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Russo-Ukrainian War

March 06, 2023

This article is about the war ongoing since 2014. For the escalation since February 2022, see 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine. For other wars between the two nations, see List of wars between Russia and Ukraine.

Russo-Ukrainian War
Part of the post-Soviet conflicts
Clockwise from top left: Ukrainian tanks during the 2022 Kharkiv counteroffensive; Russian-installed officials in Moscow ratifying the annexation of four Ukrainian regions; Sloviansk city council during the War in Donbas; Russian bombing during the Siege of Mariupol; Russian soldiers during the annexation of Crimea; Fires during the 2014 Revolution of Dignity
Date20 February 2014[b] – present
(9 years, 2 weeks and 1 day)
Location
Ukraine, also Russia (spillover into Poland, Moldova and Belarus)
Status Ongoing
Territorial
changes
Belligerents
 Ukraine
Supplied by:
For countries providing aid to Ukraine since 2022, see foreign aid to Ukraine
Supplied by:
For details, see Russian military suppliers
Commanders and leaders
Strength
For details of strengths and units involved at key points in the conflict, see:
Combatants of the war in Donbas (2014–2022)
Order of battle for the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine
Casualties and losses
Reports vary widely, but tens of thousands at a minimum. See Casualties of the Russo-Ukrainian War for details.

The Russo-Ukrainian War[c] is an ongoing international conflict between Russia, alongside Russian-backed separatists, and Ukraine, which began in February 2014.[d] Following Ukraine's Revolution of Dignity, Russia annexed Crimea from Ukraine and supported pro-Russian separatists fighting the Ukrainian military in the Donbas War. The first eight years of conflict also included naval incidents, cyberwarfare, and heightened political tensions. In February 2022, the conflict saw a major escalation as Russia launched a full-scale invasion of Ukraine.

In early 2014, the Euromaidan protests led to the Revolution of Dignity and the ousting of Ukraine's pro-Russian president Viktor Yanukovych. Shortly after, pro-Russian unrest erupted in eastern and southern Ukraine. Simultaneously, unmarked Russian troops moved into Ukraine's Crimea and took over government buildings, strategic sites and infrastructure. Russia soon annexed Crimea after a highly-disputed referendum. In April 2014, armed pro-Russian separatists seized government buildings in Ukraine's eastern Donbas region and proclaimed the Donetsk People's Republic (DPR) and Luhansk People's Republic (LPR) as independent states, sparking the Donbas War. The separatists received considerable but covert support from Russia, and Ukrainian attempts to fully retake separatist-held areas were unsuccessful. Although Russia denied involvement, Russian troops took part in the fighting. In February 2015, Russia and Ukraine signed the Minsk II agreements in a bid to end the conflict, but the agreements were never fully implemented in the years that followed. The Donbas War settled into a violent but static conflict between Ukraine and Russian proxies, with many brief ceasefires but no lasting peace and few changes in territorial control.

Beginning in 2021, Russia built up a large military presence near its border with Ukraine, including from within neighbouring Belarus. Russian officials repeatedly denied plans to attack Ukraine. Russian president Vladimir Putin criticized the enlargement of NATO and demanded that Ukraine be barred from ever joining the military alliance. He also expressed irredentist views and questioned Ukraine's right to exist. Russia recognized the DPR and LPR as independent states in February 2022, with Putin announcing a "special military operation" in Ukraine and subsequently invading the region. The invasion was internationally condemned; many countries imposed sanctions against Russia and ramped up existing sanctions. Russia abandoned an attempt to take Kyiv in early April 2022 amid fierce resistance. From August, Ukrainian forces began recapturing territories in the northeast and south as a result of successful counteroffensives. In late September, Russia declared the annexation of four partially-occupied regions in southern and eastern Ukraine, which was internationally unrecognized. The ongoing full-scale war has resulted in a major refugee crisis and tens of thousands of deaths.

Background

Main article: Russia–Ukraine relations
See also: Historical background of the 2014 pro-Russian unrest in Ukraine

Post-Soviet context and Orange Revolution

Further information: Orange Revolution

After the dissolution of the Soviet Union (USSR) in 1991, Ukraine and Russia maintained close ties. In 1994, Ukraine agreed to accede to the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons as a non-nuclear-weapon state.[2] Former Soviet nuclear weapons in Ukraine were removed and dismantled.[3] In return, Russia, the United Kingdom, and the United States agreed to uphold the territorial integrity and political independence of Ukraine through the Budapest Memorandum on Security Assurances.[4][5] In 1999, Russia was one of the signatories of the Charter for European Security, which "reaffirmed the inherent right of each and every participating State to be free to choose or change its security arrangements, including treaties of alliance, as they evolve."[6] In the years after the dissolution of the USSR, several former Eastern Bloc countries joined NATO, partly in response to regional security threats involving Russia such as the 1993 Russian constitutional crisis, the War in Abkhazia (1992–1993) and the First Chechen War (1994–1996). Russian leaders described this expansion as a violation of Western powers' informal assurances that NATO would not expand eastward.[7][8]

 
Protesters in Independence Square in Kyiv during the Orange Revolution, November 2004

The 2004 Ukrainian presidential election was controversial. During the election campaign, opposition candidate Viktor Yushchenko was poisoned by TCDD dioxin;[9][10] he later implicated Russian involvement.[11] In November, Prime Minister Viktor Yanukovych was declared the winner, despite allegations of vote-rigging by election observers.[12] During a two-month period which became known as the Orange Revolution, large peaceful protests successfully challenged the outcome. After the Supreme Court of Ukraine annulled the initial result due to widespread electoral fraud, a second round re-run was held, bringing to power Yushchenko as president and Yulia Tymoshenko as prime minister, and leaving Yanukovych in opposition.[13] The Orange Revolution is often grouped together with other early-21st century protest movements, particularly within the former USSR, known as colour revolutions. According to Anthony Cordesman, Russian military officers viewed such colour revolutions as an attempt by the US and European states to destabilise neighbouring countries and undermine Russia's national security.[14] Russian President Vladimir Putin accused organisers of the 2011–2013 Russian protests of being former advisors to Yushchenko, and described the protests as an attempt to transfer the Orange Revolution to Russia.[15] Rallies in favour of Putin during this period were called "anti-Orange protests".[16]

At the 2008 Bucharest summit, Ukraine and Georgia sought to join NATO. The response among NATO members was divided; Western European countries opposed offering Membership Action Plans (MAP) in order to avoid antagonising Russia, while US President George W. Bush pushed for their admission.[17] NATO ultimately refused to offer Ukraine and Georgia MAPs, but also issued a statement agreeing that "these countries will become members of NATO". Putin voiced strong opposition to Georgia and Ukraine's NATO membership bids.[18] By January 2022, the possibility of Ukraine joining NATO remained remote.[19]

Euromaidan, Revolution of Dignity, and pro-Russian unrest

Main articles: Euromaidan, Revolution of Dignity, and 2014 pro-Russian unrest in Ukraine

In 2009, Yanukovych announced his intent to again run for president in the 2010 Ukrainian presidential election,[20] which he subsequently won.[21] In November 2013, a wave of large, pro-European Union (EU) protests erupted in response to Yanukovych's sudden decision not to sign the EU–Ukraine Association Agreement, instead choosing closer ties to Russia and the Eurasian Economic Union. The Ukrainian parliament had overwhelmingly approved of finalizing the agreement with the EU,[22] and Russia had put pressure on Ukraine to reject it.[23]

Following months of protests as part of the Euromaidan movement, on 21 February 2014 Yanukovych and the leaders of the parliamentary opposition signed a settlement agreement that called for early elections. The following day, Yanukovych fled from the capital ahead of an impeachment vote that stripped him of his powers as president.[24][25][26][27] On 23 February, the parliament adopted a bill to repeal the 2012 law which gave Russian language an official status.[28] The bill was not enacted,[29] however, the proposal provoked negative reactions in the Russian-speaking regions of Ukraine,[30] intensified by Russian media saying that the ethnic Russian population was in imminent danger.[31]

On 27 February, an interim government was established and early presidential elections were scheduled. The following day, Yanukovych resurfaced in Russia and in a press conference declared that he remained the acting president of Ukraine, just as Russia was beginning its overt military campaign in Crimea. Leaders of Russian-speaking eastern regions of Ukraine declared continuing loyalty to Yanukovych,[25][32] causing the 2014 pro-Russian unrest in Ukraine.

Russian military bases in Crimea

Main article: Political status of Crimea

At the onset of the conflict, Russia had roughly 12,000 military personnel in the Black Sea Fleet,[31] in several locations in the Crimean peninsula like Sevastopol, Kacha, Hvardiiske, Simferopol Raion, Sarych, and others. In 2005 a dispute broke out over control of the Sarych cape lighthouse near Yalta, and a number of other beacons.[33][34] Russian presence was allowed by the basing and transit agreement with Ukraine. Under the agreements the Russian military in Crimea was constrained to a maximum of 25,000 troops; they were required to: respect the sovereignty of Ukraine, honor its legislation, not interfere in the internal affairs of the country, and show their "military identification cards" when crossing the international border.[35] Early in the conflict, the agreement's sizeable troop limit allowed Russia to significantly reinforce its military presence under the plausible guise of security concerns, deploy special forces and other required capabilities to conduct the operation in Crimea.[31]

According to the original treaty on the division of the Soviet Black Sea Fleet signed in 1997, Russia was allowed to have its military bases in Crimea until 2017, after which it would evacuate all military units including its portion of the Black Sea Fleet out of the Autonomous Republic of Crimea and Sevastopol. On 21 April 2010, former Ukrainian president Viktor Yanukovych signed a new deal known as the Kharkiv Pact, to resolve the 2009 Russia–Ukraine gas dispute; it extended the stay to 2042 with an option to renew.[36]

Declaration of military operations

Further information: On conducting a special military operation

No formal declaration of war has been issued in the ongoing Russo-Ukrainian War. When Putin announced the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, he claimed to commence a "special military operation", side-stepping a formal declaration of war.[37] The statement was, however, regarded as a declaration of war by the Ukrainian government[38] and reported as such by many international news sources.[39][40] While the Ukrainian parliament refers to Russia as a "terrorist state" in regard to its military actions in Ukraine,[41] it has not issued a formal declaration of war on its behalf.

History

Russian annexation of Crimea (2014)

For a chronological guide, see Timeline of the annexation of Crimea by the Russian Federation.
 
The blockade of military units of the Armed Forces of Ukraine during the capture of Crimea by Russia in February–March 2014
 
Russian troops blocking the Ukrainian military base in Perevalne

On 20 February 2014, Russia began an annexation of Crimea.[42][43][44][45] On 22 and 23 February, Russian troops and special forces began moving into Crimea through Novorossiysk.[44] On 27 February, Russian forces without insignias began their advance into the Crimean Peninsula.[46] They took strategic positions and captured the Crimean Parliament, raising a Russian flag. Security checkpoints isolated the Crimean Peninsula from the rest of Ukraine and restricted movement within the territory.[47][48][49][50]

In the following days, Russian soldiers secured key airports and a communications center.[51] Russian cyberattacks shut down websites associated with the Ukrainian government, news media, and social media. Cyberattacks also enabled Russian access to the mobile phones of Ukrainian officials and members of parliament, further disrupting communications.[52]

On 1 March, the Russian legislature approved the use of armed forces, leading to an influx of Russian troops and military hardware into the peninsula.[51] In the following days, all remaining Ukrainian military bases and installations were surrounded and besieged, including the Southern Naval Base. After Russia formally annexed the peninsula on 18 March, Ukrainian military bases and ships were stormed by Russian forces. On 24 March, Ukraine ordered troops to withdraw; by 30 March, all Ukrainian forces had left the peninsula.

On 15 April, the Ukrainian parliament declared Crimea a territory temporarily occupied by Russia.[53] After the annexation, the Russian government increased its military presence in the region and made nuclear threats.[54] Putin said that a Russian military task force would be established in Crimea.[55] In November, NATO stated that it believed Russia was deploying nuclear-capable weapons to Crimea.[56] Since the annexation of Crimea, certain NATO members have been providing training for the Ukrainian army.[57]

War in the Donbas (2014–2015)

For a chronological guide, see Timeline of the war in Donbas (2014).
See also: Combatants of the war in Donbas and List of equipment used by Russian separatist forces of the war in Donbas

Pro-Russia unrest

Main article: 2014 pro-Russian unrest in Ukraine

Beginning in late February 2014, demonstrations by pro-Russian and anti-government groups took place in major cities across the eastern and southern regions of Ukraine.[58] The first protests across southern and eastern Ukraine were largely native expressions of discontent with the new Ukrainian government.[58][59] Russian involvement at this stage was limited to voicing support for the demonstrations.[59][60] Russia exploited this, however, launching a coordinated political and military campaign against Ukraine.[59][61] Putin gave legitimacy to the separatists when he described the Donbas as part of "New Russia" (Novorossiya), and expressed bewilderment as to how the region had ever become part of Ukraine.[62]

In late March, Russia continued to gather forces near the Ukrainian eastern border, reaching 30–40,000 troops by April.[63][31] The deployment was used to threaten escalation and disrupt Ukraine's response.[31] This threat forced Ukraine to divert forces to its borders instead of the conflict zone.[31]

Ukrainian authorities cracked down on the pro-Russian protests and arrested local separatist leaders in early March. Those leaders were replaced by people with ties to the Russian security services and interests in Russian businesses.[64] By April 2014, Russian citizens had taken control of the separatist movement, supported by volunteers and materiel from Russia, including Chechen and Cossack fighters.[65][66][67][68] According to Donetsk People's Republic (DPR) commander Igor Girkin, without this support in April, the movement would have dissipated, as it had in Kharkiv and Odesa.[69] A disputed referendum on the status of Donetsk Oblast was held on 11 May.[70][71][72]

Armed conflict

 
The Russian military buildup along Ukraine's eastern border in February–March 2014
 
The Donbas status referendums in May 2014 were not officially recognised by the Ukrainian government or any UN member state.[70]

In April, armed conflict began in eastern Ukraine between Russian-backed separatist forces and Ukraine. The separatists declared the People's Republics of Donetsk and Luhansk. From 6 April, militants occupied government buildings in many cities and took control of border crossings to Russia, transport hubs, a broadcasting center, and other strategic infrastructure. Faced with continued expansion of separatist territorial control, on 15 April the interim Ukrainian government launched an "Anti-Terrorist Operation" (ATO), however, Ukrainian forces were poorly prepared and ill-positioned and the operation quickly stalled.[73]

By the end of April, Ukraine announced it had lost control of the provinces of Donetsk and Luhansk. It claimed to be on "full combat alert" against a possible Russian invasion and reinstated conscription to its armed forces.[74] Through May, the Ukrainian campaign focused on containing the separatists by securing key positions around the ATO zone to position the military for a decisive offensive once Ukraine's national mobilization had completed.

