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Eucharist

May 13, 2023

For Eucharistic liturgies, see Christian liturgy. For other uses, see Eucharist (disambiguation).
"Lord's Supper" and "Most Precious Blood" redirect here. For other uses, see Lord's Supper (disambiguation) and Most Precious Blood (disambiguation).

The Eucharist (/ˈjuːkərɪst/; from Koinē Greek: εὐχαριστία, romanized: evcharistía, lit. 'thanksgiving'), also known as Holy Communion and the Lord's Supper, is a Christian rite that is considered a sacrament in most churches, and as an ordinance in others. Christians believe that the rite was instituted by Jesus at the Last Supper, the night before his crucifixion, giving his disciples bread and wine. Passages in the New Testament state that he commanded them to "do this in memory of me" while referring to the bread as "my body" and the cup of wine as "the blood of my covenant, which is poured out for many".[1][2] According to the Synoptic Gospels this was at a Passover meal.[3]

The elements of the Eucharist, sacramental bread (leavened or unleavened) and wine (or non-alcoholic grape juice in some Protestant traditions), are consecrated on an altar or a communion table and consumed thereafter. Christians generally recognize a special presence of Christ in this rite, though they differ about exactly how, where, and when Christ is present.

The Catholic Church states that the Eucharist is the body and blood of Christ under the species of bread and wine. It maintains that by the consecration, the substances of the bread and wine actually become the substances of the body and blood of Jesus Christ (transubstantiation) while the appearances or "accidents" of the bread and wine remain unaltered (e.g. colour, taste, feel, and smell). The Eastern Orthodox and Oriental Orthodox churches agree that an objective change occurs of the bread and wine into the body and blood of Christ. Lutherans believe the true body and blood of Christ are really present "in, with, and under" the forms of the bread and wine (sacramental union).[4] Reformed Christians believe in a real spiritual presence of Christ in the Eucharist.[5] Anglican eucharistic theologies universally affirm the real presence of Christ in the Eucharist, though Evangelical Anglicans believe that this is a spiritual presence, while Anglo-Catholics hold to a corporeal presence.[6][7] Others, such as the Plymouth Brethren, take the act to be only a symbolic reenactment of the Last Supper and a memorial.[8] As a result of these different understandings, "the Eucharist has been a central issue in the discussions and deliberations of the ecumenical movement."[3]

Terminology

 
The Eucharist has been a key theme in the depictions of the Last Supper in Christian art,[9] as in this 16th-century Juan de Juanes painting, after Leonardo da Vinci's Last Supper.

Eucharist

The New Testament was originally written in the Greek language and the Greek noun εὐχαριστία (eucharistia), meaning "thanksgiving", appears a few times in it,[10] while the related Greek verb εὐχαριστήσας is found several times in New Testament accounts of the Last Supper,[11][12][13][14][15]: 231  including the earliest such account:[12]

For I received from the Lord what I also delivered to you, that the Lord Jesus on the night when he was betrayed took bread, and when he had given thanks (εὐχαριστήσας), he broke it, and said, "This is my body which is for you. Do this in remembrance of me".

— 1 Corinthians 11:23–24[16]

The term eucharistia (thanksgiving) is that by which the rite is referred to[12] in the Didache (a late 1st or early 2nd century document),[17]: 51 [18][19]: 437 [20]: 207  by Ignatius of Antioch (who died between 98 and 117)[19][21] and by Justin Martyr (First Apology written between 155 and 157).[22][19][23] Today, "the Eucharist" is the name still used by Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox, Catholics, Anglicans, Presbyterians, and Lutherans. Other Protestant denominations rarely use this term, preferring either "Communion", "the Lord's Supper", "Remembrance", or "the Breaking of Bread". Latter-day Saints call it "the Sacrament".[24]

Lord's Supper

In the First Epistle to the Corinthians Paul uses the term "Lord's Supper," in Greek Κυριακὸν δεῖπνον (Kyriakon deipnon), in the early 50s of the 1st century,[12][13]:

When you come together, it is not the Lord's Supper you eat, for as you eat, each of you goes ahead without waiting for anybody else. One remains hungry, another gets drunk.

— 1 Corinthians 11:20–21[25]

So Paul’s use of the term “Lord’s supper” in reference to the Corinthian banquet is powerful and interesting; but to be an actual name for the Christian meal, rather than a meaningful phrase connected with an ephemeral rhetorical contrast, it would have to have some history, previous or subsequent.[26] Nevertheless, given its existence in the biblical text, "Lord's Supper" came into use after the Protestant Reformation and remains the predominant term among Evangelicals, such as Baptists and Pentecostals.[27]: 123 [28]: 259 [29]: 371  They also refer to the observance as an ordinance rather than a sacrament.

 
A Kremikovtsi Monastery fresco (15th century) depicting the Last Supper celebrated by Jesus and his disciples. The early Christians too would have celebrated this meal to commemorate Jesus' death and subsequent resurrection.
 
Eucharistic window (1898–1900) by Józef Mehoffer

Communion

Use of the term Communion (or Holy Communion) to refer to the Eucharistic rite began by some groups originating in the Protestant Reformation. Others, such as the Catholic Church, do not formally use this term for the rite, but instead mean by it the act of partaking of the consecrated elements;[30] they speak of receiving Holy Communion at Mass or outside of it, they also use the term First Communion when one receives the Eucharist for the first time. The term Communion is derived from Latin communio ("sharing in common"), translated from the Greek κοινωνία (koinōnía) in 1 Corinthians 10:16:

The cup of blessing which we bless, is it not the communion of the blood of Christ? The bread which we break, is it not the communion of the body of Christ?

— 1 Corinthians 10:16

Other terms

Breaking of bread

The phrase κλάσις τοῦ ἄρτου (klasis tou artou, 'breaking of the bread'; in later liturgical Greek also ἀρτοκλασία artoklasia) appears in various related forms five times in the New Testament[31] in contexts which, according to some, may refer to the celebration of the Eucharist, in either closer or symbolically more distant reference to the Last Supper.[32] This term is used by the Plymouth Brethren.[33]

Sacrament or Blessed Sacrament

The "Blessed Sacrament", the "Sacrament of the Altar", and other variations, are common terms used by Catholics,[34] Lutherans[35] and some Anglicans (Anglo-Catholics)[36] for the consecrated elements, particularly when reserved in a tabernacle. In the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints the term "The Sacrament" is used of the rite.[24]

Mass

The term "Mass" is used in the Catholic Church, the Lutheran churches (especially those of Sweden, Norway and Finland), and by some Anglicans. It derives from the Latin word missa, a dismissal: "Ite missa est," or "go, it is sent," the very last phrase of the service.[37] That Latin word has come to imply "mission" as well because the congregation is sent out to serve Christ.[38]

At least in the Catholic Church, the Mass is a long rite in two parts: the Liturgy of the Word and the Liturgy of the Eucharist. The former consists of readings from the Bible and a homily, or sermon, given by a priest or deacon. The latter, which follows seamlessly, includes the "Offering" of the bread and wine at the altar, their consecration by the priest through prayer, and their reception by the congregation in Holy Communion.[39] Among the many other terms used in the Catholic Church are "Holy Mass", "the Memorial of the Passion, Death and Resurrection of the Lord", the "Holy Sacrifice of the Mass", and the "Holy Mysteries".[40]

Divine Liturgy and Divine Service

The term Divine Liturgy (Greek: Θεία Λειτουργία) is used in Byzantine Rite traditions, whether in the Eastern Orthodox Church or among the Eastern Catholic Churches. These also speak of "the Divine Mysteries", especially in reference to the consecrated elements, which they also call "the Holy Gifts".[a]

The term Divine Service (German: Gottesdienst) has often been used to refer to Christian worship more generally and is still used in Lutheran churches, in addition to the terms "Eucharist", "Mass" and "Holy Communion".[41] Historically this refers (like the term "worship" itself) to service of God, although more recently it has been associated with the idea that God is serving the congregants in the liturgy.[42]

Other Eastern rites

Some Eastern rites have yet more names for Eucharist. Holy Qurbana is common in Syriac Christianity and Badarak[43] in the Armenian Rite; in the Alexandrian Rite, the term Prosfora (from the Greek προσφορά) is common in Coptic Christianity and Keddase in Ethiopian and Eritrean Christianity.[44]

History

Further information: Origin of the Eucharist
 
Christ with the Eucharist, Vicente Juan Masip, 16th century.

Biblical basis

The Last Supper appears in all three Synoptic Gospels: Matthew, Mark, and Luke. It also is found in the First Epistle to the Corinthians,[3][45][46] which suggests how early Christians celebrated what Paul the Apostle called the Lord's Supper. Although the Gospel of John does not reference the Last Supper explicitly, some argue that it contains theological allusions to the early Christian celebration of the Eucharist, especially in the chapter 6 Bread of Life Discourse but also in other passages.[47] Other New Testament passages depicting Jesus eating with crowds or after the resurrection also have eucharistic overtones.[citation needed]

Gospels

In the synoptic gospels, Mark 14:22–25,[48] Matthew 26:26–29[49] and Luke 22:13–20[50] depict Jesus as presiding over the Last Supper prior to his crucifixion. The versions in Matthew and Mark are almost identical,[51] but the Gospel of Luke presents a textual difference, in that a few manuscripts omit the second half of verse 19 and all of verse 20 ("given for you […] poured out for you"), which are found in the vast majority of ancient witnesses to the text.[52] If the shorter text is the original one, then Luke's account is independent of both that of Paul and that of Matthew/Mark. If the majority longer text comes from the author of the third gospel, then this version is very similar to that of Paul in 1 Corinthians, being somewhat fuller in its description of the early part of the Supper,[53] particularly in making specific mention of a cup being blessed before the bread was broken.[54]

In the one prayer given to posterity by Jesus, the Lord's Prayer, the word epiousion—which is otherwise unknown in Classical Greek literature—was interpreted by some early Christian writers as meaning "super-substantial", and hence a possible reference to the Eucharist as the Bread of Life.[55]

In the Gospel of John, however, the account of the Last Supper does not mention Jesus taking bread and "the cup" and speaking of them as his body and blood; instead, it recounts other events: his humble act of washing the disciples' feet, the prophecy of the betrayal, which set in motion the events that would lead to the cross, and his long discourse in response to some questions posed by his followers, in which he went on to speak of the importance of the unity of the disciples with him, with each other, and with God.[56][57] Some would find in this unity and in the washing of the feet the deeper meaning of the Communion bread in the other three gospels.[58] In John 6:26–65,[59] a long discourse is attributed to Jesus that deals with the subject of the living bread; John 6:51–59[60] also contains echoes of Eucharistic language.

First Epistle to the Corinthians

1 Corinthians 11:23–25[61] gives the earliest recorded description of Jesus' Last Supper: "The Lord Jesus on the night when he was betrayed took bread, and when he had given thanks, he broke it and said, 'This is my body, which is for you. Do this in remembrance of me.'" The Greek word used in the passage for 'remembrance' is ἀνάμνησιν (anamnesis), which itself has a much richer theological history than the English word "remember".

 
Early Christian painting of an Agape feast.

The expression "The Lord's Supper", derived from Paul's usage in 1 Corinthians 11:17–34,[62] may have originally referred to the Agape feast (or love feast), the shared communal meal with which the Eucharist was originally associated.[63] The Agape feast is mentioned in Jude 12[64] but "The Lord's Supper" is now commonly used in reference to a celebration involving no food other than the sacramental bread and wine.

Early Christian sources

The Didache (Greek: Διδαχή, "teaching") is an Early Church treatise that includes instructions for baptism and the Eucharist. Most scholars date it to the late 1st century,[65] and distinguish in it two separate Eucharistic traditions, the earlier tradition in chapter 10 and the later one preceding it in chapter 9.[66][b] The Eucharist is mentioned again in chapter 14.[c]

Ignatius of Antioch (born c. 35 or 50, died between 98 and 117), one of the Apostolic Fathers,[d] mentions the Eucharist as "the flesh of our Saviour Jesus Christ":

They abstain from the Eucharist and from prayer, because they confess not the Eucharist to be the flesh of our Saviour Jesus Christ, which suffered for our sins, and which the Father, of His goodness, raised up again. [...] Let that be deemed a proper Eucharist, which is [administered] either by the bishop, or by one to whom he has entrusted it.

— Smyrnaeans, 7–8[68]

Take heed, then, to have but one Eucharist. For there is one flesh of our Lord Jesus Christ, and one cup to [show forth ] the unity of His blood; one altar; as there is one bishop, along with the presbytery and deacons, my fellow-servants: that so, whatsoever you do, you may do it according to [the will of] God.

— Philadephians, 4[69]

Justin Martyr (born c. 100, died c. 165) mentions in this regard:

And this food is called among us Εὐχαριστία [the Eucharist], of which no one is allowed to partake but the man who believes that the things which we teach are true, and who has been washed with the washing that is for the remission of sins, and unto regeneration, and who is so living as Christ has enjoined. For not as common bread and common drink do we receive these; but in like manner as Jesus Christ our Saviour, having been made flesh by the Word of God, had both flesh and blood for our salvation, so likewise have we been taught that the food which is blessed by the prayer of His word, and from which our blood and flesh by transmutation are nourished, is the flesh and blood of that Jesus who was made flesh.[70][71]

Paschasius Radbertus (785–865) was a Carolingian theologian, and the abbot of Corbie, whose best-known and influential work is an exposition on the nature of the Eucharist written around 831, entitled De Corpore et Sanguine Domini. In it, Paschasius agrees with St Ambrose in affirming that the Eucharist contains the true, historical body of Jesus Christ. According to Paschasius, God is truth itself, and therefore, his words and actions must be true. Christ's proclamation at the Last Supper that the bread and wine were his body and blood must be taken literally, since God is truth.[72]: 9  He thus believes that the transubstantiation of the bread and wine offered in the Eucharist really occurs. Only if the Eucharist is the actual body and blood of Christ can a Christian know it is salvific.[72]: 10 [e]

Jews and the Eucharist

The concept of the Jews both destroying and partaking in some perverted version of the Eucharist has been a vessel to promote anti-Judaism and anti-Jewish ideology and violence. In medieval times, Jews were often depicted stabbing or in some other way physically harming communion wafers.[citation needed] These characterizations drew parallels to the idea that the Jews killed Christ; murdering this transubstantiation or “host” was thought of as a repetition of the event. Jewish people’s eagerness to destroy hosts were also a variation of blood libel charges, with Jews being accused of murdering bodies of Christ, whether they be communion wafers or Christian children. The blood libel charges and the concept of Eucharist are also related in the belief that blood is efficacious, meaning it has some sort of divine power.[73]

Eucharistic theology

Main article: Eucharistic theology

Most Christians, even those who deny that there is any real change in the elements used, recognize a special presence of Christ in this rite. However, Christians differ about exactly how, where and how long Christ is present in it.[3] Catholicism, Eastern Orthodoxy, Oriental Orthodoxy, and the Church of the East teach that the reality (the "substance") of the elements of bread and wine is wholly changed into the body and blood of Jesus Christ, while the appearances (the "species") remain. Transubstantiation ("change of the substance") is the term used by Catholics to denote what is changed, not to explain how the change occurs, since the Catholic Church teaches that "the signs of bread and wine become, in a way surpassing understanding, the Body and Blood of Christ".[74] The Orthodox use various terms such as transelementation, but no explanation is official as they prefer to leave it a mystery.

Lutherans believe Christ to be "truly and substantially present" with the bread and wine that are seen in the Eucharist.[75] They attribute the real presence of Jesus' living body to his word spoken in the Eucharist, and not to the faith of those receiving it. They also believe that "forgiveness of sins, life, and salvation" are given through the words of Christ in the Eucharist to those who believe his words ("given and shed for you").[76]

Reformed Christians believe Christ to be present and may both use the term "sacramental union" to describe this. Although Lutherans will also use this phrase, the Reformed generally describe the presence as a "spiritual presence", not a physical one.[77] Anglicans adhere to a range of views depending on churchmanship although the teaching in the Anglican Thirty-Nine Articles holds that the body of Christ is received by the faithful only in a heavenly and spiritual manner, a doctrine also taught in the Methodist Articles of Religion. Unlike Catholics and Lutherans, Reformed Christians do not believe forgiveness and eternal life are given in the Eucharist.

Christians adhering to the theology of Memorialism, such as the Anabaptist Churches, do not believe in the concept of the real presence, believing that the Eucharist is only a ceremonial remembrance or memorial of the death of Christ.[78]

The Baptism, Eucharist and Ministry document of the World Council of Churches,[79] attempting to present the common understanding of the Eucharist on the part of the generality of Christians, describes it as "essentially the sacrament of the gift which God makes to us in Christ through the power of the Holy Spirit", "Thanksgiving to the Father", "Anamnesis or Memorial of Christ", "the sacrament of the unique sacrifice of Christ, who ever lives to make intercession for us", "the sacrament of the body and blood of Christ, the sacrament of his real presence", "Invocation of the Spirit", "Communion of the Faithful", and "Meal of the Kingdom".

Ritual and liturgy

Many Christian denominations classify the Eucharist as a sacrament.[f] Some Protestants (though not all) prefer to instead call it an ordinance, viewing it not as a specific channel of divine grace but as an expression of faith and of obedience to Christ.

Catholic Church

Main article: Eucharist in the Catholic Church
See also: Mass (liturgy)
 
At a Solemn Tridentine Mass, the Host is displayed to the people before Communion.

