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Terrorism

January 21, 2023

"Terrorist" redirects here. For other uses, see Terrorist (disambiguation).

Terrorism, in its broadest sense, is the use of criminal violence to provoke a state of terror or fear, mostly with the intention to achieve political or religious aims. The term is used in this regard primarily to refer to intentional violence during peacetime or in the context of war against non-combatants (mostly civilians and neutral military personnel).[1] The terms "terrorist" and "terrorism" originated during the French Revolution of the late 18th century[2] but became widely used internationally and gained worldwide attention in the 1970s during the Troubles in Northern Ireland, the Basque conflict, and the Israeli–Palestinian conflict. The increased use of suicide attacks from the 1980s onwards was typified by the 2001 September 11 attacks in the United States.

United Airlines Flight 175 hits the South Tower of the World Trade Center during the September 11 attacks of 2001 in New York City.

There are various different definitions of terrorism, with no universal agreement about it.[3][4] Terrorism is a charged term. It is often used with the connotation of something that is "morally wrong". Governments and non-state groups use the term to abuse or denounce opposing groups.[4][5][6][7][8] Varied political organizations have been accused of using terrorism to achieve their objectives. These include left-wing and right-wing political organizations, nationalist groups, religious groups, revolutionaries and ruling governments.[9] Legislation declaring terrorism a crime has been adopted in many states.[10] State terrorism is that perpetrated by nation states, but is not considered such by the state conducting it, making legality a grey area.[11] There is no consensus as to whether terrorism should be regarded as a war crime.[10][12]

The Global Terrorism Database, maintained by the University of Maryland, College Park, has recorded more than 61,000 incidents of non-state terrorism, resulting in at least 140,000 deaths, between 2000 and 2014.[13]

Etymology

Etymologically, the word terror is derived from the Latin verb Tersere, which later becomes Terrere. The latter form appears in European languages as early as the 12th century; its first known use in French is the word terrible in 1160. By 1356 the word terreur is in use. Terreur is the origin of the Middle English term terrour, which later becomes the modern word "terror".[14]

Historical background

Main article: Reign of Terror
 
Seal of the Jacobin Club: 'Society of the Jacobins, Friends of Freedom and Equality'

The term terroriste, meaning "terrorist", is first used in 1794 by the French philosopher François-Noël Babeuf, who denounces Maximilien Robespierre's Jacobin regime as a dictatorship.[15][16] In the years leading up to what became known as the Reign of Terror, the Brunswick Manifesto threatened Paris with an "exemplary, never to be forgotten vengeance: the city would be subjected to military punishment and total destruction" if the royal family was harmed, but this only increased the Revolution's will to abolish the monarchy.[17] Some writers attitudes about French Revolution grew less favorable after the French monarchy was abolished in 1792. During the Reign of Terror, which began in July 1793 and lasted thirteen months, Paris was governed by the Committee of Public Safety who oversaw a regime of mass executions and public purges.[18]

Prior to the French Revolution, ancient philosophers wrote about tyrannicide, as tyranny was seen as the greatest political threat to Greco-Roman civilization. Medieval philosophers were similarly occupied with the concept of tyranny, though the analysis of some theologians like Thomas Aquinas drew a distinction between usurpers, who could be killed by anyone, and legitimate rulers who abused their power—the latter, in Aquinas' view, could only be punished by a public authority. John of Salisbury was the first medieval Christian scholar to defend tyrannicide.[14]

 
General Napoléon Bonaparte quelling the October 5, 1795 royalist rebellion in Paris, in front of the Église Saint-Roch, Saint-Honoré Street, paving the way for Directory government.

Most scholars today trace the origins of the modern tactic of terrorism to the Jewish Sicarii Zealots who attacked Romans and Jews in 1st-century Palestine. They follow its development from the Persian Order of Assassins through to 19th-century anarchists. The "Reign of Terror" is usually regarded as an issue of etymology. The term terrorism has generally been used to describe violence by non-state actors rather than government violence since the 19th-century Anarchist Movement.[17][19][20]

In December 1795, Edmund Burke used the word "Terrorists" in a description of the new French government called 'Directory':[21]

At length, after a terrible struggle, the [Directory] Troops prevailed over the Citizens ... To secure them further, they have a strong corps of irregulars, ready armed. Thousands of those Hell-hounds called Terrorists, whom they had shut up in Prison on their last Revolution, as the Satellites of Tyranny, are let loose on the people.(emphasis added)

The terms "terrorism" and "terrorist" gained renewed currency in the 1970s as a result of the Israeli–Palestinian conflict,[22] the Northern Ireland conflict,[23] the Basque conflict,[24] and the operations of groups such as the Red Army Faction.[25] Leila Khaled was described as a terrorist in a 1970 issue of Life magazine.[26] A number of books on terrorism were published in the 1970s.[27] The topic came further to the fore after the 1983 Beirut barracks bombings[7] and again after the 2001 September 11 attacks[7][28][29] and the 2002 Bali bombings.[7]

Modern definitions

See also: Definitions of terrorism
 
Attack at the Bologna railway station on August 2, 1980, by the neo-fascist group Nuclei Armati Rivoluzionari. With 85 deaths, it is the deadliest massacre in the history of Italy as a Republic.
 
Aftermath of the 2002 bomb attack at the Myyrmanni shopping mall in Myyrmäki, Vantaa, Finland. The bombing was especially shocking for Finland and the other Nordic countries, where bombings are extremely rare.[30]
 
The Beslan school siege by Chechen rebels on September 1, 2004. It was the deadliest massacre in the history of Russia in the 21st century.

In 2006 it was estimated that there were over 109 different definitions of terrorism.[31] American political philosopher Michael Walzer in 2002 wrote: "Terrorism is the deliberate killing of innocent people, at random, to spread fear through a whole population and force the hand of its political leaders".[4] Bruce Hoffman, an American scholar, has noted that it is not only individual agencies within the same governmental apparatus that cannot agree on a single definition of terrorism. Experts and other long-established scholars in the field are equally incapable of reaching a consensus.[32]

C. A. J. Coady has written that the question of how to define terrorism is "irresolvable" because "its natural home is in polemical, ideological and propagandist contexts".[11]

Experts disagree about "whether terrorism is wrong by definition or just wrong as a matter of fact; they disagree about whether terrorism should be defined in terms of its aims, or its methods, or both, or neither; they disagree about whether states can perpetrate terrorism; they even disagree about the importance or otherwise of terror for a definition of terrorism."[11]

State terrorism

Main article: State terrorism

State terrorism refers to acts of terrorism conducted by a state against its own citizens or against another state.[33]

United Nations

In November 2004, a Secretary-General of the United Nations report described terrorism as any act "intended to cause death or serious bodily harm to civilians or non-combatants with the purpose of intimidating a population or compelling a government or an international organization to do or abstain from doing any act".[34] The international community has been slow to formulate a universally agreed, legally binding definition of this crime. These difficulties arise from the fact that the term "terrorism" is politically and emotionally charged.[35][36] In this regard, Angus Martyn, briefing the Australian parliament, stated,

The international community has never succeeded in developing an accepted comprehensive definition of terrorism. During the 1970s and 1980s, the United Nations attempts to define the term floundered mainly due to differences of opinion between various members about the use of violence in the context of conflicts over national liberation and self-determination.[37]

These divergences have made it impossible for the United Nations to conclude a Comprehensive Convention on International Terrorism that incorporates a single, all-encompassing, legally binding, criminal law definition of terrorism.[38] The international community has adopted a series of sectoral conventions that define and criminalize various types of terrorist activities.

Since 1994, the United Nations General Assembly has repeatedly condemned terrorist acts using the following political description of terrorism:

Criminal acts intended or calculated to provoke a state of terror in the public, a group of persons or particular persons for political purposes are in any circumstance unjustifiable, whatever the considerations of a political, philosophical, ideological, racial, ethnic, religious or any other nature that may be invoked to justify them.[39]

U.S. law

Various legal systems and government agencies use different definitions of terrorism in their national legislation.

U.S. Code Title 22 Chapter 38, Section 2656f(d) defines terrorism as: "Premeditated, politically motivated violence perpetrated against noncombatant targets by subnational groups or clandestine agents".[40]

18 U.S.C. § 2331 defines "international terrorism" and "domestic terrorism" for purposes of Chapter 113B of the Code, entitled "Terrorism":

"International terrorism" means activities with the following three characteristics:[41]

Involve violent acts or acts dangerous to human life that violate federal or state law;

Appear to be intended (i) to intimidate or coerce a civilian population; (ii) to influence the policy of a government by intimidation or coercion; or (iii) to affect the conduct of a government by mass destruction, assassination, or kidnapping; and

occur primarily outside the territorial jurisdiction of the U.S., or transcend national boundaries in terms of the means by which they are accomplished, the persons they appear intended to intimidate or coerce, or the locale in which their perpetrators operate or seek asylum.

Media spectacle

A definition proposed by Carsten Bockstette at the George C. Marshall European Center for Security Studies, underlines the psychological and tactical aspects of terrorism:

Terrorism is defined as political violence in an asymmetrical conflict that is designed to induce terror and psychic fear (sometimes indiscriminate) through the violent victimization and destruction of noncombatant targets (sometimes iconic symbols). Such acts are meant to send a message from an illicit clandestine organization. The purpose of terrorism is to exploit the media in order to achieve maximum attainable publicity as an amplifying force multiplier in order to influence the targeted audience(s) in order to reach short- and midterm political goals and/or desired long-term end states.[42]

Terrorists attack national symbols, which may negatively affect a government, while increasing the prestige of the given terrorist group or its ideology.[43]

Political violence

See also: Political violence
 
Luis Posada and CORU are widely considered responsible for the 1976 bombing of a Cuban airliner that killed 73 people.[44]

Terrorist acts frequently have a political purpose.[45] Some official, governmental definitions of terrorism use the criterion of the illegitimacy or unlawfulness of the act.[46][better source needed] to distinguish between actions authorized by a government (and thus "lawful") and those of other actors, including individuals and small groups. For example, carrying out a strategic bombing on an enemy city, which is designed to affect civilian support for a cause, would not be considered terrorism if it were authorized by a government. This criterion is inherently problematic and is not universally accepted,[attribution needed] because: it denies the existence of state terrorism.[47] An associated term is violent non-state actor.[48]

According to Ali Khan, the distinction lies ultimately in a political judgment.[49]

Pejorative use

Having the connotation of "something morally wrong", the term "terrorism" is often used to abuse or denounce opposite parties, either governments or non-state groups.[4][5][6][7][8] An example of this is the terruqueo political attack used by right-wing groups in Peru to target leftist groups or those opposed to the neoliberal status quo, likening opponents to guerillas from the internal conflict in Peru.[50][51][52]

Those labeled "terrorists" by their opponents rarely identify themselves as such, and typically use other terms or terms specific to their situation, such as separatist, freedom fighter, liberator, revolutionary, vigilante, militant, paramilitary, guerrilla, rebel, patriot, or any similar-meaning word in other languages and cultures. Jihadi, mujahideen, and fedayeen are similar Arabic words that have entered the English lexicon. It is common for both parties in a conflict to describe each other as terrorists.[53]

On whether particular terrorist acts, such as killing non-combatants, can be justified as the lesser evil in a particular circumstance, philosophers have expressed different views: while, according to David Rodin, utilitarian philosophers can (in theory) conceive of cases in which the evil of terrorism is outweighed by the good that could not be achieved in a less morally costly way, in practice the "harmful effects of undermining the convention of non-combatant immunity is thought to outweigh the goods that may be achieved by particular acts of terrorism".[54] Among the non-utilitarian philosophers, Michael Walzer argued that terrorism can be morally justified in only one specific case: when "a nation or community faces the extreme threat of complete destruction and the only way it can preserve itself is by intentionally targeting non-combatants,then it is morally entitled to do so".[54][55]

In his book Inside Terrorism Bruce Hoffman offered an explanation of why the term terrorism becomes distorted:

On one point, at least, everyone agrees: terrorism is a pejorative term. It is a word with intrinsically negative connotations that is generally applied to one's enemies and opponents, or to those with whom one disagrees and would otherwise prefer to ignore. 'What is called terrorism,' Brian Jenkins has written, 'thus seems to depend on one's point of view. Use of the term implies a moral judgment; and if one party can successfully attach the label terrorist to its opponent, then it has indirectly persuaded others to adopt its moral viewpoint.' Hence the decision to call someone or label some organization terrorist becomes almost unavoidably subjective, depending largely on whether one sympathizes with or opposes the person/group/cause concerned. If one identifies with the victim of the violence, for example, then the act is terrorism. If, however, one identifies with the perpetrator, the violent act is regarded in a more sympathetic, if not positive (or, at the worst, an ambivalent) light; and it is not terrorism.[35][56]

The pejorative connotations of the word can be summed up in the aphorism, "One man's terrorist is another man's freedom fighter".[53] This is exemplified when a group using irregular military methods is an ally of a state against a mutual enemy, but later falls out with the state and starts to use those methods against its former ally.

 
President Reagan meeting with Afghan Mujahideen leaders in the Oval Office in 1983

During the Second World War, the Malayan People's Anti-Japanese Army were allied with the British, but during the Malayan Emergency, members of its successor organisation (the Malayan National Liberation Army) started campaigns against them, and were branded "terrorists" as a result.[57][58] More recently, Ronald Reagan and others in the American administration frequently called the mujaheddin "freedom fighters" during the Soviet–Afghan War,[59] however twenty years later, when a new generation of Afghan men (militant groups like the Taliban and allies) were fighting against what they perceive to be a regime installed by foreign powers, their attacks were labelled terrorism by George W. Bush.[60][61][62]

Groups accused of terrorism understandably prefer terms reflecting legitimate military or ideological action.[63][64][65] Leading terrorism researcher Professor Martin Rudner, director of the Canadian Centre of Intelligence and Security Studies at Ottawa's Carleton University, defines "terrorist acts" as unlawful attacks for political or other ideological goals, and said:

There is the famous statement: 'One man's terrorist is another man's freedom fighter.' But that is grossly misleading. It assesses the validity of the cause when terrorism is an act. One can have a perfectly beautiful cause and yet if one commits terrorist acts, it is terrorism regardless.[66]

Some groups, when involved in a "liberation" struggle, have been called "terrorists" by the Western governments or media. Later, these same persons, as leaders of the liberated nations, are called "statesmen" by similar organizations. Two examples of this phenomenon are the Nobel Peace Prize laureates Menachem Begin and Nelson Mandela.[67][68][69][70][71][72] WikiLeaks editor Julian Assange has been called a "terrorist" by Sarah Palin and Joe Biden.[73][74]

Sometimes, states that are close allies, for reasons of history, culture and politics, can disagree over whether members of a certain organization are terrorists. For instance, some branches of the United States government refused to label members of the Provisional Irish Republican Army (IRA) as terrorists while the IRA was using methods against one of the United States' closest allies (the United Kingdom) that the UK branded as terrorism. This was highlighted by the Quinn v. Robinson case.[75][76]

Media outlets who wish to convey impartiality may limit their usage of "terrorist" and "terrorism" because they are loosely defined, potentially controversial in nature, and subjective terms.[77][78]

The 2020 Nashville bombing revived a debate over the use of the word "terrorism", with critics saying it is quickly applied to attacks by Muslims but reluctantly if at all used by white Christian men, such as the Nashville bomber.[79]

History

Main article: History of terrorism
 
The Irish Republican Brotherhood was one of the earliest organizations to use modern terrorist tactics. Pictured, "The Fenian Guy Fawkes" by John Tenniel (1867).

Depending on how broadly the term is defined, the roots and practice of terrorism can be traced at least to the 1st century AD.[80] According to the contemporary Jewish-Roman historian Josephus, after the Zealotry rebellion against Roman rule in Judea, when some prominent Jewish collaborators with Roman rule were killed,[81][82] Judas of Galilee formed a small and more extreme offshoot of the Zealots, the Sicarii Zealots, in 6 AD. They were a smaller and more radical offshoot of the Zealots which was active in Judaea Province at the beginning of the 1st century AD, and they can be considered early terrorists, although this is disputed. Their terror was directed against Jewish "collaborators", including temple priests, Sadducees, Herodians, and other wealthy elites.[83]

The term "terrorism" itself was originally used to describe the actions of the Jacobin Club during the "Reign of Terror" in the French Revolution. "Terror is nothing other than justice, prompt, severe, inflexible", said Jacobin leader Maximilien Robespierre. In 1795, Edmund Burke denounced the Jacobins for letting "thousands of those hell-hounds called Terrorists ... loose on the people" of France.

In January 1858, Italian patriot Felice Orsini threw three bombs in an attempt to assassinate French Emperor Napoleon III.[84] Eight bystanders were killed and 142 injured.[84] The incident played a crucial role as an inspiration for the development of the early terrorist groups.[84]

Arguably the first organization to use modern terrorist techniques was the Irish Republican Brotherhood,[85] founded in 1858 as a revolutionary Irish nationalist group[86] that carried out attacks in England.[87] The group initiated the Fenian dynamite campaign in 1881, one of the first modern terror campaigns.[88] Instead of earlier forms of terrorism based on political assassination, this campaign used timed explosives with the express aim of sowing fear in the very heart of metropolitan Britain, in order to achieve political gains.[89]

Another early terrorist-type group was Narodnaya Volya, founded in Russia in 1878 as a revolutionary anarchist group inspired by Sergei Nechayev and "propaganda by the deed" theorist Carlo Pisacane.[80][90][91] The group developed ideas—such as targeted killing of the 'leaders of oppression'—that were to become the hallmark of subsequent violence by small non-state groups, and they were convinced that the developing technologies of the age—such as the invention of dynamite, which they were the first anarchist group to make widespread use of[92]—enabled them to strike directly and with discrimination.[93]

David Rapoport refers to four major waves of global terrorism: "the Anarchist, the Anti-Colonial, the New Left, and the Religious. The first three have been completed and lasted around 40 years; the fourth is now in its third decade."[94]

Infographics

See also: Number of terrorist incidents by country
  •  

    Terrorist incidents, 1970–2015. A total of 157,520 incidents are plotted. Orange: 1970–1999, Red: 2000–2015

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    Top 10 Countries (2000–2014)

  •  

    Worldwide non-state terrorist incidents 1970–2017

  •  

    Share who are worried about vs. share of deaths from terrorism

Types

Depending on the country, the political system, and the time in history, the types of terrorism are varying.

 
Number of failed, foiled or successful terrorist attacks by year and type within the European Union. Source: Europol.[95][96][97]
 
Aftermath of the King David Hotel bombing by the Zionist militant group Irgun, July 1946

In early 1975, the Law Enforcement Assistant Administration in the United States formed the National Advisory Committee on Criminal Justice Standards and Goals. One of the five volumes that the committee wrote was titled Disorders and Terrorism, produced by the Task Force on Disorders and Terrorism under the direction of H. H. A. Cooper, Director of the Task Force staff.