As conflict between the separatists and the Ukrainian government escalated in May, Russia began to employ a "hybrid approach", combining disinformation tactics, irregular fighters, regular Russian troops, and conventional military support.[75][76][77] The First Battle of Donetsk Airport followed the Ukrainian presidential elections. It marked a turning point in conflict; it was the first battle between the separatists and the Ukrainian government that involved large numbers of Russian "volunteers".[78][79]: 15  According to Ukraine, at the height of the conflict in the summer of 2014, Russian paramilitaries made up between 15% to 80% of the combatants.[67] From June Russia trickled in arms, armor, and munitions.

On 17 July 2014, Russian controlled forces shot down a passenger aircraft Malaysia Airlines Flight 17 as it was flying over eastern Ukraine.[80] Investigations and the recovery of bodies began in the conflict zone as fighting continued.[81][82][83]

By the end of July, Ukrainian forces were pushing into cities, to cut off supply routes between the two, isolating Donetsk and attempting to restore control of the Russo-Ukrainian border. By 28 July, the strategic heights of Savur-Mohyla were under Ukrainian control, along with the town of Debaltseve, an important railroad hub.[84] These operational successes of Ukrainian forces threatened the existence of the DPR and LPR statelets, prompting Russian cross-border shelling targeted against Ukrainian troops on their own soil, from mid-July onwards.[citation needed]

August 2014 Russian invasion

See also: Battle of Ilovaisk
 
June–August 2014 progression map

After a series of military defeats and setbacks for the separatists, who united under the banner of "Novorossiya",[85][86] Russia dispatched what it called a "humanitarian convoy" of trucks across the border in mid-August 2014. Ukraine called the move a "direct invasion".[87] Ukraine's National Security and Defence Council reported that convoys were arriving almost daily in November (up to 9 convoys on 30 November) and that their contents were mainly arms and ammunition. Strelkov claimed that in early August, Russian servicemen, supposedly on "vacation" from the army, began to arrive in Donbas.[88]

By August 2014, the Ukrainian "Anti-Terrorist Operation" shrank the territory under pro-Russian control, and approached the border.[89] Igor Girkin urged Russian military intervention, and said that the combat inexperience of his irregular forces, along with recruitment difficulties amongst the local population, had caused the setbacks. He stated, "Losing this war on the territory that President Vladimir Putin personally named New Russia would threaten the Kremlin's power and, personally, the power of the president".[90]

In response to the deteriorating situation, Russia abandoned its hybrid approach, and began a conventional invasion on 25 August 2014.[89][91] On the following day, the Russian Defence Ministry said these soldiers had crossed the border "by accident".[92][93][94] According to Nikolai Mitrokhin's estimates, by mid-August 2014 during the Battle of Ilovaisk, between 20,000 and 25,000 troops were fighting in the Donbas on the separatist side, and only 40-45% were "locals".[95]

On 24 August 2014, Amvrosiivka was occupied by Russian paratroopers,[96] supported by 250 armoured vehicles and artillery pieces.[97] The same day, Ukrainian President Petro Poroshenko referred to the operation as Ukraine's "Patriotic War of 2014" and a war against external aggression.[98][99] On 25 August, a column of Russian military vehicles was reported to have crossed into Ukraine near Novoazovsk on the Azov sea coast. It appeared headed towards Ukrainian-held Mariupol,[100][101][102][103][104] in an area that had not seen pro-Russian presence for weeks.[105] Russian forces captured Novoazovsk.[106] and Russian soldiers began deporting Ukrainians who did not have an address registered within the town.[107] Pro-Ukrainian anti-war protests took place in Mariupol.[107][108] The UN Security Council called an emergency meeting.[109]

 
Residents of Kyiv with Sich Battalion volunteers on 26 August 2014

The Pskov-based 76th Guards Air Assault Division allegedly entered Ukrainian territory in August and engaged in a skirmish near Luhansk, suffering 80 dead. The Ukrainian Defence Ministry said that they had seized two of the unit's armoured vehicles near Luhansk, and reported destroying another three tanks and two armoured vehicles in other regions.[110][111] The Russian government denied the skirmish took place,[111] but on 18 August, the 76th was awarded the Order of Suvorov, one of Russia's highest awards, by Russian minister of defence Sergey Shoigu for the "successful completion of military missions" and "courage and heroism".[111]

The speaker of Russia's upper house of parliament and Russian state television channels acknowledged that Russian soldiers entered Ukraine, but referred to them as "volunteers".[112] A reporter for Novaya Gazeta, an opposition newspaper in Russia, stated that the Russian military leadership paid soldiers to resign their commissions and fight in Ukraine in the early summer of 2014, and then began ordering soldiers into Ukraine.[113] Russian opposition MP Lev Shlosberg made similar statements, although he said combatants from his country are "regular Russian troops", disguised as units of the DPR and LPR.[114]

In early September 2014, Russian state-owned television channels reported on the funerals of Russian soldiers who had died in Ukraine, but described them as "volunteers" fighting for the "Russian world". Valentina Matviyenko, a top United Russia politician, also praised "volunteers" fighting in "our fraternal nation".[112] Russian state television for the first time showed the funeral of a soldier killed fighting in Ukraine.[115]

Mariupol offensive and first Minsk ceasefire

Main articles: Offensive on Mariupol (September 2014) and Minsk agreements
 
A map of the line of control and buffer zone established by the Minsk Protocol on 5 September 2014

On 3 September, Poroshenko said he and Putin had reached a "permanent ceasefire" agreement.[116] Russia denied this, denying that it was a party to the conflict, adding that "they only discussed how to settle the conflict".[117][118] Poroshenko then recanted.[119][120] On 5 September Russia's Permanent OSCE Representative Andrey Kelin, said that it was natural that pro-Russian separatists "are going to liberate" Mariupol. Ukrainian forces stated that Russian intelligence groups had been spotted in the area. Kelin said 'there might be volunteers over there.'[121] On 4 September 2014, a NATO officer said that several thousand regular Russian forces operating in Ukraine.[122]

On 5 September 2014, the Minsk Protocol ceasefire agreement drew a line of demarcation between Ukraine and separatist-controlled portions of Donetsk and Luhansk Oblasts.

End of 2014 and Minsk II agreements

See also: 2014 Russian cross-border shelling of Ukraine

On 7 and 12 November, NATO officials reconfirmed the Russian presence, citing 32 tanks, 16 howitzer cannons and 30 trucks of troops entering the country.[123] US general Philip M. Breedlove said "Russian tanks, Russian artillery, Russian air defence systems and Russian combat troops" had been sighted.[56][124] NATO said it had seen an increase in Russian tanks, artillery pieces and other heavy military equipment in Ukraine and renewed its call for Moscow to withdraw its forces.[125] The Chicago Council on Global Affairs stated that Russian separatists enjoyed technical advantages over the Ukrainian army since the large inflow of advanced military systems in mid-2014: effective anti-aircraft weapons ("Buk", MANPADS) suppressed Ukrainian air strikes, Russian drones provided intelligence, and Russian secure communications system disrupted Ukrainian communications intelligence. The Russian side employed electronic warfare systems that Ukraine lacked. Similar conclusions about the technical advantage of the Russian separatists were voiced by the Conflict Studies Research Centre.[126] In the 12 November United Nations Security Council meeting, the United Kingdom's representative accused Russia of intentionally constraining OSCE observation missions' capabilities, pointing out that the observers were allowed to monitor only two kilometers of border, and drones deployed to extend their capabilities were jammed or shot down.[127][non-primary source needed]

 
Pro-Russian rebels in Donetsk in May 2015. Ukraine declared the Russian-backed separatist republics from eastern Ukraine to be terrorist organizations.[128]

In January 2014, Donetsk, Luhansk, and Mariupol represented the three battle fronts.[129] Poroshenko described a dangerous escalation on 21 January amid reports of more than 2,000 additional Russian troops, 200 tanks and armed personnel carriers crossing the border. He abbreviated his visit to the World Economic Forum because of his concerns.[130]

A new package of measures to end the conflict, known as Minsk II, was agreed on 15 February 2015.[131] On 18 February, Ukrainian forces withdrew from Debatlseve, in the last high-intensity battle of the Donbas war until 2022. In September 2015 the United Nations Human Rights Office estimated that 8000 casualties had resulted from the conflict.[132]

A stable line of conflict (2015–2021)

Further information: Timeline of the war in Donbas (2015), Timeline of the war in Donbas (2016), and Timeline of the war in Donbas (2017)

After the Minsk agreements, the war settled into static trench warfare around the agreed line of contact, with few changes in territorial control. The conflict was marked by artillery duels, special forces operations, and trench warfare. Hostilities never ceased for a substantial period of time, but continued at a low level despite repeated attempts at ceasefire. In the months after the fall of Debaltseve, minor skirmishes continued along the line of contact, but no territorial changes occurred. Both sides began fortifying their position by building networks of trenches, bunkers and tunnels, turning the conflict into static trench warfare.[133][134] The relatively static conflict was labelled a "frozen" by some,[135] but Russia never achieved this as the fighting never stopped.[136][137] Between 2014 and 2022 there were 29 ceasefires, each agreed to remain in force indefinitely. However, none of them lasted more than two weeks.[138]

US and international officials continued to report the active presence of Russian military in eastern Ukraine, including in the Debaltseve area.[139] In 2015, Russian separatist forces were estimated to number around 36,000 troops (compared to 34,000 Ukrainian), of whom 8,500–10,000 were Russian soldiers. Additionally, around 1,000 GRU troops were operating in the area.[140] Another 2015 estimate held that Ukrainian forces outnumbered Russian forces 40,000 to 20,000.[141] In 2017, on average one Ukrainian soldier died in combat every three days,[142] with an estimated 6,000 Russian and 40,000 separatist troops in the region.[143][144]

 
Casualties of the war in Donbas

Cases of killed and wounded Russian soldiers were discussed in local Russian media.[145] Recruiting for Donbas was performed openly via veteran and paramilitary organisations. Vladimir Yefimov, leader of one such organisation, explained how the process worked in the Ural area. The organisation recruited mostly army veterans, but also policemen, firefighters etc. with military experience. The cost of equipping one volunteer was estimated at 350,000 rubles (around $6500) plus salary of 60,000 to 240,000 rubles per month.[146] The recruits received weapons only after arriving in the conflict zone. Often, Russian troops traveled disguised as Red Cross personnel.[147][148][149][150] Igor Trunov, head of the Russian Red Cross in Moscow, condemned these convoys, saying they complicated humanitarian aid delivery.[151] Russia refused to allow OSCE to expand its mission beyond two border crossings.[152]

The volunteers were issued a document claiming that their participation was limited to "offering humanitarian help" to avoid Russian mercenary laws. Russia's anti-mercenary legislation defined a mercenary as someone who "takes part [in fighting] with aims counter to the interests of the Russian Federation".[146]

In August 2016, the Ukrainian intelligence service, the SBU, published telephone intercepts from 2014 of Sergey Glazyev (Russian presidential adviser), Konstantin Zatulin, and other people in which they discussed covert funding of pro-Russian activists in Eastern Ukraine, the occupation of administration buildings and other actions that triggered the conflict.[153] As early as February 2014, Glazyev gave direct instructions to various pro-Russian parties on how to take over local administration offices, what to do afterwards, how to formulate demands, and promised support from Russia, including "sending our guys".[154][155][156]

 
Russian-backed separatists in May 2016

2018 Kerch Strait incident

Main article: Kerch Strait incident
See also: List of Black Sea incidents involving Russia and Ukraine and Timeline of the war in Donbas (2018)
 
The Kerch Strait incident over the passage between the Black and Azov seas

Russia gained de facto control of the Kerch Strait in 2014. In 2017, Ukraine appealed to a court of arbitration over the use of the strait. By 2018 Russia had built a bridge over the strait, limiting the size of ships that could pass through, imposed new regulations, and repeatedly detained Ukrainian vessels.[157] On 25 November 2018, three Ukrainian boats traveling from Odesa to Mariupol were seized by Russian warships; 24 Ukrainian sailors were detained.[158][159] A day later on 26 November 2018, the Ukrainian parliament overwhelmingly backed the imposition of martial law along Ukraine's coastal regions and those bordering Russia.[160]

2019–2020

Further information: Timeline of the war in Donbas (2019) and Timeline of the war in Donbas (2020)
 
From left, Russian President Vladimir Putin, French President Emmanuel Macron, German Chancellor Angela Merkel and Ukrainian President Volodymyr Zelenskyy in Paris, France, December 2019

More than 110 Ukrainian soldiers were killed in the conflict in 2019.[161] In May 2019, newly elected Ukrainian President Volodymyr Zelenskyy took office promising to end the war in Donbas.[161] In December 2019, Ukraine and pro-Russian separatists began swapping prisoners of war. Around 200 prisoners were exchanged on 29 December 2019.[162][163][164][165] According to Ukrainian authorities, 50 Ukrainian soldiers were killed in 2020.[166] Since 2019, Russia has issued over 650,000 internal Russian passports to Ukrainians.[167][168]

Russian military buildup around Ukraine (2021–2022)

Main article: Prelude to the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine
Further information: Timeline of the war in Donbas (2021) and Timeline of the war in Donbas (2022)

From March to April 2021, Russia commenced a major military build-up near the border, followed by a second build-up between October 2021 to February 2022 in Russia and Belarus.[169] Throughout, the Russian government repeatedly denied it had plans to attack Ukraine.[170][171]

In early December 2021, following Russian denials, the US released intelligence of Russian invasion plans, including satellite photographs showing Russian troops and equipment near the border.[172] The intelligence reported a Russian list of key sites and individuals to be killed or neutralized.[173] The US released multiple reports that accurately predicted the invasion plans.[173]

Russian accusations and demands

Further information: Disinformation in the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine and Russian irredentism
 