In the Catholic Church the Eucharist is considered as a sacrament, according to the church the Eucharist is "the source and summit of the Christian life."[81] "The other sacraments, and indeed all ecclesiastical ministries and works of the apostolate, are bound up with the Eucharist and are oriented toward it. For in the blessed Eucharist is contained the whole spiritual good of the Church, namely Christ himself, our Pasch."[82] ("Pasch" is a word that sometimes means Easter, sometimes Passover.)[83]

As a sacrifice

In the Eucharist the same sacrifice that Jesus made only once on the cross is made present at every Mass. According to Compendium of the Catechism of the Catholic Church, "The Eucharist is the very sacrifice of the Body and Blood of the Lord Jesus which he instituted to perpetuate the sacrifice of the cross throughout the ages until his return in glory. Thus he entrusted to his Church this memorial of his death and Resurrection. It is a sign of unity, a bond of charity, a paschal banquet, in which Christ is consumed, the mind is filled with grace, and a pledge of future glory is given to us."[84]

For the Catholic Church, "the Eucharist is the memorial of Christ's Passover, the making present and the sacramental offering of his unique sacrifice, in the liturgy of the Church which is his Body. [...] The memorial is not merely the recollection of past events but [...] they become in a certain way present and real. [...] When the Church celebrates the Eucharist, she commemorates Christ's Passover, and it is made present the sacrifice Christ offered once for all on the cross remains ever present. [...] The Eucharist is thus a sacrifice because it re-presents (makes present) the same and only sacrifice offered once for all on the cross, because it is its memorial and because it applies its fruit."[85]

The sacrifice of Christ and the sacrifice of the Eucharist are one single sacrifice: "The victim is one and the same: the same now offers through the ministry of priests, who then offered himself on the cross; only the manner of offering is different."[86] In the holy sacrifice of the Mass, "it is Christ himself, the eternal high priest of the New Covenant who, acting through the ministry of the priests, offers the Eucharistic sacrifice. And it is the same Christ, really present under the species of bread and wine, who is the offering of the Eucharistic sacrifice."[87] "And since in this divine sacrifice which is celebrated in the Mass, the same Christ who offered himself once in a bloody manner on the altar of the cross is contained and is offered in an unbloody manner... this sacrifice is truly propitiatory."[86]

The only ministers who can officiate at the Eucharist and consecrate the sacrament are validly ordained priests (either bishops or presbyters) acting in the person of Christ ("in persona Christi"). In other words, the priest celebrant represents Christ, who is the head of the church, and acts before God the Father in the name of the church, always using "we" not "I" during the Eucharistic prayer. The matter used must be wheaten bread and grape wine; this is considered essential for validity.[88]

As sacrifice, the Eucharist is also offered in reparation for the sins of the living and the dead and to obtain spiritual or temporal benefits from God.[89]

As a real presence

Main article: Real presence of Christ in the Eucharist
 
Eucharistic celebration at the Sanctuary of Our Lady of Fátima.

According to the Catholic Church Jesus Christ is present in the Eucharist in a true, real and substantial way, with his body, blood, soul and divinity.[90] By the consecration, the substances of the bread and wine actually become the substances of the body and blood of Christ (transubstantiation) while the appearances or "species" of the bread and wine remain unaltered (e.g. colour, taste, feel, and smell). This change is brought about in the eucharistic prayer through the efficacy of the word of Christ and by the action of the Holy Spirit.[91][92][93] The Eucharistic presence of Christ begins at the moment of the consecration and endures as long as the Eucharistic species subsist,[94][95] that is, until the Eucharist is digested, physically destroyed, or decays by some natural process[96] (at which point, theologian Thomas Aquinas argued, the substance of the bread and wine cannot return).[97]

The Fourth Council of the Lateran in 1215 spoke of the bread and wine as "transubstantiated" into the body and blood of Christ: "His body and blood are truly contained in the sacrament of the altar under the forms of bread and wine, the bread and wine having been transubstantiated, by God's power, into his body and blood".[g][100] In 1551, the Council of Trent definitively declared: "Because Christ our Redeemer said that it was truly his body that he was offering under the species of bread,[101] it has always been the conviction of the Church of God, and this holy Council now declares again that by the consecration of the bread and wine there takes place a change of the whole substance of the bread into the substance of the body of Christ and of the whole substance of the wine into the substance of his blood. This change the holy Catholic Church has fittingly and properly called transubstantiation."[102][103][104]

The church holds that the body and blood of Jesus can no longer be truly separated. Where one is, the other must be. Therefore, although the priest (or extraordinary minister of Holy Communion) says "The Body of Christ" when administering the Host and "The Blood of Christ" when presenting the chalice, the communicant who receives either one receives Christ, whole and entire. "Christ is present whole and entire in each of the species and whole and entire in each of their parts, in such a way that the breaking of the bread does not divide Christ."[105]

 
Pope Benedict XVI celebrates a Mass.

The Catholic Church sees as the main basis for this belief the words of Jesus himself at his Last Supper: the Synoptic Gospels[106] and Paul's recount that Jesus at the time of taking the bread and the cup said: "This is my body […] this is my blood."[107] The Catholic understanding of these words, from the Patristic authors onward, has emphasized their roots in the covenantal history of the Old Testament. The interpretation of Christ's words against this Old Testament background coheres with and supports belief in the Real presence of Christ in the Eucharist.[108]

Since the Eucharist is the body and blood of Christ, "the worship due to the sacrament of the Eucharist, whether during the celebration of the Mass or outside it, is the worship of latria, that is, the adoration given to God alone. The Church guards with the greatest care Hosts that have been consecrated. She brings them to the sick and to other persons who find it impossible to participate at Mass. She also presents them for the solemn adoration of the faithful and she bears them in processions. The Church encourages the faithful to make frequent visits to adore the Blessed Sacrament reserved in the tabernacle."[109]

According to the Catholic Church doctrine receiving the Eucharist in a state of mortal sin is a sacrilege[110] and only those who are in a state of grace, that is, without any mortal sin, can receive it.[111] Based on 1 Corinthians 11:27–29, it affirms the following: "Anyone who is aware of having committed a mortal sin must not receive Holy Communion, even if he experiences deep contrition, without having first received sacramental absolution, unless he has a grave reason for receiving Communion and there is no possibility of going to confession."[112][113]

Eastern Orthodoxy

 
Eucharistic elements prepared for the Divine Liturgy
Main article: Divine Liturgy

Within Eastern Christianity, the Eucharistic service is called the "Divine Liturgy" (Byzantine Rite) or similar names in other rites. It comprises two main divisions: the first is the "Liturgy of the Catechumens" which consists of introductory litanies, antiphons and scripture readings, culminating in a reading from one of the Gospels and, often, a homily; the second is the "Liturgy of the Faithful" in which the Eucharist is offered, consecrated, and received as Holy Communion. Within the latter, the actual Eucharistic prayer is called the anaphora, (literally "offering" or "carrying up", from the Greek (ἀνα- + φέρω). In the Rite of Constantinople, two different anaphoras are currently used: one is attributed to John Chrysostom, the other to Basil the Great. In the Oriental Orthodox Church, a variety of anaphoras are used, but all are similar in structure to those of the Constantinopolitan Rite, in which the Anaphora of Saint John Chrysostom is used most days of the year; Saint Basil's is offered on the Sundays of Great Lent, the eves of Christmas and Theophany, Holy Thursday, Holy Saturday, and upon his feast day (1 January). At the conclusion of the Anaphora the bread and wine are held to be the body and blood of Christ. Unlike the Latin Church, the Byzantine Rite uses leavened bread, with the leaven symbolizing the presence of the Holy Spirit.[114] The Greek Orthodox Church utilizes leavened bread in their celebration.[115]

Conventionally this change in the elements is understood to be accomplished at the epiclesis ("invocation") by which the Holy Spirit is invoked and the consecration of the bread and wine as the genuine body and blood of Christ is specifically requested, but since the anaphora as a whole is considered a unitary (albeit lengthy) prayer, no one moment within it can readily be singled out.

Protestantism

Anabaptists

Anabaptist denominations, such as the Mennonites and German Baptist Brethren Churches like the Church of the Brethren churches and congregations have the Agape feast, footwashing, as well as the serving of the bread and wine in the celebration of the Lovefeast. In the more modern groups, Communion is only the serving of the Lord's Supper. In the communion meal, the members of the Mennonite churches renew their covenant with God and with each other.[116]

Moravian/Hussite

The Moravian Church adheres to a view known as the "sacramental presence",[117] teaching that in the sacrament of Holy Communion:[118]

Christ gives his body and blood according to his promise to all who partake of the elements. When we eat and drink the bread and the wine of the Supper with expectant faith, we thereby have communion with the body and blood of our Lord and receive the forgiveness of sins, life, and salvation. In this sense, the bread and wine are rightly said to be Christ's body and blood which he gives to his disciples.[118]

Nicolaus Zinzendorf, a bishop of the Moravian Church, stated that Holy Communion is the "most intimate of all connection with the person of the Saviour."[119] The Order of Service for the observance of the Lord's Supper includes a salutation, hymns, the right hand of fellowship, prayer, consecration of the elements, distribution of the elements, partaking of the elements, and a benediction.[120] Moravian Christians traditionally practice footwashing before partaking in the Lord's Supper, although in certain Moravian congregations, this rite is observed chiefly on Maundy Thursday.[121][122]

Anglican

Main article: Anglican eucharistic theology
 
Illuminated title of "The Holy Communion" from the 1845 illustrated Book of Common Prayer.

Anglican theology on the matter of the Eucharist is nuanced. The Eucharist is neither wholly a matter of transubstantiation nor simply devotional and memorialist in orientation. The Anglican churches do not adhere to the belief that the Lord's Supper is merely a devotional reflection on Christ's death. For some Anglicans, Christ is spiritually present in the fullness of his person in the Eucharist.

The Church of England itself has repeatedly refused to make official any definition of "the presence of Christ". Church authorities prefer to leave it a mystery while proclaiming the consecrated bread and wine to be "spiritual food" of "Christ's Most Precious Body and Blood"; the bread and wine are an "outward sign of an inner grace".[123]: 859  The words of administration at communion allow for real presence or for a real but spiritual presence (Calvinist receptionism and virtualism). This concept was congenial to most Anglicans well into the 19th century.[124] From the 1840s, the Tractarians reintroduced the idea of "the real presence" to suggest a corporeal presence, which could be done since the language of the BCP rite referred to the body and blood of Christ without details as well as referring to these as spiritual food at other places in the text. Both are found in the Latin and other rites, but in the former, a definite interpretation as corporeal is applied.

Both receptionism and virtualism assert the real presence. The former places emphasis on the recipient and the latter states "the presence" is confected by the power of the Holy Spirit but not in Christ's natural body. His presence is objective and does not depend on its existence from the faith of the recipient. The liturgy petitions that elements "be" rather than "become" the body and blood of Christ leaving aside any theory of a change in the natural elements: bread and wine are the outer reality and "the presence" is the inner invisible except as perceived in faith.[125]: 314–324 

In 1789, the Protestant Episcopal Church in the United States restored explicit language that the Eucharist is an oblation (sacrifice) to God. Subsequent revisions of the Book of Common Prayer by member churches of the Anglican Communion have done likewise (the Church of England did so in the 1928 Prayer Book).[126]: 318–324 

The so-called "Black Rubric" in the 1552 prayer book, which allowed kneeling for communion but denied the real and essential presence of Christ in the elements, was omitted in the 1559 edition at Queen Elizabeth I's insistence. It was reinstated in the 1662 prayer book, modified to deny any corporeal presence to suggest Christ was present in his natural body.

In most parishes of the Anglican Communion, the Eucharist is celebrated every Sunday, having replaced Morning Prayer as the principal service. The rites for the Eucharist are found in the various prayer books of the Anglican churches. Wine and unleavened wafers or unleavened bread is used. Daily celebrations are the norm in many cathedrals and parish churches sometimes offer one or more services of Holy Communion during the week. The nature of the liturgy varies according to the theological tradition of the priests, parishes, dioceses and regional churches. Leavened or unleavened bread may be used.

Baptists

 
The serving of elements individually, to be taken in unison, is common among Baptists.

The bread and "fruit of the vine" indicated in Matthew, Mark and Luke as the elements of the Lord's Supper[127] are interpreted by many Baptists as unleavened bread (although leavened bread is often used) and, in line with the historical stance of some Baptist groups (since the mid-19th century) against partaking of alcoholic beverages, grape juice, which they commonly refer to simply as "the Cup".[128] The unleavened bread also underscores the symbolic belief attributed to Christ's breaking the bread and saying that it was his body. A soda cracker is often used.

Some Baptists consider the Communion to be primarily an act of remembrance of Christ's atonement, and a time of renewal of personal commitment (memorialism), while others, such as Particular Baptists affirm the Reformed doctrine of a pneumatic presence,[129] which is expressed in the Second London Baptist Confession, specifically in Chapter 30, Articles 3 and 7. This view is prevalent among Southern Baptists, those in the Founders movement (a Calvinistic movement among some Independent Baptists), Freewill Baptists, and several individuals in other Baptist associations.[129]

Communion practices and frequency vary among congregations. A typical practice is to have small cups of juice and plates of broken bread distributed to the seated congregation. In other congregations, communicants may proceed to the altar to receive the elements, then return to their seats. A widely accepted practice is for all to receive and hold the elements until everyone is served, then consume the bread and cup in unison. Usually, music is performed and Scripture is read during the receiving of the elements.

Some Baptist churches are closed-Communionists (even requiring full membership in the church before partaking), with others being partially or fully open-Communionists. It is rare to find a Baptist church where the Lord's Supper is observed every Sunday; most observe monthly or quarterly, with some holding Communion only during a designated Communion service or following a worship service. Adults and children in attendance, who have not made a profession of faith in Christ, are expected to not participate.

Lutheran

Main article: Eucharist in Lutheranism
See also: Divine Service (Lutheran)
 
Table set for the Eucharist in an ELCA service

Lutherans believe that the body and blood of Christ are "truly and substantially present in, with, and under the forms" of the consecrated bread and wine (the elements), so that communicants eat and drink the body and blood of Christ himself as well as the bread and wine in the Eucharistic sacrament.[130] The Lutheran doctrine of the Real Presence is more accurately and formally known as the "sacramental union".[131][132] Others have erroneously called this consubstantiation, a Lollardist doctrine, though this term is specifically rejected by Lutheran churches and theologians since it creates confusion about the actual doctrine and subjects the doctrine to the control of a non-biblical philosophical concept in the same manner as, in their view, does the term "transubstantiation".[133]

While an official movement exists in Lutheran congregations to celebrate Eucharist weekly, using formal rites very similar to the Catholic and "high" Anglican services, it was historically common for congregations to celebrate monthly or even quarterly.[134][135] Even in congregations where Eucharist is offered weekly, there is not a requirement that every church service be a Eucharistic service, nor that all members of a congregation must receive it weekly.[136]

Open Brethren and Exclusive Brethren

Among Open assemblies, also termed Plymouth Brethren, the Eucharist is more commonly called the Breaking of Bread or the Lord's Supper. It is seen as a symbolic memorial and is central to the worship of both individual and assembly.[137]: 375  In principle, the service is open to all baptized Christians, but an individual's eligibility to participate depends on the views of each particular assembly. The service takes the form of non-liturgical, open worship with all male participants allowed to pray audibly and select hymns or readings. The breaking of bread itself typically consists of one leavened loaf, which is prayed over and broken by a participant in the meeting[138]: 279–281  and then shared around. The wine is poured from a single container into one or several vessels, and these are again shared around.[139]: 375 [140]

The Exclusive Brethren follow a similar practice to the Open Brethren. They also call the Eucharist the Breaking of Bread or the Lord's Supper.[137]

Reformed (Continental Reformed, Presbyterian and Congregationalist)

Main article: Lord's Supper in Reformed theology

In the Reformed tradition (which includes the Continental Reformed Churches, the Presbyterian Churches, and the Congregationalist Churches), the Eucharist is variously administered. The Calvinist view of the Sacrament sees a real presence of Christ in the supper which differs both from the objective ontological presence of the Catholic view, and from the real absence of Christ and the mental recollection of the memorialism of the Zwinglians[141]: 189  and their successors.

 
Many Presbyterian churches historically used communion tokens to provide entrance to the Lord's Supper.

The bread and wine become the means by which the believer has real communion with Christ in his death and Christ's body and blood are present to the faith of the believer as really as the bread and wine are present to their senses but this presence is "spiritual", that is the work of the Holy Spirit.[142] There is no standard frequency; John Calvin desired weekly communion, but the city council only approved monthly, and monthly celebration has become the most common practice in Reformed churches today.

Many, on the other hand, follow John Knox in celebration of the Lord's supper on a quarterly basis, to give proper time for reflection and inward consideration of one's own state and sin. Recently, Presbyterian and Reformed Churches have been considering whether to restore more frequent communion, including weekly communion in more churches, considering that infrequent communion was derived from a memorialist view of the Lord's Supper, rather than Calvin's view of the sacrament as a means of grace.[143] Some churches use bread without any raising agent (whether leaven or yeast), in view of the use of unleavened bread at Jewish Passover meals, while others use any bread available.

The Presbyterian Church (USA), for instance, prescribes "bread common to the culture". Harking back to the regulative principle of worship, the Reformed tradition had long eschewed coming forward to receive communion, preferring to have the elements distributed throughout the congregation by the presbyters (elders) more in the style of a shared meal. Over the last half a century it is much more common in Presbyterian churches to have Holy Communion monthly or on a weekly basis. It is also becoming common to receive the elements by intinction (receiving a piece of consecrated bread or wafer, dipping it in the blessed wine, and consuming it) Wine and grape juice are both used, depending on the congregation.[144][145] Most Reformed churches practice "open communion", i.e., all believers who are united to a church of like faith and practice, and who are not living in sin, would be allowed to join in the Sacrament.

Methodist

 
A United Methodist minister consecrating the elements

The British Catechism for the use of the people called Methodists states that, "[in the Eucharist] Jesus Christ is present with his worshipping people and gives himself to them as their Lord and Saviour".[146] Methodist theology of this sacrament is reflected in one of the fathers of the movement, Charles Wesley, who wrote a Eucharistic hymn with the following stanza:[147]

We need not now go up to Heaven,
To bring the long sought Saviour down;
Thou art to all already given,
Thou dost e'en now Thy banquet crown:
To every faithful soul appear,
And show Thy real presence here!

Reflecting Wesleyan covenant theology, Methodists also believe that the Lord's Supper is a sign and seal of the covenant of grace.[148][149]

In many Methodist denominations, non-alcoholic wine (grape juice) is used, so as to include those who do not take alcohol for any reason, as well as a commitment to the Church's historical support of temperance.[150][151] Variations of the Eucharistic Prayer are provided for various occasions, including communion of the sick and brief forms for occasions that call for greater brevity. Though the ritual is standardized, there is great variation amongst Methodist churches, from typically high-church to low-church, in the enactment and style of celebration. Methodist clergy are not required to be vested when celebrating the Eucharist.