The Task Force defines terrorism as "a tactic or technique by means of which a violent act or the threat thereof is used for the prime purpose of creating overwhelming fear for coercive purposes". It classified disorders and terrorism into six categories:[98]

  • Civil disorder – A form of collective violence interfering with the peace, security, and normal functioning of the community.
  • Political terrorism – Violent criminal behaviour designed primarily to generate fear in the community, or substantial segment of it, for political purposes.
  • Non-Political terrorism – Terrorism that is not aimed at political purposes but which exhibits "conscious design to create and maintain a high degree of fear for coercive purposes, but the end is individual or collective gain rather than the achievement of a political objective".
  • Anonymous terrorism – In the two decades prior to 2016–19, "fewer than half" of all terrorist attacks were either "claimed by their perpetrators or convincingly attributed by governments to specific terrorist groups". A number of theories have been advanced as to why this has happened.[99]
  • Quasi-terrorism – The activities incidental to the commission of crimes of violence that are similar in form and method to genuine terrorism but which nevertheless lack its essential ingredient. It is not the main purpose of the quasi-terrorists to induce terror in the immediate victim as in the case of genuine terrorism, but the quasi-terrorist uses the modalities and techniques of the genuine terrorist and produces similar consequences and reaction.[100][101][102] For example, the fleeing felon who takes hostages is a quasi-terrorist, whose methods are similar to those of the genuine terrorist but whose purposes are quite different.
  • Limited political terrorism – Genuine political terrorism is characterized by a revolutionary approach; limited political terrorism refers to "acts of terrorism which are committed for ideological or political motives but which are not part of a concerted campaign to capture control of the state".
  • Official or state terrorism – "referring to nations whose rule is based upon fear and oppression that reach similar to terrorism or such proportions". It may be referred to as Structural Terrorism defined broadly as terrorist acts carried out by governments in pursuit of political objectives, often as part of their foreign policy.

Other sources have defined the typology of terrorism in different ways, for example, broadly classifying it into domestic terrorism and international terrorism, or using categories such as vigilante terrorism or insurgent terrorism.[103] One way the typology of terrorism may be defined:[104][105]

Causes and motivations

Choice of terrorism as a tactic

Individuals and groups choose terrorism as a tactic because it can:

  • Act as a form of asymmetric warfare in order to directly force a government to agree to demands
  • Intimidate a group of people into capitulating to the demands in order to avoid future injury
  • Get attention and thus political support for a cause
  • Directly inspire more people to the cause (such as revolutionary acts) – propaganda of the deed
  • Indirectly inspire more people to the cause by provoking a hostile response or over-reaction from enemies to the cause[106]

Attacks on "collaborators" are used to intimidate people from cooperating with the state in order to undermine state control. This strategy was used in Ireland, in Kenya, in Algeria and in Cyprus during their independence struggles.[107]

Stated motives for the September 11 attacks included inspiring more fighters to join the cause of repelling the United States from Muslim countries with a successful high-profile attack. The attacks prompted some criticism from domestic and international observers regarding perceived injustices in U.S. foreign policy that provoked the attacks, but the larger practical effect was that the United States government declared a War on Terror that resulted in substantial military engagements in several Muslim-majority countries. Various commentators have inferred that al-Qaeda expected a military response, and welcomed it as a provocation that would result in more Muslims fight the United States. Some commentators believe that the resulting anger and suspicion directed toward innocent Muslims living in Western countries and the indignities inflicted upon them by security forces and the general public also contributes to radicalization of new recruits.[106] Despite criticism that the Iraqi government had no involvement with the September 11 attacks, Bush declared the 2003 invasion of Iraq to be part of the War on Terror. The resulting backlash and instability enabled the rise of Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant and the temporary creation of an Islamic caliphate holding territory in Iraq and Syria, until ISIL lost its territory through military defeats.

Attacks used to draw international attention to struggles that are otherwise unreported have included the Palestinian airplane hijackings in 1970 and the 1975 Dutch train hostage crisis.

Causes motivating terrorism

Specific political or social causes have included:

Causes for right-wing terrorism have included white nationalism, ethnonationalism, fascism, anti-socialism, the anti-abortion movement, and tax resistance.

Sometimes terrorists on the same side fight for different reasons. For example, in the Chechen–Russian conflict secular Chechens using terrorist tactics fighting for national independence are allied with radical Islamist terrorists who have arrived from other countries.[108]

Personal and social factors

Main article: Radicalization

Various personal and social factors may influence the personal choice of whether to join a terrorist group or attempt an act of terror, including:

A report conducted by Paul Gill, John Horgan and Paige Deckert[dubious – discuss] found that for "lone wolf" terrorists:[109]

  • 43% were motivated by religious beliefs
  • 32% had pre-existing mental health disorders, while many more are found to have mental health problems upon arrest
  • At least 37% lived alone at the time of their event planning and/or execution, a further 26% lived with others, and no data were available for the remaining cases
  • 40% were unemployed at the time of their arrest or terrorist event
  • 19% subjectively experienced being disrespected by others
  • 14% percent experienced being the victim of verbal or physical assault

Ariel Merari, a psychologist who has studied the psychological profiles of suicide terrorists since 1983 through media reports that contained biographical details, interviews with the suicides' families, and interviews with jailed would-be suicide attackers, concluded that they were unlikely to be psychologically abnormal.[110] In comparison to economic theories of criminal behaviour, Scott Atran found that suicide terrorists exhibit none of the socially dysfunctional attributes—such as fatherless, friendless, jobless situations—or suicidal symptoms. By which he means, they do not kill themselves simply out of hopelessness or a sense of 'having nothing to lose'.[111]

Abrahm suggests that terrorist organizations do not select terrorism for its political effectiveness.[112] Individual terrorists tend to be motivated more by a desire for social solidarity with other members of their organization than by political platforms or strategic objectives, which are often murky and undefined.[112]

Michael Mousseau shows possible relationships between the type of economy within a country and ideology associated with terrorism.[example needed][113] Many terrorists have a history of domestic violence.[114]

Democracy and domestic terrorism

Terrorism is most common in nations with intermediate political freedom, and it is least common in the most democratic nations.[115][116][117][118]

Some examples of "terrorism" in non-democratic nations include ETA in Spain under Francisco Franco (although the group's terrorist activities increased sharply after Franco's death),[119] the Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists in pre-war Poland,[120] the Shining Path in Peru under Alberto Fujimori,[121] the Kurdistan Workers Party when Turkey was ruled by military leaders and the ANC in South Africa.[122] Democracies, such as Japan, the United Kingdom, the United States, Israel, Indonesia, India, Spain, Germany, Italy and the Philippines, have experienced domestic terrorism.

While a democratic nation espousing civil liberties may claim a sense of higher moral ground than other regimes, an act of terrorism within such a state may cause a dilemma: whether to maintain its civil liberties and thus risk being perceived as ineffective in dealing with the problem; or alternatively to restrict its civil liberties and thus risk delegitimizing its claim of supporting civil liberties.[123] For this reason, homegrown terrorism has started to be seen as a greater threat, as stated by former CIA Director Michael Hayden.[124] This dilemma, some social theorists would conclude, may very well play into the initial plans of the acting terrorist(s); namely, to delegitimize the state and cause a systematic shift towards anarchy via the accumulation of negative sentiments towards the state system.[125]

Religious terrorism

Main article: Religious terrorism
 
Islamabad Marriott Hotel bombing. Approximately 35,000 Pakistanis died from terrorist attacks between 2001 and 2011.[126]

According to the Global Terrorism Index by the University of Maryland, College Park, religious extremism has overtaken national separatism and become the main driver of terrorist attacks around the world. Since 9/11 there has been a five-fold increase in deaths from terrorist attacks. The majority of incidents over the past several years can be tied to groups with a religious agenda. Before 2000, it was nationalist separatist terrorist organizations such as the IRA and Chechen rebels who were behind the most attacks. The number of incidents from nationalist separatist groups has remained relatively stable in the years since while religious extremism has grown. The prevalence of Islamist groups in Iraq, Afghanistan, Pakistan, Nigeria and Syria is the main driver behind these trends.[127]

Five of the terrorist groups that have been most active since 2001 are Hamas, Boko Haram, al-Qaeda, the Taliban and ISIL. These groups have been most active in Iraq, Afghanistan, Pakistan, Nigeria and Syria. Eighty percent of all deaths from terrorism occurred in one of these five countries.[127] In 2015 four Islamic extremist groups were responsible for 74% of all deaths from Islamic terrorism: ISIS, Boko Haram, the Taliban, and al-Qaeda, according to the Global Terrorism Index 2016.[128] Since approximately 2000, these incidents have occurred on a global scale, affecting not only Muslim-majority states in Africa and Asia, but also states with non-Muslim majority such as United States, United Kingdom, France, Germany, Spain, Belgium, Sweden, Russia, Australia, Canada, Sri Lanka, Israel, China, India and Philippines. Such attacks have targeted both Muslims and non-Muslims, however the majority affect Muslims themselves.[129]

Terrorism in Pakistan has become a great problem. From the summer of 2007 until late 2009, more than 1,500 people were killed in suicide and other attacks on civilians[130] for reasons attributed to a number of causes—sectarian violence between Sunni and Shia Muslims; easy availability of guns and explosives; the existence of a "Kalashnikov culture"; an influx of ideologically driven Muslims based in or near Pakistan, who originated from various nations around the world and the subsequent war against the pro-Soviet Afghans in the 1980s which blew back into Pakistan; the presence of Islamist insurgent groups and forces such as the Taliban and Lashkar-e-Taiba. On July 2, 2013, in Lahore, 50 Muslim scholars of the Sunni Ittehad Council (SIC) issued a collective fatwa against suicide bombings, the killing of innocent people, bomb attacks, and targeted killings declaring them as Haraam or forbidden.[131]

In 2015, the Southern Poverty Law Center released a report on terrorism in the United States. The report (titled The Age of the Wolf) analyzed 62 incidents and found that, between 2009 and 2015, "more people have been killed in America by non-Islamic domestic terrorists than jihadists."[132] The "virulent racist and anti-semitic" ideology of the ultra-right wing Christian Identity movement is usually accompanied by anti-government sentiments.[133] Adherents of Christian Identity are not connected with specific Christian denominations,[134] and they believe that whites of European descent can be traced back to the "Lost Tribes of Israel" and many consider Jews to be the Satanic offspring of Eve and the Serpent.[133] This group has committed hate crimes, bombings and other acts of terrorism. Its influence ranges from the Ku Klux Klan and neo-Nazi groups to the anti-government militia and sovereign citizen movements.[133] Christian Identity's origins can be traced back to Anglo-Israelism, which held the view that the British people were descendants of ancient Israelites. However, in the United States, the ideology started to become rife with anti-Semitism, and eventually Christian Identity theology diverged from the philo-semitic Anglo-Israelism, and developed what is known as the "two seed" theory.[133] According to the two-seed theory, the Jewish people are descended from Cain and the serpent (not from Shem).[133] The white European seedline is descended from the "lost tribes" of Israel. They hold themselves to "God's laws", not to "man's laws", and they do not feel bound to a government that they consider run by Jews and the New World Order.[133] The Ku Klux Klan is widely denounced by Christian denominations.[135]

 
Dawabsheh family home after Duma arson attack

Israel has had problems with Jewish religious terrorism even before independence in 1948. During British mandate over Palestine, the Irgun were among the Zionist groups labelled as terrorist organisations by the British authorities and United Nations,[136] for violent terror attacks against Britons and Arabs.[137][138] Another extremist group, the Lehi, openly declared its members as "terrorists".[139][140] Historian William Cleveland stated many Jews justified any action, even terrorism, taken in the cause of the creation of a Jewish state.[141] In 1995, Yigal Amir assassinated Israeli Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin. For Amir, killing Rabin was an exemplary act that symbolized the fight against an illegitimate government that was prepared to cede Jewish Holy Land to the Palestinians. [142]

Perpetrators

 
Al-Qaida in Magreb members pose with weapons.

The perpetrators of acts of terrorism can be individuals, groups, or states. According to some definitions, clandestine or semi-clandestine state actors may carry out terrorist acts outside the framework of a state of war. The most common image of terrorism is that it is carried out by small and secretive cells, highly motivated to serve a particular cause and many of the most deadly operations in recent times, such as the September 11 attacks, the London underground bombing, 2008 Mumbai attacks and the 2002 Bali bombing were planned and carried out by a close clique, composed of close friends, family members and other strong social networks. These groups benefited from the free flow of information and efficient telecommunications to succeed where others had failed.[143]

Over the years, much research has been conducted to distill a terrorist profile to explain these individuals' actions through their psychology and socio-economic circumstances.[144] Others, like Roderick Hindery, have sought to discern profiles in the propaganda tactics used by terrorists. Some security organizations designate these groups as violent non-state actors.[citation needed] A 2007 study by economist Alan B. Krueger found that terrorists were less likely to come from an impoverished background (28 percent versus 33 percent) and more likely to have at least a high-school education (47 percent versus 38 percent). Another analysis found only 16 percent of terrorists came from impoverished families, versus 30 percent of male Palestinians, and over 60 percent had gone beyond high school, versus 15 percent of the populace.A study into the poverty-stricken conditions and whether terrorists are more likely to come from here,show that people who grew up in these situations tend to show aggression and frustration towards others. This theory is largely debated for the simple fact that just because one is frustrated,does not make them a potential terrorist.[31][145]

To avoid detection, a terrorist will look, dress, and behave normally until executing the assigned mission. Some claim that attempts to profile terrorists based on personality, physical, or sociological traits are not useful.[146] The physical and behavioral description of the terrorist could describe almost any normal person.[147] the majority of terrorist attacks are carried out by military age men, aged 16 to 40.[147]

Non-state groups

 
There is speculation that the 2001 anthrax attacks were the work of a lone wolf.
Main articles: List of designated terrorist groups, Lone wolf (terrorism), and Violent non-state actor

Groups not part of the state apparatus of in opposition to the state are most commonly referred to as a "terrorist" in the media.

According to the Global Terrorism Database, the most active terrorist group in the period 1970 to 2010 was Shining Path (with 4,517 attacks), followed by Farabundo Marti National Liberation Front (FMLN), Irish Republican Army (IRA), Basque Fatherland and Freedom (ETA), Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia (FARC), Taliban, Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam, New People's Army, National Liberation Army of Colombia (ELN), and Kurdistan Workers Party (PKK).[148]

State sponsors

Main article: State-sponsored terrorism

A state can sponsor terrorism by funding or harboring a terrorist group. Opinions as to which acts of violence by states consist of state-sponsored terrorism vary widely. When states provide funding for groups considered by some to be terrorist, they rarely acknowledge them as such.[149][citation needed]

State terrorism

Main article: State terrorism

Civilization is based on a clearly defined and widely accepted yet often unarticulated hierarchy. Violence done by those higher on the hierarchy to those lower is nearly always invisible, that is, unnoticed. When it is noticed, it is fully rationalized. Violence done by those lower on the hierarchy to those higher is unthinkable, and when it does occur it is regarded with shock, horror, and the fetishization of the victims.

— Derrick Jensen[150]
 
Infant crying in Shanghai's South Station after the Japanese bombing, August 28, 1937

As with "terrorism" the concept of "state terrorism" is controversial.[151] The Chairman of the United Nations Counter-Terrorism Committee has stated that the committee was conscious of 12 international conventions on the subject, and none of them referred to state terrorism, which was not an international legal concept. If states abused their power, they should be judged against international conventions dealing with war crimes, international human rights law, and international humanitarian law.[152] Former United Nations Secretary-General Kofi Annan has said that it is "time to set aside debates on so-called 'state terrorism'. The use of force by states is already thoroughly regulated under international law".[153] he made clear that, "regardless of the differences between governments on the question of the definition of terrorism, what is clear and what we can all agree on is that any deliberate attack on innocent civilians [or non-combatants], regardless of one's cause, is unacceptable and fits into the definition of terrorism."[154]

State terrorism has been used to refer to terrorist acts committed by governmental agents or forces. This involves the use of state resources employed by a state's foreign policies, such as using its military to directly perform acts of terrorism. Professor of Political Science Michael Stohl cites the examples that include the German bombing of London, the Allied firebombing of Dresden, and the U.S. atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki during World War II. He argues that "the use of terror tactics is common in international relations and the state has been and remains a more likely employer of terrorism within the international system than insurgents." He cites the first strike option as an example of the "terror of coercive diplomacy" as a form of this, which holds the world hostage with the implied threat of using nuclear weapons in "crisis management" and he argues that the institutionalized form of terrorism has occurred as a result of changes that took place following World War II. In this analysis, state terrorism exhibited as a form of foreign policy was shaped by the presence and use of weapons of mass destruction, and the legitimizing of such violent behavior led to an increasingly accepted form of this behavior by the state.[155][156][157]

 
St Paul's Cathedral after the German bombing of London, c. 1940

Charles Stewart Parnell described William Ewart Gladstone's Irish Coercion Act as terrorism in his "no-Rent manifesto" in 1881, during the Irish Land War.[158] The concept is used to describe political repressions by governments against their own civilian populations with the purpose of inciting fear. For example, taking and executing civilian hostages or extrajudicial elimination campaigns are commonly considered "terror" or terrorism, for example during the Red Terror or the Great Terror.[159] Such actions are often described as democide or genocide, which have been argued to be equivalent to state terrorism.[160] Empirical studies on this have found that democracies have little democide.[161][162] Western democracies, including the United States, have supported state terrorism[163] and mass killings,[164][165] with some examples being the Indonesian mass killings of 1965–66 and Operation Condor.[166][167][168]

Connection with tourism

The connection between terrorism and tourism has been widely studied since the Luxor massacre in Egypt.[169][170] In the 1970s, the targets of terrorists were politicians and chiefs of police while now, international tourists and visitors are selected as the main targets of attacks. The attacks on the World Trade Center and the Pentagon on September 11, 2001, were the symbolic center, which marked a new epoch in the use of civil transport against the main power of the planet.[171] From this event onwards, the spaces of leisure that characterized the pride of West were conceived as dangerous and frightful.[172][173]

Funding

Main article: Terrorist financing

State sponsors have constituted a major form of funding; for example, Palestine Liberation Organization, Democratic Front for the Liberation of Palestine and other groups sometimes considered to be terrorist organizations, were funded by the Soviet Union.[174][175] The Stern Gang received funding from Italian Fascist officers in Beirut to undermine the British authorities in Palestine.[176]

"Revolutionary tax" is another major form of funding, and essentially a euphemism for "protection money".[174] Revolutionary taxes "play a secondary role as one other means of intimidating the target population".[174]

Other major sources of funding include kidnapping for ransoms, smuggling (including wildlife smuggling),[177] fraud, and robbery.[174] The Islamic State in Iraq and the Levant has reportedly received funding "via private donations from the Gulf states".[178]

The Financial Action Task Force is an inter-governmental body whose mandate, since October 2001, has included combating terrorist financing.[179]

Tactics

Main article: Tactics of terrorism
 
The Wall Street bombing at noon on September 16, 1920, killed thirty-eight people and injured several hundred. The perpetrators were never caught.[180]

Terrorist attacks are often targeted to maximize fear and publicity, most frequently using explosives.[181] Terrorist groups usually methodically plan attacks in advance, and may train participants, plant undercover agents, and raise money from supporters or through organized crime. Communications occur through modern telecommunications, or through old-fashioned methods such as couriers. There is concern about terrorist attacks employing weapons of mass destruction. Some academics have argued that while it is often assumed terrorism is intended to spread fear, this is not necessarily true, with fear instead being a by-product of the terrorist's actions, while their intentions may be to avenge fallen comrades or destroy their perceived enemies.[182]

Terrorism is a form of asymmetric warfare, and is more common when direct conventional warfare will not be effective because opposing forces vary greatly in power.[183] Yuval Harari argues that the peacefulness of modern states makes them paradoxically more vulnerable to terrorism than pre-modern states. Harari argues that because modern states have committed themselves to reducing political violence to almost zero, terrorists can, by creating political violence, threaten the very foundations of the legitimacy of the modern state. This is in contrast to pre-modern states, where violence was a routine and recognised aspect of politics at all levels, making political violence unremarkable. Terrorism thus shocks the population of a modern state far more than a pre-modern one and consequently the state is forced to overreact in an excessive, costly and spectacular manner, which is often what the terrorists desire.[184]

The type of people terrorists will target is dependent upon the ideology of the terrorists. A terrorist's ideology will create a class of "legitimate targets" who are deemed as its enemies and who are permitted to be targeted. This ideology will also allow the terrorists to place the blame on the victim, who is viewed as being responsible for the violence in the first place.[185][186]

The context in which terrorist tactics are used is often a large-scale, unresolved political conflict. The type of conflict varies widely; historical examples include:

  • Secession of a territory to form a new sovereign state or become part of a different state
  • Dominance of territory or resources by various ethnic groups
  • Imposition of a particular form of government
  • Economic deprivation of a population
  • Opposition to a domestic government or occupying army
  • Religious fanaticism

Responses

 
Sign notifying shoppers of increased surveillance due to a perceived increased risk of terrorism

Responses to terrorism are broad in scope. They can include re-alignments of the political spectrum and reassessments of fundamental values.