Ukrainian deputy prime minister Olha Stefanishyna with NATO secretary-general Jens Stoltenberg at a conference on 10 January 2022 regarding a potential Russian invasion

In the months preceding the invasion, Russian officials accused Ukraine of inciting tensions, Russophobia, and repressing Russian speakers. They made multiple security demands of Ukraine, NATO, and other EU countries. On 9 December 2021 Putin said that "Russophobia is a first step towards genocide".[174][175] Putin's claims were dismissed by the international community,[176] and Russian claims of genocide were rejected as baseless.[177][178][179]

 
US paratroopers of 2nd Battalion, 503rd Infantry Regiment depart Italy's Aviano Air Base for Latvia, 23 February 2022. Thousands of US troops were deployed to Eastern Europe amid Russia's military build-up.[180]

In a 21 February speech,[181] Putin questioned the legitimacy of the Ukrainian state, repeating an inaccurate claim that "Ukraine never had a tradition of genuine statehood".[182] He incorrectly stated that Vladimir Lenin had created Ukraine, by carving a separate Soviet Republic out of what Putin said was Russian land, that Joseph Stalin extended Ukrainian territory with lands from other eastern European countries following the Second World War, and that Nikita Khrushchev "took Crimea away from Russia for some reason and gave it to Ukraine" in 1954.[183]

Putin falsely claimed that Ukrainian society and government were dominated by neo-Nazism, invoking the history of collaboration in German-occupied Ukraine during World War II,[184][185] and echoing an antisemitic conspiracy theory that cast Russian Christians, rather than Jews, as the true victims of Nazi Germany.[186][176] Ukraine does suffer a far-right fringe, including the neo-Nazi linked Azov Battalion and Right Sector.[187][185] Analysts described Putin's rhetoric as greatly exaggerated.[188][184] Zelenskyy, who is Jewish, stated that his grandfather served in the Soviet army fighting against the Nazis;[189] three of his family members were killed in the Holocaust.[188]

 
A U.S. intelligence assessment map and imagery on Russian military movement nearby the Ukrainian border, as on 3 December 2021. It assessed that Russia had deployed about 70,000 military personnel mostly about 100–200 kilometres (62–124 mi) from the Ukrainian border, with an assessment this could be increased to 175,000 personnel. Published by The Washington Post.[190]

During the second build-up, Russia issued demands to the US and NATO, insisting on a legally binding arrangement preventing Ukraine from ever joining NATO, and the removal of multinational forces stationed in NATO's Eastern European member states.[191] These demands were rejected by the US and NATO.[192] The demand for a formal treaty preventing Ukraine from joining NATO was rejected by Western officials as it would contravene the treaty's "open door" policy, although NATO made no efforts to comply with Ukraine's requests to join.[193]

Prelude to full invasion

Fighting in Donbas escalated significantly from 17 February 2022 onwards.[194] The Ukrainians and the pro-Russian separatists each accused the other of attacks.[195][196] There was a sharp increase in artillery shelling by the Russian-led militants in Donbas, which was considered by Ukraine and its allies to be an attempt to provoke the Ukrainian army or create a pretext for invasion.[197][198][199] On 18 February, the Donetsk and Luhansk people's republics ordered mandatory emergency evacuations of civilians from their respective capital cities,[200][201][202] although observers noted that full evacuations would take months.[203] The Russian government intensified its disinformation campaign, with Russian state media promoting fabricated videos (false flags) on a nearly hourly basis purporting to show Ukrainian forces attacking Russia.[204] Many of the disinformation videos were amateurish, and evidence showed that the claimed attacks, explosions, and evacuations in Donbas were staged by Russia.[204][205][206]

Putin's address to the nation on 21 February (English subtitles available)

On 21 February at 22:35 (UTC+3),[207] Putin announced that the Russian government would diplomatically recognize the Donetsk and Luhansk people's republics.[208] The same evening, Putin directed that Russian troops deploy into Donbas, in what Russia referred to as a "peacekeeping mission".[209][210] On 22 February, the Federation Council unanimously authorised Putin to use military force outside Russia.[211] In response, Zelenskyy ordered the conscription of army reservists;[212] The following day, Ukraine's parliament proclaimed a 30-day nationwide state of emergency and ordered the mobilisation of all reservists.[213][214][215] Russia began to evacuate its embassy in Kyiv.[216]

On the night of 23 February,[217] Zelenskyy gave a speech in Russian in which he appealed to the citizens of Russia to prevent war.[218][219] He rejected Russia's claims about neo-Nazis and stated that he had no intention of attacking the Donbas.[220] Kremlin spokesman Dmitry Peskov said on 23 February that the separatist leaders in Donetsk and Luhansk had sent a letter to Putin stating that Ukrainian shelling had caused civilian deaths and appealing for military support.[221]

Full-scale Russian invasion of Ukraine (2022–2023)

For a chronological guide, see Timeline of the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine.
 
Animated map of Russia's invasion of Ukraine through 5 December 2022 (click to play animation)

The 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine began on the morning of 24 February,[222] when Putin announced a "special military operation" to "demilitarise and denazify" Ukraine.[223][224] Minutes later, missiles and airstrikes hit across Ukraine, including Kyiv, shortly followed by a large ground invasion along multiple fronts.[225][226] Zelenskyy declared martial law and a general mobilisation of all male Ukrainian citizens between 18 and 60, who were banned from leaving the country.[227][228]

Russian attacks were initially launched on a northern front from Belarus towards Kyiv, a north-eastern front towards Kharkiv, a southern front from Crimea, and a south-eastern front from Luhansk and Donetsk.[229][230] In the northern front, amidst heavy losses and strong Ukrainian resistance surrounding Kyiv, Russia's advance stalled in March, and by April its troops retreated. On 8 April, Russia placed its forces in southern and eastern Ukraine under the command of General Aleksandr Dvornikov, and some units withdrawn from the north were redeployed to the Donbas.[231] On 19 April, Russia launched a renewed attack across a 500 kilometres (300 mi) long front extending from Kharkiv to Donetsk and Luhansk.[232] By 13 May, a Ukraine counter-offensive had driven back Russian forces near Kharkiv. By 20 May, Mariupol fell to Russian troops following a prolonged siege of the Azovstal steel works.[233][234] Russian forces continued to bomb both military and civilian targets far from the frontline.[235][236] The war caused the largest refugee and humanitarian crisis within Europe since the Yugoslav Wars in the 1990s;[237][238] the UN described it as the fastest-growing such crisis since World War II.[239] In the first week of the invasion, the UN reported over a million refugees had fled Ukraine; this subsequently rose to over 7,405,590 by 24 September, a reduction from over eight million due to some refugees' return.[240][241]

Ukrainian forces launched counteroffensives in the south in August, and in the northeast in September. On 30 September, Russia annexed four oblasts of Ukraine which it had partially conquered during the invasion.[242] This annexation was generally unrecognized and condemned by the countries of the world.[243] After Putin announced that he would begin conscription drawn from the 300,000 citizens with military training and potentially the pool of about 25 million Russians who could be eligible for conscription, one-way tickets out of the country nearly or completely sold out.[244][245] The Ukrainian offensive in the northeast successfully recaptured the majority of Kharkiv Oblast in September. In the course of the southern counteroffensive, Ukraine retook the city of Kherson in November and Russian forces withdrew to the east bank of the Dnieper River.[citation needed]

The invasion was internationally condemned as a war of aggression.[246][247] A United Nations General Assembly resolution demanded a full withdrawal of Russian forces, the International Court of Justice ordered Russia to suspend military operations and the Council of Europe expelled Russia. Many countries imposed new sanctions, which affected the economies of Russia and the world,[248] and provided humanitarian and military aid to Ukraine.[249] In September 2022, Putin signed a law that would punish anyone who resists conscription with a 10-year prison sentence[250] resulting in an international push to allow asylum for Russians fleeing conscription.[251]

According to The New York Times, as of February 2023, the "number of Russian troops killed and wounded in Ukraine is approaching 200,000."[252]

Human rights violations

See also: Casualties of the Russo-Ukrainian War, Humanitarian situation during the war in Donbas, and Russian war crimes § Ukraine

Violations of human rights and atrocity crimes have both occurred during the war. From 2014 to 2021, there were more than 3,000 civilian casualties, with most occurring in 2014 and 2015.[253] The right of movement was impeded for the inhabitants of the conflict zone.[254] Arbitrary detention was practiced by both sides in the first years of the conflict. It decreased after 2016 in government-held areas, while in the separatist-held ones it continued.[255] The investigation into the abuses, including torture, committed by both sides made little progress.[256][257] According to OHCHR the closure of three TV channels amounted to a violation of the freedom of expression.[256] There were cases of conflict-related sexual violence, however OHCHR believes that "there are no grounds to believe that sexual violence has been used for strategic or tactical ends by Government forces or the armed groups in the eastern regions of Ukraine."[258] OHCHR estimates that from 2014 to 2021 around 4,000 detainees were subjected to torture and ill-treatment, approximately 1,500 by government actors and 2,500 by separatist armed groups, and reckons that around 340 of them were also victims of sexual violence.[259]

Related issues

Gas disputes

See also: Russia–Ukraine gas disputes, Nord Stream, Nord Stream 2, and Russia in the European energy sector
 
Major Russian natural gas pipelines to Europe
 
  Europe TTF natural gas

Until 2014 Ukraine was the main transit route for Russian natural gas sold to Europe, which earned Ukraine about US$3 billion a year in transit fees, making it the country's most lucrative export service.[260] Following Russia's launch of the Nord Stream pipeline, which bypasses Ukraine, gas transit volumes steadily decreased.[260] Following the start of the Russo-Ukrainian War in February 2014, severe tensions extended to the gas sector.[261][262] The subsequent outbreak of war in the Donbas region forced the suspension of a project to develop Ukraine's own shale gas reserves at the Yuzivska gas field, which had been planned as a way to reduce Ukrainian dependence on Russian gas imports.[263] Eventually, the EU commissioner for energy Günther Oettinger was called in to broker a deal securing supplies to Ukraine and transit to the EU.[264]

An explosion damaged a Ukrainian portion of the Urengoy–Pomary–Uzhhorod pipeline in Ivano-Frankivsk Oblast in May 2014. Ukrainian officials blamed Russian terrorists.[265] Another section of the pipeline exploded in the Poltava Oblast on 17 June 2014, one day after Russia limited the supply of gas to Ukrainian customers due to non-payment. Ukraine's Interior Minister Arsen Avakov said the following day that the explosion had been caused by a bomb.[266]

In 2015, Russian state media reported that Russia planned to completely abandon gas supplies to Europe through Ukraine after 2018.[267][268] Russia's state-owned energy giant Gazprom had already substantially reduced the volumes of gas transited across Ukraine, and expressed its intention to reduce the level further by means of transit-diversification pipelines (Turkish Stream, Nord Stream, etc.).[269] Gazprom and Ukraine agreed to a five-year deal on Russian gas transit to Europe at the end of 2019.[270][271]

In 2020, the TurkStream natural gas pipeline running from Russia to Turkey changed the regional gas flows in South-East Europe by diverting the transit through Ukraine and the Trans Balkan Pipeline system.[272][273]

In May 2021, the Biden administration waived Trump's CAATSA sanctions on the company behind Russia's Nord Stream 2 gas pipeline to Germany.[274][275] Ukrainian President Zelenskyy said he was "surprised" and "disappointed" by Joe Biden's decision.[276] In July 2021, the U.S. urged Ukraine not to criticise a forthcoming agreement with Germany over the pipeline.[277][278]

In July 2021, Biden and German Chancellor Angela Merkel concluded a deal that the U.S. might trigger sanctions if Russia used Nord Stream as a "political weapon". The deal aimed to prevent Poland and Ukraine from being cut off from Russian gas supplies. Ukraine will get a $50 million loan for green technology until 2024 and Germany will set up a billion dollar fund to promote Ukraine's transition to green energy to compensate for the loss of the gas-transit fees. The contract for transiting Russian gas through Ukraine will be prolonged until 2034, if the Russian government agrees.[279][280][281]

In August 2021, Zelenskyy warned that the Nord Stream 2 natural gas pipeline between Russia and Germany was "a dangerous weapon, not only for Ukraine but for the whole of Europe."[282][283] In September 2021, Ukraine's Naftogaz CEO Yuriy Vitrenko accused Russia of using natural gas as a "geopolitical weapon".[284] Vitrenko stated that "A joint statement from the United States and Germany said that if the Kremlin used gas as a weapon, there would be an appropriate response. We are now waiting for the imposition of sanctions on a 100% subsidiary of Gazprom, the operator of Nord Stream 2."[285]

Hybrid warfare

The Russo-Ukrainian conflict has also included elements of hybrid warfare using non-traditional means. Cyberwarfare has been used by Russia in operations including successful attacks on the Ukraine power grid in December 2015 and in December 2016, which was the first successful cyber attack on a power grid,[286] and the Mass hacker supply-chain attack in June 2017, which the US claimed was the largest known cyber attack.[287] In retaliation, Ukrainian operations have included the Surkov Leaks in October 2016 which released 2,337 e-mails in relation to Russian plans for seizing Crimea from Ukraine and fomenting separatist unrest in Donbas.[288] The Russian information war against Ukraine has been another front of hybrid warfare waged by Russia.