John Wesley, a founder of Methodism, said that it was the duty of Christians to receive the sacrament as often as possible. Methodists in the United States are encouraged to celebrate the Eucharist every Sunday, though it is typically celebrated on the first Sunday of each month, while a few go as long as celebrating quarterly (a tradition dating back to the days of circuit riders that served multiple churches). Communicants may receive standing, kneeling, or while seated. Gaining more wide acceptance is the practice of receiving by intinction (receiving a piece of consecrated bread or wafer, dipping it in the blessed wine, and consuming it). The most common alternative to intinction is for the communicants to receive the consecrated juice using small, individual, specially made glass or plastic cups known as communion cups.[152] The United Methodist Church practices open communion (which it describes as an "open table"), inviting "all who intend a Christian life, together with their children" to receive the eucharistic elements.[153]

Irvingian

In the Irvingian Churches, Holy Communion, along with Holy Baptism and Holy Sealing, is one of the three sacraments.[154][155] It is the focus of the Divine Service in the liturgies of Irvingism.[156]

Edward Irving, who founded the Irvingian Churches, such as the New Apostolic Church, taught the real presence of Christ in the Eucharist, emphasizing "the humiliated humanity of Christ in the Lord's Supper."[157][158][159] Additionally, the Irvingian Churches affirm the "real presence of the sacrifice of Jesus Christ in Holy Communion":[159]

Jesus Christ is in the midst of the congregation as the crucified, risen, and returning Lord. Thus His once-brought sacrifice is also present in that its effect grants the individual access to salvation. In this way, the celebration of Holy Communion causes the partakers to repeatedly envision the sacrificial death of the Lord, which enables them to proclaim it with conviction (1 Corinthians 11: 26).[160]

Nondenominational Christians

 
Communion elements: matzo is sometimes used for bread, emphasising the "re-creation" of the Last Supper.

Many non-denominational Christians, including the Churches of Christ, receive communion every Sunday. Others, including Evangelical churches such as the Church of God and Calvary Chapel, typically receive communion on a monthly or periodic basis. Many non-denominational Christians hold to the Biblical autonomy of local churches and have no universal requirement among congregations.

Some Churches of Christ, among others, use grape juice and unleavened wafers or unleavened bread and practice open communion.

Syriac Christianity

Edessan Rite (Church of the East)

Main article: Holy Qurbana

Holy Qurbana or Qurbana Qaddisha, the "Holy Offering" or "Holy Sacrifice", refers to the Eucharist as celebrated according to the East Syriac Christianity. The main Anaphora of the East Syrian tradition is the Holy Qurbana of Addai and Mari.

Syro-Antiochene Rite (West Syriac)

Main article: Holy Qurobo

Holy Qurobo or Qurobo Qadisho refers to the Eucharist as celebrated in the West Syrian traditions of Syriac Christianity, while that of the West Syrian tradition is the Liturgy of Saint James.

Both are extremely old, going back at least to the third century, and are the oldest extant liturgies continually in use.

Restorationism

Seventh-day Adventists

In the Seventh-day Adventist Church the Holy Communion service customarily is celebrated once per quarter. The service includes the ordinance of footwashing and the Lord's Supper. Unleavened bread and unfermented (non-alcoholic) grape juice is used. Open communion is practised: all who have committed their lives to the Saviour may participate. The communion service must be conducted by an ordained pastor, minister or church elder.[161][162]

Jehovah's Witnesses

Jehovah's Witnesses commemorate Jesus' death annually on the evening that corresponds to the Passover,[163] Nisan 14, according to the ancient Jewish calendar.[164] They generally refer to the observance as "the Lord's Evening Meal" or the "Memorial of Christ's Death". They believe the event is the only annual religious observance commanded for Christians in the Bible.[165]

Of those who attend the Memorial, a small minority worldwide partake of the wine and unleavened bread. Jehovah's Witnesses believe that only 144,000 people will go to heaven, to serve as under-priests and co-rulers with Christ the King in God's Kingdom. They are referred to as the "anointed" class. They believe that the baptized "other sheep" also benefit from the ransom sacrifice, and are respectful observers and viewers of the Lord's Supper, but they hope to obtain everlasting life in Paradise restored on earth.[166]

The Memorial, held after sundown, includes a sermon on the meaning and importance of the celebration and gathering, and includes the circulation of unadulterated red wine and unleavened bread (matzo). Jehovah's Witnesses believe that the bread represents Jesus' perfect body which he gave on behalf of mankind, and that the wine represents his perfect blood which he shed to redeem fallen man from inherited sin and death. The wine and the bread (sometimes referred to as "emblems") are viewed as symbolic and commemorative; the Witnesses do not believe in transubstantiation or consubstantiation.[166][167]

Latter-day Saints

Main article: Sacrament (LDS Church)

In the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church), the "Holy Sacrament of the Lord's Supper",[24] more simply referred to as the Sacrament, is administered every Sunday (except General Conference or other special Sunday meeting) in each LDS Ward or branch worldwide at the beginning of Sacrament meeting. The Sacrament, which consists of both ordinary bread and water (rather than wine or grape juice), is prepared by priesthood holders prior to the beginning of the meeting. At the beginning of the Sacrament, priests say specific prayers to bless the bread and water.[168] The Sacrament is passed row-by-row to the congregation by priesthood holders (typically deacons).[169]

The prayer recited for the bread and the water is found in the Book of Mormon[170][171] and Doctrine and Covenants. The prayer contains the above essentials given by Jesus: "Always remember him, and keep his commandments […] that they may always have his Spirit to be with them." (Moroni, 4:3.)[172]

Non-observing denominations

Salvation Army

While the Salvation Army does not reject the Eucharistic practices of other churches or deny that their members truly receive grace through this sacrament, it does not practice the sacraments of Communion or baptism. This is because they believe that these are unnecessary for the living of a Christian life, and because in the opinion of Salvation Army founders William and Catherine Booth, the sacrament placed too much stress on outward ritual and too little on inward spiritual conversion.[173]

Quakers

Emphasizing the inward spiritual experience of their adherents over any outward ritual, Quakers (members of the Religious Society of Friends) generally do not baptize or observe Communion.[174]

Christian Scientists

Although the early Church of Christ, Scientist observed Communion, founder Mary Baker Eddy eventually discouraged the physical ritual as she believed it distracted from the true spiritual nature of the sacrament. As such, Christian Scientists do not observe physical communion with bread and wine, but spiritual communion at two special Sunday services each year by "uniting together with Christ in silent prayer and on bended knee."[175]

Shakers

The United Society of Believers (commonly known as Shakers) do not take communion, instead viewing every meal as a Eucharistic feast.[176]

Practice and customs

Open and closed communion

Main articles: Open communion, Closed communion, and Full communion
 
In the Western Catholic Church, the administration of the Eucharist to children requires that they have sufficient knowledge and careful preparation to receive the body of Christ with faith and devotion.

Christian denominations differ in their understanding of whether they may celebrate the Eucharist with those with whom they are not in full communion. The apologist Justin Martyr (c. 150) wrote of the Eucharist "of which no one is allowed to partake but the man who believes that we teach are true, and who has been washed with the washing that is for the remission of sins and unto regeneration, and who is so living as Christ has enjoined."[177] This was continued in the practice of dismissing the catechumens (those still undergoing instruction and not yet baptized) before the sacramental part of the liturgy, a custom which has left traces in the expression "Mass of the Catechumens" and in the Byzantine Rite exclamation by the deacon or priest, "The doors! The doors!", just before recitation of the Creed.[178]

Churches such as the Catholic and the Eastern Orthodox Churches practice closed communion under normal circumstances. However, the Catholic Church allows administration of the Eucharist, at their spontaneous request, to properly disposed members of the eastern churches (Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox and Church of the East) not in full communion with it and of other churches that the Holy See judges to be sacramentally in the same position as these churches; and in grave and pressing need, such as danger of death, it allows the Eucharist to be administered also to individuals who do not belong to these churches but who share the Catholic Church's faith in the reality of the Eucharist and have no access to a minister of their own community.[179] Some Protestant communities exclude non-members from Communion.

The Evangelical Lutheran Church in America (ELCA) practices open communion, provided those who receive are baptized,[180][181] but the Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod and the Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod (WELS) practice closed communion, excluding non-members and requiring communicants to have been given catechetical instruction.[182][183] The Evangelical Lutheran Church in Canada, the Evangelical Church in Germany, the Church of Sweden, and many other Lutheran churches outside of the US also practice open communion.

Some use the term "close communion" for restriction to members of the same denomination, and "closed communion" for restriction to members of the local congregation alone.

Most Protestant communities including Congregational churches, the Church of the Nazarene, the Assemblies of God, Methodists, most Presbyterians and Baptists, Anglicans, and Churches of Christ and other non-denominational churches practice various forms of open communion. Some churches do not limit it to only members of the congregation, but to any people in attendance (regardless of Christian affiliation) who consider themselves to be Christian. Others require that the communicant be a baptized person, or a member of a church of that denomination or a denomination of "like faith and practice". Some Progressive Christian congregations offer communion to any individual who wishes to commemorate the life and teachings of Christ, regardless of religious affiliation.[h]

Most Latter-Day Saint churches practice closed communion; one notable exception is the Community of Christ, the second-largest denomination in this movement.[185] While The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (the largest of the LDS denominations) technically practice a closed communion, their official direction to local Church leaders (in Handbook 2, section 20.4.1, last paragraph) is as follows: "Although the sacrament is for Church members, the bishopric should not announce that it will be passed to members only, and nothing should be done to prevent nonmembers from partaking of it."[186]

In the Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church the Eucharist is only given to those who have come prepared to receive the life-giving body and blood. Therefore, in a manner to worthily receive, believers fast the night before the liturgy, from around 6pm or the conclusion of evening prayer, and remain fasting until they receive Holy Qurbana the next morning. Additionally, members who plan on receiving the holy communion have to follow a strict guide of prescribed prayers from the Shehimo, or the book of common prayers, for the week.[187]

Preparation

Main article: Eucharistic discipline

Catholic

The Catholic Church requires its members to receive the sacrament of Penance or Reconciliation before taking Communion if they are aware of having committed a mortal sin[188][189] and to prepare by fasting, prayer, and other works of piety.[189][190]

Eastern Orthodox

Traditionally, the Eastern Orthodox church has required its members to have observed all church-appointed fasts (most weeks, this will be at least Wednesday and Friday) for the week prior to partaking of communion, and to fast from all food and water from midnight the night before. In addition, Orthodox Christians are to have made a recent confession to their priest (the frequency varying with one's particular priest),[191] and they must be at peace with all others, meaning that they hold no grudges or anger against anyone.[192] In addition, one is expected to attend Vespers or the All-Night Vigil, if offered, on the night before receiving communion.[192] Furthermore, various pre-communion prayers have been composed, which many (but not all) Orthodox churches require or at least strongly encourage members to say privately before coming to the Eucharist.[193] However, all this will typically vary from priest to priest and jurisdiction to jurisdiction, but abstaining from food and water for several hours beforehand is a fairly universal rule.

Protestant confessions

Many Protestant congregations generally reserve a period of time for self-examination and private, silent confession just before partaking in the Lord's Supper.

Footwashing

Seventh-day Adventists, Mennonites, and some other groups participate in "foot washing"[194] as a preparation for partaking in the Lord's Supper. At that time they are to individually examine themselves, and confess any sins they may have between one and another.

Adoration

 
Worshippers kneel and bow in the street during the Eucharist Procession, London, England.
Further information: Eucharistic adoration
 
The Eucharist displayed in a monstrance, flanked by candles

Eucharistic adoration is a practice in the Western (or "Roman") Catholic, Anglo-Catholic and some Lutheran traditions, in which the Blessed Sacrament is exposed to and adored by the faithful. When this exposure and adoration is constant (twenty-four hours a day), it is called "Perpetual Adoration". In a parish, this is usually done by volunteer parishioners; in a monastery or convent, it is done by the resident monks or nuns. In the Exposition of the Blessed Sacrament, the Eucharist is displayed in a monstrance, typically placed on an altar, at times with a light focused on it, or with candles flanking it.

Health issues

Gluten

Main article: Coeliac disease § Christian churches and the Eucharist

The gluten in wheat bread is dangerous to people with celiac disease and other gluten-related disorders, such as non-celiac gluten sensitivity and wheat allergy.[195][196][197] For the Catholic Church, this issue was addressed in the 24 July 2003 letter[198] of the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith, which summarized and clarified earlier declarations. The Catholic Church believes that the matter for the Eucharist must be wheaten bread and fermented wine from grapes: it holds that, if the gluten has been entirely removed, the result is not true wheaten bread.[199] For celiacs, but not generally, it allows low-gluten bread. It also permits Holy Communion to be received under the form of either bread or wine alone, except by a priest who is celebrating Mass without other priests or as principal celebrant.[200] Many Protestant churches offer communicants gluten-free alternatives to wheaten bread, usually in the form of a rice-based or other gluten-free wafer.[201]

Alcohol

See also: Christian views on alcohol

The Catholic Church believes that grape juice that has not begun even minimally to ferment cannot be accepted as wine, which it sees as essential for celebration of the Eucharist. For non-alcoholics, but not generally, it allows the use of mustum (grape juice in which fermentation has begun but has been suspended without altering the nature of the juice), and it holds that "since Christ is sacramentally present under each of the species, communion under the species of bread alone makes it possible to receive all the fruit of Eucharistic grace. For pastoral reasons, this manner of receiving communion has been legitimately established as the most common form in the Latin rite."[202]

As already indicated, the one exception is in the case of a priest celebrating Mass without other priests or as principal celebrant. The water that in the Roman Rite is prescribed to be mixed with the wine must be only a relatively small quantity.[203] The practice of the Coptic Church is that the mixture should be two parts wine to one part water.[204]

Some Protestant churches allow communion in a non-alcoholic form, either normatively or as a pastoral exception. Since the invention of the necessary technology, grape juice which has been pasteurized to stop the fermentation process the juice naturally undergoes and de-alcoholized wine from which most of the alcohol has been removed (between 0.5% and 2% remains) are commonly used, and more rarely water may be offered.[205] Exclusive use of unfermented grape juice is common in Baptist churches, the United Methodist Church, Seventh-day Adventists, Christian Churches/Churches of Christ, Churches of Christ, Church of God (Anderson, Indiana), some Lutherans, Assemblies of God, Pentecostals, Evangelicals, the Christian Missionary Alliance, and other American independent Protestant churches.

Transmission of diseases

See also: Impact of the 2019–20 coronavirus pandemic on religion

Risk of infectious disease transmission related to use of a common communion cup exists but it is low. No case of transmission of an infectious disease related to a common communion cup has ever been documented. Experimental studies have demonstrated that infectious diseases can be transmitted. The most likely diseases to be transmitted would be common viral illnesses such as the common cold. A study of 681 individuals found that taking communion up to daily from a common cup did not increase the risk of infection beyond that of those who did not attend services at all.[206][207]

In influenza epidemics, some churches suspend the giving wine at communion, for fear of spreading the disease. This is in full accord with Catholic Church belief that communion under the form of bread alone makes it possible to receive all the fruit of Eucharistic grace. However, the same measure has also been taken by churches that normally insist on the importance of receiving communion under both forms. This was done in 2009 by the Church of England.[208]

Some fear contagion through the handling involved in distributing the hosts to the communicants, even if they are placed on the hand rather than on the tongue. Accordingly, some churches use mechanical wafer dispensers or "pillow packs" (communion wafers with wine inside them). While these methods of distributing communion are not generally accepted in Catholic parishes, one parish provides a mechanical dispenser to allow those intending to commune to place in a bowl, without touching them by hand, the hosts for use in the celebration.[209]

See also

Eucharistic theology

Liturgical worship

Eucharistic practice

Views of different churches

Sacramental theology

History

Mandaeism

Others

Notes

  1. ^ Within Oriental Orthodoxy, the "Oblation" is the term used in the Syriac, Coptic and Armenian churches, while "Consecration" is used in the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church. "Oblation" and "Consecration" are of course used also by the Eastern Catholic Churches that are of the same liturgical tradition as these churches. Likewise, in the Gaelic language of Ireland and Scotland the word Aifreann, usually translated into English as "Mass", is derived from Late Latin Offerendum, meaning "oblation", "offering".
  2. ^ "9.1 Concerning the thanksgiving give thanks thus: 9.2 First, concerning the cup: "We give thanks to you, our Father, For the holy vine of David your servant which you have revealed to us through Jesus your servant. To you be glory for ever". 9.3 And concerning the fragment: "We give thanks to you, our Father, For the life and knowledge, which you have revealed to us through Jesus your servant". But let no one eat or drink of your Eucharist, unless they have been baptized into the name of the Lord; for concerning this also the Lord has said, "Give not that which is holy to the dogs". 10.1 After you have had your fill, give thanks thus: 10.2 We give thanks to you holy Father for your holy Name which you have made to dwell in our hearts and for the knowledge, faith and immortality which you have revealed to us through Jesus your servant. To you be glory for ever. 10.3 You Lord almighty have created everything for the sake of your Name; you have given human beings food and drink to partake with enjoyment so that they might give thanks; but to us you have given the grace of spiritual food and drink and of eternal life through Jesus your servant. 10.4 Above all we give you thanks because you are mighty. To you be glory for ever. 10.5 Remember Lord your Church, to preserve it from all evil and to make it perfect in your love. And, sanctified, gather it from the four winds into your kingdom which you have prepared for it. Because yours is the power and the glory for ever. ..."
  3. ^ "14.1 But every Lord's day do ye gather yourselves together, and break bread, and give thanksgiving after having confessed your transgressions, that your sacrifice may be pure. 14.2. But let no one that is at variance with his fellow come together with you, until they be reconciled, that your sacrifice may not be profaned. 14.3. For this is that which was spoken by the Lord: In every place and time offer to me a pure sacrifice; for I am a great King, saith the Lord, and my name is wonderful among the nations."
  4. ^ The tradition that Ignatius was a direct disciple of the Apostle John is consistent with the content of his letters.[67]
  5. ^ Radbertus was canonized in 1073 by Pope Gregory VII. His works are edited in Patrologia Latina, volume 120 (1852).
  6. ^ For example, Catholics, Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox, "Anglo-Catholic" Anglicans, Old Catholics; and cf. the presentation of the Eucharist as a sacrament in the Baptism, Eucharist and Ministry document[80] of the World Council of Churches
  7. ^ A misprint in the English translation of the Medieval Sourcebook: Canons of the Fourth Lateran Council, 1215 gives "transubstantiatio" in place of "transubstantiatis" in Canon 1,[98] as opposed to the original: "Iesus Christus, cuius corpus et sanguis in sacramento altaris sub speciebus panis et vini veraciter continentur, transsubstantiatis pane in corpus, et vino in sanguinem potestate divina".[99]
  8. ^ In most United Church of Christ local churches, the Communion Table is "open to all Christians who wish to know the presence of Christ and to share in the community of God's people".[184]