Specific types of responses include:

The term "counter-terrorism" has a narrower connotation, implying that it is directed at terrorist actors.

Terrorism research

Terrorism research, also called terrorism studies, or terrorism and counter-terrorism research, is an interdisciplinary academic field which seeks to understand the causes of terrorism, how to prevent it as well as its impact in the broadest sense. Terrorism research can be carried out in both military and civilian contexts, for example by research centres such as the British Centre for the Study of Terrorism and Political Violence, the Norwegian Centre for Violence and Traumatic Stress Studies, and the International Centre for Counter-Terrorism (ICCT). There are several academic journals devoted to the field, including Perspectives on Terrorism.[187][188]

International agreements

One of the agreements that promote the international legal anti-terror framework is the Code of Conduct Towards Achieving a World Free of Terrorism that was adopted at the 73rd session of the United Nations General Assembly in 2018. The Code of Conduct was initiated by Kazakhstan President Nursultan Nazarbayev. Its main goal is to implement a wide range of international commitments to counter terrorism and establish a broad global coalition towards achieving a world free of terrorism by 2045. The Code was signed by more than 70 countries.[189]

Response in the United States

See also: War on Terror
 
X-ray backscatter technology (AIT) machine used by the TSA to screen passengers. According to the TSA, this is what the remote TSA agent would see on their screen.

According to a report by Dana Priest and William M. Arkin in The Washington Post, "Some 1,271 government organizations and 1,931 private companies work on programs related to counterterrorism, homeland security and intelligence in about 10,000 locations across the United States."[190]

America's thinking on how to defeat radical Islamists is split along two very different schools of thought. Republicans, typically follow what is known as the Bush Doctrine, advocate the military model of taking the fight to the enemy and seeking to democratize the Middle East. Democrats, by contrast, generally propose the law enforcement model of better cooperation with nations and more security at home.[191] In the introduction of the U.S. Army / Marine Corps Counterinsurgency Field Manual, Sarah Sewall states the need for "U.S. forces to make securing the civilian, rather than destroying the enemy, their top priority. The civilian population is the center of gravity—the deciding factor in the struggle.... Civilian deaths create an extended family of enemies—new insurgent recruits or informants—and erode support of the host nation." Sewall sums up the book's key points on how to win this battle: "Sometimes, the more you protect your force, the less secure you may be.... Sometimes, the more force is used, the less effective it is.... The more successful the counterinsurgency is, the less force can be used and the more risk must be accepted.... Sometimes, doing nothing is the best reaction."[192] This strategy, often termed "courageous restraint", has certainly led to some success on the Middle East battlefield. However, it does not address the fact that terrorists are mostly homegrown.[191]

Mass media

 
Causes of death in the US vs media coverage. The percentage of media attention for terrorism (about 33-35%) is much greater than the percentage of deaths caused by terrorism (less than 0.01%).
 
La Terroriste, a 1910 poster depicting a female member of the Combat Organization of the Polish Socialist Party throwing a bomb at a Russian official's car

Mass media exposure may be a primary goal of those carrying out terrorism, to expose issues that would otherwise be ignored by the media. Some consider this to be manipulation and exploitation of the media.[193]

The Internet has created a new way for groups to spread their messages.[194] This has created a cycle of measures and counter measures by groups in support of and in opposition to terrorist movements. The United Nations has created its own online counter-terrorism resource.[195]

The mass media will, on occasion, censor organizations involved in terrorism (through self-restraint or regulation) to discourage further terrorism. This may encourage organizations to perform more extreme acts of terrorism to be shown in the mass media. Conversely James F. Pastor explains the significant relationship between terrorism and the media, and the underlying benefit each receives from the other.[196]

There is always a point at which the terrorist ceases to manipulate the media gestalt. A point at which the violence may well escalate, but beyond which the terrorist has become symptomatic of the media gestalt itself. Terrorism as we ordinarily understand it is innately media-related.

— Novelist William Gibson, 2004[197]

Former British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher famously spoke of the close connection between terrorism and the media, calling publicity 'the oxygen of terrorism'.[198]

Outcome of terrorist groups

 
How terrorist groups end (n = 268): The most common ending for a terrorist group is to convert to nonviolence via negotiations (43 percent), with most of the rest terminated by routine policing (40 percent). Groups that were ended by military force constituted only 7 percent.[199]

Jones and Libicki (2008) created a list of all the terrorist groups they could find that were active between 1968 and 2006. They found 648. Of those, 136 splintered and 244 were still active in 2006.[200] Of the ones that ended, 43 percent converted to nonviolent political actions, like the Irish Republican Army in Northern Ireland. Law enforcement took out 40 percent. Ten percent won. Only 20 groups, 7 percent, were destroyed by military force.

Forty-two groups became large enough to be labeled an insurgency; 38 of those had ended by 2006. Of those, 47 percent converted to nonviolent political actors. Only 5 percent were ended by law enforcement. Twenty-six percent won. Twenty-one percent succumbed to military force.[201] Jones and Libicki concluded that military force may be necessary to deal with large insurgencies but are only occasionally decisive, because the military is too often seen as a bigger threat to civilians than the terrorists. To avoid that, the rules of engagement must be conscious of collateral damage and work to minimize it.

Another researcher, Audrey Cronin, lists six primary ways that terrorist groups end:[202]

  1. Capture or killing of a group's leader (Decapitation)
  2. Entry of the group into a legitimate political process (Negotiation)
  3. Achievement of group aims (Success)
  4. Group implosion or loss of public support (Failure)
  5. Defeat and elimination through brute force (Repression)
  6. Transition from terrorism into other forms of violence (Reorientation)

Databases

The following terrorism databases are or were made publicly available for research purposes, and track specific acts of terrorism:

The following public report and index provides a summary of key global trends and patterns in terrorism around the world

The following publicly available resources index electronic and bibliographic resources on the subject of terrorism

The following terrorism databases are maintained in secrecy by the United States Government for intelligence and counter-terrorism purposes:

Jones and Libicki (2008) includes a table of 268 terrorist groups active between 1968 and 2006 with their status as of 2006: still active, splintered, converted to nonviolence, removed by law enforcement or military, or won. (These data are not in a convenient machine-readable format but are available.)

See also

Notes

  1. ^ Wisnewski, J. Jeremy, ed. (2008). Torture, Terrorism, and the Use of Violence (also available as Review Journal of Political Philosophy Volume 6, Issue Number 1). Cambridge Scholars Publishing. p. 175. ISBN 978-1-4438-0291-8.
  2. ^ Stevenson, Angus, ed. (2010). Oxford dictionary of English (3rd ed.). New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-957112-3.
  3. ^ Halibozek, Edward P.; Jones, Andy; Kovacich, Gerald L. (2008). The corporate security professional's handbook on terrorism (illustrated ed.). Elsevier (Butterworth-Heinemann). pp. 4–5. ISBN 978-0-7506-8257-2. Retrieved December 17, 2016.
  4. ^ a b c d Mackey, Robert (November 20, 2009). "Can Soldiers Be Victims of Terrorism?". The New York Times. Retrieved January 11, 2010. Terrorism is the deliberate killing of innocent people, at random, in order to spread fear through a whole population and force the hand of its political leaders.
  5. ^ a b Sinclair, Samuel Justin; Antonius, Daniel (2012). The Psychology of Terrorism Fears. Oxford University Press, US. p. 14. ISBN 978-0-19-538811-4.
  6. ^ a b White, Jonathan R. (January 1, 2016). Terrorism and Homeland Security. Cengage Learning. p. 3. ISBN 978-1-305-63377-3.
  7. ^ a b c d e Heryanto, Ariel (April 7, 2006). State Terrorism and Political Identity in Indonesia: Fatally Belonging. Routledge. p. 161. ISBN 978-1-134-19569-5.
  8. ^ a b Ruthven, Malise; Nanji, Azim (April 24, 2017). Historical Atlas of Islam. Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-01385-8.
  9. ^ "Terrorism". Encyclopædia Britannica. p. 3. Retrieved September 8, 2020.
  10. ^ a b Majoran, Andrew (August 1, 2014). "The Illusion of War: Is Terrorism a Criminal Act or an Act of War?". Mackenzie Institute. Retrieved April 24, 2020.
  11. ^ a b c Jenny Teichman (1989). "How to Define Terrorism". Philosophy. 64 (250): 505–517. doi:10.1017/S0031819100044260. JSTOR 3751606. S2CID 144723359.
  12. ^ Eviatar, Daphne (June 13, 2013). "Is 'Terrorism' a War Crime Triable by Military Commission? Who Knows?". HuffPost. Retrieved April 29, 2017.
  13. ^ (PDF). Institute for Economics and Peace. p. 33. Archived from the original (PDF) on February 7, 2019. Retrieved July 19, 2016.
  14. ^ a b Fine, Jonathan (2010). "Political and Philological Origins of the Term 'Terrorism' from the Ancient Near East to Our Times". Middle Eastern Studies. 46 (2): 271–288. doi:10.1080/00263201003619927. JSTOR 20720662. S2CID 143268246.
  15. ^ Palmer, R.R. (2014). "The French Directory Between Extremes". The Age of the Democratic Revolution: A Political History of Europe and America, 1760–1800. The Age of the Democratic Revolution. Princeton University Press. pp. 544–567. ISBN 9780691161280. JSTOR j.ctt5hhrg5.29.
  16. ^ Kellner, Douglas (April 2004). "9/11, spectacles of terror, and media manipulation: A critique of Jihadist and Bush media politics". Critical Discourse Studies. 1 (1): 41–64. doi:10.1080/17405900410001674515. eISSN 1740-5912. ISSN 1740-5904.
  17. ^ a b Ken Duncan (2011). "A Blast from the Past Lessons from a Largely Forgotten Incident of State-Sponsored Terrorism". Perspectives on Terrorism. 5 (1): 3–21. JSTOR 26298499.
  18. ^ Crawford, Joseph (September 12, 2013). Gothic Fiction and the Invention of Terrorism: The Politics and Aesthetics of Fear in the Age of the Reign of Terror. Bloomsbury Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4725-0912-3.
  19. ^ Houen, Alex (September 12, 2002). "Introduction". Terrorism and Modern Literature: From Joseph Conrad to Ciaran Carson. OUP Oxford. ISBN 978-0-19-154198-8.
  20. ^ Thackrah, John Richard (2013). Dictionary of Terrorism. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-135-16595-6.
  21. ^ Edmund Burke – To The Earl Fitzwilliam (Christmas, 1795.) In: Edmund Burke, Select Works of Edmund Burke, vol. 3 (Letters on a Regicide Peace) (1795).
    This Internet version contains two, mingled, indications of page numbers: one with single brackets like [260], one with double brackets like [ [309] ]. Burke lengthily introduces his view on 'this present Directory government', and then writes on page [359]: "Those who arbitrarily erected the new building out of the old materials of their own Convention, were obliged to send for an Army to support their work. (...) At length, after a terrible struggle, the Troops prevailed over the Citizens. (...) This power is to last as long as the Parisians think proper. (...) [315] To secure them further, they have a strong corps of irregulars, ready armed. Thousands of those Hell-hounds called Terrorists, whom they had shut up in Prison on their last Revolution, as the Satellites of Tyranny, are let loose on the people. (...)"
  22. ^ Peleg, Ilan (1988). "Terrorism in the Middle East: The Case of the Arab-Israeli Conflict". In Stohl, Michael (ed.). The Politics of Terrorism (Third ed.). CRC Press. p. 531. ISBN 978-0-8247-7814-9. Retrieved February 14, 2019.
  23. ^ Crenshaw, Martha (2010). Terrorism in Context. Penn State Press. p. xiii. ISBN 978-0-271-04442-2. Retrieved February 14, 2019.
  24. ^ Shabad, Goldie; Llera Ramo, Francisco Jose (2010). "Political Violence in a Democratic State: Basque Terrorism in Spain". In Crenshaw, Martha (ed.). Terrorism in Context. ISBN 9780271044422. Retrieved February 14, 2019.
  25. ^ Corrado, Raymond R.; Evans, Rebecca (January 29, 1988). "Ethnic and Ideological Terrorism in Western Europe". In Stohl, Michael (ed.). The Politics of Terrorism (Third ed.). p. 373. ISBN 9780824778149. Retrieved February 14, 2019.
  26. ^ Khaled, Leila (September 18, 1970). "This is Your New Captain Speaking". Life. p. 34. Retrieved February 14, 2019.
  27. ^ Committee on the Judiciary, Terroristic Activity: International terrorism; Lester A. Sobel, Political Terrorism; Lauran Paine, The Terrorists (1975); Walter Laqueur, Guerrilla Warfare: A Historical and Critical Study; Paul Wilkinson, Terrorism versus liberal democracy: the problems of response; Albert Parry, Terrorism: from Robespierre to Arafat (1976); Ovid Demaris, Brothers in Blood: The International Terrorist Network (1977); Yonah Alexander, David Carlton and Paul Wilkinson, Terrorism: Theory and Practice; Christopher Dobson and Ronald Payne, The Weapons of Terror: International Terrorism at Work; Brian Michael Jenkins, The Terrorist Mindset and Terrorist Decisionmaking (1979)
  28. ^ Faimau, Gabriel (July 26, 2013). Socio-Cultural Construction of Recognition: The Discursive Representation of Islam and Muslims in the British Christian News Media. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. p. 27. ISBN 978-1-4438-5104-6.
  29. ^ Campo, Juan Eduardo (January 1, 2009). Encyclopedia of Islam. Infobase Publishing. p. xxii. ISBN 978-1-4381-2696-8.
  30. ^ Örtenwall, Per; Almgren, Ola; Deverell, Edward (2003). "The bomb explosion in Myyrmanni, Finland 2002". International Journal of Disaster Medicine. 1 (2): 120. doi:10.1080/15031430310029062. ISSN 1503-1438.
  31. ^ a b Arie W. Kruglanski and Shira Fishman Current Directions in Psychological Science Vol. 15, No. 1 (Feb. 2006), pp. 45–48
  32. ^ Hoffman 2006, p. 34.
  33. ^ Aust, Anthony (2010). Handbook of International Law (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 265. ISBN 978-0-521-13349-4.
  34. ^ . United Nations. March 21, 2005. Archived from the original on April 27, 2007. Retrieved July 11, 2008. The second part of the report, entitled "Freedom from Fear backs the definition of terrorism–an issue so divisive agreement on it has long eluded the world community – as any action "intended to cause death or serious bodily harm to civilians or non-combatants with the purpose of intimidating a population or compelling a government or an international organization to do or abstain from doing any act"
  35. ^ a b Hoffman 1998, p. 32.
  36. ^ "Radicalisation, De-Radicalisation, Counter-Radicalisation: A Conceptual Discussion and Literature Review". The International Centre for Counter-Terrorism – The Hague (ICCT). March 27, 2013. Retrieved September 6, 2016.
  37. ^ Angus Martyn, The Right of Self-Defence under International Law-the Response to the Terrorist Attacks of 11 September, Australian Law and Bills Digest Group, Parliament of Australia Web Site, February 12, 2002. February 16, 2012, at the Wayback Machine
  38. ^ Diaz-Paniagua (2008), Negotiating terrorism: The negotiation dynamics of four UN counter-terrorism treaties, 1997–2005, p. 47.
  39. ^ 1994 United Nations Declaration on Measures to Eliminate International Terrorism annex to UN General Assembly resolution 49/60, "Measures to Eliminate International Terrorism", of December 9, 1994, UN Doc. A/Res/60/49.
  40. ^ "22 U.S. Code § 2656f – Annual country reports on terrorism". LII / Legal Information Institute.
  41. ^ "18 U.S. Code § 2331 – Definitions". LII / Legal Information Institute.
  42. ^ Bockstette, Carsten (2008). "Jihadist Terrorist Use of Strategic Communication Management Techniques" (PDF). George C. Marshall Center Occasional Paper Series (20). ISSN 1863-6039. Retrieved January 1, 2009.
  43. ^ Juergensmeyer, Mark (2000). Terror in the Mind of God. University of California Press. pp. 125–135. ISBN 9780520223011.
  44. ^ Bardach, Ann Louis; Rohter, Larry (July 13, 1998). "A Bomber's Tale: Decades of Intrigue". The New York Times.
  45. ^ "Number of Terrorist Attacks, Fatalities". The Washington Post. June 12, 2009. Retrieved January 11, 2010. The nation's deadliest terrorist acts – attacks designed to achieve a political goal
  46. ^ (PDF). Federal Bureau of Investigation. Archived from the original (PDF) on July 9, 2008. Retrieved July 11, 2008.
  47. ^ "/Iraq accuses US of state terrorism". BBC News. February 20, 2002. Retrieved January 11, 2010. Iraq has accused the United States of state terrorism amid signs that the war of words between the two countries is heating up.
  48. ^ Mendelsohn, Barak (January 2005). "Sovereignty under attack: the international society meets the Al Qaeda network (abstract)". Cambridge Journals. Retrieved January 11, 2010. This article examines the complex relations between a violent non-state actor, the Al Qaeda network, and order in the international system. Al Qaeda poses a challenge to the sovereignty of specific states but it also challenges the international society as a whole.
  49. ^ Khan, Ali (October 8, 2006). "A Theory of International Terrorism". Connecticut Law Review. 19: 945 – via Social Science Research Network.
  50. ^ Feline Freier, Luisa; Castillo Jara, Soledad (January 13, 2021). ""Terruqueo" and Peru's Fear of the Left". Americas Quarterly. Retrieved November 18, 2021.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  51. ^ "Qué es el "terruqueo" en Perú y cómo influye en la disputa presidencial entre Fujimori y Castillo". BBC News (in Spanish). Retrieved November 18, 2021.
  52. ^ Asensio, Raúl; Camacho, Gabriela; González, Natalia; Grompone, Romeo; Pajuelo Teves, Ramón; Peña Jimenez, Omayra; Moscoso, Macarena; Vásquez, Yerel; Sosa Villagarcia, Paolo (August 2021). El Profe: Cómo Pedro Castillo se convirtió en presidente del Perú y qué pasará a continuación (in Spanish) (1 ed.). Lima, Peru: Institute of Peruvian Studies. pp. 13–24. ISBN 978-612-326-084-2. Retrieved November 17, 2021.
  53. ^ a b Reynolds, Paul; quoting David Hannay; Former UK ambassador (September 14, 2005). "UN staggers on road to reform". BBC News. Retrieved January 11, 2010. This would end the argument that one man's terrorist is another man's freedom fighter ...
  54. ^ a b Rodin, David (2006). "Terrorism". In E. Craig (Ed.), Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy. London: Routledge.
  55. ^ Steinfels, Peter (March 1, 2003). "Beliefs; The just-war tradition, its last-resort criterion and the debate on an invasion of Iraq". The New York Times. Retrieved January 11, 2010. For those like Professor Walzer who value the just-war tradition as a disciplined way to think about the morality of war ...
  56. ^ Bonner, Raymond (November 1, 1998). "Getting Attention: A scholar's historical and political survey of terrorism finds that it works". Books. The New York Times. Retrieved January 11, 2010. Inside Terrorism falls into the category of 'must read,' at least for anyone who wants to understand how we can respond to international acts of terror.
  57. ^ Malayan People's Anti-Japanese Army March 24, 2007, at the Wayback Machine Britannica Concise.
  58. ^ Dr Chris Clark . Archived from the original on June 8, 2007., June 16, 2003.
  59. ^ Ronald Reagan, speech to National Conservative Political Action Conference August 20, 2006, at the Wayback Machine March 8, 1985. On the Spartacus Educational web site.
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  61. ^ President Discusses Progress in War on Terrorism to National Guard White House web site February 9, 2006.
  62. ^ "An unbiased look at terrorism in Afghanistan [in 2009] reveals that many of these 'terrorists' individuals or groups were once 'freedom fighters' struggling against the Soviets during the 1980s." (Chouvy, Pierre-Arnaud (2009). Opium: Uncovering the Politics of the Poppy (illustrated, reprint ed.). Harvard University Press. p. 119. ISBN 978-0-674-05134-8.)
  63. ^ Sudha Ramachandran Asian Times, November 12, 2004, "Insurgent groups that use suicide attacks therefore do not like their attacks to be described as suicide terrorism. They prefer to use terms like "martyrdom ..."
  64. ^ Alex Perry Time, September 26, 2005. "The Tamil Tigers would dispute that tag, of course. Like other guerrillas and suicide bombers, they prefer the term "freedom fighters".
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References