A Russian fifth column in Ukraine has also been claimed to exist among the Party of Regions, the Communist Party, the Progressive Socialist Party and the Russian Orthodox Church.[289][290][291]

Russian propaganda and disinformation campaigns

Main articles: Russian information war against Ukraine and Disinformation in the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine
Further information: Russian disinformation in the post-Soviet era
 
Pro-Kremlin TV and radio host Vladimir Solovyov voiced support for his country's invasion of Ukraine.[292]

False stories have been used to provoke public outrage during the war. In April 2014, Russian news channels Russia-1 and NTV showed a man saying he was attacked by a fascist Ukrainian gang on one channel and on the other channel saying he was funding the training of right-wing anti-Russia radicals.[293][294] A third segment portrayed the man as a neo-Nazi surgeon.[295] In May 2014, Russia-1 aired a story about Ukrainian atrocities using footage of a 2012 Russian operation in North Caucasus.[296] In the same month, the Russian news network Life presented a 2013 photograph of a wounded child in Syria as a victim of Ukrainian troops who had just retaken Donetsk International Airport.[297]

In June 2014, several Russian state news outlets reported that Ukraine was using white phosphorus using 2004 footage of white phosphorus being used by the United States in Iraq.[296] In July 2014, Channel One Russia broadcast an interview with a woman who said that a 3-year-old boy who spoke Russian was crucified by Ukrainian nationalists in a fictitious square in Sloviansk that turned out to be false.[298][299][294][296]

In 2022, Russian state media told stories of genocide and mass graves full of ethnic Russians in eastern Ukraine. One set of graves outside Luhansk was dug when intense fighting in 2014 cut off the electricity in the local morgue. Amnesty International investigated 2014 Russian claims of mass graves filled with hundreds of bodies and instead found isolated incidents of extrajudicial executions by both sides.[300][301][302]

 
Russian artist Alexandra Skochilenko was arrested for replacing price tags in supermarkets with anti-war messages.[303]

The Russian censorship apparatus Roskomnadzor ordered the country's media to employ information only from Russian state sources or face fines and blocks,[304] and ordered media and schools to describe the war as a "special military operation".[305] On 4 March 2022, Putin signed into law a bill introducing prison sentences of up to 15 years for those who publish "fake news" about the Russian military and its operations,[306] leading to some media outlets to stop reporting on Ukraine.[307] Russia's opposition politician Alexei Navalny said the "monstrosity of lies" in the Russian state media "is unimaginable. And, unfortunately, so is its persuasiveness for those who have no access to alternative information."[308] He tweeted that "warmongers" among Russian state media personalities "should be treated as war criminals. From the editors-in-chief to the talk show hosts to the news editors, [they] should be sanctioned now and tried someday."[309]

Putin and Russian media have described the government of Ukraine as being led by neo-Nazis persecuting ethnic Russians who are in need of protection by Russia, despite Ukraine's President Zelenskyy being Jewish.[310][311][301] According to journalist Natalia Antonova, "Russia's present-day war of aggression is refashioned by propaganda into a direct continuation of the legacy of the millions of Russian soldiers who died to stop" Nazi Germany in World War II.[312] Ukraine's rejection of the adoption of Russia-initiated General Assembly resolutions on combating the glorification of Nazism, the latest iteration of which is General Assembly Resolution A/C.3/76/L.57/Rev.1 on Combating Glorification of Nazism, Neo-Nazism and other Practices that Contribute to Fueling Contemporary Forms of Racism, Racial Discrimination, Xenophobia and Related Intolerance, serve to present Ukraine as a pro-Nazi state, and indeed likely forms the basis for Russia's claims, with the only other state rejecting the adoption of the resolution being the US.[313][314] The Deputy US Representative for ECOSOC describes such resolutions as "thinly veiled attempts to legitimize Russian disinformation campaigns denigrating neighboring nations and promoting the distorted Soviet narrative of much of contemporary European history, using the cynical guise of halting Nazi glorification".[315]

NAFO ('North Atlantic Fellas Organization'), a loose cadre of online 'shitposters' vowing to fight Russian disinformation generally identified by cartoon Shiba Inu dogs in social media, gained notoriety after June 2022, in the wake of a Twitter quarrel with Russian diplomat Mikhail Ulyanov.[316]

Russia–NATO relations

Main article: Russia–NATO relations

Russian military aircraft flying over the Baltic and Black Seas often do not indicate their position or communicate with air traffic controllers, thus posing a potential risk to civilian airliners. NATO aircraft scrambled many times in late April 2022 in order to track and intercept these aircraft near alliance airspace. The Russian aircraft intercepted never entered NATO airspace, and the interceptions were conducted in a safe and routine manner.[317] Although Russian Foreign Minister Sergey Lavrov has characterized the conflict as a proxy war instigated by NATO,[318] he said: "We don't think we're at war with NATO ... Unfortunately, NATO believes it is at war with Russia."[319] British Prime Minister Boris Johnson rejected Lavrov's allegation that NATO is fighting a 'proxy war' in Ukraine.[320] Former CIA director Leon Panetta told the ABC that the U.S. is 'without question' involved in a proxy war with Russia.[321]

International reactions

See also: Second Cold War

Reactions to the Russian annexation of Crimea

Main article: International reactions to the annexation of Crimea by the Russian Federation

Ukrainian response

 
Following Russia's annexation of Crimea, Ukraine blocked the North Crimean Canal, which provided 85% of Crimea's drinking and irrigation water.[322]

Interim Ukrainian President Oleksandr Turchynov accused Russia of "provoking a conflict" by backing the seizure of the Crimean parliament building and other government offices on the Crimean peninsula. He compared Russia's military actions to the 2008 Russo-Georgian War, when Russian troops occupied parts of the Republic of Georgia and the breakaway enclaves of Abkhazia and South Ossetia were established under the control of Russian-backed administrations. He called on Putin to withdraw Russian troops from Crimea and stated that Ukraine will "preserve its territory" and "defend its independence".[323] On 1 March, he warned, "Military intervention would be the beginning of war and the end of any relations between Ukraine and Russia."[324] On 1 March, Acting President Oleksandr Turchynov placed the Armed Forces of Ukraine on full alert and combat readiness.[325]

The Ministry of Temporarily Occupied Territories and IDPs was established by Ukrainian government on 20 April 2016 to manage occupied parts of Donetsk, Luhansk and Crimea regions affected by Russian military intervention of 2014.[326]

NATO and United States military response

Further information: Operation Atlantic Resolve, European Deterrence Initiative, NATO Enhanced Forward Presence, and Russia–NATO relations
 
A U.S. Army convoy in Vilseck, Germany during Operation Atlantic Resolve, NATO's efforts to reassert its military presence in central and eastern Europe that began in April 2014.

On 4 March 2014, the United States pledged $1 billion in aid to Ukraine.[327] Russia's actions increased tensions in nearby countries historically within its sphere of influence, particularly the Baltic and Moldova. All have large Russian-speaking populations, and Russian troops are stationed in the breakaway Moldovan territory of Transnistria.[328] Some devoted resources to increasing defensive capabilities,[329] and many requested increased support from the U.S. and the North Atlantic Treaty Organization, which they had joined in recent years.[328][329] The conflict "reinvigorated" NATO, which had been created to face the Soviet Union, but had devoted more resources to "expeditionary missions" in recent years.[330]

In addition to diplomatic support in its conflict with Russia, the U.S. provided Ukraine with US$1.5 billion in military aid during the 2010s.[331] In 2018 the U.S. House of Representatives passed a provision blocking any training of Azov Battalion of the Ukrainian National Guard by American forces. In previous years, between 2014 and 2017, the U.S. House of Representatives passed amendments banning support of Azov, but due to pressure from the Pentagon, the amendments were quietly lifted.[332][333][334]

Financial markets

The initial reaction to the escalation of tensions in Crimea caused the Russian and European stock market to tumble.[335] The intervention caused the Swiss franc to climb to a 2-year high against the dollar and 1-year high against the Euro. The Euro and the US dollar both rose, as did the Australian dollar.[336] The Russian stock market declined by more than 10 percent, while the Russian ruble hit all-time lows against the US dollar and the Euro.[337][338][339] The Russian central bank hiked interest rates and intervened in the foreign exchange markets to the tune of $12 billion[clarification needed] to try to stabilize its currency.[336] Prices for wheat and grain rose, with Ukraine being a major exporter of both crops.[340]

Later in March 2014, the reaction of the financial markets to the Crimea annexation was surprisingly mellow, with global financial markets rising immediately after the referendum held in Crimea, one explanation being that the sanctions were already priced in following the earlier Russian incursion.[341] Other observers considered that the positive reaction of the global financial markets on Monday 17 March 2014, after the announcement of sanctions against Russia by the EU and the US, revealed that these sanctions were too weak to hurt Russia.[342] In early August 2014, the German DAX was down by 6 percent for the year, and 11 percent since June, over concerns Russia, Germany's 13th biggest trade partner, would retaliate against sanctions.[343]

Reactions to the Russian intervention in the Donbas

Further information: International reactions to the war in Donbas
 
Peace march in Moscow, 21 September 2014
 
Pro-Russian supporters in Donetsk, 20 December 2014

Ukrainian public opinion

See also: Putin khuylo!

A poll of the Ukrainian public, excluding Russian-annexed Crimea, was taken by the International Republican Institute from 12 to 25 September 2014.[344] 89% of those polled opposed 2014 Russian military intervention in Ukraine. As broken down by region, 78% of those polled from Eastern Ukraine (including Dnipropetrovsk Oblast) opposed said intervention, along with 89% in Southern Ukraine, 93% in Central Ukraine, and 99% in Western Ukraine.[344] As broken down by native language, 79% of Russian speakers and 95% of Ukrainian speakers opposed the intervention. 80% of those polled said the country should remain a unitary country.[344]

A poll of the Crimean public in Russian-annexed Crimea was taken by the Ukrainian branch of Germany's biggest market research organization, GfK, on 16–22 January 2015. According to its results: "Eighty-two percent of those polled said they fully supported Crimea's inclusion in Russia, and another 11 percent expressed partial support. Only 4 percent spoke out against it."[345][346][347]

A joint poll conducted by Levada and the Kyiv International Institute of Sociology from September to October 2020 found that in the breakaway regions controlled by the DPR/LNR, just over half of the respondents wanted to join Russia (either with or without some autonomous status) while less than one-tenth wanted independence and 12% wanted reintegration into Ukraine. It contrasted with respondents in Kyiv-controlled Donbas, where a vast majority felt the separatist regions should be returned to Ukraine.[348] According to results from Levada in January 2022, roughly 70% of those in the breakaway regions said their territories should become part of the Russian Federation.[349]

Russian public opinion

See also: 2014 anti-war protests in Russia

An August 2014 survey by the Levada Centre reported that only 13% of those Russians polled would support the Russian government in an open war with Ukraine.[350] Street protests against the war in Ukraine arose in Russia. Notable protests first occurred in March[351][352] and large protests occurred in September when "tens of thousands" protested the war in Ukraine with a peace march in downtown Moscow on Sunday, 21 September 2014, "under heavy police supervision".[353]

Reactions to the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine

Main article: Reactions to the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine
See also: List of foreign aid to Ukraine during the Russo-Ukrainian War

Ukrainian public opinion

 
Ukrainian refugees in Kraków protest against the war, 6 March 2022

In March 2022, a week after the Russian invasion of Ukraine, 98% of Ukrainians – including 82% of ethnic Russians living in Ukraine – said they did not believe that any part of Ukraine was rightfully part of Russia, according to Lord Ashcroft's polls which did not include Crimea and the separatist-controlled part of Donbas. 97% of Ukrainians said they had an unfavourable view of Russian President Vladimir Putin, with a further 94% saying they had an unfavourable view of the Russian Armed Forces.[354]

At the end of 2021, 75% of Ukrainians said they had a positive attitude toward ordinary Russians, while in May 2022, 82% of Ukrainians said they had a negative attitude toward ordinary Russians.[355]

Russian public opinion

An April 2022 survey by the Levada Centre reported that approximately 74% of the Russians polled supported the "special military operation" in Ukraine, suggesting that Russian public opinion has shifted considerably since 2014.[356] According to some sources, a reason many Russians supported the "special military operation" has to do with the propaganda and disinformation.[357][358] In addition, it has been suggested that some respondents did not want to answer pollsters' questions for fear of negative consequences.[359][360] At the end of March, a poll conducted in Russia by the Levada Center concluded the following: When asked why they think the military operation is taking place, respondents said it was to protect and defend civilians, ethnic Russians or Russian speakers in Ukraine (43%), to prevent an attack on Russia (25%), to get rid of nationalists and "denazify" Ukraine (21%), and to incorporate Ukraine or the Donbas region into Russia (3%)."[361]

United States

On 28 April 2022, US President Joe Biden asked Congress for an additional $33 billion to assist Ukraine, including $20 billion to provide weapons to Ukraine.[362] On 5 May, Ukraine's Prime Minister Denys Shmyhal announced that Ukraine had received more than $12 billion worth of weapons and financial aid from Western countries since the start of Russia's invasion on 24 February.[363] On 21 May 2022, the United States passed legislation providing $40 billion in new military and humanitarian foreign aid to Ukraine, marking a historically large commitment of funds.[364][365] In August 2022, U.S. defense spending to counter the Russian war effort exceeded the first 5 years of war costs in Afghanistan. The Washington Post reported that new U.S. weapons delivered to the Ukrainian war front suggest a closer combat scenario with more casualties.[366] The United States looks to build "enduring strength in Ukraine" with increased arms shipments and a record-breaking $3 billion military aid package.[366]

Russian military suppliers

After expending large amounts of heavy weapons and munitions over months, the Russian Federation received combat drones and loitering munitions from Iran, deliveries of tanks and other armoured vehicles from Belarus, and reportedly planned to trade for artillery ammunition from North Korea and ballistic missiles from Iran.[367][368][369][370]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ For further details, see Belarusian involvement in the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine.
  2. ^ There remain "some contradictions and inherent problems" regarding the date on which the annexation began.[371] Ukraine claims 20 February 2014 as "the beginning of the temporary occupation of Crimea and Sevastopol by Russia", citing the timeframe inscribed on the Russian medal "For the Return of Crimea",[372] and in 2015 the Ukrainian parliament officially designated the date as such.[373] On 20 February 2014, Vladimir Konstantinov who at that time was a chairman of the republican council of Crimea and representing the Party of Regions expressed his thoughts about secession of the region from Ukraine.[374] On 23 February 2014 the Russian ambassador to Ukraine Mikhail Zurabov was recalled to Moscow due to a "worsening of [the] situation in Ukraine". In early March 2015, President Putin stated in a Russian movie about the annexation of Crimea that he ordered the operation to "restore" Crimea to Russia following an all-night emergency meeting on 22–23 February 2014,[371][375] and in 2018 the Russian Foreign Minister claimed that the earlier "start date" on the medal was due to a "technical misunderstanding".[376]
  3. ^ Russian: pоссийско-украинская война, romanized: rossiysko-ukrainskaya voyna; Ukrainian: російсько-українська війна, romanized: rosiisko-ukrainska viina.
  4. ^ Many countries have provided various levels of support to Ukraine short of becoming belligerents in the war, while Belarus has provided Russian forces territorial access for the 2022 invasion.