References

  1. ^ Luke 22:19–20, 1 Corinthians 11:23–25
  2. ^ Wright, N. T. (2015). The Meal Jesus Gave Us: Understanding Holy Communion (Revised ed.). Louisville, Kentucky. p. 63. ISBN 9780664261290.
  3. ^ a b c d "Encyclopædia Britannica, s.v. Eucharist". Britannica.com. Retrieved 1 April 2023.
  4. ^ Mattox, Mickey L.; Roeber, A. G. (2012). Changing Churches: An Orthodox, Catholic, and Lutheran Theological Conversation. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. p. 54. ISBN 978-0802866943. In this "sacramental union", Lutherans taught, the body and blood of Christ are so truly united to the bread and wine of the Holy Communion that the two may be identified. They are at the same time body and blood, bread and wine. This divine food is given, more-over, not just for the strengthening of faith, nor only as a sign of our unity in faith, nor merely as an assurance of the forgiveness of sin. Even more, in this sacrament the Lutheran Christian receives the very body and blood of Christ precisely for the strengthening of the union of faith. The "real presence" of Christ in the Holy Sacrament is the means by which the union of faith, effected by God's Word and the sacrament of baptism, is strengthened and maintained. Intimate union with Christ, in other words, leads directly to the most intimate communion in his holy body and blood.
  5. ^ McKim, Donald K. (1998). Major Themes in the Reformed Tradition. Wipf and Stock Publishers. p. 263. ISBN 978-1579101046.
  6. ^ Poulson, Christine (1999). The Quest for the Grail: Arthurian Legend in British Art, 1840–1920. Manchester University Press. p. 40. ISBN 978-0719055379. By the late 1840s Anglo-Catholic interest in the revival of ritual had given new life to doctrinal debate over the nature of the Eucharist. Initially, 'the Tractarians were concerned only to exalt the importance of the sacrament and did not engage in doctrinal speculation'. Indeed they were generally hostile to the doctrine of transubstantiation. For an orthodox Anglo-Catholic such as Dyce the doctrine of the Real Presence was acceptable, but that of transubstantiation was not.
  7. ^ Campbell 1996, p. 325.
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  9. ^ Gospel Figures in Art by Stefano Zuffi 2003 ISBN 978-0892367276 p. 252
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  13. ^ a b Thomas R. Schreiner, Matthew R. Crawford, The Lord's Supper (B&H Publishing Group 2011 ISBN 978-0805447576), p. 156
  14. ^ John H. Armstrong, Understanding Four Views on the Lord's Supper (Zondervan 2009 ISBN 978-0310542759)
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Further reading

  • Aquinas, Thomas (1571). De venerabili sacramento altaris. archive.org (in Latin). Rome: Bibliotheca Vaticana. pp. 4, 324. (English translation: H.A Rawes (1871). The Bread of life: or St. Thomas Aquinas on the Adorable Sacrament of the Altar.
  • Bellarmine, Robert (1902). "The Blessed Eucharist." . Sermons from the Latins. Benziger Brothers.
  • Berington, Joseph (1830). "The Eucharist." . The Faith of Catholics: confirmed by Scripture, and attested by the Fathers of the five first centuries of the Church, Volume 1. Jos. Booker.
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External links

  • according to the current edition of the Roman Missal
  • – Catechism of the Catholic Church