  • Hoffman, Bruce (1988). Inside Terrorism. New York: Columbia University Press.[verification needed]
  • Hoffman, Bruce (1998). "Inside Terrorism". Columbia University Press. p. 32. ISBN 0-231-11468-0. Retrieved January 11, 2010.
    • Hoffman, Bruce (1998a). "Chapter One". Inside Terrorism. Retrieved January 11, 2010 – via The New York Times.
  • Hoffman, Bruce (2006). Inside Terrorism (2nd ed.). Columbia University Press.
  • Spaaij, Ramon (2012). Understanding Lone Wolf Terrorism: Global Patterns, Motivations and Prevention.
  • Perspectives on Terrorism's Bibliography: Root Causes of Terrorism. 2017. October 22, 2017, at the Wayback Machine

Further reading

  • Burleigh, Michael. Blood and rage: a cultural history of terrorism. Harper, 2009.
  • Chaliand, Gérard and Arnaud Blin, eds. The history of terrorism: from antiquity to al Qaeda. University of California Press, 2007.
  • Coates, Susan W., Rosenthal, Jane, and Schechter, Daniel S. September 11: Trauma and Human Bonds (New York: Taylor and Francis, Inc., 2003).
  • Crenshaw, Martha, ed. Terrorism in context. Pennsylvania State University Press, 1995.
  • Jones, Seth G.; Libicki, Martin C. (2008), How Terrorist Groups End: Lessons for Countering al Qa'ida (PDF), RAND Corporation, ISBN 978-0-8330-4465-5
  • Hennigfeld, Ursula/ Packard, Stephan, ed., Abschied von 9/11? Distanznahme zur Katastrophe. Berlin: Frank & Timme, 2013.
  • Hennigfeld, Ursula, ed., Poetiken des Terrors. Narrative des 11. September 2001 im interkulturellen Vergleich. Heidelberg: Winter, 2014.
  • Hewitt, Christopher. Understanding terrorism in America (Routledge, 2003).
  • Hewitt, Christopher. "Terrorism and public opinion: A five country comparison." Terrorism and Political Violence 2.2 (1990): 145-170.
  • Jones, Sidney. . Jakarta: International Crisis Group, 2013.
  • Land, Isaac, ed., Enemies of humanity: the nineteenth-century war on terrorism. Palgrave Macmillan, 2008.
  • Lee, Newton. Counterterrorism and Cybersecurity: Total Information Awareness (2nd Edition). New York: Springer, 2015. ISBN 978-3-319-17243-9
  • Lutz, James and Brenda Lutz. Terrorism : origins and evolution (Palgrave Macmillan, 2005)
  • Miller, Martin A. The foundations of modern terrorism : state, society and the dynamics of political violence. Cambridge University Press, 2013.
  • Nairn, Tom; James, Paul (2005). Global Matrix: Nationalism, Globalism and State-Terrorism. London and New York: Pluto Press.
  • Neria, Yuval, Gross, Raz, Marshall, Randall D., and Susser, Ezra. September 11, 2001: Treatment, Research and Public Mental Health in the Wake of a Terrorist Attack (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006).
  • Schmid, Alex P. (November 2020). Handbook of Terrorism Prevention and Preparedness. International Centre for Counter-Terrorism. doi:10.19165/2020.6.01 (inactive December 31, 2022). ISBN 9789090339771. ISSN 2468-0486.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of December 2022 (link) An open-access publication, issued since November 2020 on the International Centre for Counter-Terrorism (ICCT) website, with a chapter published each week.
  • Stern, Jessica. The Ultimate Terrorists. (Harvard University Press 2000 reprint; 1995). 214 p. ISBN 0-674-00394-2
  • Tausch, Arno, Estimates on the Global Threat of Islamic State Terrorism in the Face of the 2015 Paris and Copenhagen Attacks (December 11, 2015). Middle East Review of International Affairs, Rubin Center, Research in International Affairs, Idc Herzliya, Israel, Vol. 19, No. 1 (Spring 2015).
  • , Canadian Institute for the Administration of Justice. ISBN 978-2-9809728-7-4.

United Kingdom

Further information: Terrorism in the United Kingdom
  • Blackbourn, Jessie. "Counter-Terrorism and Civil Liberties: The United Kingdom Experience, 1968-2008." Journal of the Institute of Justice and International Studies 8 (2008): 63+
  • Bonner, David. "United Kingdom: the United Kingdom response to terrorism." Terrorism and Political Violence 4.4 (1992): 171-205. online
  • Chin, Warren. Britain and the war on terror: Policy, strategy and operations (Routledge, 2016).
  • Clutterbuck, Lindsay. "Countering Irish Republican terrorism in Britain: Its origin as a police function." Terrorism and Political Violence 18.1 (2006) pp: 95-118.
  • Greer, Steven. "Terrorism and Counter-Terrorism in the UK: From Northern Irish Troubles to Global Islamist Jihad." in Counter-Terrorism, Constitutionalism and Miscarriages of Justice (Hart Publishing, 2018) pp. 45-62.
  • Hamilton, Claire. "Counter-Terrorism in the UK." in Contagion, Counter-Terrorism and Criminology (Palgrave Pivot, Cham, 2019) pp. 15-47.
  • Hewitt, Steve. "Great Britain: Terrorism and counter-terrorism since 1968." in Routledge Handbook of Terrorism and Counterterrorism (Routledge, 2018) pp. 540-551.
  • Martínez-Peñas, Leandro, and Manuela Fernández-Rodríguez. "Evolution of British Law on Terrorism: From Ulster to Global Terrorism (1970–2010)." in Post 9/11 and the State of Permanent Legal Emergency (Springer, 2012) pp. 201-222.
  • O'Day, Alan. "Northern Ireland, Terrorism, and the British State." in Terrorism: Theory and Practice (Routledge, 2019) pp. 121-135.
  • Sacopulos, Peter J. "Terrorism in Britain: Threat, reality, response." Studies in Conflict & Terrorism 12.3 (1989): 153-165.
  • Staniforth, Andrew, and Fraser Sampson, eds. The Routledge companion to UK counter-terrorism (Routledge, 2012).
  • Sinclair, Georgina. "Confronting terrorism: British Experiences past and present." Crime, Histoire & Sociétés/Crime, History & Societies 18.2 (2014): 117-122. online
  • Tinnes, Judith, ed. "Bibliography: Northern Ireland conflict (the troubles)." Perspectives on Terrorism 10.1 (2016): 83-110. online
  • Wilkinson, Paul, ed. Terrorism: British Perspectives (Dartmouth, 1993).

External links

 
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  • United Nations:
  • United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime: . Archived from the original on August 5, 2007.
  • UNODC – United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime – Terrorism Prevention
  • Terrorism and international humanitarian law, International Committee of the Red Cross
  • UK Counter Terrorism Policing

