2CID 144188750 Patch William L 2018 Christian Democratic Workers and the Forging of German Democracy 1920 1980 Cambridge University Press ISBN 9781108539753 Poppa Terrence E 2010 Drug Lord A True Story The Life and Death of a Mexican Kingpin Cinco Puntos Press ISBN 978 1 935955 00 9 Pollard John 2017 Corporatism and Fascism Routledge Robeck Cecil M Yong Amos 2014 The Cambridge Companion to Pentecostalism Vol Cambridge Companions to Religion Cambridge University Press ISBN 978 1 3160 6064 3 Roberts Geoffrey K Hogwood Patricia 1997 European Politics Today Manchester University Press ISBN 978 0 7190 4363 5 Sakwa Richard 1994 Christian Democracy and Civil Society in Russia PDF Religion State and Society 22 3 273 303 doi 10 1080 09637499408431649 Schiffino Nathalie Ramjoue Celina Varone Frederic 2009 Biomedical Policies in Belgium and Italy From Regulatory Reluctance to Policy Changes West European Politics 32 3 559 585 doi 10 1080 01402380902779097 S2CID 144580727 Heffernan Schindler Jeanne 2008 Christianity and Civil Society Catholic and Neo Calvinist Perspectives Lexington Books ISBN 978 0 7391 0884 0 Shchipkov Aleksandr 1994a Some Observations on Orthodoxy and Christian Democracy PDF Religion State and Society 22 3 305 208 doi 10 1080 09637499408431650 Shchipkov Aleksandr 1994b The Evolution of our Christian Democracy Russian Studies in Philosophy 33 1 67 77 doi 10 2753 RSP1061 1967330167 Sturzo Luigi 1939 Church and State New York Longmans Green and Co Sturzo Luigi 1947 The Philosophic Background of Christian Democracy The Review of Politics 9 1 3 15 doi 10 1017 S0034670500037918 ISSN 0034 6705 S2CID 145618036 Sturzo Luigi 1926 Italy and Fascismo Translated by Carter Barbara Raber and Gwyer Limited Swan Donald A 2013 The Ideological Background to the German Corporate Tradition The Journal of Social Political and Economic Studies 38 2 148 173 Szulc Tad 1965 Communists Socialists and Christian Democrats The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 360 1 99 109 doi 10 1177 000271626536000109 ISSN 0002 7162 S2CID 145198515 Turner Rachel S 2008 Neo Liberal Ideology History Concepts and Policies Edinburgh University Press ISBN 978 0 748 68868 5 Van Hecke Steven Gerard Emmanuel 2004 Christian Democratic Parties in Europe Since the End of the Cold War Leuven University Press ISBN 978 90 5867 377 0 van Kersbergen Kees 2003 Social Capitalism A Study of Christian Democracy and the Welfare State Routledge ISBN 978 1 134 81834 1 Vervliet Chris 2009 Human Person Adonis amp Abbey ISBN 978 1 912234 19 6 Wankel Charles 2009 Encyclopedia of Business in Today s World SAGE Publications p 131 ISBN 978 1 4129 6427 2 Witte Els Craeybeckx Jan Meynen Alain 2009 Political History of Belgium From 1830 Onwards Asp Vubpress Upa ISBN 978 90 5487 517 8 Witte John ed 1993 Christianity and Democracy in Global Context Westview Press ISBN 978 0 8133 1843 1 Further reading editGehler Michael Kaiser Wolfram 2004a Political Catholicism in Europe 1918 1945 Routledge ISBN 0 7146 5650 X Gehler Michael Kaiser Wolfram 2004b Christian Democracy in Europe since 1945 Routledge ISBN 0 7146 5662 3 Gehler Michael Kaiser Wolfram Wohnout Helmut eds 2001 Christdemokratie in Europa im 20 Jahrhundert Christian Democracy in 20th Century Europe Bohlau Verlag ISBN 3 205 99360 8 Invernizzi Accetti Carlo 2019 What is Christian Democracy Politics Religion and Ideology New York Cambridge University Press Kaiser Wolfram 2007 Christian Democracy and the Origins of European Union Cambridge University Press ISBN 978 0 521 88310 8 Kaiser Wolfram Kosicki Piotr 2021 Political Exile in the Global Twentieth Century Catholic Christian Democrats in Europe and the Americas Belgium S l Leuven University Press p 21 ISBN 978 946 27030 70 External links edit nbsp Wikimedia Commons has media related to Christian Democracy Key texts edit Rerum Novarum On Capital And Labor 1891 Pope Leo XIII Christianity and the Class Struggle 1891 1950 Abraham Kuyper Calvinism six Stone lectures 1899 Abraham Kuyper Quadragesimo Anno On Reconstruction of the Social Order 1931 Pope Pius XI Reorganization of social economy Developed and explained 1937 Oswald von Nell Breuining A Personalist Manifesto 1938 Emmanuel Mounier True Humanism 1938 Jacques Maritain The Person and the Common Good 1948 Jacques Maritain Man and the State 1951 Jacques Maritain Laudato si 2015 Pope Francis Other resources edit New Advent Catholic Encyclopedia an article on Christian Democracy Christian Democracy in Western Europe 1820 1953 Archived 24 February 2012 at the Wayback Machine a book by Michael Fogarty For Democracy 1939 People and Freedom Group Denkschrift A Political Order for Communal Life 1943 Freiburg Circle Conservativism and Christian Democracy an essay by former 1992 2015 UK Conservative MP David Willetts Blue Labour Red Tory Christian Democracy an article by Nicholas Townsend April 2015 Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Christian democracy amp oldid 1220729280, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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