May 13, 2023
eucharist, liturgies, christian, liturgy, other, uses, disambiguation, lord, supper, most, precious, blood, redirect, here, other, uses, lord, supper, disambiguation, most, precious, blood, disambiguation, juː, from, koinē, greek, εὐχαριστία, romanized, evchar. For Eucharistic liturgies see Christian liturgy For other uses see Eucharist disambiguation Lord s Supper and Most Precious Blood redirect here For other uses see Lord s Supper disambiguation and Most Precious Blood disambiguation The Eucharist ˈ juː k er ɪ s t from Koine Greek eὐxaristia romanized evcharistia lit thanksgiving also known as Holy Communion and the Lord s Supper is a Christian rite that is considered a sacrament in most churches and as an ordinance in others Christians believe that the rite was instituted by Jesus at the Last Supper the night before his crucifixion giving his disciples bread and wine Passages in the New Testament state that he commanded them to do this in memory of me while referring to the bread as my body and the cup of wine as the blood of my covenant which is poured out for many 1 2 According to the Synoptic Gospels this was at a Passover meal 3 The elements of the Eucharist sacramental bread leavened or unleavened and wine or non alcoholic grape juice in some Protestant traditions are consecrated on an altar or a communion table and consumed thereafter Christians generally recognize a special presence of Christ in this rite though they differ about exactly how where and when Christ is present The Catholic Church states that the Eucharist is the body and blood of Christ under the species of bread and wine It maintains that by the consecration the substances of the bread and wine actually become the substances of the body and blood of Jesus Christ transubstantiation while the appearances or accidents of the bread and wine remain unaltered e g colour taste feel and smell The Eastern Orthodox and Oriental Orthodox churches agree that an objective change occurs of the bread and wine into the body and blood of Christ Lutherans believe the true body and blood of Christ are really present in with and under the forms of the bread and wine sacramental union 4 Reformed Christians believe in a real spiritual presence of Christ in the Eucharist 5 Anglican eucharistic theologies universally affirm the real presence of Christ in the Eucharist though Evangelical Anglicans believe that this is a spiritual presence while Anglo Catholics hold to a corporeal presence 6 7 Others such as the Plymouth Brethren take the act to be only a symbolic reenactment of the Last Supper and a memorial 8 As a result of these different understandings the Eucharist has been a central issue in the discussions and deliberations of the ecumenical movement 3 Contents 1 Terminology 1 1 Eucharist 1 2 Lord s Supper 1 3 Communion 1 4 Other terms 1 4 1 Breaking of bread 1 4 2 Sacrament or Blessed Sacrament 1 4 3 Mass 1 4 4 Divine Liturgy and Divine Service 1 4 5 Other Eastern rites 2 History 2 1 Biblical basis 2 1 1 Gospels 2 1 2 First Epistle to the Corinthians 2 2 Early Christian sources 2 3 Jews and the Eucharist 3 Eucharistic theology 4 Ritual and liturgy 4 1 Catholic Church 4 1 1 As a sacrifice 4 1 2 As a real presence 4 2 Eastern Orthodoxy 4 3 Protestantism 4 3 1 Anabaptists 4 3 2 Moravian Hussite 4 3 3 Anglican 4 3 4 Baptists 4 3 5 Lutheran 4 3 6 Open Brethren and Exclusive Brethren 4 3 7 Reformed Continental Reformed Presbyterian and Congregationalist 4 3 8 Methodist 4 3 9 Irvingian 4 3 10 Nondenominational Christians 4 4 Syriac Christianity 4 4 1 Edessan Rite Church of the East 4 4 2 Syro Antiochene Rite West Syriac 4 5 Restorationism 4 5 1 Seventh day Adventists 4 5 2 Jehovah s Witnesses 4 5 3 Latter day Saints 5 Non observing denominations 5 1 Salvation Army 5 2 Quakers 5 3 Christian Scientists 5 4 Shakers 6 Practice and customs 6 1 Open and closed communion 6 2 Preparation 6 2 1 Catholic 6 2 2 Eastern Orthodox 6 2 3 Protestant confessions 6 2 4 Footwashing 6 3 Adoration 6 4 Health issues 6 4 1 Gluten 6 4 2 Alcohol 6 4 3 Transmission of diseases 7 See also 7 1 Eucharistic theology 7 2 Liturgical worship 7 3 Eucharistic practice 7 4 Views of different churches 7 5 Sacramental theology 7 6 History 7 7 Mandaeism 7 8 Others 8 Notes 9 References 10 Further reading 11 External linksTerminology Edit The Eucharist has been a key theme in the depictions of the Last Supper in Christian art 9 as in this 16th century Juan de Juanes painting after Leonardo da Vinci s Last Supper Eucharist Edit The New Testament was originally written in the Greek language and the Greek noun eὐxaristia eucharistia meaning thanksgiving appears a few times in it 10 while the related Greek verb eὐxaristhsas is found several times in New Testament accounts of the Last Supper 11 12 13 14 15 231 including the earliest such account 12 For I received from the Lord what I also delivered to you that the Lord Jesus on the night when he was betrayed took bread and when he had given thanks eὐxaristhsas he broke it and said This is my body which is for you Do this in remembrance of me 1 Corinthians 11 23 24 16 The term eucharistia thanksgiving is that by which the rite is referred to 12 in the Didache a late 1st or early 2nd century document 17 51 18 19 437 20 207 by Ignatius of Antioch who died between 98 and 117 19 21 and by Justin Martyr First Apology written between 155 and 157 22 19 23 Today the Eucharist is the name still used by Eastern Orthodox Oriental Orthodox Catholics Anglicans Presbyterians and Lutherans Other Protestant denominations rarely use this term preferring either Communion the Lord s Supper Remembrance or the Breaking of Bread Latter day Saints call it the Sacrament 24 Lord s Supper Edit In the First Epistle to the Corinthians Paul uses the term Lord s Supper in Greek Kyriakὸn deῖpnon Kyriakon deipnon in the early 50s of the 1st century 12 13 When you come together it is not the Lord s Supper you eat for as you eat each of you goes ahead without waiting for anybody else One remains hungry another gets drunk 1 Corinthians 11 20 21 25 So Paul s use of the term Lord s supper in reference to the Corinthian banquet is powerful and interesting but to be an actual name for the Christian meal rather than a meaningful phrase connected with an ephemeral rhetorical contrast it would have to have some history previous or subsequent 26 Nevertheless given its existence in the biblical text Lord s Supper came into use after the Protestant Reformation and remains the predominant term among Evangelicals such as Baptists and Pentecostals 27 123 28 259 29 371 They also refer to the observance as an ordinance rather than a sacrament A Kremikovtsi Monastery fresco 15th century depicting the Last Supper celebrated by Jesus and his disciples The early Christians too would have celebrated this meal to commemorate Jesus death and subsequent resurrection Eucharistic window 1898 1900 by Jozef Mehoffer Communion Edit Use of the term Communion or Holy Communion to refer to the Eucharistic rite began by some groups originating in the Protestant Reformation Others such as the Catholic Church do not formally use this term for the rite but instead mean by it the act of partaking of the consecrated elements 30 they speak of receiving Holy Communion at Mass or outside of it they also use the term First Communion when one receives the Eucharist for the first time The term Communion is derived from Latin communio sharing in common translated from the Greek koinwnia koinōnia in 1 Corinthians 10 16 The cup of blessing which we bless is it not the communion of the blood of Christ The bread which we break is it not the communion of the body of Christ 1 Corinthians 10 16 Other terms Edit Breaking of bread Edit The phrase klasis toῦ ἄrtoy klasis tou artou breaking of the bread in later liturgical Greek also ἀrtoklasia artoklasia appears in various related forms five times in the New Testament 31 in contexts which according to some may refer to the celebration of the Eucharist in either closer or symbolically more distant reference to the Last Supper 32 This term is used by the Plymouth Brethren 33 Sacrament or Blessed Sacrament Edit The Blessed Sacrament the Sacrament of the Altar and other variations are common terms used by Catholics 34 Lutherans 35 and some Anglicans Anglo Catholics 36 for the consecrated elements particularly when reserved in a tabernacle In the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter day Saints the term The Sacrament is used of the rite 24 Mass Edit The term Mass is used in the Catholic Church the Lutheran churches especially those of Sweden Norway and Finland and by some Anglicans It derives from the Latin word missa a dismissal Ite missa est or go it is sent the very last phrase of the service 37 That Latin word has come to imply mission as well because the congregation is sent out to serve Christ 38 At least in the Catholic Church the Mass is a long rite in two parts the Liturgy of the Word and the Liturgy of the Eucharist The former consists of readings from the Bible and a homily or sermon given by a priest or deacon The latter which follows seamlessly includes the Offering of the bread and wine at the altar their consecration by the priest through prayer and their reception by the congregation in Holy Communion 39 Among the many other terms used in the Catholic Church are Holy Mass the Memorial of the Passion Death and Resurrection of the Lord the Holy Sacrifice of the Mass and the Holy Mysteries 40 Divine Liturgy and Divine Service Edit The term Divine Liturgy Greek 8eia Leitoyrgia is used in Byzantine Rite traditions whether in the Eastern Orthodox Church or among the Eastern Catholic Churches These also speak of the Divine Mysteries especially in reference to the consecrated elements which they also call the Holy Gifts a The term Divine Service German Gottesdienst has often been used to refer to Christian worship more generally and is still used in Lutheran churches in addition to the terms Eucharist Mass and Holy Communion 41 Historically this refers like the term worship itself to service of God although more recently it has been associated with the idea that God is serving the congregants in the liturgy 42 Other Eastern rites Edit Some Eastern rites have yet more names for Eucharist Holy Qurbana is common in Syriac Christianity and Badarak 43 in the Armenian Rite in the Alexandrian Rite the term Prosfora from the Greek prosfora is common in Coptic Christianity and Keddase in Ethiopian and Eritrean Christianity 44 History EditFurther information Origin of the Eucharist Christ with the Eucharist Vicente Juan Masip 16th century Biblical basis Edit The Last Supper appears in all three Synoptic Gospels Matthew Mark and Luke It also is found in the First Epistle to the Corinthians 3 45 46 which suggests how early Christians celebrated what Paul the Apostle called the Lord s Supper Although the Gospel of John does not reference the Last Supper explicitly some argue that it contains theological allusions to the early Christian celebration of the Eucharist especially in the chapter 6 Bread of Life Discourse but also in other passages 47 Other New Testament passages depicting Jesus eating with crowds or after the resurrection also have eucharistic overtones citation needed Gospels Edit In the synoptic gospels Mark 14 22 25 48 Matthew 26 26 29 49 and Luke 22 13 20 50 depict Jesus as presiding over the Last Supper prior to his crucifixion The versions in Matthew and Mark are almost identical 51 but the Gospel of Luke presents a textual difference in that a few manuscripts omit the second half of verse 19 and all of verse 20 given for you poured out for you which are found in the vast majority of ancient witnesses to the text 52 If the shorter text is the original one then Luke s account is independent of both that of Paul and that of Matthew Mark If the majority longer text comes from the author of the third gospel then this version is very similar to that of Paul in 1 Corinthians being somewhat fuller in its description of the early part of the Supper 53 particularly in making specific mention of a cup being blessed before the bread was broken 54 In the one prayer given to posterity by Jesus the Lord s Prayer the word epiousion which is otherwise unknown in Classical Greek literature was interpreted by some early Christian writers as meaning super substantial and hence a possible reference to the Eucharist as the Bread of Life 55 In the Gospel of John however the account of the Last Supper does not mention Jesus taking bread and the cup and speaking of them as his body and blood instead it recounts other events his humble act of washing the disciples feet the prophecy of the betrayal which set in motion the events that would lead to the cross and his long discourse in response to some questions posed by his followers in which he went on to speak of the importance of the unity of the disciples with him with each other and with God 56 57 Some would find in this unity and in the washing of the feet the deeper meaning of the Communion bread in the other three gospels 58 In John 6 26 65 59 a long discourse is attributed to Jesus that deals with the subject of the living bread John 6 51 59 60 also contains echoes of Eucharistic language First Epistle to the Corinthians Edit 1 Corinthians 11 23 25 61 gives the earliest recorded description of Jesus Last Supper The Lord Jesus on the night when he was betrayed took bread and when he had given thanks he broke it and said This is my body which is for you Do this in remembrance of me The Greek word used in the passage for remembrance is ἀnamnhsin anamnesis which itself has a much richer theological history than the English word remember Early Christian painting of an Agape feast The expression The Lord s Supper derived from Paul s usage in 1 Corinthians 11 17 34 62 may have originally referred to the Agape feast or love feast the shared communal meal with which the Eucharist was originally associated 63 The Agape feast is mentioned in Jude 12 64 but The Lord s Supper is now commonly used in reference to a celebration involving no food other than the sacramental bread and wine Early Christian sources Edit The Didache Greek Didaxh teaching is an Early Church treatise that includes instructions for baptism and the Eucharist Most scholars date it to the late 1st century 65 and distinguish in it two separate Eucharistic traditions the earlier tradition in chapter 10 and the later one preceding it in chapter 9 66 b The Eucharist is mentioned again in chapter 14 c Ignatius of Antioch born c 35 or 50 died between 98 and 117 one of the Apostolic Fathers d mentions the Eucharist as the flesh of our Saviour Jesus Christ They abstain from the Eucharist and from prayer because they confess not the Eucharist to be the flesh of our Saviour Jesus Christ which suffered for our sins and which the Father of His goodness raised up again Let that be deemed a proper Eucharist which is administered either by the bishop or by one to whom he has entrusted it Smyrnaeans 7 8 68 Take heed then to have but one Eucharist For there is one flesh of our Lord Jesus Christ and one cup to show forth the unity of His blood one altar as there is one bishop along with the presbytery and deacons my fellow servants that so whatsoever you do you may do it according to the will of God Philadephians 4 69 Justin Martyr born c 100 died c 165 mentions in this regard And this food is called among us Eὐxaristia the Eucharist of which no one is allowed to partake but the man who believes that the things which we teach are true and who has been washed with the washing that is for the remission of sins and unto regeneration and who is so living as Christ has enjoined For not as common bread and common drink do we receive these but in like manner as Jesus Christ our Saviour having been made flesh by the Word of God had both flesh and blood for our salvation so likewise have we been taught that the food which is blessed by the prayer of His word and from which our blood and flesh by transmutation are nourished is the flesh and blood of that Jesus who was made flesh 70 71 Paschasius Radbertus 785 865 was a Carolingian theologian and the abbot of Corbie whose best known and influential work is an exposition on the nature of the Eucharist written around 831 entitled De Corpore et Sanguine Domini In it Paschasius agrees with St Ambrose in affirming that the Eucharist contains the true historical body of Jesus Christ According to Paschasius God is truth itself and therefore his words and actions must be true Christ s proclamation at the Last Supper that the bread and wine were his body and blood must be taken literally since God is truth 72 9 He thus believes that the transubstantiation of the bread and wine offered in the Eucharist really occurs Only if the Eucharist is the actual body and blood of Christ can a Christian know it is salvific 72 10 e Jews and the Eucharist Edit The concept of the Jews both destroying and partaking in some perverted version of the Eucharist has been a vessel to promote anti Judaism and anti Jewish ideology and violence In medieval times Jews were often depicted stabbing or in some other way physically harming communion wafers citation needed These characterizations drew parallels to the idea that the Jews killed Christ murdering this transubstantiation or host was thought of as a repetition of the event Jewish people s eagerness to destroy hosts were also a variation of blood libel charges with Jews being accused of murdering bodies of Christ whether they be communion wafers or Christian children The blood libel charges and the concept of Eucharist are also related in the belief that blood is efficacious meaning it has some sort of divine power 73 Eucharistic theology EditMain article Eucharistic theology Most Christians even those who deny that there is any real change in the elements used recognize a special presence of Christ in this rite However Christians differ about exactly how where and how long Christ is present in it 3 Catholicism Eastern Orthodoxy Oriental Orthodoxy and the Church of the East teach that the reality the substance of the elements of bread and wine is wholly changed into the body and blood of Jesus Christ while the appearances the species remain Transubstantiation change of the substance is the term used by Catholics to denote what is changed not to explain how the change occurs since the Catholic Church teaches that the signs of bread and wine become in a way surpassing understanding the Body and Blood of Christ 74 The Orthodox use various terms such as transelementation but no explanation is official as they prefer to leave it a mystery Lutherans believe Christ to be truly and substantially present with the bread and wine that are seen in the Eucharist 75 They attribute the real presence of Jesus living body to his word spoken in the Eucharist and not to the faith of those receiving it They also believe that forgiveness of sins life and salvation are given through the words of Christ in the Eucharist to those who believe his words given and shed for you 76 Reformed Christians believe Christ to be present and may both use the term sacramental union to describe this Although Lutherans will also use this phrase the Reformed generally describe the presence as a spiritual presence not a physical one 77 Anglicans adhere to a range of views depending on churchmanship although the teaching in the Anglican Thirty Nine Articles holds that the body of Christ is received by the faithful only in a heavenly and spiritual manner a doctrine also taught in the Methodist Articles of Religion Unlike Catholics and Lutherans Reformed Christians do not believe forgiveness and eternal life are given in the Eucharist Christians adhering to the theology of Memorialism such as the Anabaptist Churches do not believe in the concept of the real presence believing that the Eucharist is only a ceremonial remembrance or memorial of the death of Christ 78 The Baptism Eucharist and Ministry document of the World Council of Churches 79 attempting to present the common understanding of the Eucharist on the part of the generality of Christians describes it as essentially the sacrament of the gift which God makes to us in Christ through the power of the Holy Spirit Thanksgiving to the Father Anamnesis or Memorial of Christ the sacrament of the unique sacrifice of Christ who ever lives to make intercession for us the sacrament of the body and blood of Christ the sacrament of his real presence Invocation of the Spirit Communion of the Faithful and Meal of the Kingdom Ritual and liturgy EditMany Christian denominations classify the Eucharist as a sacrament f Some Protestants though not all prefer to instead call it an ordinance viewing it not as a specific channel of divine grace but as an expression of faith and of obedience to Christ Catholic Church Edit Main article Eucharist in the Catholic Church See also Mass liturgy At a Solemn Tridentine Mass the Host is displayed to the people before Communion In the Catholic Church the Eucharist is considered as a sacrament according to the church the Eucharist is the source and summit of the Christian life 81 The other sacraments and indeed all ecclesiastical ministries and works of the apostolate are bound up with the Eucharist and are oriented toward it For in the blessed Eucharist is contained the whole spiritual good of the Church namely Christ himself our Pasch 82 Pasch is a word that sometimes means Easter sometimes Passover 83 As a sacrifice Edit In the Eucharist the same sacrifice that Jesus made only once on the cross is made present at every Mass According to Compendium of the Catechism of the Catholic Church The Eucharist is the very sacrifice of the Body and Blood of the Lord Jesus which he instituted to perpetuate the sacrifice of the cross throughout the ages until his return in glory Thus he entrusted to his Church this memorial of his death and Resurrection It is a sign of unity a bond of charity a paschal banquet in which Christ is consumed the mind is filled with grace and a pledge of future glory is given to us 84 For the Catholic Church the Eucharist is the memorial of Christ s Passover the making present and the sacramental offering of his unique sacrifice in the liturgy of the Church which is his Body The memorial is not merely the recollection of past events but they become in a certain way present and real When the Church celebrates the Eucharist she commemorates Christ s Passover and it is made present the sacrifice Christ offered once for all on the cross remains ever present The Eucharist is thus a sacrifice because it re presents makes present the same and only sacrifice offered once for all on the cross because it is its memorial and because it applies its fruit 85 The sacrifice of Christ and the sacrifice of the Eucharist are one single sacrifice The victim is one and the same the same now offers through the ministry of priests who then offered himself on the cross only the manner of offering is different 86 In the holy sacrifice of the Mass it is Christ himself the eternal high priest of the New Covenant who acting through the ministry of the priests offers the Eucharistic sacrifice And it is the same Christ really present under the species of bread and wine who is the offering of the Eucharistic sacrifice 87 And since in this divine sacrifice which is celebrated in the Mass the same Christ who offered himself once in a bloody manner on the altar of the cross is contained and is offered in an unbloody manner this sacrifice is truly propitiatory 86 The only ministers who can officiate at the Eucharist and consecrate the sacrament are validly ordained priests either bishops or presbyters acting in the person of Christ in persona Christi In other words the priest celebrant represents Christ who is the head of the church and acts before God the Father in the name of the church always using we not I during the Eucharistic prayer The matter used must be wheaten bread and grape wine this is considered essential for validity 88 As sacrifice the Eucharist is also offered in reparation for the sins of the living and the dead and to obtain spiritual or temporal benefits from God 89 As a real presence Edit Main article Real presence of Christ in the Eucharist Eucharistic celebration at the Sanctuary of Our Lady of Fatima According to the Catholic Church Jesus Christ is present in the Eucharist in a true real and substantial way with his body blood soul and divinity 90 By the consecration the substances of the bread and wine actually become the substances of the body and blood of