January 21, 2023
terrorism, this, article, needs, updated, please, help, update, this, article, reflect, recent, events, newly, available, information, august, 2021, terrorist, redirects, here, other, uses, terrorist, disambiguation, broadest, sense, criminal, violence, provok. This article needs to be updated Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information August 2021 Terrorist redirects here For other uses see Terrorist disambiguation Terrorism in its broadest sense is the use of criminal violence to provoke a state of terror or fear mostly with the intention to achieve political or religious aims The term is used in this regard primarily to refer to intentional violence during peacetime or in the context of war against non combatants mostly civilians and neutral military personnel 1 The terms terrorist and terrorism originated during the French Revolution of the late 18th century 2 but became widely used internationally and gained worldwide attention in the 1970s during the Troubles in Northern Ireland the Basque conflict and the Israeli Palestinian conflict The increased use of suicide attacks from the 1980s onwards was typified by the 2001 September 11 attacks in the United States United Airlines Flight 175 hits the South Tower of the World Trade Center during the September 11 attacks of 2001 in New York City There are various different definitions of terrorism with no universal agreement about it 3 4 Terrorism is a charged term It is often used with the connotation of something that is morally wrong Governments and non state groups use the term to abuse or denounce opposing groups 4 5 6 7 8 Varied political organizations have been accused of using terrorism to achieve their objectives These include left wing and right wing political organizations nationalist groups religious groups revolutionaries and ruling governments 9 Legislation declaring terrorism a crime has been adopted in many states 10 State terrorism is that perpetrated by nation states but is not considered such by the state conducting it making legality a grey area 11 There is no consensus as to whether terrorism should be regarded as a war crime 10 12 The Global Terrorism Database maintained by the University of Maryland College Park has recorded more than 61 000 incidents of non state terrorism resulting in at least 140 000 deaths between 2000 and 2014 13 Contents 1 Etymology 2 Historical background 3 Modern definitions 3 1 State terrorism 3 2 United Nations 3 3 U S law 3 4 Media spectacle 3 5 Political violence 4 Pejorative use 5 History 6 Infographics 7 Types 8 Causes and motivations 8 1 Choice of terrorism as a tactic 8 2 Causes motivating terrorism 8 3 Personal and social factors 9 Democracy and domestic terrorism 10 Religious terrorism 11 Perpetrators 11 1 Non state groups 11 2 State sponsors 11 3 State terrorism 12 Connection with tourism 13 Funding 14 Tactics 15 Responses 15 1 Terrorism research 15 2 International agreements 15 3 Response in the United States 16 Mass media 17 Outcome of terrorist groups 18 Databases 19 See also 20 Notes 21 References 22 Further reading 22 1 United Kingdom 23 External linksEtymologyEtymologically the word terror is derived from the Latin verb Tersere which later becomes Terrere The latter form appears in European languages as early as the 12th century its first known use in French is the word terrible in 1160 By 1356 the word terreur is in use Terreur is the origin of the Middle English term terrour which later becomes the modern word terror 14 Historical backgroundMain article Reign of Terror Seal of the Jacobin Club Society of the Jacobins Friends of Freedom and Equality The term terroriste meaning terrorist is first used in 1794 by the French philosopher Francois Noel Babeuf who denounces Maximilien Robespierre s Jacobin regime as a dictatorship 15 16 In the years leading up to what became known as the Reign of Terror the Brunswick Manifesto threatened Paris with an exemplary never to be forgotten vengeance the city would be subjected to military punishment and total destruction if the royal family was harmed but this only increased the Revolution s will to abolish the monarchy 17 Some writers attitudes about French Revolution grew less favorable after the French monarchy was abolished in 1792 During the Reign of Terror which began in July 1793 and lasted thirteen months Paris was governed by the Committee of Public Safety who oversaw a regime of mass executions and public purges 18 Prior to the French Revolution ancient philosophers wrote about tyrannicide as tyranny was seen as the greatest political threat to Greco Roman civilization Medieval philosophers were similarly occupied with the concept of tyranny though the analysis of some theologians like Thomas Aquinas drew a distinction between usurpers who could be killed by anyone and legitimate rulers who abused their power the latter in Aquinas view could only be punished by a public authority John of Salisbury was the first medieval Christian scholar to defend tyrannicide 14 General Napoleon Bonaparte quelling the October 5 1795 royalist rebellion in Paris in front of the Eglise Saint Roch Saint Honore Street paving the way for Directory government Most scholars today trace the origins of the modern tactic of terrorism to the Jewish Sicarii Zealots who attacked Romans and Jews in 1st century Palestine They follow its development from the Persian Order of Assassins through to 19th century anarchists The Reign of Terror is usually regarded as an issue of etymology The term terrorism has generally been used to describe violence by non state actors rather than government violence since the 19th century Anarchist Movement 17 19 20 In December 1795 Edmund Burke used the word Terrorists in a description of the new French government called Directory 21 At length after a terrible struggle the Directory Troops prevailed over the Citizens To secure them further they have a strong corps of irregulars ready armed Thousands of those Hell hounds called Terrorists whom they had shut up in Prison on their last Revolution as the Satellites of Tyranny are let loose on the people emphasis added The terms terrorism and terrorist gained renewed currency in the 1970s as a result of the Israeli Palestinian conflict 22 the Northern Ireland conflict 23 the Basque conflict 24 and the operations of groups such as the Red Army Faction 25 Leila Khaled was described as a terrorist in a 1970 issue of Life magazine 26 A number of books on terrorism were published in the 1970s 27 The topic came further to the fore after the 1983 Beirut barracks bombings 7 and again after the 2001 September 11 attacks 7 28 29 and the 2002 Bali bombings 7 Modern definitionsSee also Definitions of terrorism Attack at the Bologna railway station on August 2 1980 by the neo fascist group Nuclei Armati Rivoluzionari With 85 deaths it is the deadliest massacre in the history of Italy as a Republic Aftermath of the 2002 bomb attack at the Myyrmanni shopping mall in Myyrmaki Vantaa Finland The bombing was especially shocking for Finland and the other Nordic countries where bombings are extremely rare 30 The Beslan school siege by Chechen rebels on September 1 2004 It was the deadliest massacre in the history of Russia in the 21st century In 2006 it was estimated that there were over 109 different definitions of terrorism 31 American political philosopher Michael Walzer in 2002 wrote Terrorism is the deliberate killing of innocent people at random to spread fear through a whole population and force the hand of its political leaders 4 Bruce Hoffman an American scholar has noted that it is not only individual agencies within the same governmental apparatus that cannot agree on a single definition of terrorism Experts and other long established scholars in the field are equally incapable of reaching a consensus 32 C A J Coady has written that the question of how to define terrorism is irresolvable because its natural home is in polemical ideological and propagandist contexts 11 Experts disagree about whether terrorism is wrong by definition or just wrong as a matter of fact they disagree about whether terrorism should be defined in terms of its aims or its methods or both or neither they disagree about whether states can perpetrate terrorism they even disagree about the importance or otherwise of terror for a definition of terrorism 11 State terrorism Main article State terrorism State terrorism refers to acts of terrorism conducted by a state against its own citizens or against another state 33 United Nations In November 2004 a Secretary General of the United Nations report described terrorism as any act intended to cause death or serious bodily harm to civilians or non combatants with the purpose of intimidating a population or compelling a government or an international organization to do or abstain from doing any act 34 The international community has been slow to formulate a universally agreed legally binding definition of this crime These difficulties arise from the fact that the term terrorism is politically and emotionally charged 35 36 In this regard Angus Martyn briefing the Australian parliament stated The international community has never succeeded in developing an accepted comprehensive definition of terrorism During the 1970s and 1980s the United Nations attempts to define the term floundered mainly due to differences of opinion between various members about the use of violence in the context of conflicts over national liberation and self determination 37 These divergences have made it impossible for the United Nations to conclude a Comprehensive Convention on International Terrorism that incorporates a single all encompassing legally binding criminal law definition of terrorism 38 The international community has adopted a series of sectoral conventions that define and criminalize various types of terrorist activities Since 1994 the United Nations General Assembly has repeatedly condemned terrorist acts using the following political description of terrorism Criminal acts intended or calculated to provoke a state of terror in the public a group of persons or particular persons for political purposes are in any circumstance unjustifiable whatever the considerations of a political philosophical ideological racial ethnic religious or any other nature that may be invoked to justify them 39 U S law Various legal systems and government agencies use different definitions of terrorism in their national legislation U S Code Title 22 Chapter 38 Section 2656f d defines terrorism as Premeditated politically motivated violence perpetrated against noncombatant targets by subnational groups or clandestine agents 40 18 U S C 2331 defines international terrorism and domestic terrorism for purposes of Chapter 113B of the Code entitled Terrorism International terrorism means activities with the following three characteristics 41 Involve violent acts or acts dangerous to human life that violate federal or state law Appear to be intended i to intimidate or coerce a civilian population ii to influence the policy of a government by intimidation or coercion or iii to affect the conduct of a government by mass destruction assassination or kidnapping andoccur primarily outside the territorial jurisdiction of the U S or transcend national boundaries in terms of the means by which they are accomplished the persons they appear intended to intimidate or coerce or the locale in which their perpetrators operate or seek asylum Media spectacle A definition proposed by Carsten Bockstette at the George C Marshall European Center for Security Studies underlines the psychological and tactical aspects of terrorism Terrorism is defined as political violence in an asymmetrical conflict that is designed to induce terror and psychic fear sometimes indiscriminate through the violent victimization and destruction of noncombatant targets sometimes iconic symbols Such acts are meant to send a message from an illicit clandestine organization The purpose of terrorism is to exploit the media in order to achieve maximum attainable publicity as an amplifying force multiplier in order to influence the targeted audience s in order to reach short and midterm political goals and or desired long term end states 42 Terrorists attack national symbols which may negatively affect a government while increasing the prestige of the given terrorist group or its ideology 43 Political violence See also Political violence Luis Posada and CORU are widely considered responsible for the 1976 bombing of a Cuban airliner that killed 73 people 44 Terrorist acts frequently have a political purpose 45 Some official governmental definitions of terrorism use the criterion of the illegitimacy or unlawfulness of the act 46 better source needed to distinguish between actions authorized by a government and thus lawful and those of other actors including individuals and small groups For example carrying out a strategic bombing on an enemy city which is designed to affect civilian support for a cause would not be considered terrorism if it were authorized by a government This criterion is inherently problematic and is not universally accepted attribution needed because it denies the existence of state terrorism 47 An associated term is violent non state actor 48 According to Ali Khan the distinction lies ultimately in a political judgment 49 Pejorative useHaving the connotation of something morally wrong the term terrorism is often used to abuse or denounce opposite parties either governments or non state groups 4 5 6 7 8 An example of this is the terruqueo political attack used by right wing groups in Peru to target leftist groups or those opposed to the neoliberal status quo likening opponents to guerillas from the internal conflict in Peru 50 51 52 Those labeled terrorists by their opponents rarely identify themselves as such and typically use other terms or terms specific to their situation such as separatist freedom fighter liberator revolutionary vigilante militant paramilitary guerrilla rebel patriot or any similar meaning word in other languages and cultures Jihadi mujahideen and fedayeen are similar Arabic words that have entered the English lexicon It is common for both parties in a conflict to describe each other as terrorists 53 On whether particular terrorist acts such as killing non combatants can be justified as the lesser evil in a particular circumstance philosophers have expressed different views while according to David Rodin utilitarian philosophers can in theory conceive of cases in which the evil of terrorism is outweighed by the good that could not be achieved in a less morally costly way in practice the harmful effects of undermining the convention of non combatant immunity is thought to outweigh the goods that may be achieved by particular acts of terrorism 54 Among the non utilitarian philosophers Michael Walzer argued that terrorism can be morally justified in only one specific case when a nation or community faces the extreme threat of complete destruction and the only way it can preserve itself is by intentionally targeting non combatants then it is morally entitled to do so 54 55 In his book Inside Terrorism Bruce Hoffman offered an explanation of why the term terrorism becomes distorted On one point at least everyone agrees terrorism is a pejorative term It is a word with intrinsically negative connotations that is generally applied to one s enemies and opponents or to those with whom one disagrees and would otherwise prefer to ignore What is called terrorism Brian Jenkins has written thus seems to depend on one s point of view Use of the term implies a moral judgment and if one party can successfully attach the label terrorist to its opponent then it has indirectly persuaded others to adopt its moral viewpoint Hence the decision to call someone or label some organization terrorist becomes almost unavoidably subjective depending largely on whether one sympathizes with or opposes the person group cause concerned If one identifies with the victim of the violence for example then the act is terrorism If however one identifies with the perpetrator the violent act is regarded in a more sympathetic if not positive or at the worst an ambivalent light and it is not terrorism 35 56 The pejorative connotations of the word can be summed up in the aphorism One man s terrorist is another man s freedom fighter 53 This is exemplified when a group using irregular military methods is an ally of a state against a mutual enemy but later falls out with the state and starts to use those methods against its former ally President Reagan meeting with Afghan Mujahideen leaders in the Oval Office in 1983 During the Second World War the Malayan People s Anti Japanese Army were allied with the British but during the Malayan Emergency members of its successor organisation the Malayan National Liberation Army started campaigns against them and were branded terrorists as a result 57 58 More recently Ronald Reagan and others in the American administration frequently called the mujaheddin freedom fighters during the Soviet Afghan War 59 however twenty years later when a new generation of Afghan men militant groups like the Taliban and allies were fighting against what they perceive to be a regime installed by foreign powers their attacks were labelled terrorism by George W Bush 60 61 62 Groups accused of terrorism understandably prefer terms reflecting legitimate military or ideological action 63 64 65 Leading terrorism researcher Professor Martin Rudner director of the Canadian Centre of Intelligence and Security Studies at Ottawa s Carleton University defines terrorist acts as unlawful attacks for political or other ideological goals and said There is the famous statement One man s terrorist is another man s freedom fighter But that is grossly misleading It assesses the validity of the cause when terrorism is an act One can have a perfectly beautiful cause and yet if one commits terrorist acts it is terrorism regardless 66 Some groups when involved in a liberation struggle have been called terrorists by the Western governments or media Later these same persons as leaders of the liberated nations are called statesmen by similar organizations Two examples of this phenomenon are the Nobel Peace Prize laureates Menachem Begin and Nelson Mandela 67 68 69 70 71 72 WikiLeaks editor Julian Assange has been called a terrorist by Sarah Palin and Joe Biden 73 74 Sometimes states that are close allies for reasons of history culture and politics can disagree over whether members of a certain organization are terrorists For instance some branches of the United States government refused to label members of the Provisional Irish Republican Army IRA as terrorists while the IRA was using methods against one of the United States closest allies the United Kingdom that the UK branded as terrorism This was highlighted by the Quinn v Robinson case 75 76 Media outlets who wish to convey impartiality may limit their usage of terrorist and terrorism because they are loosely defined potentially controversial in nature and subjective terms 77 78 The 2020 Nashville bombing revived a debate over the use of the word terrorism with critics saying it is quickly applied to attacks by Muslims but reluctantly if at all used by white Christian men such as the Nashville bomber 79 HistoryMain article History of terrorism The Irish Republican Brotherhood was one of the earliest organizations to use modern terrorist tactics Pictured The Fenian Guy Fawkes by John Tenniel 1867 Depending on how broadly the term is defined the roots and practice of terrorism can be traced at least to the 1st century AD 80 According to the contemporary Jewish Roman historian Josephus after the Zealotry rebellion against Roman rule in Judea when some prominent Jewish collaborators with Roman rule were killed 81 82 Judas of Galilee formed a small and more extreme offshoot of the Zealots the Sicarii Zealots in 6 AD They were a smaller and more radical offshoot of the Zealots which was active in Judaea Province at the beginning of the 1st century AD and they can be considered early terrorists although this is disputed Their terror was directed against Jewish collaborators including temple priests Sadducees Herodians and other wealthy elites 83 The term terrorism itself was originally used to describe the actions of the Jacobin Club during the Reign of Terror in the French Revolution Terror is nothing other than justice prompt severe inflexible said Jacobin leader Maximilien Robespierre In 1795 Edmund Burke denounced the Jacobins for letting thousands of those hell hounds called Terrorists loose on the people of France In January 1858 Italian patriot Felice Orsini threw three bombs in an attempt to assassinate French Emperor Napoleon III 84 Eight bystanders were killed and 142 injured 84 The incident played a crucial role as an inspiration for the development of the early terrorist groups 84 Arguably the first organization to use modern terrorist techniques was the Irish Republican Brotherhood 85 founded in 1858 as a revolutionary Irish nationalist group 86 that carried out attacks in England 87 The group initiated the Fenian dynamite campaign in 1881 one of the first modern terror campaigns 88 Instead of earlier forms of terrorism based on political assassination this campaign used timed explosives with the express aim of sowing fear in the very heart of metropolitan Britain in order to achieve political gains 89 Another early terrorist type group was Narodnaya Volya founded in Russia in 1878 as a revolutionary anarchist group inspired by Sergei Nechayev and propaganda by the deed theorist Carlo Pisacane 80 90 91 The group developed ideas such as targeted killing of the leaders of oppression that were to become the hallmark of subsequent violence by small non state groups and they were convinced that the developing technologies of the age such as the invention of dynamite which they were the first anarchist group to make widespread use of 92 enabled them to strike directly and with discrimination 93 David Rapoport refers to four major waves of global terrorism the Anarchist the Anti Colonial the New Left and the Religious The first three have been completed and lasted around 40 years the fourth is now in its third decade 94 InfographicsSee also Number of terrorist incidents by country Terrorist incidents 1970 2015 A total of 157 520 incidents are plotted Orange 1970 1999 Red 2000 2015 Top 10 Countries 2000 2014 Worldwide non state terrorist incidents 1970 2017 Share who are worried about vs share of deaths from terrorismTypesThis section needs additional citations for verification Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources Unsourced material may be challenged and removed March 2017 Learn how and when to remove this template message Depending on the country the political system and the time in history the types of terrorism are varying Number of failed foiled or successful terrorist attacks by year and type within the European Union Source Europol 95 96 97 Aftermath of the King David Hotel bombing by the Zionist militant group Irgun July 1946 A view of damage to the U S Embassy in the aftermath of the 1983 Beirut bombing caused by Islamic Jihad Organization and Hezbollah In early 1975 the Law Enforcement Assistant Administration in the United States formed the National Advisory Committee on Criminal Justice Standards and Goals One of the five volumes that the committee wrote was titled Disorders and Terrorism produced by the Task Force on Disorders and Terrorism under the direction of H H A Cooper Director of the Task Force staff The Task Force defines terrorism as a tactic or technique by means of which a violent act or the threat thereof is used for the prime purpose of creating overwhelming fear for coercive purposes It classified disorders and terrorism into six categories 98 Civil disorder A form of collective violence interfering with the peace security and normal functioning of the community Political terrorism Violent criminal behaviour designed primarily to generate fear in the community or substantial segment of it for political purposes Non Political terrorism Terrorism that is not aimed at political purposes but which exhibits conscious design to create and maintain a high degree of fear for coercive purposes but the end is individual or collective gain rather than the achievement of a political objective Anonymous terrorism In the two decades prior to 2016 19 fewer than half of all terrorist attacks were either claimed by their perpetrators or convincingly attributed by governments to specific terrorist groups A number of theories have been advanced as to why this has happened 99 Quasi terrorism The activities incidental to the commission of crimes of violence that are similar in form and method to genuine terrorism but which nevertheless lack its essential ingredient It is not the main purpose of the quasi terrorists to induce terror in the immediate victim as in the case of genuine terrorism but the quasi terrorist uses the modalities and techniques of the genuine terrorist and produces similar consequences and reaction 