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March 06, 2023
russo, ukrainian, this, article, about, ongoing, since, 2014, escalation, since, february, 2022, 2022, russian, invasion, ukraine, other, wars, between, nations, list, wars, between, russia, ukraine, request, that, this, article, title, changed, russo, ukraini. This article is about the war ongoing since 2014 For the escalation since February 2022 see 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine For other wars between the two nations see List of wars between Russia and Ukraine A request that this article title be changed to Russo Ukrainian conflict is under discussion Please do not move this article until the discussion is closed Russo Ukrainian WarPart of the post Soviet conflictsClockwise from top left Ukrainian tanks during the 2022 Kharkiv counteroffensive Russian installed officials in Moscow ratifying the annexation of four Ukrainian regions Sloviansk city council during the War in Donbas Russian bombing during the Siege of Mariupol Russian soldiers during the annexation of Crimea Fires during the 2014 Revolution of DignityDate20 February 2014 b present 9 years 2 weeks and 1 day LocationUkraine also Russia spillover into Poland Moldova and Belarus StatusOngoingTerritorialchangesRussian annexation of Crimea and parts of four southeast Ukrainian oblasts in 2014 and 2022 respectivelyRussian occupation of about 18 of Ukrainian territory as of November 2022 1 Belligerents UkraineSupplied by For countries providing aid to Ukraine since 2022 see foreign aid to UkraineFeb Mar 2014 RussiaRepublic of Crimea 2014 2022 RussiaDonetsk PRLuhansk PR 2022 present RussiaSupported by Belarus a Supplied by For details see Russian military suppliersCommanders and leadersVolodymyr Zelenskyy 2019 present Petro Poroshenko 2014 2019 Oleksandr Turchynov acting 2014 Oleksii Reznikov 2021 present Andriy Taran 2020 2021 Andrii Zahorodniuk 2019 2020 Stepan Poltorak 2014 2019 Valeriy Heletey 2014 Mykhailo Koval 2014 Ihor Tenyukh 2014 Valerii Zaluzhnyi 2021 present Ruslan Khomchak 2019 2021 Arsen Avakov 2014 2021 Vladimir Putin 2014 present Sergei Shoigu 2014 present Valery Gerasimov 2014 present Yevgeny Prigozhin 2022 present Sergey Aksyonov 2014 Aleksey Chaly 2014 Denis Pushilin 2018 2022 A Zakharchenko 2014 2018 Pavel Gubarev 2014 Igor Girkin 2014 Leonid Pasechnik 2017 2022 Igor Plotnitsky 2014 2017 Valery Bolotov 2014 StrengthFor details of strengths and units involved at key points in the conflict see Combatants of the war in Donbas 2014 2022 Order of battle for the 2022 Russian invasion of UkraineCasualties and lossesReports vary widely but tens of thousands at a minimum See Casualties of the Russo Ukrainian War for details The Russo Ukrainian War c is an ongoing international conflict between Russia alongside Russian backed separatists and Ukraine which began in February 2014 d Following Ukraine s Revolution of Dignity Russia annexed Crimea from Ukraine and supported pro Russian separatists fighting the Ukrainian military in the Donbas War The first eight years of conflict also included naval incidents cyberwarfare and heightened political tensions In February 2022 the conflict saw a major escalation as Russia launched a full scale invasion of Ukraine In early 2014 the Euromaidan protests led to the Revolution of Dignity and the ousting of Ukraine s pro Russian president Viktor Yanukovych Shortly after pro Russian unrest erupted in eastern and southern Ukraine Simultaneously unmarked Russian troops moved into Ukraine s Crimea and took over government buildings strategic sites and infrastructure Russia soon annexed Crimea after a highly disputed referendum In April 2014 armed pro Russian separatists seized government buildings in Ukraine s eastern Donbas region and proclaimed the Donetsk People s Republic DPR and Luhansk People s Republic LPR as independent states sparking the Donbas War The separatists received considerable but covert support from Russia and Ukrainian attempts to fully retake separatist held areas were unsuccessful Although Russia denied involvement Russian troops took part in the fighting In February 2015 Russia and Ukraine signed the Minsk II agreements in a bid to end the conflict but the agreements were never fully implemented in the years that followed The Donbas War settled into a violent but static conflict between Ukraine and Russian proxies with many brief ceasefires but no lasting peace and few changes in territorial control Beginning in 2021 Russia built up a large military presence near its border with Ukraine including from within neighbouring Belarus Russian officials repeatedly denied plans to attack Ukraine Russian president Vladimir Putin criticized the enlargement of NATO and demanded that Ukraine be barred from ever joining the military alliance He also expressed irredentist views and questioned Ukraine s right to exist Russia recognized the DPR and LPR as independent states in February 2022 with Putin announcing a special military operation in Ukraine and subsequently invading the region The invasion was internationally condemned many countries imposed sanctions against Russia and ramped up existing sanctions Russia abandoned an attempt to take Kyiv in early April 2022 amid fierce resistance From August Ukrainian forces began recapturing territories in the northeast and south as a result of successful counteroffensives In late September Russia declared the annexation of four partially occupied regions in southern and eastern Ukraine which was internationally unrecognized The ongoing full scale war has resulted in a major refugee crisis and tens of thousands of deaths Contents 1 Background 1 1 Post Soviet context and Orange Revolution 1 2 Euromaidan Revolution of Dignity and pro Russian unrest 1 3 Russian military bases in Crimea 1 4 Declaration of military operations 2 History 2 1 Russian annexation of Crimea 2014 2 2 War in the Donbas 2014 2015 2 2 1 Pro Russia unrest 2 2 2 Armed conflict 2 2 3 August 2014 Russian invasion 2 2 4 Mariupol offensive and first Minsk ceasefire 2 2 5 End of 2014 and Minsk II agreements 2 3 A stable line of conflict 2015 2021 2 3 1 2018 Kerch Strait incident 2 3 2 2019 2020 2 4 Russian military buildup around Ukraine 2021 2022 2 4 1 Russian accusations and demands 2 4 2 Prelude to full invasion 2 5 Full scale Russian invasion of Ukraine 2022 2023 3 Human rights violations 4 Related issues 4 1 Gas disputes 4 2 Hybrid warfare 4 3 Russian propaganda and disinformation campaigns 4 4 Russia NATO relations 5 International reactions 5 1 Reactions to the Russian annexation of Crimea 5 1 1 Ukrainian response 5 1 2 NATO and United States military response 5 1 3 Financial markets 5 2 Reactions to the Russian intervention in the Donbas 5 2 1 Ukrainian public opinion 5 2 2 Russian public opinion 5 3 Reactions to the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine 5 3 1 Ukrainian public opinion 5 3 2 Russian public opinion 5 3 3 United States 5 3 4 Russian military suppliers 6 See also 7 Notes 8 References 9 Further reading 10 External linksBackgroundMain article Russia Ukraine relations See also Historical background of the 2014 pro Russian unrest in Ukraine Post Soviet context and Orange Revolution Further information Orange Revolution After the dissolution of the Soviet Union USSR in 1991 Ukraine and Russia maintained close ties In 1994 Ukraine agreed to accede to the Treaty on the Non Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons as a non nuclear weapon state 2 Former Soviet nuclear weapons in Ukraine were removed and dismantled 3 In return Russia the United Kingdom and the United States agreed to uphold the territorial integrity and political independence of Ukraine through the Budapest Memorandum on Security Assurances 4 5 In 1999 Russia was one of the signatories of the Charter for European Security which reaffirmed the inherent right of each and every participating State to be free to choose or change its security arrangements including treaties of alliance as they evolve 6 In the years after the dissolution of the USSR several former Eastern Bloc countries joined NATO partly in response to regional security threats involving Russia such as the 1993 Russian constitutional crisis the War in Abkhazia 1992 1993 and the First Chechen War 1994 1996 Russian leaders described this expansion as a violation of Western powers informal assurances that NATO would not expand eastward 7 8 Protesters in Independence Square in Kyiv during the Orange Revolution November 2004 The 2004 Ukrainian presidential election was controversial During the election campaign opposition candidate Viktor Yushchenko was poisoned by TCDD dioxin 9 10 he later implicated Russian involvement 11 In November Prime Minister Viktor Yanukovych was declared the winner despite allegations of vote rigging by election observers 12 During a two month period which became known as the Orange Revolution large peaceful protests successfully challenged the outcome After the Supreme Court of Ukraine annulled the initial result due to widespread electoral fraud a second round re run was held bringing to power Yushchenko as president and Yulia Tymoshenko as prime minister and leaving Yanukovych in opposition 13 The Orange Revolution is often grouped together with other early 21st century protest movements particularly within the former USSR known as colour revolutions According to Anthony Cordesman Russian military officers viewed such colour revolutions as an attempt by the US and European states to destabilise neighbouring countries and undermine Russia s national security 14 Russian President Vladimir Putin accused organisers of the 2011 2013 Russian protests of being former advisors to Yushchenko and described the protests as an attempt to transfer the Orange Revolution to Russia 15 Rallies in favour of Putin during this period were called anti Orange protests 16 At the 2008 Bucharest summit Ukraine and Georgia sought to join NATO The response among NATO members was divided Western European countries opposed offering Membership Action Plans MAP in order to avoid antagonising Russia while US President George W Bush pushed for their admission 17 NATO ultimately refused to offer Ukraine and Georgia MAPs but also issued a statement agreeing that these countries will become members of NATO Putin voiced strong opposition to Georgia and Ukraine s NATO membership bids 18 By January 2022 the possibility of Ukraine joining NATO remained remote 19 Euromaidan Revolution of Dignity and pro Russian unrest Main articles Euromaidan Revolution of Dignity and 2014 pro Russian unrest in Ukraine In 2009 Yanukovych announced his intent to again run for president in the 2010 Ukrainian presidential election 20 which he subsequently won 21 In November 2013 a wave of large pro European Union EU protests erupted in response to Yanukovych s sudden decision not to sign the EU Ukraine Association Agreement instead choosing closer ties to Russia and the Eurasian Economic Union The Ukrainian parliament had overwhelmingly approved of finalizing the agreement with the EU 22 and Russia had put pressure on Ukraine to reject it 23 Following months of protests as part of the Euromaidan movement on 21 February 2014 Yanukovych and the leaders of the parliamentary opposition signed a settlement agreement that called for early elections The following day Yanukovych fled from the capital ahead of an impeachment vote that stripped him of his powers as president 24 25 26 27 On 23 February the parliament adopted a bill to repeal the 2012 law which gave Russian language an official status 28 The bill was not enacted 29 however the proposal provoked negative reactions in the Russian speaking regions of Ukraine 30 intensified by Russian media saying that the ethnic Russian population was in imminent danger 31 On 27 February an interim government was established and early presidential elections were scheduled The following day Yanukovych resurfaced in Russia and in a press conference declared that he remained the acting president of Ukraine just as Russia was beginning its overt military campaign in Crimea Leaders of Russian speaking eastern regions of Ukraine declared continuing loyalty to Yanukovych 25 32 causing the 2014 pro Russian unrest in Ukraine Russian military bases in Crimea Main article Political status of Crimea At the onset of the conflict Russia had roughly 12 000 military personnel in the Black Sea Fleet 31 in several locations in the Crimean peninsula like Sevastopol Kacha Hvardiiske Simferopol Raion Sarych and others In 2005 a dispute broke out over control of the Sarych cape lighthouse near Yalta and a number of other beacons 33 34 Russian presence was allowed by the basing and transit agreement with Ukraine Under the agreements the Russian military in Crimea was constrained to a maximum of 25 000 troops they were required to respect the sovereignty of Ukraine honor its legislation not interfere in the internal affairs of the country and show their military identification cards when crossing the international border 35 Early in the conflict the agreement s sizeable troop limit allowed Russia to significantly reinforce its military presence under the plausible guise of security concerns deploy special forces and other required capabilities to conduct the operation in Crimea 31 According to the original treaty on the division of the Soviet Black Sea Fleet signed in 1997 Russia was allowed to have its military bases in Crimea until 2017 after which it would evacuate all military units including its portion of the Black Sea Fleet out of the Autonomous Republic of Crimea and Sevastopol On 21 April 2010 former Ukrainian president Viktor Yanukovych signed a new deal known as the Kharkiv Pact to resolve the 2009 Russia Ukraine gas dispute it extended the stay to 2042 with an option to renew 36 Declaration of military operations Further information On conducting a special military operation No formal declaration of war has been issued in the ongoing Russo Ukrainian War When Putin announced the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine he claimed to commence a special military operation side stepping a formal declaration of war 37 The statement was however regarded as a declaration of war by the Ukrainian government 38 and reported as such by many international news sources 39 40 While the Ukrainian parliament refers to Russia as a terrorist state in regard to its military actions in Ukraine 41 it has not issued a formal declaration of war on its behalf HistoryRussian annexation of Crimea 2014 For a chronological guide see Timeline of the annexation of Crimea by the Russian Federation The blockade of military units of the Armed Forces of Ukraine during the capture of Crimea by Russia in February March 2014 Russian troops blocking the Ukrainian military base in Perevalne On 20 February 2014 Russia began an annexation of Crimea 42 43 44 45 On 22 and 23 February Russian troops and special forces began moving into Crimea through Novorossiysk 44 On 27 February Russian forces without insignias began their advance into the Crimean Peninsula 46 They took strategic positions and captured the Crimean Parliament raising a Russian flag Security checkpoints isolated the Crimean Peninsula from the rest of Ukraine and restricted movement within the territory 47 48 49 50 In the following days Russian soldiers secured key airports and a communications center 51 Russian cyberattacks shut down websites associated with the Ukrainian government news media and social media Cyberattacks also enabled Russian access to the mobile phones of Ukrainian officials and members of parliament further disrupting communications 52 On 1 March the Russian legislature approved the use of armed forces leading to an influx of Russian troops and military hardware into the peninsula 51 In the following days all remaining Ukrainian military bases and installations were surrounded and besieged including the Southern Naval Base After Russia formally annexed the peninsula on 18 March Ukrainian military bases and ships were stormed by Russian forces On 24 March Ukraine ordered troops to withdraw by 30 March all Ukrainian forces had left the peninsula On 15 April the Ukrainian parliament declared Crimea a territory temporarily occupied by Russia 53 After the annexation the Russian government increased its military presence in the region and made nuclear threats 54 Putin said that a Russian military task force would be established in Crimea 55 In November NATO stated that it believed Russia was deploying nuclear capable weapons to Crimea 56 Since the annexation of Crimea certain NATO members have been providing training for the Ukrainian army 57 War in the Donbas 2014 2015 For a chronological guide see Timeline of the war in Donbas 2014 See also Combatants of the war in Donbas and List of equipment used by Russian separatist forces of the war in Donbas Pro Russia unrest Main article 2014 pro Russian unrest in Ukraine Beginning in late February 2014 demonstrations by pro