Christ transubstantiation while the appearances or species of the bread and wine remain unaltered e g colour taste feel and smell This change is brought about in the eucharistic prayer through the efficacy of the word of Christ and by the action of the Holy Spirit 91 92 93 The Eucharistic presence of Christ begins at the moment of the consecration and endures as long as the Eucharistic species subsist 94 95 that is until the Eucharist is digested physically destroyed or decays by some natural process 96 at which point theologian Thomas Aquinas argued the substance of the bread and wine cannot return 97 The Fourth Council of the Lateran in 1215 spoke of the bread and wine as transubstantiated into the body and blood of Christ His body and blood are truly contained in the sacrament of the altar under the forms of bread and wine the bread and wine having been transubstantiated by God s power into his body and blood g 100 In 1551 the Council of Trent definitively declared Because Christ our Redeemer said that it was truly his body that he was offering under the species of bread 101 it has always been the conviction of the Church of God and this holy Council now declares again that by the consecration of the bread and wine there takes place a change of the whole substance of the bread into the substance of the body of Christ and of the whole substance of the wine into the substance of his blood This change the holy Catholic Church has fittingly and properly called transubstantiation 102 103 104 The church holds that the body and blood of Jesus can no longer be truly separated Where one is the other must be Therefore although the priest or extraordinary minister of Holy Communion says The Body of Christ when administering the Host and The Blood of Christ when presenting the chalice the communicant who receives either one receives Christ whole and entire Christ is present whole and entire in each of the species and whole and entire in each of their parts in such a way that the breaking of the bread does not divide Christ 105 Pope Benedict XVI celebrates a Mass The Catholic Church sees as the main basis for this belief the words of Jesus himself at his Last Supper the Synoptic Gospels 106 and Paul s recount that Jesus at the time of taking the bread and the cup said This is my body this is my blood 107 The Catholic understanding of these words from the Patristic authors onward has emphasized their roots in the covenantal history of the Old Testament The interpretation of Christ s words against this Old Testament background coheres with and supports belief in the Real presence of Christ in the Eucharist 108 Since the Eucharist is the body and blood of Christ the worship due to the sacrament of the Eucharist whether during the celebration of the Mass or outside it is the worship of latria that is the adoration given to God alone The Church guards with the greatest care Hosts that have been consecrated She brings them to the sick and to other persons who find it impossible to participate at Mass She also presents them for the solemn adoration of the faithful and she bears them in processions The Church encourages the faithful to make frequent visits to adore the Blessed Sacrament reserved in the tabernacle 109 According to the Catholic Church doctrine receiving the Eucharist in a state of mortal sin is a sacrilege 110 and only those who are in a state of grace that is without any mortal sin can receive it 111 Based on 1 Corinthians 11 27 29 it affirms the following Anyone who is aware of having committed a mortal sin must not receive Holy Communion even if he experiences deep contrition without having first received sacramental absolution unless he has a grave reason for receiving Communion and there is no possibility of going to confession 112 113 Eastern Orthodoxy Edit Eucharistic elements prepared for the Divine Liturgy Main article Divine Liturgy Within Eastern Christianity the Eucharistic service is called the Divine Liturgy Byzantine Rite or similar names in other rites It comprises two main divisions the first is the Liturgy of the Catechumens which consists of introductory litanies antiphons and scripture readings culminating in a reading from one of the Gospels and often a homily the second is the Liturgy of the Faithful in which the Eucharist is offered consecrated and received as Holy Communion Within the latter the actual Eucharistic prayer is called the anaphora literally offering or carrying up from the Greek ἀna ferw In the Rite of Constantinople two different anaphoras are currently used one is attributed to John Chrysostom the other to Basil the Great In the Oriental Orthodox Church a variety of anaphoras are used but all are similar in structure to those of the Constantinopolitan Rite in which the Anaphora of Saint John Chrysostom is used most days of the year Saint Basil s is offered on the Sundays of Great Lent the eves of Christmas and Theophany Holy Thursday Holy Saturday and upon his feast day 1 January At the conclusion of the Anaphora the bread and wine are held to be the body and blood of Christ Unlike the Latin Church the Byzantine Rite uses leavened bread with the leaven symbolizing the presence of the Holy Spirit 114 The Greek Orthodox Church utilizes leavened bread in their celebration 115 Conventionally this change in the elements is understood to be accomplished at the epiclesis invocation by which the Holy Spirit is invoked and the consecration of the bread and wine as the genuine body and blood of Christ is specifically requested but since the anaphora as a whole is considered a unitary albeit lengthy prayer no one moment within it can readily be singled out Protestantism Edit Anabaptists Edit Anabaptist denominations such as the Mennonites and German Baptist Brethren Churches like the Church of the Brethren churches and congregations have the Agape feast footwashing as well as the serving of the bread and wine in the celebration of the Lovefeast In the more modern groups Communion is only the serving of the Lord s Supper In the communion meal the members of the Mennonite churches renew their covenant with God and with each other 116 Moravian Hussite Edit The Moravian Church adheres to a view known as the sacramental presence 117 teaching that in the sacrament of Holy Communion 118 Christ gives his body and blood according to his promise to all who partake of the elements When we eat and drink the bread and the wine of the Supper with expectant faith we thereby have communion with the body and blood of our Lord and receive the forgiveness of sins life and salvation In this sense the bread and wine are rightly said to be Christ s body and blood which he gives to his disciples 118 Nicolaus Zinzendorf a bishop of the Moravian Church stated that Holy Communion is the most intimate of all connection with the person of the Saviour 119 The Order of Service for the observance of the Lord s Supper includes a salutation hymns the right hand of fellowship prayer consecration of the elements distribution of the elements partaking of the elements and a benediction 120 Moravian Christians traditionally practice footwashing before partaking in the Lord s Supper although in certain Moravian congregations this rite is observed chiefly on Maundy Thursday 121 122 Anglican Edit Main article Anglican eucharistic theology Illuminated title of The Holy Communion from the 1845 illustrated Book of Common Prayer Anglican theology on the matter of the Eucharist is nuanced The Eucharist is neither wholly a matter of transubstantiation nor simply devotional and memorialist in orientation The Anglican churches do not adhere to the belief that the Lord s Supper is merely a devotional reflection on Christ s death For some Anglicans Christ is spiritually present in the fullness of his person in the Eucharist The Church of England itself has repeatedly refused to make official any definition of the presence of Christ Church authorities prefer to leave it a mystery while proclaiming the consecrated bread and wine to be spiritual food of Christ s Most Precious Body and Blood the bread and wine are an outward sign of an inner grace 123 859 The words of administration at communion allow for real presence or for a real but spiritual presence Calvinist receptionism and virtualism This concept was congenial to most Anglicans well into the 19th century 124 From the 1840s the Tractarians reintroduced the idea of the real presence to suggest a corporeal presence which could be done since the language of the BCP rite referred to the body and blood of Christ without details as well as referring to these as spiritual food at other places in the text Both are found in the Latin and other rites but in the former a definite interpretation as corporeal is applied Both receptionism and virtualism assert the real presence The former places emphasis on the recipient and the latter states the presence is confected by the power of the Holy Spirit but not in Christ s natural body His presence is objective and does not depend on its existence from the faith of the recipient The liturgy petitions that elements be rather than become the body and blood of Christ leaving aside any theory of a change in the natural elements bread and wine are the outer reality and the presence is the inner invisible except as perceived in faith 125 314 324 In 1789 the Protestant Episcopal Church in the United States restored explicit language that the Eucharist is an oblation sacrifice to God Subsequent revisions of the Book of Common Prayer by member churches of the Anglican Communion have done likewise the Church of England did so in the 1928 Prayer Book 126 318 324 The so called Black Rubric in the 1552 prayer book which allowed kneeling for communion but denied the real and essential presence of Christ in the elements was omitted in the 1559 edition at Queen Elizabeth I s insistence It was reinstated in the 1662 prayer book modified to deny any corporeal presence to suggest Christ was present in his natural body In most parishes of the Anglican Communion the Eucharist is celebrated every Sunday having replaced Morning Prayer as the principal service The rites for the Eucharist are found in the various prayer books of the Anglican churches Wine and unleavened wafers or unleavened bread is used Daily celebrations are the norm in many cathedrals and parish churches sometimes offer one or more services of Holy Communion during the week The nature of the liturgy varies according to the theological tradition of the priests parishes dioceses and regional churches Leavened or unleavened bread may be used Baptists Edit The serving of elements individually to be taken in unison is common among Baptists The bread and fruit of the vine indicated in Matthew Mark and Luke as the elements of the Lord s Supper 127 are interpreted by many Baptists as unleavened bread although leavened bread is often used and in line with the historical stance of some Baptist groups since the mid 19th century against partaking of alcoholic beverages grape juice which they commonly refer to simply as the Cup 128 The unleavened bread also underscores the symbolic belief attributed to Christ s breaking the bread and saying that it was his body A soda cracker is often used Some Baptists consider the Communion to be primarily an act of remembrance of Christ s atonement and a time of renewal of personal commitment memorialism while others such as Particular Baptists affirm the Reformed doctrine of a pneumatic presence 129 which is expressed in the Second London Baptist Confession specifically in Chapter 30 Articles 3 and 7 This view is prevalent among Southern Baptists those in the Founders movement a Calvinistic movement among some Independent Baptists Freewill Baptists and several individuals in other Baptist associations 129 Communion practices and frequency vary among congregations A typical practice is to have small cups of juice and plates of broken bread distributed to the seated congregation In other congregations communicants may proceed to the altar to receive the elements then return to their seats A widely accepted practice is for all to receive and hold the elements until everyone is served then consume the bread and cup in unison Usually music is performed and Scripture is read during the receiving of the elements Some Baptist churches are closed Communionists even requiring full membership in the church before partaking with others being partially or fully open Communionists It is rare to find a Baptist church where the Lord s Supper is observed every Sunday most observe monthly or quarterly with some holding Communion only during a designated Communion service or following a worship service Adults and children in attendance who have not made a profession of faith in Christ are expected to not participate Lutheran Edit Main article Eucharist in Lutheranism See also Divine Service Lutheran Table set for the Eucharist in an ELCA service Lutherans believe that the body and blood of Christ are truly and substantially present in with and under the forms of the consecrated bread and wine the elements so that communicants eat and drink the body and blood of Christ himself as well as the bread and wine in the Eucharistic sacrament 130 The Lutheran doctrine of the Real Presence is more accurately and formally known as the sacramental union 131 132 Others have erroneously called this consubstantiation a Lollardist doctrine though this term is specifically rejected by Lutheran churches and theologians since it creates confusion about the actual doctrine and subjects the doctrine to the control of a non biblical philosophical concept in the same manner as in their view does the term transubstantiation 133 While an official movement exists in Lutheran congregations to celebrate Eucharist weekly using formal rites very similar to the Catholic and high Anglican services it was historically common for congregations to celebrate monthly or even quarterly 134 135 Even in congregations where Eucharist is offered weekly there is not a requirement that every church service be a Eucharistic service nor that all members of a congregation must receive it weekly 136 Open Brethren and Exclusive Brethren Edit Among Open assemblies also termed Plymouth Brethren the Eucharist is more commonly called the Breaking of Bread or the Lord s Supper It is seen as a symbolic memorial and is central to the worship of both individual and assembly 137 375 In principle the service is open to all baptized Christians but an individual s eligibility to participate depends on the views of each particular assembly The service takes the form of non liturgical open worship with all male participants allowed to pray audibly and select hymns or readings The breaking of bread itself typically consists of one leavened loaf which is prayed over and broken by a participant in the meeting 138 279 281 and then shared around The wine is poured from a single container into one or several vessels and these are again shared around 139 375 140 The Exclusive Brethren follow a similar practice to the Open Brethren They also call the Eucharist the Breaking of Bread or the Lord s Supper 137 Reformed Continental Reformed Presbyterian and Congregationalist Edit Main article Lord s Supper in Reformed theology In the Reformed tradition which includes the Continental Reformed Churches the Presbyterian Churches and the Congregationalist Churches the Eucharist is variously administered The Calvinist view of the Sacrament sees a real presence of Christ in the supper which differs both from the objective ontological presence of the Catholic view and from the real absence of Christ and the mental recollection of the memorialism of the Zwinglians 141 189 and their successors Many Presbyterian churches historically used communion tokens to provide entrance to the Lord s Supper The bread and wine become the means by which the believer has real communion with Christ in his death and Christ s body and blood are present to the faith of the believer as really as the bread and wine are present to their senses but this presence is spiritual that is the work of the Holy Spirit 142 There is no standard frequency John Calvin desired weekly communion but the city council only approved monthly and monthly celebration has become the most common practice in Reformed churches today Many on the other hand follow John Knox in celebration of the Lord s supper on a quarterly basis to give proper time for reflection and inward consideration of one s own state and sin Recently Presbyterian and Reformed Churches have been considering whether to restore more frequent communion including weekly communion in more churches considering that infrequent communion was derived from a memorialist view of the Lord s Supper rather than Calvin s view of the sacrament as a means of grace 143 Some churches use bread without any raising agent whether leaven or yeast in view of the use of unleavened bread at Jewish Passover meals while others use any bread available The Presbyterian Church USA for instance prescribes bread common to the culture Harking back to the regulative principle of worship the Reformed tradition had long eschewed coming forward to receive communion preferring to have the elements distributed throughout the congregation by the presbyters elders more in the style of a shared meal Over the last half a century it is much more common in Presbyterian churches to have Holy Communion monthly or on a weekly basis It is also becoming common to receive the elements by intinction receiving a piece of consecrated bread or wafer dipping it in the blessed wine and consuming it Wine and grape juice are both used depending on the congregation 144 145 Most Reformed churches practice open communion i e all believers who are united to a church of like faith and practice and who are not living in sin would be allowed to join in the Sacrament Methodist Edit A United Methodist minister consecrating the elements The British Catechism for the use of the people called Methodists states that in the Eucharist Jesus Christ is present with his worshipping people and gives himself to them as their Lord and Saviour 146 Methodist theology of this sacrament is reflected in one of the fathers of the movement Charles Wesley who wrote a Eucharistic hymn with the following stanza 147 We need not now go up to Heaven To bring the long sought Saviour down Thou art to all already given Thou dost e en now Thy banquet crown To every faithful soul appear And show Thy real presence here Reflecting Wesleyan covenant theology Methodists also believe that the Lord s Supper is a sign and seal of the covenant of grace 148 149 In many Methodist denominations non alcoholic wine grape juice is used so as to include those who do not take alcohol for any reason as well as a commitment to the Church s historical support of temperance 150 151 Variations of the Eucharistic Prayer are provided for various occasions including communion of the sick and brief forms for occasions that call for greater brevity Though the ritual is standardized there is great variation amongst Methodist churches from typically high church to low church in the enactment and style of celebration Methodist clergy are not required to be vested when celebrating the Eucharist John Wesley a founder of Methodism said that it was the duty of Christians to receive the sacrament as often as possible Methodists in the United States are encouraged to celebrate the Eucharist every Sunday though it is typically celebrated on the first Sunday of each month while a few go as long as celebrating quarterly a tradition dating back to the days of circuit riders that served multiple churches Communicants may receive standing kneeling or while seated Gaining more wide acceptance is the practice of receiving by intinction receiving a piece of consecrated bread or wafer dipping it in the blessed wine and consuming it The most common alternative to intinction is for the communicants to receive the consecrated juice using small individual specially made glass or plastic cups known as communion cups 152 The United Methodist Church practices open communion which it describes as an open table inviting all who intend a Christian life together with their children to receive the eucharistic elements 153 Irvingian Edit In the Irvingian Churches Holy Communion along with Holy Baptism and Holy Sealing is one of the three sacraments 154 155 It is the focus of the Divine Service in the liturgies of Irvingism 156 Edward Irving who founded the Irvingian Churches such as the New Apostolic Church taught the real presence of Christ in the Eucharist emphasizing the humiliated humanity of Christ in the Lord s Supper 157 158 159 Additionally the Irvingian Churches affirm the real presence of the sacrifice of Jesus Christ in Holy Communion 159 Jesus Christ is in the midst of the congregation as the crucified risen and returning Lord Thus His once brought sacrifice is also present in that its effect grants the individual access to salvation In this way the celebration of Holy Communion causes the partakers to repeatedly envision the sacrificial death of the Lord which enables them to proclaim it with conviction 1 Corinthians 11 26 160 Nondenominational Christians Edit Communion elements matzo is sometimes used for bread emphasising the re creation of the Last Supper Many non denominational Christians including the Churches of Christ receive communion every Sunday Others including Evangelical churches such as the Church of God and Calvary Chapel typically receive communion on a monthly or periodic basis Many non denominational Christians hold to the Biblical autonomy of local churches and have no universal requirement among congregations Some Churches of Christ among others use grape juice and unleavened wafers or unleavened bread and practice open communion Syriac Christianity Edit Edessan Rite Church of the East Edit Main article Holy Qurbana Holy Qurbana or Qurbana Qaddisha the Holy Offering or Holy Sacrifice refers to the Eucharist as celebrated according to the East Syriac Christianity The main Anaphora of the East Syrian tradition is the Holy Qurbana of Addai and Mari Syro Antiochene Rite West Syriac Edit Main article Holy Qurobo Holy Qurobo or Qurobo Qadisho refers to the Eucharist as celebrated in the West Syrian traditions of Syriac Christianity while that of the West Syrian tradition is the Liturgy of Saint James Both are extremely old going back at least to the third century and are the oldest extant liturgies continually in use Restorationism Edit Seventh day Adventists Edit In the Seventh day Adventist Church the Holy Communion service customarily is celebrated once per quarter The service includes the ordinance of footwashing and the Lord s Supper Unleavened bread and unfermented non alcoholic grape juice is used Open communion is practised all who have committed their lives to the Saviour may participate The communion service must be conducted by an ordained pastor minister or church elder 161 162 Jehovah s Witnesses Edit Jehovah s Witnesses commemorate Jesus death annually on the evening that corresponds to the Passover 163 Nisan 14 according to the ancient Jewish calendar 164 They generally refer to the observance as the Lord s Evening Meal or the Memorial of Christ s Death They believe the event is the only annual religious observance commanded for Christians in the Bible 165 Of those who attend the Memorial a small minority worldwide partake of the wine and unleavened bread Jehovah s Witnesses believe that only 144 000 people will go to heaven to serve as under priests and co rulers with Christ the King in God s Kingdom They are referred to as the anointed class They believe that the baptized other sheep also benefit from the ransom sacrifice and are respectful observers and viewers of the Lord s Supper but they hope to obtain everlasting life in Paradise restored on earth 166 The Memorial held after sundown includes a sermon on the meaning and importance of the celebration and gathering and includes the circulation of unadulterated red wine and unleavened bread matzo Jehovah s Witnesses believe that the bread represents Jesus perfect body which he gave on behalf of mankind and that the wine represents his perfect blood which he shed to redeem fallen man from inherited sin and death The wine and the bread sometimes referred to as emblems are viewed as symbolic and commemorative the Witnesses do not believe in transubstantiation or consubstantiation 166 167 Latter day Saints Edit Main article Sacrament LDS Church In the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter day Saints LDS Church the Holy Sacrament of the Lord s Supper 24 more simply referred to as the Sacrament is administered every Sunday except General Conference or other special Sunday meeting in each LDS Ward or branch worldwide at the beginning of Sacrament meeting The Sacrament which consists of both ordinary bread and water rather than wine or grape juice is prepared by priesthood holders prior to the beginning of the meeting At the beginning of the Sacrament priests say specific prayers to bless the bread and water 168 The Sacrament is passed row by row to the congregation by priesthood holders typically deacons 169 The prayer recited for the bread and the water is found in the Book of Mormon 170 171 and Doctrine and Covenants The prayer contains the above essentials given by Jesus Always remember him and keep his commandments that they may always have his Spirit to be with them Moroni 4 3 172 Non observing denominations EditSalvation Army Edit While the Salvation Army does not reject the Eucharistic practices of other churches or deny that their members truly receive grace through this sacrament it does not practice the sacraments of Communion or baptism This is because they believe that these are unnecessary for the living of a Christian life and because in the opinion of Salvation Army founders William and Catherine Booth the sacrament placed too much stress on outward ritual and too little on inward spiritual conversion 173 Quakers Edit Emphasizing the inward spiritual experience of their adherents over any outward ritual Quakers members of the Religious Society of Friends generally do not baptize or observe Communion 174 Christian Scientists Edit Although the early Church of Christ Scientist observed Communion founder Mary Baker Eddy eventually discouraged the physical ritual as she believed it distracted from the true spiritual nature of the sacrament As such Christian Scientists do not observe physical communion with bread and wine but spiritual communion at two special Sunday services each year by uniting together with Christ in silent prayer and on bended knee 175 Shakers Edit The United Society of Believers commonly known as Shakers do not take communion instead viewing every meal as a Eucharistic feast 176 Practice and customs EditOpen and closed communion Edit Main articles Open communion Closed communion and Full communion In the Western Catholic Church the administration of the Eucharist to children requires that they have sufficient knowledge and careful preparation to receive the body of Christ with faith and devotion Christian denominations differ in their understanding of whether they may celebrate the Eucharist with those with whom they are not in full communion The apologist Justin Martyr c 150 wrote of the Eucharist of which no one is allowed to partake but the man who believes that we teach are true and who has been washed with the washing that is for the remission of sins and unto regeneration and who is so living as Christ has enjoined 177 This was continued in the practice of dismissing the catechumens those still undergoing instruction and not yet baptized before the sacramental part of the liturgy a custom which has left traces in the expression Mass of the Catechumens and in the Byzantine Rite exclamation by the deacon or priest The doors The doors just before recitation of the Creed 178 Churches such as the Catholic and the Eastern Orthodox Churches practice closed communion under normal circumstances However the Catholic Church allows administration of the Eucharist at their spontaneous request to properly disposed members of the eastern churches Eastern Orthodox Oriental Orthodox and Church of the East not in full communion with it and of other churches that the Holy See judges to be sacramentally in the same position as these churches and in grave and pressing need such as danger of death it allows the Eucharist to be administered also to individuals who do not belong to these churches but who share the Catholic Church s faith in the reality of the Eucharist and have no access to a minister of their own community 179 Some Protestant communities exclude non members from Communion The Evangelical Lutheran Church in America ELCA practices open communion provided those who receive are baptized 180 181 but the Lutheran Church Missouri Synod and the Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod WELS practice closed communion excluding non members and requiring communicants to have been given catechetical instruction 182 183 The Evangelical Lutheran Church in Canada the Evangelical Church in Germany the Church of Sweden and many other Lutheran churches outside of the US also practice open communion Some use the term close communion for restriction to members of the same denomination and closed communion for restriction to members of the local congregation alone Most Protestant communities including Congregational churches the Church of the Nazarene the Assemblies of God Methodists most Presbyterians and Baptists Anglicans and Churches of Christ and other non denominational churches practice various forms of open communion Some churches do not limit it to only members of the congregation but to any people in attendance regardless of Christian affiliation who consider themselves to be Christian Others require that the communicant be a baptized person or a member of a church of that denomination or a denomination of like faith and practice Some Progressive Christian congregations offer communion to any individual who wishes to commemorate the life and teachings of Christ regardless of religious affiliation h Most Latter Day Saint churches practice closed communion one notable exception is the Community of Christ the second largest denomination in this movement 185 While The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter day Saints the largest of the LDS denominations technically practice a closed communion their official direction to local Church leaders in Handbook 2 section 20 4 1 last paragraph is as follows Although the sacrament is for Church members the bishopric should not announce that it will be passed to members only and nothing should be done to prevent nonmembers from partaking of it 186 In the Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church the Eucharist is only given to those who have come prepared to receive the life giving body and blood Therefore in a manner to worthily receive believers fast the night before the liturgy from around 6pm or the conclusion of evening prayer and remain fasting until they receive Holy Qurbana the next morning Additionally members who plan on receiving the holy communion have to follow a strict guide of prescribed prayers from the Shehimo or the book of common prayers for the week 187 Preparation Edit Main article Eucharistic discipline Catholic Edit The Catholic Church requires its members to receive the sacrament of Penance or Reconciliation before taking Communion if they are aware of having committed a mortal sin 188 189 and to prepare by fasting prayer and other works of piety 189 190 Eastern Orthodox Edit Traditionally the Eastern Orthodox church has required its members to have observed all church appointed fasts most weeks this will be at least Wednesday and Friday for the week prior to partaking of communion and to fast from all food and water from midnight the night before In addition Orthodox Christians are to have made a recent confession to their priest the frequency varying with one s particular priest 191 and they must be at peace with all others meaning that they hold no grudges or anger against anyone 192 In addition one is expected to attend Vespers or the All Night Vigil if offered on the night before receiving communion 192 Furthermore various pre communion prayers have been composed which many but not all Orthodox churches require or at least strongly encourage members to say privately before coming to the Eucharist 193 However all this will typically vary from priest to priest and jurisdiction to jurisdiction but abstaining from food and water for several hours beforehand is a fairly universal rule Protestant confessions Edit Many Protestant congregations generally reserve a period of time for self examination and private silent confession just before partaking in the Lord s Supper Footwashing Edit Seventh day Adventists Mennonites and some other groups participate in foot washing 194 as a preparation for partaking in the Lord s Supper At that time they are to individually examine themselves and confess any sins they may have between one and another Adoration Edit Worshippers kneel and bow in the street during the Eucharist Procession London England Further information Eucharistic adoration The Eucharist displayed in a monstrance flanked by candles Eucharistic adoration is a practice in the Western or Roman Catholic Anglo Catholic and some Lutheran traditions in which the Blessed Sacrament is exposed to and adored by the faithful When this exposure and adoration is constant twenty four hours a day it is called Perpetual Adoration In a parish this is usually done by volunteer parishioners in a monastery or convent it is done by the resident monks or nuns In the Exposition of the Blessed Sacrament the Eucharist is displayed in a monstrance typically placed on an altar at times with a light focused on it or with candles flanking it Health issues Edit Gluten Edit Main article Coeliac disease Christian churches and the Eucharist The gluten in wheat bread is dangerous to people with celiac disease and other gluten related disorders such as non celiac gluten sensitivity and wheat allergy 195 196 197 For the Catholic Church this issue was addressed in the 24 July 2003 letter 198 of the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith which summarized and clarified earlier declarations The Catholic Church believes that the matter for the Eucharist must be wheaten bread and fermented wine from grapes it holds that if the gluten has been entirely removed the result is not true wheaten bread 199 For celiacs but not generally it allows low gluten bread It also permits Holy Communion to be received under the form of either bread or wine alone except by a priest who is celebrating Mass without other priests or as principal celebrant 200 Many Protestant churches offer communicants gluten free alternatives to wheaten bread usually in the form of a rice based or other gluten free wafer 201 Alcohol Edit See also Christian views on alcohol The Catholic Church believes that grape juice that has not begun even minimally to ferment cannot be accepted as wine which it sees as essential for celebration of the Eucharist For non alcoholics but not generally it allows the use of mustum grape juice in which fermentation has begun but has been suspended without altering the nature of the juice and it holds that since Christ is sacramentally present under each of the species communion under the species of bread alone makes it possible to receive all the fruit of Eucharistic grace For pastoral reasons this manner of receiving communion has been legitimately established as the most common form in the Latin rite 202 As already indicated the one exception is in the case of a priest celebrating Mass without other priests or as principal celebrant The water that in the Roman Rite is prescribed to be mixed with the wine must be only a relatively small quantity 203 The practice of the Coptic Church is that the mixture should be two parts wine to one part water 204 Some Protestant churches allow communion in a non alcoholic form either normatively or as a pastoral exception Since the invention of the necessary technology grape juice which has been pasteurized to stop the fermentation process the juice naturally undergoes and de alcoholized wine from which most of the alcohol has been removed between 0 5 and 2 remains are commonly used and more rarely water may be offered 205 Exclusive use of unfermented grape juice is common in Baptist churches the United Methodist Church Seventh day Adventists Christian Churches Churches of Christ Churches of Christ Church of God Anderson Indiana some Lutherans Assemblies of God Pentecostals Evangelicals the Christian Missionary Alliance and other American independent Protestant churches Transmission of diseases Edit See also Impact of the 2019 20 coronavirus pandemic on religion Risk of infectious disease transmission related to use of a common communion cup exists but it is low No case of transmission of an infectious disease related to a common communion cup has ever been documented Experimental studies have demonstrated that infectious diseases can be transmitted The most likely diseases to be transmitted would be common viral illnesses such as the common cold A study of 681 individuals found that taking communion up to daily from a common cup did not increase the risk of infection beyond that of those who did not attend services at all 206 207 In influenza epidemics some churches suspend the giving wine at communion for fear of spreading the disease This is in full accord with Catholic Church belief that communion under the form of bread alone makes it possible to receive all the fruit of Eucharistic grace However the same measure has also been taken by churches that normally insist on the importance of receiving communion under both forms This was done in 2009 by the Church of England 208 Some fear contagion through the handling involved in distributing the hosts to the communicants even if they are placed on the hand rather than on the tongue Accordingly some churches use mechanical wafer dispensers or pillow packs communion wafers with wine inside them While these methods of distributing communion are not generally accepted in Catholic parishes one parish provides a mechanical dispenser to allow those intending to commune to place in a bowl without touching them by hand the hosts for use in the celebration 209 See also EditEucharistic theology Edit Eucharistic theology Eucharistic theologies summarised Eucharistic miracle Real presence of Christ in the EucharistLiturgical worship Edit Eucharistic Prayers Edessan Rite Syro Antiochene Rite Armenian Rite Byzantine Rite Western Rite Canon of the Mass Second Vatican Council changesEucharistic practice Edit Closed communion Communion under both kinds First Communion Fraction religion Intinction Open communion Sacramental wine Thanksgiving after CommunionViews of different churches Edit Anglican Eucharistic theology Eucharist in the Catholic Church Sacrament Latter Day Saints Sacramental union Lutheran Transubstantiation Catholicism Sacramental theology Edit Baptism Concomitance SacramentHistory Edit Origin of the Eucharist The Last Supper Marburg Colloquy 1529 Sacramentarians Protestant Reformation period approx 16th Century The Adoration of the Sacrament by Martin Luther 1523 Confession Concerning Christ s Supper by Martin Luther 1528 Ubiquitarians 1530 and 1540 Receptionism 16th and 17th century Anglicans Year of the Eucharist 2004 2005 Host desecrationMandaeism Edit Pihta Fatira HamraOthers Edit Agape feast Catholic social teaching Catholic theology of the body PerichoresisNotes Edit Within Oriental Orthodoxy the Oblation is the term used in the Syriac Coptic and Armenian churches while Consecration is used in the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church Oblation and Consecration are of course used also by the Eastern Catholic Churches that are of the same liturgical tradition as these churches Likewise in the Gaelic language of Ireland and Scotland the word Aifreann usually translated into English as Mass is derived from Late Latin Offerendum meaning oblation offering 9 1 Concerning the thanksgiving give thanks thus 9 2 First concerning the cup We give thanks to you our Father For the holy vine of David your servant which you have revealed to us through Jesus your servant To you be glory for ever 9 3 And concerning the fragment We give thanks to you our Father For the life and knowledge which you have revealed to us through Jesus your servant But let no one eat or drink of your Eucharist unless they have been baptized into the name of the Lord for concerning this also the Lord has said Give not that which is holy to the dogs 10 1 After you have had your fill give thanks thus 10 2 We give thanks to you holy Father for your holy Name which you have made to dwell in our hearts and for the knowledge faith and immortality which you have revealed to us through Jesus your servant To you be glory for ever 10 3 You Lord almighty have created everything for the sake of your Name you have given human beings food and drink to partake with enjoyment so that they might give thanks but to us you have given the grace of spiritual food and drink and of eternal life through Jesus your servant 10 4 Above all we give you thanks because you are mighty To you be glory for ever 10 5 Remember Lord your Church to preserve it from all evil and to make it perfect in your love And sanctified gather it from the four winds into your kingdom which you have prepared for it Because yours is the power and the glory for ever 14 1 But every Lord s day do ye gather yourselves together and break bread and give thanksgiving after having confessed your transgressions that your sacrifice may be pure 14 2 But let no one that is at variance with his fellow come together with you until they be reconciled that your sacrifice may not be profaned 14 3 For this is that which was spoken by the Lord In every place and time offer to me a pure sacrifice for I am a great King saith the Lord and my name is wonderful among the nations The tradition that Ignatius was a direct disciple of the Apostle John is consistent with the content of his letters 67 Radbertus was canonized in 1073 by Pope Gregory VII His works are edited in Patrologia Latina volume 120 1852 For example Catholics Eastern Orthodox Oriental Orthodox Anglo Catholic Anglicans Old Catholics and cf the presentation of the Eucharist as a sacrament in the Baptism Eucharist and Ministry document 80 of the World Council of Churches A misprint in the English translation of the Medieval Sourcebook Canons of the Fourth Lateran Council 1215 gives transubstantiatio in place of transubstantiatis in Canon 1 98 as opposed to the original Iesus Christus cuius corpus et sanguis in sacramento altaris sub speciebus panis et vini veraciter continentur transsubstantiatis pane in corpus et vino in sanguinem potestate divina 99 In most United Church of Christ local churches the Communion Table is open to all Christians who wish to know the presence of Christ and to share in the community of God s people 184 References Edit Luke 22 19 20 1 Corinthians 11 23 25 Wright N T 2015 The Meal Jesus Gave Us Understanding Holy Communion Revised ed Louisville Kentucky p 63 ISBN 9780664261290 a b c d Encyclopaedia Britannica s v Eucharist Britannica com Retrieved 1 April 2023 Mattox Mickey L Roeber A G 2012 Changing Churches An Orthodox Catholic and Lutheran Theological Conversation Wm B Eerdmans Publishing p 54 ISBN 978 0802866943 In this sacramental union Lutherans taught the body and blood of Christ are so truly united to the bread and wine of the Holy Communion that the two may be identified They are at the same time body and blood bread and wine This divine food is given more over not just for the strengthening of faith nor only as a sign of our unity in faith nor merely as an assurance of the forgiveness of sin Even more in this sacrament the Lutheran Christian receives the very body and blood of Christ precisely for the strengthening of the union of faith The real presence of Christ in the Holy Sacrament is the means by which the union of faith effected by God s Word and the sacrament of baptism is strengthened and maintained Intimate union with Christ in other words leads directly to the most intimate communion in his holy body and blood McKim Donald K 1998 Major Themes in the Reformed Tradition Wipf and Stock Publishers p 263 ISBN 978 1579101046 Poulson Christine 1999 The Quest for the Grail Arthurian Legend in British Art 1840 1920 Manchester University Press p 40 ISBN 978 0719055379 By the late 1840s Anglo Catholic interest in the revival of ritual had given new life to doctrinal debate over the nature of the Eucharist Initially the Tractarians were concerned only to exalt the importance of the sacrament and did not engage in doctrinal speculation Indeed they were generally hostile to the doctrine of transubstantiation For an orthodox Anglo Catholic such as Dyce the doctrine of the Real Presence was acceptable but that of transubstantiation was not Campbell 1996 p 325 Gibson Jean Lesson 13 The Lord s Supper Plymouth Brethren Writings Retrieved 27 April 2022 Gospel Figures in Art by Stefano Zuffi 2003 ISBN 978 0892367276 p 252 Strong s Greek 2169 eὐxaristia eucharistia thankfulness giving of thanks Biblehub com Retrieved 16 May 2019 Strong s Greek 2168 eὐxaristew eucharisteo to be thankful biblehub com Retrieved 19 November 2020 a b c d Eugene LaVerdiere 1996 The Eucharist in the New Testament and the Early Church Liturgical Press pp 1 2 ISBN 978 0814661529 a b Thomas R Schreiner Matthew R Crawford The Lord s Supper B amp H Publishing Group 2011 ISBN 978 0805447576 p 156 John H Armstrong Understanding Four Views on the Lord s Supper Zondervan 2009 ISBN 978 0310542759 Robert Benedetto James O Duke The New Westminster Dictionary of Church History Westminster John Knox Press 2008 ISBN 978 0664224165 volume 2 1 Corinthians 11 23 24 Eucharist in the New Testament by Jerome Kodell 1988 ISBN 0814656633 Milavec Aaron 2003 Didache 9 1 pp 22 23 ISBN 978 0814658314 Retrieved 16 May 2019 a b c Theological Dictionary of the New Testament by Gerhard Kittel Gerhard Friedrich and Geoffrey W Bromiley 1985 ISBN 0802824048 Stanley E Porter Dictionary of Biblical Criticism and Interpretation Taylor amp Francis 2007 ISBN 978 0415201001 Epistle to the Ephesians 13 1 Epistle to the Philadelphians 4 Epistle to the Smyrnaeans 7 1 8 1 Introducing Early Christianity by Laurie Guy ISBN 0830839429 p 196 First Apology 66 Ccel org 1 June 2005 Retrieved 16 May 2019 a b c See e g Roberts B H 1938 Comprehensive History of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter day Saints Deseret News Press OCLC 0842503005 11 20 21 Andrew B McGowan The Myth of the Lord s Supper Catholic Biblical Quarterly 77 3 July 2015 503 21 Christopher A Stephenson Types of Pentecostal Theology Method System Spirit OUP US 2012 ISBN missing Roger E Olson The Westminster Handbook to Evangelical Theology Westminster John Knox Press UK 2004 Edward E Hindson Daniel R Mitchell The Popular Encyclopedia of Church History The People Places and Events That Shaped Christianity Harvest House Publishers US 2013 ISBN missing Jethro Higgins 2018 Holy Communion What is the Eucharist Oregon Catholic Press Luke 24 35 Acts 2 42 2 46 20 7 and 20 11 Richardson Alan 1958 Introduction to the Theology of the New Testament London SCM Press p 364 Bayne Brian L 1974 Plymouth Brethren In Cross F L Livingstone E A eds The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church Nature Vol 329 Oxford University Press p 578 Bibcode 1987Natur 329 578B doi 10 1038 329578b0 PMID 3309679 Catechism of the Catholic Church 2nd ed Libreria Editrice Vaticana 2019 Paragraph 1330 Small Catechism 6 The Sacrament of the Altar Christ Lutheran Church Retrieved 24 June 2020 Prestige Leonard 1927 Anglo Catholics What they believe Society of SS Peter and Paul Retrieved 23 June 2020 via anglicanhistory org Oxford English Dictionary s v mass Concluding Rites www usccb org Retrieved 14 September 2018 liturgy of the Eucharist Definition amp Rite Encyclopedia Britannica Retrieved 21 April 2021 Catholic Church 2006 Compendium of the Catechism of the Catholic Church Libreria Editrice Vaticana p 275 and Catholic Church 1997 Catechism of the Catholic Church pp 1328 32 ISBN 978 1574551105 Spicer Andrew 2016 Lutheran Churches in Early Modern Europe Routledge p 185 ISBN 978 1351921169 Kellerman James The Lutheran Way of Worship First Bethlehem Lutheran Church Archived from the original on 19 June 2017 Retrieved 12 June 2017 Hovhanessian Vahan 2011 Badarak Patarag The Encyclopedia of Christian Civilization American Cancer Society doi 10 1002 9780470670606 wbecc0112 ISBN 978 0470670606 Bradshaw Paul F Johnson Maxwell E 2012 The Eucharistic Liturgies Their Evolution and Interpretation Liturgical Press ISBN 978 0814662663 Tyndale Bible Dictionary editors Philip W Comfort Walter A Elwell 2001 ISBN 0842370897 article Lord s Supper The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church editors F