100 101 102 For example the fleeing felon who takes hostages is a quasi terrorist whose methods are similar to those of the genuine terrorist but whose purposes are quite different Limited political terrorism Genuine political terrorism is characterized by a revolutionary approach limited political terrorism refers to acts of terrorism which are committed for ideological or political motives but which are not part of a concerted campaign to capture control of the state Official or state terrorism referring to nations whose rule is based upon fear and oppression that reach similar to terrorism or such proportions It may be referred to as Structural Terrorism defined broadly as terrorist acts carried out by governments in pursuit of political objectives often as part of their foreign policy Other sources have defined the typology of terrorism in different ways for example broadly classifying it into domestic terrorism and international terrorism or using categories such as vigilante terrorism or insurgent terrorism 103 One way the typology of terrorism may be defined 104 105 Political terrorism Sub state terrorism Social revolutionary terrorism Nationalist separatist terrorism Religious extremist terrorism Religious fundamentalist Terrorism New religions terrorism Right wing terrorism Left wing terrorism Communist terrorism State sponsored terrorism Regime or state terrorism Criminal terrorism Pathological terrorismCauses and motivationsChoice of terrorism as a tactic Individuals and groups choose terrorism as a tactic because it can Act as a form of asymmetric warfare in order to directly force a government to agree to demands Intimidate a group of people into capitulating to the demands in order to avoid future injury Get attention and thus political support for a cause Directly inspire more people to the cause such as revolutionary acts propaganda of the deed Indirectly inspire more people to the cause by provoking a hostile response or over reaction from enemies to the cause 106 Attacks on collaborators are used to intimidate people from cooperating with the state in order to undermine state control This strategy was used in Ireland in Kenya in Algeria and in Cyprus during their independence struggles 107 Stated motives for the September 11 attacks included inspiring more fighters to join the cause of repelling the United States from Muslim countries with a successful high profile attack The attacks prompted some criticism from domestic and international observers regarding perceived injustices in U S foreign policy that provoked the attacks but the larger practical effect was that the United States government declared a War on Terror that resulted in substantial military engagements in several Muslim majority countries Various commentators have inferred that al Qaeda expected a military response and welcomed it as a provocation that would result in more Muslims fight the United States Some commentators believe that the resulting anger and suspicion directed toward innocent Muslims living in Western countries and the indignities inflicted upon them by security forces and the general public also contributes to radicalization of new recruits 106 Despite criticism that the Iraqi government had no involvement with the September 11 attacks Bush declared the 2003 invasion of Iraq to be part of the War on Terror The resulting backlash and instability enabled the rise of Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant and the temporary creation of an Islamic caliphate holding territory in Iraq and Syria until ISIL lost its territory through military defeats Attacks used to draw international attention to struggles that are otherwise unreported have included the Palestinian airplane hijackings in 1970 and the 1975 Dutch train hostage crisis Causes motivating terrorism Specific political or social causes have included Independence or separatist movements Irredentist movements Adoption of a particular political philosophy such as socialism left wing terrorism anarchism or fascism possibly through a coup or as an ideology of an independence or separatist movement Environmental protection eco terrorism Supremacism of a particular group Preventing a rival group from sharing or occupying a particular territory such as by discouraging immigration or encouraging flight Subjugation of a particular population such as lynching of African Americans Spread or dominance of a particular religion religious terrorism Ending perceived government oppression Responding to a violent act for example tit for tat attacks in the Israeli Palestinian conflict in The Troubles in Northern Ireland or Timothy McVeigh s revenge for the Waco siege and Ruby Ridge incident Causes for right wing terrorism have included white nationalism ethnonationalism fascism anti socialism the anti abortion movement and tax resistance Sometimes terrorists on the same side fight for different reasons For example in the Chechen Russian conflict secular Chechens using terrorist tactics fighting for national independence are allied with radical Islamist terrorists who have arrived from other countries 108 Personal and social factors Main article Radicalization Various personal and social factors may influence the personal choice of whether to join a terrorist group or attempt an act of terror including Identity including affiliation with a particular culture ethnicity or religion Previous exposure to violence Financial reward for example the Palestinian Authority Martyrs Fund Mental health disorder Social isolation Perception that the cause responds to a profound injustice or indignityA report conducted by Paul Gill John Horgan and Paige Deckert dubious discuss found that for lone wolf terrorists 109 43 were motivated by religious beliefs 32 had pre existing mental health disorders while many more are found to have mental health problems upon arrest At least 37 lived alone at the time of their event planning and or execution a further 26 lived with others and no data were available for the remaining cases 40 were unemployed at the time of their arrest or terrorist event 19 subjectively experienced being disrespected by others 14 percent experienced being the victim of verbal or physical assaultAriel Merari a psychologist who has studied the psychological profiles of suicide terrorists since 1983 through media reports that contained biographical details interviews with the suicides families and interviews with jailed would be suicide attackers concluded that they were unlikely to be psychologically abnormal 110 In comparison to economic theories of criminal behaviour Scott Atran found that suicide terrorists exhibit none of the socially dysfunctional attributes such as fatherless friendless jobless situations or suicidal symptoms By which he means they do not kill themselves simply out of hopelessness or a sense of having nothing to lose 111 Abrahm suggests that terrorist organizations do not select terrorism for its political effectiveness 112 Individual terrorists tend to be motivated more by a desire for social solidarity with other members of their organization than by political platforms or strategic objectives which are often murky and undefined 112 Michael Mousseau shows possible relationships between the type of economy within a country and ideology associated with terrorism example needed 113 Many terrorists have a history of domestic violence 114 Democracy and domestic terrorismTerrorism is most common in nations with intermediate political freedom and it is least common in the most democratic nations 115 116 117 118 Some examples of terrorism in non democratic nations include ETA in Spain under Francisco Franco although the group s terrorist activities increased sharply after Franco s death 119 the Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists in pre war Poland 120 the Shining Path in Peru under Alberto Fujimori 121 the Kurdistan Workers Party when Turkey was ruled by military leaders and the ANC in South Africa 122 Democracies such as Japan the United Kingdom the United States Israel Indonesia India Spain Germany Italy and the Philippines have experienced domestic terrorism While a democratic nation espousing civil liberties may claim a sense of higher moral ground than other regimes an act of terrorism within such a state may cause a dilemma whether to maintain its civil liberties and thus risk being perceived as ineffective in dealing with the problem or alternatively to restrict its civil liberties and thus risk delegitimizing its claim of supporting civil liberties 123 For this reason homegrown terrorism has started to be seen as a greater threat as stated by former CIA Director Michael Hayden 124 This dilemma some social theorists would conclude may very well play into the initial plans of the acting terrorist s namely to delegitimize the state and cause a systematic shift towards anarchy via the accumulation of negative sentiments towards the state system 125 Religious terrorismMain article Religious terrorism Islamabad Marriott Hotel bombing Approximately 35 000 Pakistanis died from terrorist attacks between 2001 and 2011 126 According to the Global Terrorism Index by the University of Maryland College Park religious extremism has overtaken national separatism and become the main driver of terrorist attacks around the world Since 9 11 there has been a five fold increase in deaths from terrorist attacks The majority of incidents over the past several years can be tied to groups with a religious agenda Before 2000 it was nationalist separatist terrorist organizations such as the IRA and Chechen rebels who were behind the most attacks The number of incidents from nationalist separatist groups has remained relatively stable in the years since while religious extremism has grown The prevalence of Islamist groups in Iraq Afghanistan Pakistan Nigeria and Syria is the main driver behind these trends 127 Five of the terrorist groups that have been most active since 2001 are Hamas Boko Haram al Qaeda the Taliban and ISIL These groups have been most active in Iraq Afghanistan Pakistan Nigeria and Syria Eighty percent of all deaths from terrorism occurred in one of these five countries 127 In 2015 four Islamic extremist groups were responsible for 74 of all deaths from Islamic terrorism ISIS Boko Haram the Taliban and al Qaeda according to the Global Terrorism Index 2016 128 Since approximately 2000 these incidents have occurred on a global scale affecting not only Muslim majority states in Africa and Asia but also states with non Muslim majority such as United States United Kingdom France Germany Spain Belgium Sweden Russia Australia Canada Sri Lanka Israel China India and Philippines Such attacks have targeted both Muslims and non Muslims however the majority affect Muslims themselves 129 Terrorism in Pakistan has become a great problem From the summer of 2007 until late 2009 more than 1 500 people were killed in suicide and other attacks on civilians 130 for reasons attributed to a number of causes sectarian violence between Sunni and Shia Muslims easy availability of guns and explosives the existence of a Kalashnikov culture an influx of ideologically driven Muslims based in or near Pakistan who originated from various nations around the world and the subsequent war against the pro Soviet Afghans in the 1980s which blew back into Pakistan the presence of Islamist insurgent groups and forces such as the Taliban and Lashkar e Taiba On July 2 2013 in Lahore 50 Muslim scholars of the Sunni Ittehad Council SIC issued a collective fatwa against suicide bombings the killing of innocent people bomb attacks and targeted killings declaring them as Haraam or forbidden 131 In 2015 the Southern Poverty Law Center released a report on terrorism in the United States The report titled The Age of the Wolf analyzed 62 incidents and found that between 2009 and 2015 more people have been killed in America by non Islamic domestic terrorists than jihadists 132 The virulent racist and anti semitic ideology of the ultra right wing Christian Identity movement is usually accompanied by anti government sentiments 133 Adherents of Christian Identity are not connected with specific Christian denominations 134 and they believe that whites of European descent can be traced back to the Lost Tribes of Israel and many consider Jews to be the Satanic offspring of Eve and the Serpent 133 This group has committed hate crimes bombings and other acts of terrorism Its influence ranges from the Ku Klux Klan and neo Nazi groups to the anti government militia and sovereign citizen movements 133 Christian Identity s origins can be traced back to Anglo Israelism which held the view that the British people were descendants of ancient Israelites However in the United States the ideology started to become rife with anti Semitism and eventually Christian Identity theology diverged from the philo semitic Anglo Israelism and developed what is known as the two seed theory 133 According to the two seed theory the Jewish people are descended from Cain and the serpent not from Shem 133 The white European seedline is descended from the lost tribes of Israel They hold themselves to God s laws not to man s laws and they do not feel bound to a government that they consider run by Jews and the New World Order 133 The Ku Klux Klan is widely denounced by Christian denominations 135 Dawabsheh family home after Duma arson attack Israel has had problems with Jewish religious terrorism even before independence in 1948 During British mandate over Palestine the Irgun were among the Zionist groups labelled as terrorist organisations by the British authorities and United Nations 136 for violent terror attacks against Britons and Arabs 137 138 Another extremist group the Lehi openly declared its members as terrorists 139 140 Historian William Cleveland stated many Jews justified any action even terrorism taken in the cause of the creation of a Jewish state 141 In 1995 Yigal Amir assassinated Israeli Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin For Amir killing Rabin was an exemplary act that symbolized the fight against an illegitimate government that was prepared to cede Jewish Holy Land to the Palestinians 142 Perpetrators Al Qaida in Magreb members pose with weapons The perpetrators of acts of terrorism can be individuals groups or states According to some definitions clandestine or semi clandestine state actors may carry out terrorist acts outside the framework of a state of war The most common image of terrorism is that it is carried out by small and secretive cells highly motivated to serve a particular cause and many of the most deadly operations in recent times such as the September 11 attacks the London underground bombing 2008 Mumbai attacks and the 2002 Bali bombing were planned and carried out by a close clique composed of close friends family members and other strong social networks These groups benefited from the free flow of information and efficient telecommunications to succeed where others had failed 143 Over the years much research has been conducted to distill a terrorist profile to explain these individuals actions through their psychology and socio economic circumstances 144 Others like Roderick Hindery have sought to discern profiles in the propaganda tactics used by terrorists Some security organizations designate these groups as violent non state actors citation needed A 2007 study by economist Alan B Krueger found that terrorists were less likely to come from an impoverished background 28 percent versus 33 percent and more likely to have at least a high school education 47 percent versus 38 percent Another analysis found only 16 percent of terrorists came from impoverished families versus 30 percent of male Palestinians and over 60 percent had gone beyond high school versus 15 percent of the populace A study into the poverty stricken conditions and whether terrorists are more likely to come from here show that people who grew up in these situations tend to show aggression and frustration towards others This theory is largely debated for the simple fact that just because one is frustrated does not make them a potential terrorist 31 145 To avoid detection a terrorist will look dress and behave normally until executing the assigned mission Some claim that attempts to profile terrorists based on personality physical or sociological traits are not useful 146 The physical and behavioral description of the terrorist could describe almost any normal person 147 the majority of terrorist attacks are carried out by military age men aged 16 to 40 147 Non state groups There is speculation that the 2001 anthrax attacks were the work of a lone wolf Main articles List of designated terrorist groups Lone wolf terrorism and Violent non state actor Groups not part of the state apparatus of in opposition to the state are most commonly referred to as a terrorist in the media According to the Global Terrorism Database the most active terrorist group in the period 1970 to 2010 was Shining Path with 4 517 attacks followed by Farabundo Marti National Liberation Front FMLN Irish Republican Army IRA Basque Fatherland and Freedom ETA Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia FARC Taliban Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam New People s Army National Liberation Army of Colombia ELN and Kurdistan Workers Party PKK 148 State sponsors Main article State sponsored terrorism A state can sponsor terrorism by funding or harboring a terrorist group Opinions as to which acts of violence by states consist of state sponsored terrorism vary widely When states provide funding for groups considered by some to be terrorist they rarely acknowledge them as such 149 citation needed State terrorism Main article State terrorism Civilization is based on a clearly defined and widely accepted yet often unarticulated hierarchy Violence done by those higher on the hierarchy to those lower is nearly always invisible that is unnoticed When it is noticed it is fully rationalized Violence done by those lower on the hierarchy to those higher is unthinkable and when it does occur it is regarded with shock horror and the fetishization of the victims Derrick Jensen 150 Infant crying in Shanghai s South Station after the Japanese bombing August 28 1937 As with terrorism the concept of state terrorism is controversial 151 The Chairman of the United Nations Counter Terrorism Committee has stated that the committee was conscious of 12 international conventions on the subject and none of them referred to state terrorism which was not an international legal concept If states abused their power they should be judged against international conventions dealing with war crimes international human rights law and international humanitarian law 152 Former United Nations Secretary General Kofi Annan has said that it is time to set aside debates on so called state terrorism The use of force by states is already thoroughly regulated under international law 153 he made clear that regardless of the differences between governments on the question of the definition of terrorism what is clear and what we can all agree on is that any deliberate attack on innocent civilians or non combatants regardless of one s cause is unacceptable and fits into the definition of terrorism 154 State terrorism has been used to refer to terrorist acts committed by governmental agents or forces This involves the use of state resources employed by a state s foreign policies such as using its military to directly perform acts of terrorism Professor of Political Science Michael Stohl cites the examples that include the German bombing of London the Allied firebombing of Dresden and the U S atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki during World War II He argues that the use of terror tactics is common in international relations and the state has been and remains a more likely employer of terrorism within the international system than insurgents He cites the first strike option as an example of the terror of coercive diplomacy as a form of this which holds the world hostage with the implied threat of using nuclear weapons in crisis management and he argues that the institutionalized form of terrorism has occurred as a result of changes that took place following World War II In this analysis state terrorism exhibited as a form of foreign policy was shaped by the presence and use of weapons of mass destruction and the legitimizing of such violent behavior led to an increasingly accepted form of this behavior by the state 155 156 157 St Paul s Cathedral after the German bombing of London c 1940 Charles Stewart Parnell described William Ewart Gladstone s Irish Coercion Act as terrorism in his no Rent manifesto in 1881 during the Irish Land War 158 The concept is used to describe political repressions by governments against their own civilian populations with the purpose of inciting fear For example taking and executing civilian hostages or extrajudicial elimination campaigns are commonly considered terror or terrorism for example during the Red Terror or the Great Terror 159 Such actions are often described as democide or genocide which have been argued to be equivalent to state terrorism 160 Empirical studies on this have found that democracies have little democide 161 162 Western democracies including the United States have supported state terrorism 163 and mass killings 164 165 with some examples being the Indonesian mass killings of 1965 66 and Operation Condor 166 167 168 Connection with tourismThe connection between terrorism and tourism has been widely studied since the Luxor massacre in Egypt 169 170 In the 1970s the targets of terrorists were politicians and chiefs of police while now international tourists and visitors are selected as the main targets of attacks The attacks on the World Trade Center and the Pentagon on September 11 2001 were the symbolic center which marked a new epoch in the use of civil transport against the main power of the planet 171 From this event onwards the spaces of leisure that characterized the pride of West were conceived as dangerous and frightful 172 173 FundingMain article Terrorist financing State sponsors have constituted a major form of funding for example Palestine Liberation Organization Democratic Front for the Liberation of Palestine and other groups sometimes considered to be terrorist organizations were funded by the Soviet Union 174 175 The Stern Gang received funding from Italian Fascist officers in Beirut to undermine the British authorities in Palestine 176 Revolutionary tax is another major form of funding and essentially a euphemism for protection money 174 Revolutionary taxes play a secondary role as one other means of intimidating the target population 174 Other major sources of funding include kidnapping for ransoms smuggling including wildlife smuggling 177 fraud and robbery 174 The Islamic State in Iraq and the Levant has reportedly received funding via private donations from the Gulf states 178 The Financial Action Task Force is an inter governmental body whose mandate since October 2001 has included combating terrorist financing 179 TacticsMain article Tactics of terrorism The Wall Street bombing at noon on September 16 1920 killed thirty eight people and injured several hundred The perpetrators were never caught 180 Terrorist attacks are often targeted to maximize fear and publicity most frequently using explosives 181 Terrorist groups usually methodically plan attacks in advance and may train participants plant undercover agents and raise money from supporters or through organized crime Communications occur through modern telecommunications or through old fashioned methods such as couriers There is concern about terrorist attacks employing weapons of mass destruction Some academics have argued that while it is often assumed terrorism is intended to spread fear this is not necessarily true with fear instead being a by product of the terrorist s actions while their intentions may be to avenge fallen comrades or destroy their perceived enemies 182 Terrorism is a form of asymmetric warfare and is more common when direct conventional warfare will not be effective because opposing forces vary greatly in power 183 Yuval Harari argues that the peacefulness of modern states makes them paradoxically more vulnerable to terrorism than pre modern states Harari argues that because modern states have committed themselves to reducing political violence to almost zero terrorists can by creating political violence threaten the very foundations of the legitimacy of the modern state This is in contrast to pre modern states where violence was a routine and recognised aspect of politics at all levels making political violence unremarkable Terrorism thus shocks the population of a modern state far more than a pre modern one and consequently the state is forced to overreact in an excessive costly and spectacular manner which is often what the terrorists desire 184 The type of people terrorists will target is dependent upon the ideology of the terrorists A terrorist s ideology will create a class of legitimate targets who are