Russian and anti government groups took place in major cities across the eastern and southern regions of Ukraine 58 The first protests across southern and eastern Ukraine were largely native expressions of discontent with the new Ukrainian government 58 59 Russian involvement at this stage was limited to voicing support for the demonstrations 59 60 Russia exploited this however launching a coordinated political and military campaign against Ukraine 59 61 Putin gave legitimacy to the separatists when he described the Donbas as part of New Russia Novorossiya and expressed bewilderment as to how the region had ever become part of Ukraine 62 In late March Russia continued to gather forces near the Ukrainian eastern border reaching 30 40 000 troops by April 63 31 The deployment was used to threaten escalation and disrupt Ukraine s response 31 This threat forced Ukraine to divert forces to its borders instead of the conflict zone 31 Ukrainian authorities cracked down on the pro Russian protests and arrested local separatist leaders in early March Those leaders were replaced by people with ties to the Russian security services and interests in Russian businesses 64 By April 2014 Russian citizens had taken control of the separatist movement supported by volunteers and materiel from Russia including Chechen and Cossack fighters 65 66 67 68 According to Donetsk People s Republic DPR commander Igor Girkin without this support in April the movement would have dissipated as it had in Kharkiv and Odesa 69 A disputed referendum on the status of Donetsk Oblast was held on 11 May 70 71 72 Armed conflict The Russian military buildup along Ukraine s eastern border in February March 2014 The Donbas status referendums in May 2014 were not officially recognised by the Ukrainian government or any UN member state 70 In April armed conflict began in eastern Ukraine between Russian backed separatist forces and Ukraine The separatists declared the People s Republics of Donetsk and Luhansk From 6 April militants occupied government buildings in many cities and took control of border crossings to Russia transport hubs a broadcasting center and other strategic infrastructure Faced with continued expansion of separatist territorial control on 15 April the interim Ukrainian government launched an Anti Terrorist Operation ATO however Ukrainian forces were poorly prepared and ill positioned and the operation quickly stalled 73 By the end of April Ukraine announced it had lost control of the provinces of Donetsk and Luhansk It claimed to be on full combat alert against a possible Russian invasion and reinstated conscription to its armed forces 74 Through May the Ukrainian campaign focused on containing the separatists by securing key positions around the ATO zone to position the military for a decisive offensive once Ukraine s national mobilization had completed As conflict between the separatists and the Ukrainian government escalated in May Russia began to employ a hybrid approach combining disinformation tactics irregular fighters regular Russian troops and conventional military support 75 76 77 The First Battle of Donetsk Airport followed the Ukrainian presidential elections It marked a turning point in conflict it was the first battle between the separatists and the Ukrainian government that involved large numbers of Russian volunteers 78 79 15 According to Ukraine at the height of the conflict in the summer of 2014 Russian paramilitaries made up between 15 to 80 of the combatants 67 From June Russia trickled in arms armor and munitions On 17 July 2014 Russian controlled forces shot down a passenger aircraft Malaysia Airlines Flight 17 as it was flying over eastern Ukraine 80 Investigations and the recovery of bodies began in the conflict zone as fighting continued 81 82 83 By the end of July Ukrainian forces were pushing into cities to cut off supply routes between the two isolating Donetsk and attempting to restore control of the Russo Ukrainian border By 28 July the strategic heights of Savur Mohyla were under Ukrainian control along with the town of Debaltseve an important railroad hub 84 These operational successes of Ukrainian forces threatened the existence of the DPR and LPR statelets prompting Russian cross border shelling targeted against Ukrainian troops on their own soil from mid July onwards citation needed August 2014 Russian invasion See also Battle of Ilovaisk June August 2014 progression map After a series of military defeats and setbacks for the separatists who united under the banner of Novorossiya 85 86 Russia dispatched what it called a humanitarian convoy of trucks across the border in mid August 2014 Ukraine called the move a direct invasion 87 Ukraine s National Security and Defence Council reported that convoys were arriving almost daily in November up to 9 convoys on 30 November and that their contents were mainly arms and ammunition Strelkov claimed that in early August Russian servicemen supposedly on vacation from the army began to arrive in Donbas 88 By August 2014 the Ukrainian Anti Terrorist Operation shrank the territory under pro Russian control and approached the border 89 Igor Girkin urged Russian military intervention and said that the combat inexperience of his irregular forces along with recruitment difficulties amongst the local population had caused the setbacks He stated Losing this war on the territory that President Vladimir Putin personally named New Russia would threaten the Kremlin s power and personally the power of the president 90 In response to the deteriorating situation Russia abandoned its hybrid approach and began a conventional invasion on 25 August 2014 89 91 On the following day the Russian Defence Ministry said these soldiers had crossed the border by accident 92 93 94 According to Nikolai Mitrokhin s estimates by mid August 2014 during the Battle of Ilovaisk between 20 000 and 25 000 troops were fighting in the Donbas on the separatist side and only 40 45 were locals 95 On 24 August 2014 Amvrosiivka was occupied by Russian paratroopers 96 supported by 250 armoured vehicles and artillery pieces 97 The same day Ukrainian President Petro Poroshenko referred to the operation as Ukraine s Patriotic War of 2014 and a war against external aggression 98 99 On 25 August a column of Russian military vehicles was reported to have crossed into Ukraine near Novoazovsk on the Azov sea coast It appeared headed towards Ukrainian held Mariupol 100 101 102 103 104 in an area that had not seen pro Russian presence for weeks 105 Russian forces captured Novoazovsk 106 and Russian soldiers began deporting Ukrainians who did not have an address registered within the town 107 Pro Ukrainian anti war protests took place in Mariupol 107 108 The UN Security Council called an emergency meeting 109 Residents of Kyiv with Sich Battalion volunteers on 26 August 2014 The Pskov based 76th Guards Air Assault Division allegedly entered Ukrainian territory in August and engaged in a skirmish near Luhansk suffering 80 dead The Ukrainian Defence Ministry said that they had seized two of the unit s armoured vehicles near Luhansk and reported destroying another three tanks and two armoured vehicles in other regions 110 111 The Russian government denied the skirmish took place 111 but on 18 August the 76th was awarded the Order of Suvorov one of Russia s highest awards by Russian minister of defence Sergey Shoigu for the successful completion of military missions and courage and heroism 111 The speaker of Russia s upper house of parliament and Russian state television channels acknowledged that Russian soldiers entered Ukraine but referred to them as volunteers 112 A reporter for Novaya Gazeta an opposition newspaper in Russia stated that the Russian military leadership paid soldiers to resign their commissions and fight in Ukraine in the early summer of 2014 and then began ordering soldiers into Ukraine 113 Russian opposition MP Lev Shlosberg made similar statements although he said combatants from his country are regular Russian troops disguised as units of the DPR and LPR 114 In early September 2014 Russian state owned television channels reported on the funerals of Russian soldiers who had died in Ukraine but described them as volunteers fighting for the Russian world Valentina Matviyenko a top United Russia politician also praised volunteers fighting in our fraternal nation 112 Russian state television for the first time showed the funeral of a soldier killed fighting in Ukraine 115 Mariupol offensive and first Minsk ceasefire Main articles Offensive on Mariupol September 2014 and Minsk agreements A map of the line of control and buffer zone established by the Minsk Protocol on 5 September 2014 On 3 September Poroshenko said he and Putin had reached a permanent ceasefire agreement 116 Russia denied this denying that it was a party to the conflict adding that they only discussed how to settle the conflict 117 118 Poroshenko then recanted 119 120 On 5 September Russia s Permanent OSCE Representative Andrey Kelin said that it was natural that pro Russian separatists are going to liberate Mariupol Ukrainian forces stated that Russian intelligence groups had been spotted in the area Kelin said there might be volunteers over there 121 On 4 September 2014 a NATO officer said that several thousand regular Russian forces operating in Ukraine 122 On 5 September 2014 the Minsk Protocol ceasefire agreement drew a line of demarcation between Ukraine and separatist controlled portions of Donetsk and Luhansk Oblasts End of 2014 and Minsk II agreements See also 2014 Russian cross border shelling of UkraineOn 7 and 12 November NATO officials reconfirmed the Russian presence citing 32 tanks 16 howitzer cannons and 30 trucks of troops entering the country 123 US general Philip M Breedlove said Russian tanks Russian artillery Russian air defence systems and Russian combat troops had been sighted 56 124 NATO said it had seen an increase in Russian tanks artillery pieces and other heavy military equipment in Ukraine and renewed its call for Moscow to withdraw its forces 125 The Chicago Council on Global Affairs stated that Russian separatists enjoyed technical advantages over the Ukrainian army since the large inflow of advanced military systems in mid 2014 effective anti aircraft weapons Buk MANPADS suppressed Ukrainian air strikes Russian drones provided intelligence and Russian secure communications system disrupted Ukrainian communications intelligence The Russian side employed electronic warfare systems that Ukraine lacked Similar conclusions about the technical advantage of the Russian separatists were voiced by the Conflict Studies Research Centre 126 In the 12 November United Nations Security Council meeting the United Kingdom s representative accused Russia of intentionally constraining OSCE observation missions capabilities pointing out that the observers were allowed to monitor only two kilometers of border and drones deployed to extend their capabilities were jammed or shot down 127 non primary source needed Pro Russian rebels in Donetsk in May 2015 Ukraine declared the Russian backed separatist republics from eastern Ukraine to be terrorist organizations 128 In January 2014 Donetsk Luhansk and Mariupol represented the three battle fronts 129 Poroshenko described a dangerous escalation on 21 January amid reports of more than 2 000 additional Russian troops 200 tanks and armed personnel carriers crossing the border He abbreviated his visit to the World Economic Forum because of his concerns 130 A new package of measures to end the conflict known as Minsk II was agreed on 15 February 2015 131 On 18 February Ukrainian forces withdrew from Debatlseve in the last high intensity battle of the Donbas war until 2022 In September 2015 the United Nations Human Rights Office estimated that 8000 casualties had resulted from the conflict 132 A stable line of conflict 2015 2021 Further information Timeline of the war in Donbas 2015 Timeline of the war in Donbas 2016 and Timeline of the war in Donbas 2017 After the Minsk agreements the war settled into static trench warfare around the agreed line of contact with few changes in territorial control The conflict was marked by artillery duels special forces operations and trench warfare Hostilities never ceased for a substantial period of time but continued at a low level despite repeated attempts at ceasefire In the months after the fall of Debaltseve minor skirmishes continued along the line of contact but no territorial changes occurred Both sides began fortifying their position by building networks of trenches bunkers and tunnels turning the conflict into static trench warfare 133 134 The relatively static conflict was labelled a frozen by some 135 but Russia never achieved this as the fighting never stopped 136 137 Between 2014 and 2022 there were 29 ceasefires each agreed to remain in force indefinitely However none of them lasted more than two weeks 138 US and international officials continued to report the active presence of Russian military in eastern Ukraine including in the Debaltseve area 139 In 2015 Russian separatist forces were estimated to number around 36 000 troops compared to 34 000 Ukrainian of whom 8 500 10 000 were Russian soldiers Additionally around 1 000 GRU troops were operating in the area 140 Another 2015 estimate held that Ukrainian forces outnumbered Russian forces 40 000 to 20 000 141 In 2017 on average one Ukrainian soldier died in combat every three days 142 with an estimated 6 000 Russian and 40 000 separatist troops in the region 143 144 Casualties of the war in Donbas Cases of killed and wounded Russian soldiers were discussed in local Russian media 145 Recruiting for Donbas was performed openly via veteran and paramilitary organisations Vladimir Yefimov leader of one such organisation explained how the process worked in the Ural area The organisation recruited mostly army veterans but also policemen firefighters etc with military experience The cost of equipping one volunteer was estimated at 350 000 rubles around 6500 plus salary of 60 000 to 240 000 rubles per month 146 The recruits received weapons only after arriving in the conflict zone Often Russian troops traveled disguised as Red Cross personnel 147 148 149 150 Igor Trunov head of the Russian Red Cross in Moscow condemned these convoys saying they complicated humanitarian aid delivery 151 Russia refused to allow OSCE to expand its mission beyond two border crossings 152 The volunteers were issued a document claiming that their participation was limited to offering humanitarian help to avoid Russian mercenary laws Russia s anti mercenary legislation defined a mercenary as someone who takes part in fighting with aims counter to the interests of the Russian Federation 146 In August 2016 the Ukrainian intelligence service the SBU published telephone intercepts from 2014 of Sergey Glazyev Russian presidential adviser Konstantin Zatulin and other people in which they discussed covert funding of pro Russian activists in Eastern Ukraine the occupation of administration buildings and other actions that triggered the conflict 153 As early as February 2014 Glazyev gave direct instructions to various pro Russian parties on how to take over local administration offices what to do afterwards how to formulate demands and promised support from Russia including sending our guys 154 155 156 Russian backed separatists in May 2016 2018 Kerch Strait incident Main article Kerch Strait incident See also List of Black Sea incidents involving Russia and Ukraine and Timeline of the war in Donbas 2018 The Kerch Strait incident over the passage between the Black and Azov seas Russia gained de facto control of the Kerch Strait in 2014 In 2017 Ukraine appealed to a court of arbitration over the use of the strait By 2018 Russia had built a bridge over the strait limiting the size of ships that could pass through imposed new regulations and repeatedly detained Ukrainian vessels 157 On 25 November 2018 three Ukrainian boats traveling from Odesa to Mariupol were seized by Russian warships 24 Ukrainian sailors were detained 158 159 A day later on 26 November 2018 the Ukrainian parliament overwhelmingly backed the imposition of martial law along Ukraine s coastal regions and those bordering Russia 160 2019 2020 Further information Timeline of the war in Donbas 2019 and Timeline of the war in Donbas 2020 From left Russian President Vladimir Putin French President Emmanuel Macron German Chancellor Angela Merkel and Ukrainian President Volodymyr Zelenskyy in Paris France December 2019 More than 110 Ukrainian soldiers were killed in the conflict in 2019 161 In May 2019 newly elected Ukrainian President Volodymyr Zelenskyy took office promising to end the war in Donbas 161 In December 2019 Ukraine and pro Russian separatists began swapping prisoners of war Around 200 prisoners were exchanged on 29 December 2019 162 163 164 165 According to Ukrainian authorities 50 Ukrainian soldiers were killed in 2020 166 Since 2019 