L Cross amp E A Livingstone 2005 ISBN 978 0192802903 article Eucharist Moloney Francis 2001 A Hard Saying The Gospel and Culture The Liturgical Press pp 109 30 Mark 14 22 25 Matthew 26 26 29 Luke 22 13 20 Heron Alisdair gt I C Table and Tradition Westminster Press Philadelphia 1983 p 3 ISBN missing Metzger Bruce M A Textual Commentary on the New Testament UBS 1971 pp 173ff ISBN missing Heron Alisdair gt I C Table and Tradition Westminster Press Philadelphia 1983 p 5 Caird G B The Gospel of Luke Pelican 1963 p 237 ISBN missing Catechism of the Catholic Church 2nd ed Libreria Editrice Vaticana 2019 Paragraph 2837 Harris Stephen L Understanding the Bible Palo Alto Mayfield 1985 Tyndale Bible Dictionary editors Philip W Comfort Walter A Elwell 2001 ISBN 0842370897 article John Gospel of Eucharist and Gospel of John VatiKos Theologie 11 October 2013 Archived from the original on 15 October 2013 Retrieved 10 December 2017 John 6 26 65 John 6 51 59 1 Corinthians 11 23 25 1 Corinthians 11 17 34 Lambert J C 1978 The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia reprint ed Wm B Eerdmans Publishing Co ISBN 978 0802880451 Jude 12 Bruce Metzger The canon of the New Testament 1997 There are now two quite separate Eucharistic celebrations given in Didache 9 10 with the earlier one now put in second place Crossan The historical Jesus Citing Riggs John W 1984 Introduction to the Roberts Donaldson translation of his writings Archived from the original on 29 December 2007 Retrieved 20 October 2007 a href Template Cite web html title Template Cite web cite web a Check url value help Letter to the Smyrnaeans 7 8 Letter to the Philadelphians 4 St Justin Martyr CHURCH FATHERS The First Apology Chapter 66 Retrieved 5 December 2021 See First Apology 65 67 a b Chazelle Niremberg David 4 February 2013 Anti Judaism The Western Tradition New York W W Norton amp Company ISBN 9780393347913 Catechism of the Catholic Church 1333 emphasis added Mahler Corey 10 December 2019 Art X Of the Holy Supper Book of Concord bookofconcord org Retrieved 16 November 2021 Mahler Corey 21 October 2020 Part VI Book of Concord bookofconcord org Retrieved 16 November 2021 Horton Michael S 2008 People and Place A Covenant Ecclesiology Louisville KY Westminster John Knox Press p 126 ISBN 978 0664230715 Finger Thomas N 26 February 2010 A Contemporary Anabaptist Theology Biblical Historical Constructive InterVarsity Press p 186 ISBN 978 0 8308 7890 1 Anabaptists here despite sharp disagreement with Zwingli over baptism generally affirmed his memorialism Baptism Eucharist and Ministry Faith and Order Paper no 111 the Lima Text Oikoumene org 15 January 1982 Archived from the original on 7 November 2013 Retrieved 16 May 2019 html c10499 Baptism Eucharist and Ministry document permanent dead link Lumen gentium 11 Retrieved 1 January 2019 Presbyterorum ordinis 5 Retrieved 1 January 2019 Definition of PASCH www merriam webster com Retrieved 27 October 2020 Compendium of the Catechism of the Catholic Church 271 www vatican va Retrieved 28 December 2018 Catechism of the Catholic Church 2nd ed Libreria Editrice Vaticana 2019 Paragraphs 1362 67 a b Catechism of the Catholic Church 1367 Catechism of the Catholic Church 1410 Catechism of the Catholic Church 1412 Archived 8 February 2006 at the Wayback Machine Code of Canon Law canon 924 Code of Canons of the Eastern Churches canon 705 Catechism of the Catholic Church 1414 Compendium of the Catechism of the Catholic Church 282 Retrieved 28 November 2021 The Real Presence of Jesus Christ in the Sacrament of the Eucharist Basic Questions and Answers United States Conference of Catholic Bishops United States Conference of Catholic Bishops Retrieved 4 January 2017 Aquinas Thomas Summa Theologiae Article 2 New Advent Retrieved 4 January 2017 Council of Trent Decree concerning the Most Holy Sacrament of the Eucharist chapter IV and canon II History hanover edu Retrieved 16 May 2019 Council of Trent Decree concerning the Most Holy Sacrament of the Eucharist canon III Catechism of the Catholic Church 2nd ed Libreria Editrice Vaticana 2019 Paragraph 1377 Mulcahy O P Bernard The Holy Eucharist PDF kofc org Knights of Columbus Retrieved 4 January 2017 Aquinas Thomas Summa Theologiae Question 77 New Advent Kevin Knight Retrieved 4 January 2017 Canon 1 Denzinger 8020 Catho org Retrieved 16 May 2019 Herbermann Charles ed 1913 Fourth Lateran Council 1215 Catholic Encyclopedia New York Robert Appleton Company of Faith Fourth Lateran Council 1215 1 Confession of Faith retrieved 2010 03 13 John 6 51 Catechism of the Catholic Church 2nd ed Libreria Editrice Vaticana 2019 Paragraph 1376 Under Julius III Council of Trent Session 13 Chapter IV Archived from the original on 6 December 2018 Retrieved 19 December 2018 Session XIII chapter IV cf canon II Catechism of the Catholic Church The sacrament of the Eucharist 1377 www vatican va Retrieved 28 December 2018 Matthew 26 26 28 Mark 14 22 24 Luke 22 19 20 1 Cor 11 23 25 Abrahamic Mosaic and Prophetic Foundations of the Eucharist Inside the Vatican 16 no 4 2008 102 05 Archived from the original on 10 December 2010 Retrieved 16 May 2019 Compendium of the Catechism of the Catholic Church 286 Holy Communion www catholicity com Compendium of the Catechism of the Catholic Church 291 Retrieved 20 August 2019 Catechism of the Catholic Church 2nd ed Libreria Editrice Vaticana 2019 Paragraph 1385 Catechism of the Catholic Church 2nd ed Libreria Editrice Vaticana 2019 Paragraph 1457 Runciman Steven 1968 The Great Church in Captivity Cambridge University Press p 90 ISBN 978 0521313100 Why do the Orthodox use leavened bread since leaven is a symbol of sin Is not Christ s body sinless Archived 26 August 2018 at the Wayback Machine orthodoxanswers org Retrieved 26 August 2018 Ordinances Gameo 24 August 2013 Retrieved 11 October 2013 Atwood Craig D 1 November 2010 Community of the Cross Moravian Piety in Colonial Bethlehem Penn State Press p 165 ISBN 9780271047508 In the eighteenth century the Moravians consistently promoted the Lutheran doctrine of the real presence which they described as a sacramental presence a b Veliko Lydia Gros Jeffrey 2005 Growing Consensus II Church Dialogues in the United States 1992 2004 Bishop s Committee for Ecumenical and Interreligious Affairs United States Conference of Catholic Bishops p 90 ISBN 978 1574555578 Knouse Nola Reed 2008 The Music of the Moravian Church in America University Rochester Press p 34 ISBN 978 1580462600 Holy Communion of course is a central act of worship for all Christians and it should come as no surprise that it was also highly esteemed in the Moravian Church Zinzendorf referred to it as the most intimate of all connection with the person of the Saviour The real presence of Christ was thankfully received though typically the Moravians refrained from delving too much into the precise way the Savior was sacramentally present The Observance of the Lord s Supper Moravian Church 2010 Retrieved 13 October 2022 Vos Nelvin 16 May 2009 Inter Actions Relationships of Religion and Drama University Press of America p 34 ISBN 978 0 7618 4470 9 Benham William 1887 The Dictionary of Religion Cassell p 719 Book of Common Prayer Catechism The Study of Liturgy Revised Edition SPCK London 1992 p 316 The Study of Liturgy The Study of Liturgy Matthew 26 26 29 Mark 14 22 25 Luke 22 19 See e g Graves J R 1928 What is It to Eat and Drink Unworthily Baptist Sunday School Committee OCLC 6323560 a b Wax Trevin 6 June 2007 Baptists and the Lord s Supper The Gospel Coalition Retrieved 27 April 2022 There are many other Baptists in history who have understood the spiritual presence of Christ in the Lord s Supper Augsburg Confession Article 10 Mattox Mickey L Roeber A G 2012 Changing Churches An Orthodox Catholic and Lutheran Theological Conversation Wm B Eerdmans Publishing p 54 ISBN 978 0802866943 In this sacramental union Lutherans thought the body and blood of Christ are so united to the bread and wine of the Holy Communion that the two may be identified They are at the same time body and blood bread and wine This divine food is given more over not just for the strengthening of faith nor only as a sign of our unity in faith nor merely as an assurance of the forgiveness of sin Even more in this sacrament the Lutheran Christian receives the very body and blood of Christ precisely for the strengthening of faith nor only as a sign of our unity in faith nor merely as an assurance of the forgiveness of sin Even more in this sacrament the Lutheran Christian receives the very body and blood of Christ precisely for the strengthening of union of faith The real presence of Christ in the Holy Sacrament is the means by which the union of faith effected by God s Word and the sacrament of baptism is strengthened and maintained Intimate union with Christ in other words leads directly to the most intimate communion in his holy body and blood F L Cross ed The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church second edition Oxford Oxford University Press 1974 340 sub loco J T Mueller Christian Dogmatics A Handbook of Doctrinal Theology St Louis CPH 1934 519 cf also Erwin L Lueker Christian Cyclopedia St Louis CPH 1975 under the entry consubstantiation What Lutherans Believe About Holy Communion Archived 20 March 2011 at the Wayback Machine Retrieved 2011 04 25 How Lutherans Worship Archived 24 March 2011 at the Wayback Machine at LutheransOnline com Retrieved 2011 04 24 How do we move to weekly Communion at elca org Retrieved 2011 09 18 a b Darby J N quoted in Bradshaw P F The new SCM dictionary of liturgy and worship Muller G 1860 A Narrative of some of the Lord s dealings with George Muller Bradshaw P F The new SCM dictionary of liturgy and worship Brethren Online FAQs Archived from the original on 18 May 2016 McGrath Alister E Reformation Thought Oxford Blackwell 2003 Hendry George S The Westminster Confession for Today SCM 1960 p 232 D G Hart and John R Muether October 1997 The Lord s Supper How Often Ordained Servant 6 4 Question amp Answer The Orthodox Presbyterian Church opc org Retrieved 26 September 2022 Eucharistic Food and Drink A report of the Inter Anglican Liturgical Commission to the Anglican Consultative Council1 anglicancommunion org A Catechism for the use of people called Methodists Peterborough England Methodist Publishing House 2000 p 26 ISBN 978 1858521824 Abraham William J Watson David F 2013 Key United Methodist Beliefs Abingdon Press pp 103 04 ISBN 978 1426756610 Crowther Jonathan 1815 A Portraiture of Methodism p 224 The Methodists believe that the covenant of grace has been administered and renewed in different ages of the world Under the gospel Christ the substance prefigured by these shadows being exhibited the ordinances in and by which this covenant is dispensed are the preaching of the word and the administration of the sacraments of baptism and the Lord s Supper which ordinances though fewer in number and administered with more simplicity and less external glory yet hold forth this covenant in greater fulness evidence and spiritual efficacy to all nations both Jews and Gentiles Watson Richard 1852 An exposition of the gospels of St Matthew and St Mark and some other detached parts of Holy Scripture George Lane amp Levi Scott p 282 This covenant the blood of Christ that is the pouring forth of his blood as a sacrficial victim at once procured and ratified so that it stands firm to all truly penitent and contrite spirits who believe in him and of this great truth the Lord s Supper was the instituted sign and seal and he who in faith drinks of the cup having reference to its signification that blood of Christ which confirms to true believers the whole covenant of grace is assured thereby of its faithfulness and permanence and derives to himself the fulness of its blessings Alcohol Methodist Church of Great Britain Retrieved 10 November 2017 What do I need to know about communion in the UMC The United Methodist Church Communion Cups 1000 from Broadman Holman Church Supply Christianbook com Accessed 5 July 2009 UMC 1992 29 Whalen William Joseph 1981 Minority Religions in America Alba House p 104 ISBN 978 0 8189 0413 4 Decisions of the Bundesverfassungsgericht Federal Constitutional Court Federal Republic of Germany Nomos 1992 p 6 ISBN 978 3 8329 2132 3 Professing Christ in Holy Communion New Apostolic Church 2017 Archived from the original on 29 April 2021 Retrieved 8 February 2021 Lee David Y T 2018 A Charismatic Model of the Church Edward Irving s Teaching in a 21st century Chinese Context Cambridge Scholars Publishing p 167 ISBN 978 1 5275 1208 5 Bennett David Malcolm 2014 Edward Irving Reconsidered The Man His Controversies and the Pentecostal Movement Wipf and Stock Publishers p 292 ISBN 978 1 62564 865 5 a b 8 2 12 The real presence of the body and blood of Christ in Holy Communion The Catechism of the New Apostolic Church New Apostolic Church 18 December 2020 Retrieved 8 February 2021 8 2 13 The real presence of the sacrifice of Jesus Christ in Holy Communion The Catechism of the New Apostolic Church New Apostolic Church 18 December 2020 Retrieved 8 February 2021 Seventh day Adventist Church Manual 17th edition 2005 pp 81 86 Published by the secretariat General Conference of Seventh day Adventists Seventh day Adventists Believe An exposition of the fundamental beliefs of the Seventh day Adventist Church 2nd edition 2005 Copyright Ministeral Association General Conference of Seventh day Adventists Chapter 16 The Lord s Supper Reasoning From The Scriptures Watch Tower Bible amp Tract Society 1989 p 265 Insight on the Scriptures Watch Tower Bible amp Tract Society 1988 p 392 Jehovah is a God of Covenants The Watchtower 1 February 1998 p 8 Jesus instituted the only annual religious observance commanded for Christians the Memorial of his death a b What Does the Bible Really Teach Watch Tower Society p 207 Discerning What We Are At Memorial Time The Watchtower 15 February 1990 p 16 Doctrine and Covenants 20 75 LDS Church Retrieved 19 June 2009 Handbook 2 Administering the Church Chapter 20 4 3 Retrieved 30 October 2011 Moroni 4 ChurchofJesusChrist org Retrieved 14 September 2018 Moroni 5 ChurchofJesusChrist org Retrieved 14 September 2018 The Restoration of the Sacrament ChurchofJesusChrist org Retrieved 14 September 2018 Why Does the Salvation Army Not Baptize or Hold Communion Services Waterbeachsalvationarmy org uk 28 February 1987 Archived from the original on 13 December 2014 Retrieved 16 May 2019 FAQs Friends General Conference Do Christian Scientists take Communion Christian Science Committee on Publication for Southern California The Last Shakers Commonweal Magazine Church Fathers The First Apology St Justin Martyr www newadvent org Berzonsky Fr Vladimir The Doors www oca org Code of Canon Law canon 844 Intratext com 4 May 2007 Retrieved 16 May 2019 Evangelical Lutheran Archived 7 July 2011 at the Wayback Machine Retrieved 2013 03 23 ELCA Full Communion Partners Elca org Retrieved 16 May 2019 Close communion and membership WELS Guidelines for Congregational District and Synodical Communion Statements Archived 9 October 2016 at the Wayback Machine www lcms org Retrieved 2016 12 28 Book of Worship Holy Communion A Practice of Faith in the United Church of Christ Community of Christ Communion Archived from the original on 26 February 2011 20 Priesthood Ordinances and Blessings ChurchofJesusChrist org Retrieved 14 September 2018 Ministry of Liturgical Development 2017 Service Book of the Holy Qurbono 1st ed Devalokam Kottayam Malankara Orthodox Church Publications ISBN 978 0 9972544 4 0 Code of Canon Law canon 916 Archived from the original on 28 June 2011 a b Codex Canonum Ecclesiarum orientalium die XVIII Octobris anno MCMXC Ioannes Paulus PP II Ioannes Paulus II www vatican va Archived from the original on 30 November 2012 Code of Canon Law canon 919 Archived from the original on 28 June 2011 Preparing to Receive Holy Communion Archived from the original on 21 July 2008 a b How to Prepare for the Eucharist Archived from the original on 9 May 2013 Preparation for Holy Communion Stlukeorthodox com 4 February 2001 Archived from the original on 25 January 2013 Retrieved 16 May 2019 cf John 13 3 17 Mulder CJ van Wanrooij RL Bakker SF Wierdsma N Bouma G 2013 Gluten free diet in gluten related disorders Dig Dis Review 31 1 57 62 doi 10 1159 000347180 PMID 23797124 S2CID 14124370 The only treatment for CD dermatitis herpetiformis DH and gluten ataxia is lifelong adherence to a GFD Hischenhuber C Crevel R Jarry B Maki M Moneret Vautrin DA Romano A Troncone R Ward R 1 March 2006 Review article safe amounts of gluten for patients with wheat allergy or coeliac disease Aliment Pharmacol Ther 23 5 559 75 doi 10 1111 j 1365 2036 2006 02768 x PMID 16480395 S2CID 9970042 For both wheat allergy and coeliac disease the dietary avoidance of wheat and other gluten containing cereals is the only effective treatment Volta U Caio G De Giorgio R Henriksen C Skodje G Lundin KE June 2015 Non celiac gluten sensitivity a work in progress entity in the spectrum of wheat related disorders Best Pract Res Clin Gastroenterol 29 3 477 91 doi 10 1016 j bpg 2015 04 006 PMID 26060112 A recently proposed approach to NCGS diagnosis is an objective improvement of gastrointestinal symptoms and extra intestinal manifestations assessed through a rating scale before and after GFD Although a standardized symptom rating scale is not yet applied worldwide a recent study indicated that a decrease of the global symptom score higher than 50 after GFD can be regarded as confirmatory of NCGS Table 1 53 After the confirmation of NCGS diagnosis according to the previously mentioned work up patients are advized to start with a GFD 49 letter Archived 29 December 2010 at the Wayback Machine McNamara Father Edward 14 September 2004 Gluten free Hosts ZENIT International News Agency Archived from the original on 4 May 2008 Retrieved 22 April 2008 The same 24 July 2003 letter of the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith Jax Peter Lowell The Gluten Free Bible p 279 Catechism of the Catholic Church IntraText www vatican va Archived from the original on 16 June 2012 Code of Canon Law canon 924 1 Archived from the original on 4 December 2010 Sacrament of the Eucharist Rite of Sanctification of the Chalice Copticchurch net Retrieved 16 May 2019 Compare John Howard Spahr I Smell the Cup Archived 21 September 2008 at the Wayback Machine Christian Century 12 March 1974 pp 257 59 Manangan Lilia P Sehulster Lynne M Chiarello Linda Simonds Dawn N Jarvis William R October 1998 Risk of Infectious Disease Transmission from a Common Communion Cup American Journal of Infection Control 26 5 538 39 doi 10 1016 s0196 6553 98 70029 x PMID 9795685 Archived from the original on 3 December 2013 Retrieved 2 December 2013 Pellerin J Edmond M B 2013 Infections associated with religious rituals International Journal of Infectious Diseases 17 11 e945 48 doi 10 1016 j ijid 2013 05 001 PMID 23791225 Archbishops advise against sharing chalice during swine flu pandemic Christiantoday com 27 July 2009 Retrieved 16 May 2019 Reddy Sumathi 7 January 2011 Hands Off After Wafer Scare Wall Street Journal Retrieved 12 October 2012 Further reading EditAquinas Thomas 1571 De venerabili sacramento altaris archive org in Latin Rome Bibliotheca Vaticana pp 4 324 English translation H A Rawes 1871 The Bread of life or St Thomas Aquinas on the Adorable Sacrament of the Altar Bellarmine Robert 1902 The Blessed Eucharist Sermons from the Latins Benziger Brothers Berington Joseph 1830 The Eucharist The Faith of Catholics confirmed by Scripture and attested by the Fathers of the five first centuries of the Church Volume 1 Jos Booker Bouyer Louis Eucharist Theology and Spirituality of the Eucharistic Prayer trans by Charles Underhill Quinn Notre Dame Ind University of Notre Dame Press 1968 N B Despite what the subtitle may suggest the book discusses the Christian Eucharist in further aspects than alone the Canon of the Mass ISBN 0268004986 Campbell Ted 1 January 1996 Christian Confessions A Historical Introduction Westminster John Knox Press ISBN 9780664256500 Chemnitz Martin The Lord s Supper J A O Preus trans St Louis Concordia 1979 ISBN 057003275X Church Catholic The Canons and Decrees of the Council of Trent Translated by Rev H J Schroeder O P published by Tan Books and Publishers Inc Rockford IL Council of Trent 1829 Part 2 The Holy Eucharist The catechism of the Council of Trent Translated by James Donovan Lucas Brothers Dix Dom Gregory The Shape of the Liturgy London Continuum International 2005 ISBN 0826479421 Cabrera de Armida Concepcion I Am Eucharistic Meditations on the Gospel Alba House Publishing 2001 ISBN 0818908904 Elert Werner Eucharist and Church Fellowship in the First Four Centuries N E Nagel trans St Louis Concordia Publishing House 1966 ISBN 0570042704 Felton Gayle This Holy Mystery Nashville Discipleship Resources 2005 ISBN 088177457X Father Gabriel Divine Intimacy London UK Baronius Press Ltd 2013 reprint ed ISBN 978 1905574438 Grime J H Close Communion and Baptists Hahn Scott The Lamb s Supper Mass as Heaven on Earth Darton Longman Todd 1999 ISBN 0232525005 Henke Frederick Goodrich A Study in the Psychology of Ritualism University of Chicago Press 1910 Jurgens William A The Faith of the Early Fathers Collegeville MN The Liturgical Press 1970 ISBN 0814604323 Kolb Robert and Timothy J Wengert eds The Book of Concord The Confessions of the Evangelical Lutheran Church Minneapolis Fortress Press 2000 ISBN 0800627407 Latinovic Vladimir Christologie und Kommunion Vol 1 Entstehung und Verbreitung der homoousianischen Christologie Munster Aschendorff Verlag 2018 ISBN 978 3402133583 Latinovic Vladimir Christologie und Kommunion Vol 2 Liturgische Einfuhrung und Rezeption der homoousianischen Christologie Munster Aschendorff Verlag 2020 ISBN 978 3402247518 Latinovic Vladimir Christologie und Kommunion Vol 3 Auswirkungen auf die Frommigkeit und den Eucharistieempfang Munster Aschendorff Verlag 2022 ISBN 978 3402249482 Lefebvre Gaspar The Saint Andrew Daily Missal Reprint Great Falls MT St Bonaventure Publications Inc 1999 Lohr Hermut ed Abendmahl Themen der Theologie 3 Tubingen UTB Mohr Siebeck 2012 ISBN 978 3825234997 Macy Gary The Banquet s Wisdom A Short History of the Theologies of the Lord s Supper 2005 ISBN 1878009508 Magni JA The Ethnological Background of the Eucharist Clark University American Journal of Religious Psychology and Education IV No 1 2 March 1910 Massillon Jean Baptiste 1879 Sermon XXXII On the Dispositions for the Communion Sermons by John Baptist Massillon Thomas Tegg and Son McBride Alfred O Praem Celebrating the Mass Our Sunday Visitor 1999 Neal Gregory Grace Upon Grace Sacramental Theology and the Christian Life 2014 ISBN 1490860061 Nevin John Williamson The Mystical Presence A Vindication of the Reformed or Calvinistic Doctrine of the Holy Eucharist 1846 Wipf amp Stock reprint 2000 ISBN 1579103480 Oden Thomas C Corrective Love The Power of Communion Discipline St Louis Concordia Publishing House 1995 ISBN 0570048036 Piolanti Antonio ed Eucharistia il mistero dell altare nel pensiero e nella vita della Chiesa Roma Desclee 1957 Rasperger Raspergero Christopher Christophorus Christoph Christophoro Christophe Two hundred interpretations of the words This is my Body Ingolstadt 1577 Latin text Latin title Ducentae paucorum istorum et quidem clarissimorum Christi verborum Hoc est Corpus meum interpretationes German title Zweihundert Auslegungen der Worte das ist mein Leib Sasse Hermann This Is My Body Luther s Contention for the Real Presence in the Sacrament of the Altar Eugene OR Wipf amp Stock 2001 ISBN 1579107664 Schmemann Alexander The Eucharist St Vladimir s Seminary Press 1997 ISBN 0881410187 Scotland N A D Eucharistic Consecration in the First Four Centuries and Its Implications for Liturgical Reform in series Latimer Studies 31 Oxford Eng Latimer House 1989 ISBN 094630730X Stoffer Dale R The Lord s Supper Believers Church Perspectives Stookey L H Eucharist Christ s Feast with the Church Nashville Abingdon 1993 ISBN 0687120179 Tissot Very Rev J The Interior Life 1916 pp 347 49 Wright N T The Meal Jesus Gave Us Yarnold G D The Bread Which We Break London Oxford University Press 1960 119 p External links EditThe Ordinary of the Mass Roman Rite according to the current edition of the Roman Missal Sacrament of the Eucharist Catechism of the Catholic Church A Brief Exposition of the Divine Service Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Eucharist amp oldid 1152590483, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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