deemed as its enemies and who are permitted to be targeted This ideology will also allow the terrorists to place the blame on the victim who is viewed as being responsible for the violence in the first place 185 186 The context in which terrorist tactics are used is often a large scale unresolved political conflict The type of conflict varies widely historical examples include Secession of a territory to form a new sovereign state or become part of a different state Dominance of territory or resources by various ethnic groups Imposition of a particular form of government Economic deprivation of a population Opposition to a domestic government or occupying army Religious fanaticismResponses Sign notifying shoppers of increased surveillance due to a perceived increased risk of terrorism Responses to terrorism are broad in scope They can include re alignments of the political spectrum and reassessments of fundamental values Specific types of responses include Targeted laws criminal procedures deportations and enhanced police powers Target hardening such as locking doors or adding traffic barriers Preemptive or reactive military action Increased intelligence and surveillance activities Preemptive humanitarian activities More permissive interrogation and detention policiesThe term counter terrorism has a narrower connotation implying that it is directed at terrorist actors Terrorism research Terrorism research also called terrorism studies or terrorism and counter terrorism research is an interdisciplinary academic field which seeks to understand the causes of terrorism how to prevent it as well as its impact in the broadest sense Terrorism research can be carried out in both military and civilian contexts for example by research centres such as the British Centre for the Study of Terrorism and Political Violence the Norwegian Centre for Violence and Traumatic Stress Studies and the International Centre for Counter Terrorism ICCT There are several academic journals devoted to the field including Perspectives on Terrorism 187 188 International agreements One of the agreements that promote the international legal anti terror framework is the Code of Conduct Towards Achieving a World Free of Terrorism that was adopted at the 73rd session of the United Nations General Assembly in 2018 The Code of Conduct was initiated by Kazakhstan President Nursultan Nazarbayev Its main goal is to implement a wide range of international commitments to counter terrorism and establish a broad global coalition towards achieving a world free of terrorism by 2045 The Code was signed by more than 70 countries 189 Response in the United States See also War on Terror X ray backscatter technology AIT machine used by the TSA to screen passengers According to the TSA this is what the remote TSA agent would see on their screen According to a report by Dana Priest and William M Arkin in The Washington Post Some 1 271 government organizations and 1 931 private companies work on programs related to counterterrorism homeland security and intelligence in about 10 000 locations across the United States 190 America s thinking on how to defeat radical Islamists is split along two very different schools of thought Republicans typically follow what is known as the Bush Doctrine advocate the military model of taking the fight to the enemy and seeking to democratize the Middle East Democrats by contrast generally propose the law enforcement model of better cooperation with nations and more security at home 191 In the introduction of the U S Army Marine Corps Counterinsurgency Field Manual Sarah Sewall states the need for U S forces to make securing the civilian rather than destroying the enemy their top priority The civilian population is the center of gravity the deciding factor in the struggle Civilian deaths create an extended family of enemies new insurgent recruits or informants and erode support of the host nation Sewall sums up the book s key points on how to win this battle Sometimes the more you protect your force the less secure you may be Sometimes the more force is used the less effective it is The more successful the counterinsurgency is the less force can be used and the more risk must be accepted Sometimes doing nothing is the best reaction 192 This strategy often termed courageous restraint has certainly led to some success on the Middle East battlefield However it does not address the fact that terrorists are mostly homegrown 191 Mass media Causes of death in the US vs media coverage The percentage of media attention for terrorism about 33 35 is much greater than the percentage of deaths caused by terrorism less than 0 01 La Terroriste a 1910 poster depicting a female member of the Combat Organization of the Polish Socialist Party throwing a bomb at a Russian official s car Mass media exposure may be a primary goal of those carrying out terrorism to expose issues that would otherwise be ignored by the media Some consider this to be manipulation and exploitation of the media 193 The Internet has created a new way for groups to spread their messages 194 This has created a cycle of measures and counter measures by groups in support of and in opposition to terrorist movements The United Nations has created its own online counter terrorism resource 195 The mass media will on occasion censor organizations involved in terrorism through self restraint or regulation to discourage further terrorism This may encourage organizations to perform more extreme acts of terrorism to be shown in the mass media Conversely James F Pastor explains the significant relationship between terrorism and the media and the underlying benefit each receives from the other 196 There is always a point at which the terrorist ceases to manipulate the media gestalt A point at which the violence may well escalate but beyond which the terrorist has become symptomatic of the media gestalt itself Terrorism as we ordinarily understand it is innately media related Novelist William Gibson 2004 197 Former British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher famously spoke of the close connection between terrorism and the media calling publicity the oxygen of terrorism 198 Outcome of terrorist groups How terrorist groups end n 268 The most common ending for a terrorist group is to convert to nonviolence via negotiations 43 percent with most of the rest terminated by routine policing 40 percent Groups that were ended by military force constituted only 7 percent 199 Jones and Libicki 2008 created a list of all the terrorist groups they could find that were active between 1968 and 2006 They found 648 Of those 136 splintered and 244 were still active in 2006 200 Of the ones that ended 43 percent converted to nonviolent political actions like the Irish Republican Army in Northern Ireland Law enforcement took out 40 percent Ten percent won Only 20 groups 7 percent were destroyed by military force Forty two groups became large enough to be labeled an insurgency 38 of those had ended by 2006 Of those 47 percent converted to nonviolent political actors Only 5 percent were ended by law enforcement Twenty six percent won Twenty one percent succumbed to military force 201 Jones and Libicki concluded that military force may be necessary to deal with large insurgencies but are only occasionally decisive because the military is too often seen as a bigger threat to civilians than the terrorists To avoid that the rules of engagement must be conscious of collateral damage and work to minimize it Another researcher Audrey Cronin lists six primary ways that terrorist groups end 202 Capture or killing of a group s leader Decapitation Entry of the group into a legitimate political process Negotiation Achievement of group aims Success Group implosion or loss of public support Failure Defeat and elimination through brute force Repression Transition from terrorism into other forms of violence Reorientation DatabasesThe following terrorism databases are or were made publicly available for research purposes and track specific acts of terrorism Global Terrorism Database an open source database by the University of Maryland College Park on terrorist events around the world from 1970 through 2017 with more than 150 000 cases MIPT Terrorism Knowledge Base Worldwide Incidents Tracking System Tocsearch dynamic database The following public report and index provides a summary of key global trends and patterns in terrorism around the world Global Terrorism Index produced annually by the Institute for Economics and PeaceThe following publicly available resources index electronic and bibliographic resources on the subject of terrorism Human Security GatewayThe following terrorism databases are maintained in secrecy by the United States Government for intelligence and counter terrorism purposes Terrorist Identities Datamart Environment Terrorist Screening DatabaseJones and Libicki 2008 includes a table of 268 terrorist groups active between 1968 and 2006 with their status as of 2006 still active splintered converted to nonviolence removed by law enforcement or military or won These data are not in a convenient machine readable format but are available See alsoAgro terrorism Archives of Terror Communist terrorism Crimes against humanity Cyberterrorism Definitions of terrorismEconomic terrorism Economics of terrorism Environmental terrorism Fearmongering Government negotiation with terrorists House of Terror Left wing terrorism Right wing terrorism List of designated terrorist groups List of terrorist incidents Narcoterrorism Nationalist terrorism Nuclear terrorism Global Initiative to Combat Nuclear Terrorism Religious terrorism Hindutva terrorism Islamic terrorism Islamic terrorism in Europe Christian terrorism Jewish religious terrorism September 11 attacks in 2001 Terrorism and social media Terrorism in Canada Terrorism in Europe Terrorism in India Terrorism in Indonesia Terrorism in Russia Terrorism in Saudi Arabia Terrorism in Syria Terrorism in Thailand Terrorism in Turkey Terrorism in the United Kingdom Terrorism in the United States Domestic terrorism in the United States Terrorism in Yugoslavia Victims of Acts of Terror Memorial Violent extremismNotes Wisnewski J Jeremy ed 2008 Torture Terrorism and the Use of Violence also available as Review Journal of Political Philosophy Volume 6 Issue Number 1 Cambridge Scholars Publishing p 175 ISBN 978 1 4438 0291 8 Stevenson Angus ed 2010 Oxford dictionary of English 3rd ed New York Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 957112 3 Halibozek Edward P Jones Andy Kovacich Gerald L 2008 The corporate security professional s handbook on terrorism illustrated ed Elsevier Butterworth Heinemann pp 4 5 ISBN 978 0 7506 8257 2 Retrieved December 17 2016 a b c d Mackey Robert November 20 2009 Can Soldiers Be Victims of Terrorism The New York Times Retrieved January 11 2010 Terrorism is the deliberate killing of innocent people at random in order to spread fear through a whole population and force the hand of its political leaders a b Sinclair Samuel Justin Antonius Daniel 2012 The Psychology of Terrorism Fears Oxford University Press US p 14 ISBN 978 0 19 538811 4 a b White Jonathan R January 1 2016 Terrorism and Homeland Security Cengage Learning p 3 ISBN 978 1 305 63377 3 a b c d e Heryanto Ariel April 7 2006 State Terrorism and Political Identity in Indonesia Fatally Belonging Routledge p 161 ISBN 978 1 134 19569 5 a b Ruthven Malise Nanji Azim April 24 2017 Historical Atlas of Islam Harvard University Press ISBN 978 0 674 01385 8 Terrorism Encyclopaedia Britannica p 3 Retrieved September 8 2020 a b Majoran Andrew August 1 2014 The Illusion of War Is Terrorism a Criminal Act or an Act of War Mackenzie Institute Retrieved April 24 2020 a b c Jenny Teichman 1989 How to Define Terrorism Philosophy 64 250 505 517 doi 10 1017 S0031819100044260 JSTOR 3751606 S2CID 144723359 Eviatar Daphne June 13 2013 Is Terrorism a War Crime Triable by Military Commission Who Knows HuffPost Retrieved April 29 2017 Global Terrorism Index 2015 PDF Institute for Economics and Peace p 33 Archived from the original PDF on February 7 2019 Retrieved July 19 2016 a b Fine Jonathan 2010 Political and Philological Origins of the Term Terrorism from the Ancient Near East to Our Times Middle Eastern Studies 46 2 271 288 doi 10 1080 00263201003619927 JSTOR 20720662 S2CID 143268246 Palmer R R 2014 The French Directory Between Extremes The Age of the Democratic Revolution A Political History of Europe and America 1760 1800 The Age of the Democratic Revolution Princeton University Press pp 544 567 ISBN 9780691161280 JSTOR j ctt5hhrg5 29 Kellner Douglas April 2004 9 11 spectacles of terror and media manipulation A critique of Jihadist and Bush media politics Critical Discourse Studies 1 1 41 64 doi 10 1080 17405900410001674515 eISSN 1740 5912 ISSN 1740 5904 a b Ken Duncan 2011 A Blast from the Past Lessons from a Largely Forgotten Incident of State Sponsored Terrorism Perspectives on Terrorism 5 1 3 21 JSTOR 26298499 Crawford Joseph September 12 2013 Gothic Fiction and the Invention of Terrorism The Politics and Aesthetics of Fear in the Age of the Reign of Terror Bloomsbury Publishing ISBN 978 1 4725 0912 3 Houen Alex September 12 2002 Introduction Terrorism and Modern Literature From Joseph Conrad to Ciaran Carson OUP Oxford ISBN 978 0 19 154198 8 Thackrah John Richard 2013 Dictionary of Terrorism Routledge ISBN 978 1 135 16595 6 Edmund Burke To The Earl Fitzwilliam Christmas 1795 In Edmund Burke Select Works of Edmund Burke vol 3 Letters on a Regicide Peace 1795 This Internet version contains two mingled indications of page numbers one with single brackets like 260 one with double brackets like 309 Burke lengthily introduces his view on this present Directory government and then writes on page 359 Those who arbitrarily erected the new building out of the old materials of their own Convention were obliged to send for an Army to support their work At length after a terrible struggle the Troops prevailed over the Citizens This power is to last as long as the Parisians think proper 315 To secure them further they have a strong corps of irregulars ready armed Thousands of those Hell hounds called Terrorists whom they had shut up in Prison on their last Revolution as the Satellites of Tyranny are let loose on the people Peleg Ilan 1988 Terrorism in the Middle East The Case of the Arab Israeli Conflict In Stohl Michael ed The Politics of Terrorism Third ed CRC Press p 531 ISBN 978 0 8247 7814 9 Retrieved February 14 2019 Crenshaw Martha 2010 Terrorism in Context Penn State Press p xiii ISBN 978 0 271 04442 2 Retrieved February 14 2019 Shabad Goldie Llera Ramo Francisco Jose 2010 Political Violence in a Democratic State Basque Terrorism in Spain In Crenshaw Martha ed Terrorism in Context ISBN 9780271044422 Retrieved February 14 2019 Corrado Raymond R Evans Rebecca January 29 1988 Ethnic and Ideological Terrorism in Western Europe In Stohl Michael ed The Politics of Terrorism Third ed p 373 ISBN 9780824778149 Retrieved February 14 2019 Khaled Leila September 18 1970 This is Your New Captain Speaking Life p 34 Retrieved February 14 2019 Committee on the Judiciary Terroristic Activity International terrorism Lester A Sobel Political Terrorism Lauran Paine The Terrorists 1975 Walter Laqueur Guerrilla Warfare A Historical and Critical Study Paul Wilkinson Terrorism versus liberal democracy the problems of response Albert Parry Terrorism from Robespierre to Arafat 1976 Ovid Demaris Brothers in Blood The International Terrorist Network 1977 Yonah Alexander David Carlton and Paul Wilkinson Terrorism Theory and Practice Christopher Dobson and Ronald Payne The Weapons of Terror International Terrorism at Work Brian Michael Jenkins The Terrorist Mindset and Terrorist Decisionmaking 1979 Faimau Gabriel July 26 2013 Socio Cultural Construction of Recognition The Discursive Representation of Islam and Muslims in the British Christian News Media Cambridge Scholars Publishing p 27 ISBN 978 1 4438 5104 6 Campo Juan Eduardo January 1 2009 Encyclopedia of Islam Infobase Publishing p xxii ISBN 978 1 4381 2696 8 Ortenwall Per Almgren Ola Deverell Edward 2003 The bomb explosion in Myyrmanni Finland 2002 International Journal of Disaster Medicine 1 2 120 doi 10 1080 15031430310029062 ISSN 1503 1438 a b Arie W Kruglanski and Shira Fishman Current Directions in Psychological Science Vol 15 No 1 Feb 2006 pp 45 48 Hoffman 2006 p 34 Aust Anthony 2010 Handbook of International Law 2nd ed Cambridge University Press p 265 ISBN 978 0 521 13349 4 UN Reform United Nations March 21 2005 Archived from the original on April 27 2007 Retrieved July 11 2008 The second part of the report entitled Freedom from Fear backs the definition of terrorism an issue so divisive agreement on it has long eluded the world community as any action intended to cause death or serious bodily harm to civilians or non combatants with the purpose of intimidating a population or compelling a government or an international organization to do or abstain from doing any act a b Hoffman 1998 p 32 Radicalisation De Radicalisation Counter Radicalisation A Conceptual Discussion and Literature Review The International Centre for Counter Terrorism The Hague ICCT March 27 2013 Retrieved September 6 2016 Angus Martyn The Right of Self Defence under International Law the Response to the Terrorist Attacks of 11 September Australian Law and Bills Digest Group Parliament of Australia Web Site February 12 2002 Archived February 16 2012 at the Wayback Machine Diaz Paniagua 2008 Negotiating terrorism The negotiation dynamics of four UN counter terrorism treaties 1997 2005 p 47 1994 United Nations Declaration on Measures to Eliminate International Terrorism annex to UN General Assembly resolution 49 60 Measures to Eliminate International Terrorism of December 9 1994 UN Doc A Res 60 49 22 U S Code 2656f Annual country reports on terrorism LII Legal Information Institute 18 U S Code 2331 Definitions LII Legal Information Institute Bockstette Carsten 2008 Jihadist Terrorist Use of Strategic Communication Management Techniques PDF George C Marshall Center Occasional Paper Series 20 ISSN 1863 6039 Retrieved January 1 2009 Juergensmeyer Mark 2000 Terror in the Mind of God University of California Press pp 125 135 ISBN 9780520223011 Bardach Ann Louis Rohter Larry July 13 1998 A Bomber s Tale Decades of Intrigue The New York Times Number of Terrorist Attacks Fatalities The Washington Post June 12 2009 Retrieved January 11 2010 The nation s deadliest terrorist acts attacks designed to achieve a political goal Terrorism in the United States 1999 PDF Federal Bureau of Investigation Archived from the original PDF on July 9 2008 Retrieved July 11 2008 Iraq accuses US of state terrorism BBC News February 20 2002 Retrieved January 11 2010 Iraq has accused the United States of state terrorism amid signs that the war of words between the two countries is heating up Mendelsohn Barak January 2005 Sovereignty under attack the international society meets the Al Qaeda network abstract Cambridge Journals Retrieved January 11 2010 This article examines the complex relations between a violent non state actor the Al Qaeda network and order in the international system Al Qaeda poses a challenge to the sovereignty of specific states but it also challenges the international society as a whole Khan Ali October 8 2006 A Theory of International Terrorism Connecticut Law Review 19 945 via Social Science Research Network Feline Freier Luisa Castillo Jara Soledad January 13 2021 Terruqueo and Peru s Fear of the Left Americas Quarterly Retrieved November 18 2021 a href Template Cite web html title Template Cite web cite web a CS1 maint url status link Que es el terruqueo en Peru y como influye en la disputa presidencial entre Fujimori y Castillo BBC News in Spanish Retrieved November 18 2021 Asensio Raul Camacho Gabriela Gonzalez Natalia Grompone Romeo Pajuelo Teves Ramon Pena Jimenez Omayra Moscoso Macarena Vasquez Yerel Sosa Villagarcia Paolo August 2021 El Profe Como Pedro Castillo se convirtio en presidente del Peru y que pasara a continuacion in Spanish 1 ed Lima Peru Institute of Peruvian Studies pp 13 24 ISBN 978 612 326 084 2 Retrieved November 17 2021 a b Reynolds Paul quoting David Hannay Former UK ambassador September 14 2005 UN staggers on road to reform BBC News Retrieved January 11 2010 This would end the argument that one man s terrorist is another man s freedom fighter a b Rodin David 2006 Terrorism In E Craig Ed Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy London Routledge Steinfels Peter March 1 2003 Beliefs The just war tradition its last resort criterion and the debate on an invasion of Iraq The New York Times Retrieved January 11 2010 For those like Professor Walzer who value the just war tradition as a disciplined way to think about the morality of war Bonner Raymond November 1 1998 Getting Attention A scholar s historical and political survey of terrorism finds that it works Books The New York Times Retrieved January 11 2010 Inside Terrorism falls into the category of must read at least for anyone who wants to understand how we can respond to international acts of terror Malayan People s Anti Japanese Army Archived March 24 2007 at the Wayback Machine Britannica Concise Dr Chris Clark Malayan Emergency 16 June 1948 Archived from the original on June 8 2007 June 16 2003 Ronald Reagan speech to National Conservative Political Action Conference Archived August 20 2006 at the Wayback Machine March 8 1985 On the Spartacus Educational web site President Meets with Afghan Interim Authority Chairman Georgewbush whitehouse archives gov January 29 2002 Retrieved August 10 2009 President Discusses Progress in War on Terrorism to National Guard White House web site February 9 2006 An unbiased look at terrorism in Afghanistan in 2009 reveals that many of these terrorists individuals or groups were once freedom fighters struggling against the Soviets during the 1980s Chouvy Pierre Arnaud 2009 Opium Uncovering the Politics of the Poppy illustrated reprint ed Harvard University Press p 119 ISBN 978 0 674 05134 8 Sudha Ramachandran Death behind the wheel in Iraq Asian Times November 12 2004 Insurgent groups that use suicide attacks therefore do not like their attacks to be described as suicide terrorism They prefer to use terms like martyrdom Alex Perry How Much to Tip the Terrorist Time September 26 2005 The Tamil Tigers would dispute that tag of course Like other guerrillas and suicide bombers they prefer the term freedom fighters Terrorism concepts causes and conflict resolution George Mason University Institute for Conflict Analysis and Resolution Printed by the Defense Threat Reduction Agency Fort Belvoir Virginia January 2003 Quinney Nigel Coyne A Heather 2011 Peacemaker s Toolkit Talking to Groups that Use Terrorism PDF United States Institute of Peace ISBN 978 1 60127 072 6 Retrieved December 11 2016 Theodore P Seto The Morality of Terrorism Includes a list in The Times published on July 23 1946 which were described as Jewish terrorist actions including those launched by Irgun of which Begin was a leading member BBC News Profiles Menachem Begin BBC website Under Begin s command the underground terrorist group Irgun carried out numerous acts of violence Ahmad Eqbal January 2002 Straight talk on terrorism Monthly Review Archived from the original on February 5 2012 Retrieved September 10 2006 including Menachem Begin appearing in Wanted posters saying Terrorists reward this much The highest reward I have seen offered was 100 000 British pounds for the head of Menachem Begin Lord Desai Hansard House of Lords Archived March 11 2007 at the Wayback Machine September 3 1998 Column 72 However Jomo Kenyatta Nelson Mandela and Menachem Begin to give just three examples were all denounced as terrorists but all proved to be successful political leaders of their countries and good friends of the United Kingdom BBC NEWS World Americas UN reforms receive mixed response BBC website Of all groups active in recent times the ANC perhaps represents best the traditional dichotomous view of armed struggle Once regarded by western governments as a terrorist group it now forms the legitimate elected government of South Africa with Nelson Mandela one of the world s genuinely iconic figures BBC NEWS World Africa Profile Nelson Mandela BBC website Nelson Mandela remains one of the world s most revered statesman Beckford Martin November 30 2010 Hunt WikiLeaks founder like al Qaeda and Taliban Leaders The Daily Telegraph London Archived from the original on January 11 2022 Retrieved January 7 2011 MacAskill Ewen December 19 2010 Julian Assange like a hi tech terrorist The Guardian London Retrieved January 7 2011 Quinn v Robinson 783 F2d 776 9th Cir 1986 Uniset ca Retrieved November 23 2010 McCabe Zachary E August 25 2003 Northern Ireland The paramilitaries Terrorism and September 11th PDF Queen s University Belfast School of Law p 17 Archived from the original PDF on December 1 2007 Guardian and Observer style guide T The Guardian London December 19 2008 Retrieved April 9 2014 BBC Editorial Guidelines on Language when Reporting Terrorism BBC Archived