Russia has issued over 650 000 internal Russian passports to Ukrainians 167 168 Russian military buildup around Ukraine 2021 2022 Main article Prelude to the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine Further information Timeline of the war in Donbas 2021 and Timeline of the war in Donbas 2022 From March to April 2021 Russia commenced a major military build up near the border followed by a second build up between October 2021 to February 2022 in Russia and Belarus 169 Throughout the Russian government repeatedly denied it had plans to attack Ukraine 170 171 In early December 2021 following Russian denials the US released intelligence of Russian invasion plans including satellite photographs showing Russian troops and equipment near the border 172 The intelligence reported a Russian list of key sites and individuals to be killed or neutralized 173 The US released multiple reports that accurately predicted the invasion plans 173 Russian accusations and demands Further information Disinformation in the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine and Russian irredentism Ukrainian deputy prime minister Olha Stefanishyna with NATO secretary general Jens Stoltenberg at a conference on 10 January 2022 regarding a potential Russian invasionIn the months preceding the invasion Russian officials accused Ukraine of inciting tensions Russophobia and repressing Russian speakers They made multiple security demands of Ukraine NATO and other EU countries On 9 December 2021 Putin said that Russophobia is a first step towards genocide 174 175 Putin s claims were dismissed by the international community 176 and Russian claims of genocide were rejected as baseless 177 178 179 US paratroopers of 2nd Battalion 503rd Infantry Regiment depart Italy s Aviano Air Base for Latvia 23 February 2022 Thousands of US troops were deployed to Eastern Europe amid Russia s military build up 180 In a 21 February speech 181 Putin questioned the legitimacy of the Ukrainian state repeating an inaccurate claim that Ukraine never had a tradition of genuine statehood 182 He incorrectly stated that Vladimir Lenin had created Ukraine by carving a separate Soviet Republic out of what Putin said was Russian land that Joseph Stalin extended Ukrainian territory with lands from other eastern European countries following the Second World War and that Nikita Khrushchev took Crimea away from Russia for some reason and gave it to Ukraine in 1954 183 Putin falsely claimed that Ukrainian society and government were dominated by neo Nazism invoking the history of collaboration in German occupied Ukraine during World War II 184 185 and echoing an antisemitic conspiracy theory that cast Russian Christians rather than Jews as the true victims of Nazi Germany 186 176 Ukraine does suffer a far right fringe including the neo Nazi linked Azov Battalion and Right Sector 187 185 Analysts described Putin s rhetoric as greatly exaggerated 188 184 Zelenskyy who is Jewish stated that his grandfather served in the Soviet army fighting against the Nazis 189 three of his family members were killed in the Holocaust 188 A U S intelligence assessment map and imagery on Russian military movement nearby the Ukrainian border as on 3 December 2021 It assessed that Russia had deployed about 70 000 military personnel mostly about 100 200 kilometres 62 124 mi from the Ukrainian border with an assessment this could be increased to 175 000 personnel Published by The Washington Post 190 During the second build up Russia issued demands to the US and NATO insisting on a legally binding arrangement preventing Ukraine from ever joining NATO and the removal of multinational forces stationed in NATO s Eastern European member states 191 These demands were rejected by the US and NATO 192 The demand for a formal treaty preventing Ukraine from joining NATO was rejected by Western officials as it would contravene the treaty s open door policy although NATO made no efforts to comply with Ukraine s requests to join 193 Prelude to full invasionFighting in Donbas escalated significantly from 17 February 2022 onwards 194 The Ukrainians and the pro Russian separatists each accused the other of attacks 195 196 There was a sharp increase in artillery shelling by the Russian led militants in Donbas which was considered by Ukraine and its allies to be an attempt to provoke the Ukrainian army or create a pretext for invasion 197 198 199 On 18 February the Donetsk and Luhansk people s republics ordered mandatory emergency evacuations of civilians from their respective capital cities 200 201 202 although observers noted that full evacuations would take months 203 The Russian government intensified its disinformation campaign with Russian state media promoting fabricated videos false flags on a nearly hourly basis purporting to show Ukrainian forces attacking Russia 204 Many of the disinformation videos were amateurish and evidence showed that the claimed attacks explosions and evacuations in Donbas were staged by Russia 204 205 206 source source source source source source source source source source source source track track track track track track track track track Putin s address to the nation on 21 February English subtitles available On 21 February at 22 35 UTC 3 207 Putin announced that the Russian government would diplomatically recognize the Donetsk and Luhansk people s republics 208 The same evening Putin directed that Russian troops deploy into Donbas in what Russia referred to as a peacekeeping mission 209 210 On 22 February the Federation Council unanimously authorised Putin to use military force outside Russia 211 In response Zelenskyy ordered the conscription of army reservists 212 The following day Ukraine s parliament proclaimed a 30 day nationwide state of emergency and ordered the mobilisation of all reservists 213 214 215 Russia began to evacuate its embassy in Kyiv 216 On the night of 23 February 217 Zelenskyy gave a speech in Russian in which he appealed to the citizens of Russia to prevent war 218 219 He rejected Russia s claims about neo Nazis and stated that he had no intention of attacking the Donbas 220 Kremlin spokesman Dmitry Peskov said on 23 February that the separatist leaders in Donetsk and Luhansk had sent a letter to Putin stating that Ukrainian shelling had caused civilian deaths and appealing for military support 221 Full scale Russian invasion of Ukraine 2022 2023 For a chronological guide see Timeline of the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine Animated map of Russia s invasion of Ukraine through 5 December 2022 click to play animation The 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine began on the morning of 24 February 222 when Putin announced a special military operation to demilitarise and denazify Ukraine 223 224 Minutes later missiles and airstrikes hit across Ukraine including Kyiv shortly followed by a large ground invasion along multiple fronts 225 226 Zelenskyy declared martial law and a general mobilisation of all male Ukrainian citizens between 18 and 60 who were banned from leaving the country 227 228 Russian attacks were initially launched on a northern front from Belarus towards Kyiv a north eastern front towards Kharkiv a southern front from Crimea and a south eastern front from Luhansk and Donetsk 229 230 In the northern front amidst heavy losses and strong Ukrainian resistance surrounding Kyiv Russia s advance stalled in March and by April its troops retreated On 8 April Russia placed its forces in southern and eastern Ukraine under the command of General Aleksandr Dvornikov and some units withdrawn from the north were redeployed to the Donbas 231 On 19 April Russia launched a renewed attack across a 500 kilometres 300 mi long front extending from Kharkiv to Donetsk and Luhansk 232 By 13 May a Ukraine counter offensive had driven back Russian forces near Kharkiv By 20 May Mariupol fell to Russian troops following a prolonged siege of the Azovstal steel works 233 234 Russian forces continued to bomb both military and civilian targets far from the frontline 235 236 The war caused the largest refugee and humanitarian crisis within Europe since the Yugoslav Wars in the 1990s 237 238 the UN described it as the fastest growing such crisis since World War II 239 In the first week of the invasion the UN reported over a million refugees had fled Ukraine this subsequently rose to over 7 405 590 by 24 September a reduction from over eight million due to some refugees return 240 241 Ukrainian forces launched counteroffensives in the south in August and in the northeast in September On 30 September Russia annexed four oblasts of Ukraine which it had partially conquered during the invasion 242 This annexation was generally unrecognized and condemned by the countries of the world 243 After Putin announced that he would begin conscription drawn from the 300 000 citizens with military training and potentially the pool of about 25 million Russians who could be eligible for conscription one way tickets out of the country nearly or completely sold out 244 245 The Ukrainian offensive in the northeast successfully recaptured the majority of Kharkiv Oblast in September In the course of the southern counteroffensive Ukraine retook the city of Kherson in November and Russian forces withdrew to the east bank of the Dnieper River citation needed The invasion was internationally condemned as a war of aggression 246 247 A United Nations General Assembly resolution demanded a full withdrawal of Russian forces the International Court of Justice ordered Russia to suspend military operations and the Council of Europe expelled Russia Many countries imposed new sanctions which affected the economies of Russia and the world 248 and provided humanitarian and military aid to Ukraine 249 In September 2022 Putin signed a law that would punish anyone who resists conscription with a 10 year prison sentence 250 resulting in an international push to allow asylum for Russians fleeing conscription 251 According to The New York Times as of February 2023 the number of Russian troops killed and wounded in Ukraine is approaching 200 000 252 Human rights violationsSee also Casualties of the Russo Ukrainian War Humanitarian situation during the war in Donbas and Russian war crimes Ukraine Violations of human rights and atrocity crimes have both occurred during the war From 2014 to 2021 there were more than 3 000 civilian casualties with most occurring in 2014 and 2015 253 The right of movement was impeded for the inhabitants of the conflict zone 254 Arbitrary detention was practiced by both sides in the first years of the conflict It decreased after 2016 in government held areas while in the separatist held ones it continued 255 The investigation into the abuses including torture committed by both sides made little progress 256 257 According to OHCHR the closure of three TV channels amounted to a violation of the freedom of expression 256 There were cases of conflict related sexual violence however OHCHR believes that there are no grounds to believe that sexual violence has been used for strategic or tactical ends by Government forces or the armed groups in the eastern regions of Ukraine 258 OHCHR estimates that from 2014 to 2021 around 4 000 detainees were subjected to torture and ill treatment approximately 1 500 by government actors and 2 500 by separatist armed groups and reckons that around 340 of them were also victims of sexual violence 259 Related issuesGas disputes See also Russia Ukraine gas disputes Nord Stream Nord Stream 2 and Russia in the European energy sector Major Russian natural gas pipelines to Europe Europe TTF natural gas Until 2014 Ukraine was the main transit route for Russian natural gas sold to Europe which earned Ukraine about US 3 billion a year in transit fees making it the country s most lucrative export service 260 Following Russia s launch of the Nord Stream pipeline which bypasses Ukraine gas transit volumes steadily decreased 260 Following the start of the Russo Ukrainian War in February 2014 severe tensions extended to the gas sector 261 262 The subsequent outbreak of war in the Donbas region forced the suspension of a project to develop Ukraine s own shale gas reserves at the Yuzivska gas field which had been planned as a way to reduce Ukrainian dependence on Russian gas imports 263 Eventually the EU commissioner for energy Gunther Oettinger was called in to broker a deal securing supplies to Ukraine and transit to the EU 264 An explosion damaged a Ukrainian portion of the Urengoy Pomary Uzhhorod pipeline in Ivano Frankivsk Oblast in May 2014 Ukrainian officials blamed Russian terrorists 265 Another section of the pipeline exploded in the Poltava Oblast on 17 June 2014 one day after Russia limited the supply of gas to Ukrainian customers due to non payment Ukraine s Interior Minister Arsen Avakov said the following day that the explosion had been caused by a bomb 266 In 2015 Russian state media reported that Russia planned to completely abandon gas supplies to Europe through Ukraine after 2018 267 268 Russia s state owned energy giant Gazprom had already substantially reduced the volumes of gas transited across Ukraine and expressed its intention to reduce the level further by means of transit diversification pipelines Turkish Stream Nord Stream etc 269 Gazprom and Ukraine agreed to a five year deal on Russian gas transit to Europe at the end of 2019 270 271 In 2020 the TurkStream natural gas pipeline running from Russia to Turkey changed the regional gas flows in South East Europe by diverting the transit through Ukraine and the Trans Balkan Pipeline system 272 273 In May 2021 the Biden administration waived Trump s CAATSA sanctions on the company behind Russia s Nord Stream 2 gas pipeline to Germany 274 275 Ukrainian President Zelenskyy said he was surprised and disappointed by Joe Biden s decision 276 In July 2021 the U S urged Ukraine not to criticise a forthcoming agreement with Germany over the pipeline 277 278 In July 2021 Biden and German Chancellor Angela Merkel concluded a deal that the U S might trigger sanctions if Russia used Nord Stream as a political weapon The deal aimed to prevent Poland and Ukraine from being cut off from Russian gas supplies Ukraine will get a 50 million loan for green technology until 2024 and Germany will set up a billion dollar fund to promote Ukraine s transition to green energy to compensate for the loss of the gas transit fees The contract for transiting Russian gas through Ukraine will be prolonged until 2034 if the Russian government agrees 279 280 281 In August 2021 Zelenskyy warned that the Nord Stream 2 natural gas pipeline between Russia and Germany was a dangerous weapon not only for Ukraine but for the whole of Europe 282 283 In September 2021 Ukraine s Naftogaz CEO Yuriy Vitrenko accused Russia of using natural gas as a geopolitical weapon 284 Vitrenko stated that A joint statement from the United States and Germany said that if the Kremlin used gas as a weapon there would be an appropriate response We are now waiting for the imposition of sanctions on a 100 subsidiary of Gazprom the operator of Nord Stream 2 285 Hybrid warfare The Russo Ukrainian conflict has also included elements of hybrid warfare using non traditional means Cyberwarfare has been used by Russia in operations including successful attacks on the Ukraine power grid in December 2015 and in December 2016 which was the first successful cyber attack on a power grid 286 and the Mass hacker supply chain attack in June 2017 which the US claimed was the largest known cyber attack 287 In retaliation Ukrainian operations have included the Surkov Leaks in October 2016 which released 2 337 e mails in relation to Russian plans for seizing Crimea from Ukraine and fomenting separatist unrest in Donbas 288 The Russian information war against Ukraine has been another front of hybrid warfare waged by Russia A Russian fifth column in Ukraine has also been claimed to exist among the Party of Regions the Communist Party the Progressive Socialist Party and the Russian Orthodox Church 289 290 291 Russian propaganda and disinformation campaigns Main articles Russian information war against Ukraine and Disinformation in the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine Further information Russian disinformation in the post Soviet era Pro Kremlin TV and radio host Vladimir Solovyov voiced support for his country s invasion of Ukraine 292 False stories have been used to provoke public outrage during the war In April 2014 Russian news channels Russia 1 and NTV showed a man saying he was attacked by a fascist Ukrainian gang on one channel and on the other channel saying he was funding the training of right wing anti Russia radicals 293 294 A third segment portrayed the man as a neo Nazi surgeon 295 In May 2014 Russia 1 aired a story about Ukrainian atrocities using footage of a 2012 Russian operation in North Caucasus 296 In the same month the Russian news network Life presented a 2013 photograph of a wounded child in Syria as a victim of Ukrainian troops who had just retaken Donetsk International Airport 297 In June 2014 several Russian state news outlets reported that Ukraine was using white phosphorus using 2004 footage of white phosphorus being used by the United States in Iraq 296 In July 2014 Channel One Russia broadcast an interview with a woman who said that a 3 year old boy who spoke Russian was crucified by Ukrainian nationalists in a fictitious square in Sloviansk that turned out to be false 298 299 294 296 In 2022 Russian state media told stories of genocide and mass graves full of ethnic Russians in eastern Ukraine One set of graves outside Luhansk was dug when intense fighting in 2014 cut off the electricity in the local morgue Amnesty International investigated 2014 Russian claims of mass graves filled with hundreds of bodies and instead found isolated incidents of extrajudicial executions by both sides 300 301 302 Russian artist Alexandra Skochilenko was arrested for replacing price tags in supermarkets with anti war messages 303 The Russian censorship apparatus Roskomnadzor ordered the country s media to employ information only from Russian state sources or face fines and blocks 304 and ordered media and schools to describe the war as a special military operation 305 On 4 March 2022 Putin signed into law a bill introducing prison sentences of up to 15 years for those who publish fake news about the Russian military and its operations 306 leading to some media outlets to stop reporting on Ukraine 307 Russia s opposition politician Alexei Navalny said the monstrosity of lies in the Russian state media is unimaginable And unfortunately so is its persuasiveness for those who have no access to alternative information 308 He tweeted that warmongers among Russian state media personalities should be treated as war criminals From the editors in chief to the talk show hosts to the news editors they should be sanctioned now and tried someday 309 Putin and Russian media have described the government of Ukraine as being led by neo Nazis persecuting ethnic Russians who are in need of protection by Russia despite Ukraine s President Zelenskyy being Jewish 310 311 301 According to journalist Natalia Antonova Russia s present day war of aggression is refashioned by propaganda into a direct continuation of the legacy of the millions of Russian soldiers who died to stop Nazi Germany in World War II 312 Ukraine s rejection of the adoption of Russia initiated General Assembly resolutions on combating the glorification of Nazism the latest iteration of which is General Assembly Resolution A C 3 76 L 57 Rev 1 on Combating Glorification of Nazism Neo Nazism and other Practices that Contribute to Fueling Contemporary Forms of Racism Racial Discrimination Xenophobia and Related Intolerance serve to present Ukraine as a pro Nazi state and indeed likely forms the basis for Russia s claims with the only other state rejecting the adoption of the resolution being the US 313 314 The Deputy US Representative for ECOSOC describes such resolutions as thinly veiled attempts to legitimize Russian disinformation campaigns denigrating neighboring nations and promoting the distorted Soviet narrative of much of contemporary European history using the cynical guise of halting Nazi glorification 315 NAFO North Atlantic Fellas Organization a loose cadre of online shitposters vowing to fight Russian disinformation generally identified by cartoon Shiba Inu dogs in social media gained notoriety after June 2022 in the wake of a Twitter quarrel with Russian diplomat Mikhail Ulyanov 316 Russia NATO relations Main article Russia NATO relations Russian military aircraft flying over the Baltic and Black Seas often do not indicate their position or communicate with air traffic controllers thus posing a potential risk to civilian airliners NATO aircraft scrambled many times in late April 2022 in order to track and intercept these aircraft near alliance airspace The Russian aircraft intercepted never entered NATO airspace and the interceptions were conducted in a safe and routine manner 317 Although Russian Foreign Minister Sergey Lavrov has characterized the conflict as a proxy war instigated by NATO 318 he said We don t think we re at war with NATO Unfortunately NATO believes it is at war with Russia 319 British Prime Minister Boris Johnson rejected Lavrov s allegation that NATO is fighting a proxy war in Ukraine 320 Former CIA director Leon Panetta told the ABC that the U S is without question involved in a proxy war with Russia 321 International reactionsSee also Second Cold War Reactions to the Russian annexation of Crimea Main article International reactions to the annexation of Crimea by the Russian Federation Ukrainian response Following Russia s annexation of Crimea Ukraine blocked the North Crimean Canal which provided 85 of Crimea s drinking and irrigation water 322 Interim Ukrainian President Oleksandr Turchynov accused Russia of provoking a conflict by backing the seizure of the Crimean parliament building and other government offices on the Crimean peninsula He compared Russia s military actions to the 2008 Russo Georgian War when Russian troops occupied parts of the Republic of Georgia and the breakaway enclaves of Abkhazia and South Ossetia were established under the control of Russian backed administrations He called on Putin to withdraw Russian troops from Crimea and stated that Ukraine will preserve its territory and defend its independence 323 On 1 March he warned Military intervention would be the beginning of war and the end of any relations between Ukraine and Russia 324 On 1 March Acting President Oleksandr Turchynov placed the Armed Forces of Ukraine on full alert and combat readiness 325 The Ministry of Temporarily Occupied Territories and IDPs was established by Ukrainian government on 20 April 2016 to manage occupied parts of Donetsk Luhansk and Crimea regions affected by Russian military intervention of 2014 326 NATO and United States military response Further information Operation Atlantic Resolve European Deterrence Initiative NATO Enhanced Forward Presence and Russia NATO relations A U S Army convoy in Vilseck Germany during Operation Atlantic Resolve NATO s efforts to reassert its military presence in central and eastern Europe that began in April 2014 On 4 March 2014 the United States pledged 1 billion in aid to Ukraine 327 Russia s actions increased tensions in nearby countries historically within its sphere of influence particularly the Baltic and Moldova All have large Russian speaking populations and Russian troops are stationed in the breakaway Moldovan territory of Transnistria 328 Some devoted resources to increasing defensive capabilities 329 and many requested increased support from the U S and the North Atlantic Treaty Organization which they had joined in recent years 328 329 The conflict reinvigorated NATO which had been created to face the Soviet Union but had devoted more resources to expeditionary missions in recent years 330 In addition to diplomatic support in its conflict with Russia the U S provided Ukraine with US 1 5 billion in military aid during the 2010s 331 In 2018 the U S House of Representatives passed a provision blocking any training of Azov Battalion of the Ukrainian National Guard by American forces In previous years between 2014 and 2017 the U S House of Representatives passed amendments banning support of Azov but due to pressure from the Pentagon the amendments were quietly lifted 332 333 334 Financial markets The initial reaction to the escalation of tensions in Crimea caused the Russian and European stock market to tumble 335 The intervention caused the Swiss franc to climb to a 2 year high against the dollar and 1 year high against the Euro The Euro and the US dollar both rose as did the Australian dollar 336 The Russian stock market declined by more than 10 percent while the Russian ruble hit all time lows against the US dollar and the Euro 337 338 339 The Russian central bank hiked interest rates and intervened in the foreign exchange markets to the tune of 12 billion clarification needed to try to stabilize its currency 336 Prices for wheat and grain rose with Ukraine being a major exporter of both crops 340 Later in March 2014 the reaction of the financial markets to the Crimea annexation was surprisingly mellow with global financial markets rising immediately after the referendum held in Crimea one explanation being that the sanctions were already priced in following the earlier Russian incursion 341 Other observers considered that the positive reaction of the global financial markets on Monday 17 March 2014 after the announcement of sanctions against Russia by the EU and the US revealed that these sanctions were too weak to hurt Russia 342 In early August 2014 the German DAX was down by 6 percent for the year and 11 percent since June over concerns Russia Germany s 13th biggest trade partner would retaliate against sanctions 343 Reactions to the Russian intervention in the Donbas Further information International reactions to the war in Donbas Peace march in Moscow 21 September 2014 Pro Russian supporters in Donetsk 20 December 2014 Ukrainian public opinion See also Putin khuylo A poll of the Ukrainian public excluding Russian annexed Crimea was taken by the International Republican Institute from 12 to 25 September 2014 344 89 of those polled opposed 2014 Russian military intervention in Ukraine As broken down by region 78 of those polled from Eastern Ukraine including Dnipropetrovsk Oblast opposed said intervention along with 89 in Southern Ukraine 93 in Central Ukraine and 99 in Western Ukraine 344 As broken down by native language 79 of Russian speakers and 95 of Ukrainian speakers opposed the intervention 80 of those polled said the country should remain a unitary country 344 A poll of the Crimean public in Russian annexed Crimea was taken by the Ukrainian branch of Germany s biggest market research organization GfK on 16 22 January 2015 According to its results Eighty two percent of those polled said they fully supported Crimea s inclusion in Russia and another 11 percent expressed partial support Only 4 percent spoke out against it 345 346 347 A joint poll conducted by Levada and the Kyiv International Institute of Sociology from September to October 2020 found that in the breakaway regions controlled by the DPR LNR just over half of the respondents wanted to join Russia either with or without some autonomous status while less than one tenth wanted independence and 12 wanted reintegration into Ukraine It contrasted with respondents in Kyiv controlled Donbas where a vast majority felt the separatist regions should be returned to Ukraine 348 According to results from Levada in January 2022 roughly 70 of those in the breakaway regions said their territories should become part of the Russian Federation 349 Russian public opinion See also 2014 anti war protests in Russia An August 2014 survey by the Levada Centre reported that only 13 of those Russians polled would support the Russian government in an open war with Ukraine 350 Street protests against the war in Ukraine arose in Russia Notable protests first occurred in March 351 352 and large protests occurred in September when tens of thousands protested the war in Ukraine with a peace march in downtown Moscow on Sunday 21 September 2014 under heavy police supervision 353 Reactions to the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine Main article Reactions to the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine See also List of foreign aid to Ukraine during the Russo Ukrainian War Ukrainian public opinion Ukrainian refugees in Krakow protest against the war 6 March 2022 In March 2022 a week after the Russian invasion of Ukraine 98 of Ukrainians including 82 of ethnic Russians living in Ukraine said they did not believe that any part of Ukraine was rightfully part of Russia according to Lord Ashcroft s polls which did not include Crimea and the separatist controlled part of Donbas 97 of Ukrainians said they had an unfavourable view of Russian President Vladimir Putin with a further 94 saying they had an unfavourable view of the Russian Armed Forces 354 At the end of 2021 75 of Ukrainians said they had a positive attitude toward ordinary Russians while in May 2022 82 of Ukrainians said they had a negative attitude toward ordinary Russians 355 Russian public opinion An April 2022 survey by the Levada Centre reported that approximately 74 of the Russians polled supported the special military operation in Ukraine suggesting that Russian public opinion has shifted considerably since 2014 356 According to some sources a reason many Russians supported the special military operation has to do with the propaganda and disinformation 357 358 In addition it has been suggested that some respondents did not want to answer pollsters questions for fear of negative consequences 359 360 At the end of March a poll conducted in Russia by the Levada Center concluded the following When asked why they think the military operation is taking place respondents said it was to protect and defend civilians ethnic Russians or Russian speakers in Ukraine 43 to prevent an attack on Russia 25 to get rid of nationalists and denazify Ukraine 21 and to incorporate Ukraine or the Donbas region into Russia 3 361 United States On 28 April 2022 US President Joe Biden asked Congress for an additional 33 billion to assist Ukraine including 20 billion to provide weapons to Ukraine 362 On 5 May Ukraine s Prime Minister Denys Shmyhal announced that Ukraine had received more than 12 billion worth of weapons and financial aid from Western countries since the start of Russia s invasion on 24 February 363 On 21 May 2022 the United States passed legislation providing 40 billion in new military and humanitarian foreign aid to Ukraine marking a historically large commitment of funds 364 365 In August 2022 U S defense spending to counter the Russian war effort exceeded the first 5 years of war costs in Afghanistan The Washington Post reported that new U S weapons delivered to the Ukrainian war front suggest a closer combat scenario with more casualties 366 The United States looks to build enduring strength in Ukraine with increased arms shipments and a record breaking 3 billion military aid package 366 Russian military suppliers After expending large amounts of heavy weapons and munitions over months the Russian Federation received combat drones and loitering munitions from Iran deliveries of tanks and other armoured vehicles from Belarus and reportedly planned to trade for artillery ammunition from North Korea and ballistic missiles from Iran 367 368 369 370 See also Modern history portal Politics portal Russia portal Ukraine portal War portalOutline of the Russo Ukrainian War List of conflicts in Europe List of invasions and occupations of Ukraine List of ongoing armed conflicts List of wars involving Russia List of wars involving Ukraine Modern history of Ukraine New generation warfare Russia under Vladimir PutinNotes For further details see Belarusian involvement in the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine There remain some contradictions and inherent problems regarding the date on which the annexation began 371 Ukraine claims 20 February 2014 as the beginning of the temporary occupation of Crimea and Sevastopol by Russia citing the timeframe inscribed on the Russian medal For the Return of Crimea 372 and in 2015 the Ukrainian parliament officially designated the date as such 373 On 20 February 2014 Vladimir Konstantinov who at that time was a chairman of the republican council of Crimea and representing the Party of Regions expressed his thoughts about secession of the region from Ukraine 374 On 23 February 2014 the Russian ambassador to Ukraine Mikhail Zurabov was recalled to Moscow due to a worsening of the situation in Ukraine In early March 2015 President Putin stated in a Russian movie about the annexation of Crimea that he ordered the operation to restore Crimea to Russia following an all night emergency meeting on 22 23 February 2014 371 375 and in 2018 the Russian Foreign Minister claimed that the earlier start date on the medal was due to a technical misunderstanding 376 Russian possijsko ukrainskaya vojna romanized rossiysko ukrainskaya voyna Ukrainian rosijsko ukrayinska vijna romanized rosiisko ukrainska viina Many countries have provided various levels of support to Ukraine short of becoming belligerents in the war while Belarus has provided Russian forces territorial access for the 2022 invasion References Maps Tracking the Russian Invasion of Ukraine The New York Times 14 February 2022 ISSN 0362 4331 Retrieved 3 February 2023 Revisiting Ukraine s Nuclear Past Will Not Help Secure Its Future Mariana Budjeryn Lawfare 21 May 2021 Budjeryn Mariana Issue Brief 3 The Breach Ukraine s Territorial Integrity and the Budapest Memorandum PDF Woodrow 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