from the original on December 30 2011 Retrieved January 9 2011 Nashville Bombing Revives Debate Over Which Acts Get Terrorism Label NPR a b Parrikar Manohar PM Modi s vow to avenge Uri won t remain just words The Times of India Hoffman 1988 p 83 Chaliand Gerard The History of Terrorism From Antiquity to al Qaeda Berkeley University of California Press 2007 p 56 Hoffman 1988 p 167 a b c Crenshaw Martha Terrorism in Context p 38 Terrorism From the Fenians to Al Qaeda Archived from the original on December 3 2012 Retrieved December 17 2012 Irish Freedom by Richard English Publisher Pan Books 2007 ISBN 0 330 42759 8 p 179 Irish Freedom by Richard English Publisher Pan Books November 2 2007 ISBN 0 330 42759 8 p 180 Whelehan Niall 2012 The Dynamiters Irish Nationalism and Political Violence in the Wider World 1867 1900 Cambridge The Fenian Dynamite campaign 1881 85 Retrieved December 17 2012 Center for Defense Information Project On Government Oversight Archived from the original on May 11 2012 Hoffman 1998 p 5 A History of Terrorism by Walter Laqueur Transaction Publishers 2000 ISBN 0 7658 0799 8 p 92 1 Adam Roberts September 18 2014 The Changing Faces of Terrorism BBC History Retrieved December 1 2017 Rapoport David C ed 2017 Terrorism as a Global Wave Phenomenon An Overview Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Politics New York Oxford University Press doi 10 1093 acrefore 9780190228637 013 299 ISBN 9780190228637 TE SAT 2011 EU Terrorism Situation and Trend Report PDF Europol 2011 Retrieved December 1 2017 TE SAT 2010 Terrorism Situation and Trend Report PDF Europol 2010 Retrieved December 1 2017 TE SAT 2009 Terrorism Situation and Trend Report PDF Europol 2009 Retrieved December 1 2017 Disorders and Terrorism PDF National Advisory Committee on Criminal Justice Standards and Goals 1976 pp 3 6 Why do terrorists claim credit for some attacks but not others The Economist February 1 2019 Retrieved May 9 2021 Quasi terrorism Mukkulreddy wordpress com March 24 2012 Retrieved July 13 2016 Types of Terrorism Crime Museum Retrieved July 13 2016 TERRORISM Earth Dashboard Retrieved July 13 2016 Purpura Philip P 2007 Terrorism and homeland security an introduction with applications Butterworth Heinemann pp 16 19 ISBN 978 0 7506 7843 8 Hudson Rex A Who Becomes a Terrorist and Why The 1999 Government Report on Profiling Terrorists Federal Research Division The Lyons Press 2002 Barry Scheider Jim Davis Avoiding the abyss progress shortfalls and the way ahead in combatting the WMD threat Greenwood Publishing Group 2009 p 60 a b The Psychology Of Terrorism audio interview summarizing Special Report The Psychology of Terrorism Madigan Michael L December 6 2017 Handbook of Emergency Management Concepts A Step by Step Approach CRC Press ISBN 9781351337472 Janeczko Matthew June 19 2014 Faced with death even a mouse bites Social and religious motivations behind terrorism in Chechnya 428 456 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a Cite journal requires journal help Gill Paul Horgan John Deckert Paige March 1 2014 Bombing Alone Tracing the Motivations and Antecedent Behaviors of Lone Actor Terrorists Journal of Forensic Sciences 59 2 425 435 doi 10 1111 1556 4029 12312 PMC 4217375 PMID 24313297 Merari Ariel 2006 Psychological Aspects of Suicide Terrorism in Bruce Bongar et al Psychology of Terrorism New York Oxford University Press Atran Scott 2004 Mishandling Suicide Terrorism The Washington Quarterly 27 3 67 90 doi 10 1162 016366004323090269 S2CID 155714216 a b Abrahms Max March 2008 What Terrorists Really Want Terrorist Motives and Counterterrorism Strategy PDF 1933 KB International Security 32 4 86 89 doi 10 1162 isec 2008 32 4 78 ISSN 0162 2889 S2CID 57561190 Retrieved November 4 2008 Mousseau Michael 2002 Market Civilization and its Clash with Terror International Security 27 3 5 29 doi 10 1162 01622880260553615 S2CID 26190384 Many terrorists first victims are their wives but we re not allowed to talk about that June 7 2017 New Statesman Freedom squelches terrorist violence Harvard Gazette Archives Archived from the original on September 19 2015 Freedom squelches terrorist violence Harvard Gazette Archives PDF Archived from the original PDF on December 21 2008 Retrieved December 28 2008 Poverty Political Freedom and the Roots of Terrorism PDF 2004 Archived from the original PDF on December 21 2008 Retrieved December 28 2008 Unemployment Inequality and Terrorism Another Look at the Relationship between Economics and Terrorism PDF 2005 Archived from the original PDF on June 14 2007 Retrieved December 28 2008 Basque Terrorist Group Marks 50th Anniversary with New Attacks Time July 31 2009 Archived from the original on August 4 2009 Retrieved January 11 2010 Europe s longest enduring terrorist group This week ETA the initials stand for Basque Homeland and Freedom in Euskera the Basque language Timothy Snyder A fascist hero in democratic Kiev New York Review of Books February 24 2010 Romero Simon March 18 2009 Shining Path The New York Times Retrieved January 11 2010 The Shining Path a faction of Peruvian militants has resurfaced in the remote corners of the Andes The war against the group which took nearly 70 000 lives supposedly ended in 2000 In the 1980s the rebels were infamous for atrocities like planting bombs on donkeys in crowded markets assassinations and other terrorist tactics 1983 Car bomb in South Africa kills 16 BBC May 20 2005 Retrieved January 11 2010 The outlawed anti apartheid group the African National Congress has been blamed for the attack He said the explosion was the biggest and ugliest terrorist incident since anti government violence began in South Africa 20 years ago Young Rick May 16 2007 PBS Frontline Spying on the Home Front PBS Frontline Retrieved January 11 2010 we and Frontline felt that it was important to look more comprehensively at the post 9 11 shift to prevention and the dilemma we all now face in balancing security and privacy Yager Jordy July 25 2010 Former intel chief Homegrown terrorism is a devil of a problem thehill com shabad goldie and francisco jose llera ramo Political Violence in a Democratic State Terrorism in Context Ed Martha Crenshaw University Park Pennsylvania State University 1995 p 467 Pakistan A failed state or a clever gambler BBC News May 7 2011 a b Arnett George November 19 2014 Religious extremism main cause of terrorism according to report The Guardian Retrieved March 22 2017 Global Terrorism Index 2016 PDF Institute for Economics and Peace 2016 p 4 Archived from the original PDF on November 17 2019 Retrieved December 14 2016 Siddiqui Mona August 23 2014 Isis a contrived ideology justifying barbarism and sexual control The Guardian Archived from the original on August 24 2014 Retrieved January 7 2015 a href Template Cite web html title Template Cite web cite web a CS1 maint unfit URL link Agence France Press Two bomb blasts kill 27 in northwest Pakistan Fatwa issued against suicide bombings targeted killings and terrorism Lahore July 2 2013 Lenz Ryan February 2015 Age of the Wolf PDF Report Southern Poverty Law Center p 4 Retrieved March 22 2017 A large number of independent studies have agreed that since the 9 11 mass murder more people have been killed in America by non Islamic domestic terrorists than jihadists a b c d e f 2 Anti Defamation League 2017 Bigotry Behind Bars Racist Groups In U S Prisons Archived from the original on July 29 2015 Perlmutter Philip 1999 Legacy of Hate A Short History of Ethnic Religious and Racial Prejudice in America M E Sharpe p 170 ISBN 978 0 7656 0406 4 Kenneth T Jackson in his The Ku Klux Klan in the City 1915 1930 reminds us that virtually every Protestant denomination denounced the KKK but that most KKK members were not innately depraved or anxious to subvert American institutions but rather believed their membership in keeping with one hundred percent Americanism and Christian morality Martin Gilbert Churchill and the Jew Quotings p 270 Pope Brewer Sam Irgun Bomb Kills 11 Arabs 2 Britons New York Times December 30 1947 Parker Ned Farrell Stephen July 20 2006 British anger at terror celebration The Times London Retrieved May 5 2010 Calder Walton 2008 British Intelligence and the Mandate of Palestine Threats to British national security immediately after the Second World War Intelligence and National Security 23 4 435 462 doi 10 1080 02684520802293049 S2CID 154775965 Heller J 1995 The Stern Gang Frank Cass ISBN 0 7146 4558 3 Cleveland William L A History of the Modern Middle East Boulder CO Westview 2004 Print p 243 Spaaij 2012 p 68 Sageman Mark 2004 Understanding Terror Networks International Journal of Emergency Mental Health Vol 7 Philadelphia U of Pennsylvania Press pp 166 167 ISBN 978 0 8122 3808 2 PMID 15869076 Prof Dr Edwin Bakker Jeanine de Roy van Zuijdewijn February 29 2016 Personal Characteristics of Lone Actor Terrorists Retrieved September 6 2016 Levitt Steven D Dubner Stephen J 2009 Superfreakonomics global cooling patriotic prostitutes and why suicide bombers should buy life insurance William Morrow pp 62 231 ISBN 978 0 06 088957 9 citing Alan B Krueger What Makes a Terrorist Princeton University Press 2007 Claude Berrebi Evidence About the Link Between Education Poverty and Terrorism among Palestinians Princeton University Industrial Relations Section Working paper 2003 and Krueger and Jita Maleckova Education Poverty and Terrorism Is There a Causal Connection Journal of Economic Perspectives 17 no 4 Fall 2003 63 Coughlan Sean August 21 2006 Fear of the unknown BBC News Retrieved January 11 2010 A passenger on the flight Heath Schofield explained the suspicions It was a return holiday flight full of people in flip flops and shorts There were just two people in the whole crowd who looked like they didn t belong there a b Library of Congress Federal Research Division The Sociology and Psychology of Terrorism Background Report ETA Ceasefires by the Numbers PDF The National Consortium for the Study of Terrorism and Responses to Terrorism START Retrieved November 12 2021 a href Template Cite web html title Template Cite web cite web a CS1 maint url status link State Sponsored Terrorism trackingterrorism org Retrieved May 28 2017 Endgame Resistance by Derrick Jensen Seven Stories Press 2006 ISBN 1 58322 730 X p ix Pds Sso PDF Eprints unimelb edu au Archived from the original PDF on May 12 2008 Retrieved August 10 2009 Addressing Security Council Secretary General Calls on Counter Terrorism Committee To Develop Long Term Strategy To Defeat Terror United Nations Retrieved August 10 2009 Lind Michael May 2 2005 The Legal Debate is Over Terrorism is a War Crime The New America Foundation Newamerica net Archived from the original on February 21 2009 Retrieved August 10 2009 Press conference with Kofi Annan amp FM Kamal Kharrazi United Nations January 26 2002 Retrieved August 10 2009 Stohl Michael April 1 1984 The Superpowers and International Terror International Studies Association Atlanta Stohl Michael 1988 Terrible beyond Endurance The Foreign Policy of State Terrorism International Studies Association Atlanta Stohl Michael 1984 The State as Terrorist The Dynamics of Governmental Violence and Repression International Studies Association Atlanta p 49 The No Rent Manifesto Text of the Document Issued by the Land League The New York Times August 2 2009 Retrieved August 10 2009 Nicolas Werth Karel Bartosek Jean Louis Panne Jean Louis Margolin Andrzej Paczkowski Stephane Courtois The Black Book of Communism Crimes Terror Repression Harvard University Press 1999 hardcover 858 pp ISBN 0 674 07608 7 Kisangani E Nafziger E Wayne 2007 The Political Economy of State Terror Defence and Peace Economics 18 5 405 414 CiteSeerX 10 1 1 579 1472 doi 10 1080 10242690701455433 S2CID 155020309 Death by Government by R J Rummel New Brunswick NJ Transaction Publishers 1994 Online links 3 4 5 No Lessons Learned from the Holocaust Barbara Harff 2003 Archived October 30 2007 at the Wayback Machine Blakeley Ruth 2009 State Terrorism and Neoliberalism The North in the South Routledge pp 4 20 23 88 ISBN 978 0 415 68617 4 Valentino Benjamin A 2005 Final Solutions Mass Killing and Genocide in the 20th Century Cornell University Press p 27 ISBN 978 0 8014 7273 2 Bevins Vincent 2020 The Jakarta Method Washington s Anticommunist Crusade and the Mass Murder Program that Shaped Our World PublicAffairs p 238 ISBN 978 1541742406 Simpson Bradley 2010 Economists with Guns Authoritarian Development and U S Indonesian Relations 1960 1968 Stanford University Press p 193 ISBN 978 0 8047 7182 5 Washington did everything in its power to encourage and facilitate the army led massacre of alleged PKI members and U S officials worried only that the killing of the party s unarmed supporters might not go far enough permitting Sukarno to return to power and frustrate the Johnson Administration s emerging plans for a post Sukarno Indonesia This was efficacious terror an essential building block of the neoliberal policies that the West would attempt to impose on Indonesia after Sukarno s ouster Mark Aarons 2007 Justice Betrayed Post 1945 Responses to Genocide In David A Blumenthal and Timothy L H McCormack eds The Legacy of Nuremberg Civilising Influence or Institutionalised Vengeance International Humanitarian Law Archived January 5 2016 at the Wayback Machine Martinus Nijhoff Publishers ISBN 90 04 15691 7 pp 71 amp 80 81 McSherry J Patrice 2011 Chapter 5 Industrial repression and Operation Condor in Latin America In Esparza Marcia Huttenbach Henry R Feierstein Daniel eds State Violence and Genocide in Latin America The Cold War Years Critical Terrorism Studies Routledge p 107 ISBN 978 0 415 66457 8 Sonmez S F Apostolopoulos Y Tarlow P 1999 Tourism in crisis Managing the effects of terrorism PDF Journal of Travel Research 38 1 13 18 CiteSeerX 10 1 1 465 286 doi 10 1177 004728759903800104 S2CID 154984322 Tarlow P E 2006 Tourism and Terrorism In Wilks J Pendergast D amp Leggat P Eds Tourism in turbulent times Towards safe experiences for visitors Advances in Tourism Research Elsevier Oxford pp 80 82 Bianchi R 2006 Tourism and the globalisation of fear Analysing the politics of risk and in security in global travel Tourism and Hospitality Research 7 1 64 74 doi 10 1057 palgrave thr 6050028 S2CID 154888544 Floyd M et al 2003 The Effects of Risk Perception on Intention to Travel in the Aftermath of September 11 2001 In Safety and Security in Tourism relationships Management and Marketing Eds Hall M Timothy D y Duval T New York Haworth Hospitality Press Brun W Wolff K Larsen S 2011 Tourist worries after terrorist attacks Report from a field experiment Scandinavian Journal of Hospitality and Tourism 11 3 387 394 doi 10 1080 15022250 2011 593365 S2CID 143842574 a b c d Detection of Terrorist Financing Archived August 14 2009 at the Wayback Machine U S National Credit Union Administration NCUA 2002 Lott Jeremy October 6 2004 Tripped Up Reason Magazine Retrieved January 11 2010 and before the Soviet Union fell terrorist organizations were funding themselves through subsidies from Communist governments Aims and activities of the Stern Group in Palestine Research and Analysis Branch 2717 R amp N December 1 1944 Gerben Jan Gerbrandy claiming that terrorist networks hunt wildlife for funding themselves Archived February 22 2014 at the Wayback Machine Syria s top Islamist and jihadist groups France 24 Terrorist Financing The Financial Action Task Force Retrieved January 7 2011 Gage Beverly 2009 The Day Wall Street Exploded A Story of America in its First Age of Terror New York Oxford University Press p 1 ISBN 978 0 19 975928 6 Suicide bombings are the most effective terrorist act in this regard See the following works Hoffman Bruce June 2003 The Logic of Suicide Terrorism Atlantic Monthly Vol 291 no 5 pp 40 47 Pape Robert A 2003 The Strategic Logic of Suicide Terrorism reprint American Political Science Review 97 3 343 361 doi 10 1017 s000305540300073x hdl 1811 31746 S2CID 1019730 Ricolfi Luca 2005 Palestinians 1981 2003 In Gambetta Diego ed Making Sense of Suicide Missions 1st ed Oxford Oxford University Press pp 76 130 ISBN 978 0 19 927699 8 Cited in Richardson Louise 2006 What Terrorists Want Understanding the Terrorist Threat London John Murray p 33 ISBN 978 0 7195 6306 5 Kurtulus Ersun N Terrorism and fear do terrorists really want to scare Critical Studies on Terrorism 10 no 3 2017 501 522 Hackers warn high street chains BBC News April 25 2008 Retrieved January 11 2010 That s the beauty of asymmetric warfare You don t need a lot of money or an army of people Harari Yuval Noah Homo Deus A brief history of tomorrow Random House 2016 pp 103 106 Drake Charles JM The role of ideology in terrorists target selection Terrorism and Political Violence 10 no 2 1998 53 85 Hoffman Bruce The contrasting ethical foundations of terrorism in the 1980s Terrorism and Political Violence 1 no 3 1989 361 377 p 8 Tinnes J 2013 100 Core and Periphery Journals for Terrorism Research Perspectives on Terrorism 7 2 Archived from the original on November 27 2015 Retrieved December 29 2015 Freedman Benjamin November 2010 Terrorism Research Centres 100 Institutes Programs and Organisations in the Field of Terrorism Counter Terrorism Radicalisation and Asymmetric Warfare Studies PDF Perspectives on Terrorism 4 5 48 56 JSTOR 26298483 70 countries sign Counter Terrorism Code initiated by Kazakhstan inform kz November 8 2018 Priest Dana Arkin William July 19 2010 A hidden world growing beyond control The Washington Post Archived from the original on September 5 2018 Retrieved July 19 2010 a b Ankony Robert C A New Strategy for America s War on Terrorism Patrolling magazine 75th Ranger Regiment Association Winter 2011 56 57 Sewall Sarah introduction to The U S Army Marine Corps Counterinsurgency Field Manual Chicago University of Chicago Press 2007 The Media and Terrorism A Reassessment Paul Wilkinson Terrorism and Political Violence Vol 9 No 2 Summer 1997 pp 51 64 Published by Frank Cass London Dr Bibi van Ginkel March 31 2015 Responding to Cyber Jihad Towards an Effective Counter Narrative The International Centre for Counter Terrorism The Hague ICCT Retrieved September 7 2016 Security Council Counter Terrorism Committee Retrieved June 17 2009 Pastor James F 2009 Terrorism amp Public Safety Policing Implications of the Obama Presidency New York Taylor amp Francis ISBN 978 1 4398 1580 9 William Gibson s blog October 31 2004 Retrieved April 26 2007 Speech to American Bar Association Margaret Thatcher Foundation www margaretthatcher org Retrieved October 5 2015 The researchers found 648 terrorist groups active between 1968 and 2006 Of those 136 splintered and 244 were still active in 2006 Jones and Libicki 2008 p 19 Jones and Libicki 2008 p 19 Jones and Libicki 2008 p 101 Table 5 4 Cronin Audrey Kurth 2009 How Terrorism Ends Understanding the Decline and Demise of Terrorist Campaigns Princeton U Press ISBN 978 0 691 13948 7 ReferencesHoffman Bruce 1988 Inside Terrorism New York Columbia University Press verification needed Hoffman Bruce 1998 Inside Terrorism Columbia University Press p 32 ISBN 0 231 11468 0 Retrieved January 11 2010 Hoffman Bruce 1998a Chapter One Inside Terrorism Retrieved January 11 2010 via The New York Times Hoffman Bruce 2006 Inside Terrorism 2nd ed Columbia University Press Spaaij Ramon 2012 Understanding Lone Wolf Terrorism Global Patterns Motivations and Prevention Perspectives on Terrorism s Bibliography Root Causes of Terrorism 2017 Archived October 22 2017 at the Wayback MachineFurther readingBakker Edwin Forecasting the Unpredictable A Review of Forecasts on Terrorism 2000 2012 International Centre for Counter Terrorism The Hague 2014 Bowie Neil G April 2021 40 Terrorism Databases and Data Sets A New Inventory PDF Perspectives on Terrorism Leiden University XV 2 ISSN 2334 3745 Burleigh Michael Blood and rage a cultural history of terrorism Harper 2009 Chaliand Gerard and Arnaud Blin eds The history of terrorism from antiquity to al Qaeda University of California Press 2007 Coates Susan W Rosenthal Jane and Schechter Daniel S September 11 Trauma and Human Bonds New York Taylor and Francis Inc 2003 Crenshaw Martha ed Terrorism in context Pennsylvania State University Press 1995 Jones Seth G Libicki Martin C 2008 How Terrorist Groups End Lessons for Countering al Qa ida PDF RAND Corporation ISBN 978 0 8330 4465 5 Hennigfeld Ursula Packard Stephan ed Abschied von 9 11 Distanznahme zur Katastrophe Berlin Frank amp Timme 2013 Hennigfeld Ursula ed Poetiken des Terrors Narrative des 11 September 2001 im interkulturellen Vergleich Heidelberg Winter 2014 Hewitt Christopher Understanding terrorism in America Routledge 2003 Hewitt Christopher Terrorism and public opinion A five country comparison Terrorism and Political Violence 2 2 1990 145 170 Jones Sidney Terrorism myths and facts Jakarta International Crisis Group 2013 Land Isaac ed Enemies of humanity the nineteenth century war on terrorism Palgrave Macmillan 2008 Lee Newton Counterterrorism and Cybersecurity Total Information Awareness 2nd Edition New York Springer 2015 ISBN 978 3 319 17243 9 Lutz James and Brenda Lutz Terrorism origins and evolution Palgrave Macmillan 2005 Miller Martin A The foundations of modern terrorism state society and the dynamics of political violence Cambridge University Press 2013 Nairn Tom James Paul 2005 Global Matrix Nationalism Globalism and State Terrorism London and New York Pluto Press Neria Yuval Gross Raz Marshall Randall D and Susser Ezra September 11 2001 Treatment Research and Public Mental Health in the Wake of a Terrorist Attack New York Cambridge University Press 2006 Schmid Alex P November 2020 Handbook of Terrorism Prevention and Preparedness International Centre for Counter Terrorism doi 10 19165 2020 6 01 inactive December 31 2022 ISBN 9789090339771 ISSN 2468 0486 a href Template Cite book html title Template Cite book cite book a CS1 maint DOI inactive as of December 2022 link An open access publication issued since November 2020 on the International Centre for Counter Terrorism ICCT website with a chapter published each week Stern Jessica The Ultimate Terrorists Harvard University Press 2000 reprint 1995 214 p ISBN 0 674 00394 2 Tausch Arno Estimates on the Global Threat of Islamic State Terrorism in the Face of the 2015 Paris and Copenhagen Attacks December 11 2015 Middle East Review of International Affairs Rubin Center Research in International Affairs Idc Herzliya Israel Vol 19 No 1 Spring 2015 Terrorism Law amp Democracy 10 years after 9 11 Canadian Institute for the Administration of Justice ISBN 978 2 9809728 7 4 United Kingdom Further information Terrorism in the United Kingdom Blackbourn Jessie Counter Terrorism and Civil Liberties The United Kingdom Experience 1968 2008 Journal of the Institute of Justice and International Studies 8 2008 63 Bonner David United Kingdom the United Kingdom response to terrorism Terrorism and Political Violence 4 4 1992 171 205 online Chin Warren Britain and the war on terror Policy strategy and operations Routledge 2016 Clutterbuck Lindsay Countering Irish Republican terrorism in Britain Its origin as a police function Terrorism and Political Violence 18 1 2006 pp 95 118 Greer Steven Terrorism and Counter Terrorism in the UK From Northern Irish Troubles to Global Islamist Jihad in Counter Terrorism Constitutionalism and Miscarriages of Justice Hart Publishing 2018 pp 45 62 Hamilton Claire Counter Terrorism in the UK in Contagion Counter Terrorism and Criminology Palgrave Pivot Cham 2019 pp 15 47 Hewitt Steve Great Britain Terrorism and counter terrorism since 1968 in Routledge Handbook of Terrorism and Counterterrorism Routledge 2018 pp 540 551 Martinez Penas Leandro and Manuela Fernandez Rodriguez Evolution of British Law on Terrorism From Ulster to Global Terrorism 1970 2010 in Post 9 11 and the State of Permanent Legal Emergency Springer 2012 pp 201 222 O Day Alan Northern Ireland Terrorism and the British State in Terrorism Theory and Practice Routledge 2019 pp 121 135 Sacopulos Peter J Terrorism in Britain Threat reality response Studies in Conflict amp Terrorism 12 3 1989 153 165 Staniforth Andrew and Fraser Sampson eds The Routledge companion to UK counter terrorism Routledge 2012 Sinclair Georgina Confronting terrorism British Experiences past and present Crime Histoire amp Societes Crime History amp Societies 18 2 2014 117 122 online Tinnes Judith ed Bibliography Northern Ireland conflict the troubles Perspectives on Terrorism 10 1 2016 83 110 online Wilkinson Paul ed Terrorism British Perspectives Dartmouth 1993 External links Wikiquote has quotations related to Terrorism Wikimedia Commons has media related to Terrorism Look up terrorism in Wiktionary the free dictionary United Nations Conventions on Terrorism United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime Conventions against terrorism Archived from the original on August 5 2007 UNODC United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime Terrorism Prevention Terrorism and international humanitarian law International Committee of the Red Cross UK Counter Terrorism Policing Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php 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